Linguistic and Semiotic Characteristics of English and Russian Dictionaries: a Comparative Study

Home , Explanatory dictionary

LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

Robert Leščinskij

LINGUISTIC AND SEMIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN DICTIONARIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

MA Paper

Academic Advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Linas Selmistraitis

Vilnius, 2012

LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

LINGUISTIC AND SEMIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN DICTIONARIES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

This MA paper is submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of the MA in English Philology

By Robert Leščinskij I declare that this study is my own and does not contain any unacknowledged work from any source

Academic advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Linas Selmistraitis

CONTENTS ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………..……...…...4 INTRODUCTION…………………………..…………………………………………..….….5 1. THE ART AND CRAFT OF LEXICOGRAPHY…………………………………………..8 2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN LEXICOGRAPHY…12 2.1 Historical Development of English Lexicography………………………..…...... …..12 2.2 Historical Development of Russian Lexicography……………………...………..……15 2.3 The Age of Digital Lexicography……………………………………………...………17 3. DICTIONARY - A PRODUCT OF LEXICOGRAHY…………..……………….…….24 3.1 Typological Classification of Dictionaries …………………………………..………..24 3.2 Linguistic Characteristics of Dictionaries……………...... …………………………….30 3.3 Semiotic Characteristics of Dictionaries…………………………………….…………35 4. JUXTAPOSITION OF LINGUISTIC AND SEMIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN DICTIONARIES………………………………………………38 4.1 Juxtaposition of Linguistic Characteristics…………………………………….………38 4.1.1 Pronunciation…………………………………………….………………………38 4.1.2 Orthographic Information…………...………………...……………….………...41 4.1.3 Semantic, Stylistic and Etymological Information…………………………..…..44 4.2 Juxtaposition of Semiotic Characteristics of Dictionaries…………..…………….……..59 4.2.1 Patterns of Lexicographic Definitions…………………….………………….….59 4.2.2 Typographic Techniques and Graphical Illustrations Used in the Dictionaries.....75 CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………………….…..81 SANTRAUKA………………………………………………………………………………..83 REFERENCES……………………………………………….……………………….……...84 APPENDICES………………………………………………………………….…………….88

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to establish and compare differences and similarities between both linguistic and semiotic characteristics of English and Russian dictionaries. Two dictionaries were selected for the study – the electronic version of the 8th edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and the online version of Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary. The methods chosen for the study were analysis, description and comparison. The semiotic and linguistic characteristics of the dictionaries were analysed and compared. The research showed that both reference books provided different semiotic and linguistic information on the headwords. First of all, the OALD provided exhaustive phonetic information, which Ozhegov’s dictionary lacked. Also, dictionaries provided different orthographic information. Furthermore, the OALD disclosed semantic information via various tools available in the electronic version; these were unavailable in Ozhegov’s dictionary. Both dictionaries used similar stylistic labels. The analysis of the patterns of defining employed by the dictionaries revealed that both reference books relied, to a great extent, on descriptive definitions, whereas, use of other patterns differed. Encyclopaedic definitions were more common in Ozhegov’s dictionary, whereas combined patterns of defining were used more often in the OALD. Cross-referencing was never used as a single mean of defining in the English dictionary, however, such instances were discovered in Ozhegov’s dictionary. The OALD used different typographic techniques and graphical illustrations, which were not detected in the Russian dictionary.

INTRODUCTION

For centuries, dictionaries were the guiding stars for those who sought knowledge not only in the field of linguistics, which by all means governed the field of lexicography among others, but in all the trades and fields cultivated by human beings. The status of lexicography as a science, however, might be problematic to explain. As stated by Geeraerts: “lexicography has a rather paradoxical nature. On the one hand, almost everyone will agree to classify lexicography as a form of applied linguistics, but on the other hand, it is virtually impossible to give an adequate reply to the question what linguistic theory lexicography might be the application of” (Ilson, ed. 1987:1). Berkov stated, that even though lexicography is one of the most ancient kinds of linguistic activities of human beings, it is often considered to be less ‘prestigious’ than some other fields in linguistics, and is therefore less popular among prominent linguists (Berkov, 2004:3). The current work focuses on the explanatory dictionaries, as these are the ones that tell the story not only of the evolution of languages, but also the story of the evolution of civilizations. All the changes that take place in the society alter the language in one way or another. The changes in the language induce changes in dictionaries, such as changes in spelling of the words, for instance. Grigoreeva and Naumenko comment on such changes in the following way: “explanatory dictionaries are not the absolute standards of spelling; all of them, however, are compiled according to the spelling needs of their time, eventually they become ‘witnesses’ of the spelling standard of a particular time” (Lukianova, 1996). In order to get a better understanding of everything that is the explanatory dictionary, the comparative study of English and Russian explanatory dictionaries was carried out. The two languages were chosen because they are among the most influential European languages and they keep growing in popularity.

Research question

What are the differences between both semiotic and linguistic characteristics of English and Russian dictionaries?

Novelty of the research This study is intended to complement the comparative studies of English and Russian lexicography. Despite the fact, that both Russian and English linguistic schools have deep lexicographical traditions, comparative study of this discipline still demands development. 5

Significance of the research

Current study contributes to works on comparative lexicography since it focuses on the comparison of both semiotic and linguistic characteristics of English and Russian dictionaries. The research can also be further developed and applied for further research in the fields of English and Russian lexicography, for example, by comparing different types of dictionaries, or focusing on comparison of one particular characteristic in different dictionaries. The focus of this paper is limited to nouns; therefore, other parts of speech may also be investigated should further study be conducted. Yet another possibility for further scientific investigation lies within a more thorough study of English and Russian lexicographic traditions and comparison of dictionaries from different periods of time.

The aim of the research

The research aimed at identifying and comparing differences between the semiotic and linguistic information provided in the entries of the same nouns in Russian and English dictionaries.

Objectives of the research

In order to achieve the aim, the following objectives were set: 1. To overview scientific background of English and Russian lexicographic traditions; 2. To establish and compare differences between linguistic information of the same nouns in English and Russian dictionaries; 3. To compare differences between the semiotic information given in the entries of the same nouns in English and Russian dictionaries.

Methods of the research

In order to carry out the research both qualitative and quantitative approaches were utilized. The following methods were applied: • analysis; • description; • comparison. 6

All the entries were classified according to the patterns of defining entry terms that they follow. Entries were analysed and described according to the information they possess. Finally, the data was compared in order to identify the differences between semiotic and linguistic characteristics of Russian and English dictionary entries. The Frequency of use of the patterns of defining was calculated.

The scope of the research

The corpus of 438 English and 438 Russian entries defining nouns was created. The English entries were obtained from the digital version of the 8th edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, whereas, the Russian entries were taken from the Online version of Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary (www.slovarozhegova.ru). The entries were selected using random sampling.

I. THE ART AND CRAFT OF LEXICOGRAPHY

The following explanation of the term ‘lexicography’ can be found in the eighth edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary: the theory and practice of writing dictionaries (OALD, 2010). The role of a dictionary for a language is difficult to describe even for experienced linguists, such is its importance. Some scribes state that language becomes acknowledged and rises to the status of language proper only after it has been provided with a printed grammar, a dictionary and a translation of the New Testament (Gorlach, 1998:187). Interestingly, Crystal (2007:210) also puts the dictionary ‘on the same shelf’ as The Bible which only proves the importance of dictionaries not only to professional linguists, but also to most people in literate societies. French philosopher Voltaire referred to the dictionary as “the universe in alphabetic order” (Ashukin, 1988). Dictionaries are so very often considered, by their users, to be ‘the etalons’ of speech. Martin and Mauldin stated that the usual assumption among nonlinguists, is that a dictionary is a guide to correct (even hypercorrect) speech’ (Martin & Mauldin, 1997). Landau offers the following explanation of the term: “a dictionary is a text that describes the meanings of words, often illustrates how they are used in context, and usually indicates how they are pronounced”. According to Landau, modern dictionaries often include information about spelling, etymology, usage, synonyms, and grammar, and sometimes include illustrations as well (Landau, 2004). Such “classical” view of dictionaries was criticised by Yong and Peng, who found the definition of dictionary as “a wordlist or a wordbook providing information about orthography, pronunciation and meaning of words in a language” to be narrow (Yong and Peng, 2007:1). Furthermore, dictionary definitions are usually confined to information that the reader must have to understand an unfamiliar word. The emphasis is on the word, and all the information given bears directly on the meaning, pronunciation, use, or history of the word (Landau, 2004). Some of the Russian authors, who deal with the problems of lexicography, give the following explanations of the term Dictionary: 1. It is the science of compiling dictionaries. 2. A process of compiling dictionaries in order to describe lexical properties of a language in question. 3. Aggregate of dictionaries (Vvedenskaja, 2007). Dictionary is a reference book which holds words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms etc.) that are arranged in a certain order (the order differs in different dictionaries). It explains 8

meaning of the described units, it can give either information about the described words or their translation to different languages, it can also give explanations about real things that are meant by the words (Vvedenskaja, 2007). Every dictionary according to Wiegand (cited by Nkomo) serves a clear purpose. General purposes of monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual language dictionaries are derived from the communicative and cognitive needs of the society or societies; or possibly goals are set to stimulate the needs (Nkomo, 2008:55). Wiegand’s opinion is seconded by Tarp: “a dictionary is a tool that has been designed to fulfil one or more functions. These functions are related to specific types of use-situations and a lexicographic function is one that can assist the user in a given situation of use, i.e. the focus is on what the dictionary is intended to inform about, not its data types”. The author also states that in lexicography the primary factor is undoubtedly social needs, while dictionaries are a secondary derivative (Tarp, 2008:5). The major motives behind the rise of lexicography differ from one culture to another. Each culture fosters the development of dictionaries appropriate to its characteristic demands (Al-Kasimi, 1977:1). Lexicography is considered to be a two-facet unit, as stated by Gouws (2004) “in lexicography a distinction needs to be made between the practical component, the practice of the writing of dictionaries, and the theoretical component, the discipline of metalexicography”. However, such distinction had been rejected for a long time, as scholars failed to see the need for study and description of dictionaries which they considered to be commercial products of little scientific value (Bejoint, 2004:169-173). Back in 1985, Wierzbicka, cited by Atkins and Rundell claimed that: “lexicography has no theoretical foundations, and even the best lexicographers, when pressed, can never explain what they are doing and why”. Such statement might have been partially true for the time it was uttered, however, nowadays theoretical basis of lexicography is established and recognized (Atkins and Rundell, 2008:8). Morkovkin claimed that theoretical lexicography is concerned with the following aspects: the theory of lexicography, determining the volume, content and the structure of the term ‘lexicography’, dictionary lexicology, study of genres and types of dictionaries, study of the elements and parameters of the dictionary, study of the basics of lexicographic constructions, study of the primary dictionary material, study of the planning and organising of the dictionary projects, history of lexicography, history of dictionaries and history of solving typical lexicographic problems. Practical lexicography according to Morkovkin is concerned with making of dictionaries and other lexicographical items and gathering and storage of dictionary material (Morkovkin, 2003:41).

Some linguists who touched upon the problems of theoretical lexicography in the middle of the 20th century, Balazh for instance, claimed that theoretical background for lexicography was to be created via the theoretical basis of lexicology, applying all the modern linguistic knowledge available (Balazh, 1972). Nowadays, theoretical lexicography has got a solid basis and has to be distinguished as an individual branch of applied linguistics. Landau referred to practical lexicography in terms of a craft, or even art, whereas the theoretical lexicography is referred to as “the part which is concerned with the description and classification of existing dictionaries (Landau, 2004). This view was also shared and quoted by Tekorienė (Tekorienė, 1982). Further evidence of lexicography being a two-facet discipline can be found in other sources. Vvedenskaja, for instance, also claims that lexicography is a field of linguistics that deals with problems of compiling and studying dictionaries (Vvedenskaja, 2007). Jakaitienė explained that for many centuries lexicographers aimed at gathering, selecting and passing on the knowledge of the words and concepts to the future generations. Along with the words they passed on the knowledge of trades, science, medicine, cultural achievements, etc. According to Jakaitienė, compilation of dictionaries is a very important scientific and practical activity, with traditions that stretch over the millennia (Jakaitienė, 2005). According to Jakaitienė the main problems on which contemporary lexicography dwelled were lexicographic activities (practical lexicography) and their theoretical aspects. The author presented seven tasks of practical lexicography. 1. To set up the outer system of parameters of the dictionary. In this period the main goal is to establish future users of the dictionary, its purpose and the field that the dictionary will cover. 2. To set up the inner system of parameters of the dictionary. According to the scholar, these will differ for different kinds of dictionaries, except for the ones that are common to all the dictionaries. 3. Selection of the material. This procedure covers everything from the selection of illustrations to the arrangement of headwords in the dictionary. 4. Selection and marking of the grammatical and phonetic features of the headwords. 5. Investigation of the semantic meaning of headwords. The question what kind of, if any, encyclopaedic and stylistic information will be provided in the entry is solved at this point. 6. Formation of dictionary entries. 7. Perfection of the dictionary as a whole.

Each of the steps mentioned above, according to Jakaitienė, follows certain established procedures, some of which require special schooling in the field of philology. The requirements to the specific knowledge of a lexicographer are often set by the type of the dictionary itself (Jakaitienė, 2005). Jakaitienė claimed that practical lexicography formed primary tasks of theoretical lexicography. The author distinguished six main tasks of theoretical lexicography. 1. To provide general typology of dictionaries. 2. To create the principles of the macrostructure of dictionaries. 3. To create the principles of microstructure of dictionaries. 4. To establish the relationship between dictionaries and their usage. The task was set to find out whether dictionaries satisfied the needs of the users. 5. To investigate the history of dictionaries. 6. To establish the ways and guidelines for the creation of new dictionaries (Jakaitienė,2005). Hartmann offered yet another explanation of the aims of practical and theoretical lexicography. The author claimed that the practical facet of lexicography is concerned with three major groups of activities: 1. recording/fieldwork; 2. editing/description; 3. publishing/presentation; Whereas the scholars working in the field of theoretical lexicography, according to the author, focused on the following aspects: 1. dictionary history; 2. dictionary Criticism; 3. dictionary typology; 4. use of dictionary; 5. structure of dictionary; 6. other (Hartmann, 2003). It is obvious that Russian scholars as well as English scholars agree that lexicography as a science consists of two sub-divisions, namely practical and theoretical lexicography. Furthermore, all the scholars agree that practical lexicography is concerned with the problems of compiling dictionaries, whereas scholars who work in the field of theoretical lexicography are concerned with classification and analysis of dictionaries.

II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN LEXICOGRAPHY 2.1 Historical development of English lexicography

More than a hundred years ago, one of the early editors of the Oxford English Dictionary James Murray delivered lectures on the evolution of English lexicography. Back at those lectures he made a claim which remains true today and will continue to be true in the future: “the English dictionary, like the English constitution, is the creation of no one man, and of no one age; it is a growth that has slowly developed itself adown the ages” (Murray, 1900: 3). Landau stated that the history of English lexicography usually consisted of a recital of successive and often successful acts of piracy. For instance, Robert Cawdrey’s A Table Alphabeticall of 1604, which is generally accounted to be the first English dictionary, incorporated almost 90% of the words of Edmund Coote’s English Schoole-Master, a grammar, prayer book, and lexicon with brief definitions published in 1596. According to the author, early English lexicographers rarely, and often unwillingly, acknowledged the work of their predecessors on which they built their dictionaries. Furthermore, Sydney landau states that the tradition to publically acknowledge the works of ones predecessors, that was accepted by some of the lexicographers in the 18th and 19th centuries, disappeared in the 20th century and is unlikely to be restored in the 21st century (Landau, 2004:43). Landau suggests that the earliest word reference books for English-speaking people were bilingual glossaries that provided English equivalents for Latin or French words. In the Middle Ages difficult words in manuscripts were sometimes glossed. Schoolmasters sometimes collected the glosses and listed them together; the resulting collection, called a Glossarium, is today called a glossary. The term dictionary, although used as early as 1225, was first applied to Sir Thomas Elyot’s Latin English work of 1538. In 1500, the first printed latin dictionary appeared, Hortus Vocabularum (“garden of words”) (Landau, 2004:45). Although Latin was the most commonly preferred second language in bilingual dictionaries, the Renaissance inspired interests in other languages as well, and Spanish, French, and Italian were not ignored. In 1598, John Florio’s massive A Worlde of Wordes appeared. This Italian-English dictionary was far ahead of its day in many respects. Florio was the first compiler of a modern-language dictionary to have listed the sources from which his headword list had been drawn (Landau, 2004:46). According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, the first book which would give English definitions of English words was published in order to satisfy a new and unusual need: to make understandable to the general public the many words appearing in English books, but 12

not used in ordinary speech. There were two chief reasons for the introduction of such words in English writing. The first was to enable authors to express ideas for which there were no native words. The second motive for the introduction of foreign words was the desire to attain expression in an elegant and ornamented style (Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Special attention in history of lexicography is devoted to the so called dictionaries of ‘hard words’. Landau presented these dictionaries chronologically, stating that most of them drew words from their predecessors. In short Landau’s presents the development of dictionaries of ‘hard words’ in the following order: Robert Cawdrey’s A Table Alphabeticall (1604), John Bullokar’s An English Expositor (1616), Henry Cockeram’s The English Dictionarie: or, An Interpreter of Hard English Words (1623), Thomas Blount’s Glossographia: or, A Dictionary Interpreting all such Hard Words… as are now used in our refined English Tongue (1656), Edward Phillips’ The New World of English Words (1658), Stephen Skinner Etymologicon Linguae Anglicanae (1671) (Landau, 2004). Landau states that in the early 18th century the ‘hard words’ tradition finally began to give way before the more useful philosophy of serving the reader’s more general need to know the meanings of all sorts of words. In 1702, the first English dictionary to attempt systematic coverage of common words as well as difficult ones appeared. It was edited by John Kersey and titled A New English dictionary. The work marked a new direction in English lexicography as Kersey set out to turn this book into a dictionary of English words, rejecting doctored Latin terms, obsolete terms, and the too specialised vocabularies of arts and sciences (Landau, 2004:52). Other important dictionaries of the period included: An Universal Etymological English Dictionary (1721) and Dictionarium Britannicum (1730) both by Nathan Bailey and Cyclopaedia: or, An Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1728) by Ephraim Chambers. As stated by Landau, Johnson’s dictionary was published nine years after he had signed a contract (on June 18, 1764) to produce it. Johnson discussed in his preface the principles of defining and the purposes of illustrative quotations (Landau, 2004:63). According to Dalija Tekorienė, Johnson’s dictionary laid the foundations to the prescriptive attitude in English lexicography which was to survive almost 200 years and which came to an end only at the beginning of the 20th century with the appearance of the Oxford English Dictionary (Tekorienė,1982:14). The authority and influence of the Johnson’s dictionary, at least among professional philologists, was first shaken by A New Dictionary of the English Language published in 1837 by Charles Richardson. Value of the Richardson’s dictionary was, in the first lace, in its vast range of quotations. Quotations were arranged chronologically, which helped Richardson

to display some of the advantages of the historical arrangement of dictionary entries. A dictionary entry in Richardson’s work became a documented testimony of the development of the headword. Despite of the obvious value of the Richardson’s dictionary it remained incomprehensible to the wide audience, mainly because of the abundance of quotations from literary pieces of the earlier epochs. Moreover, it contained a difficult to understand mechanism of depicting the first meaning of the word in question. Furthermore, it lacked strict alphabetical order, which made the search process difficult and confusing (Stupin, 1985:78). The Richardson’s dictionary gave birth to the idea of creating a new explanatory dictionary with a wide historical perspective. In 1857, Trench read his report “On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries”. The report actually held a programme of compiling an English dictionary based on historical principles. The report made a great impression on the members of the London Philological society, in the premises of which it was read, and led to the compilation of the Oxford English Dictionary (Stupin, 1985:80-81). The work on the OED officially started on the first of March 1879, when London Philological Society signed a contract with the Oxford University Press. The actual work, however, started much earlier – in 1858, when, following the report by Trench, the philological society announced their decision to compile a new dictionary, Herbert Coleridge was appointed a chief-editor of the project. Unfortunately, unexpected death of Coleridge in 1861, along with other difficulties, led to a gradual slow-down of the project, until it stopped completely, despite the efforts of the new chief editor Frederick Furnivall. The work on the dictionary was restored in 1879 after signing the contract with the Oxford University Press and appointing James Murray a chief-editor. The first part of the dictionary, covering some of the words beginning with ‘A’, was published in 1884, the full edition was finished in 1928 (Stupin, 1985:81-82). Because the volumes of OED were published over a period of forty years, by the time the last volume appeared, the first one needed revision, thus the history of OED supplements was started. The so called Second Edition of the OED was published in twenty volumes in 1989 (Landau, 2004: 83-84). Such remarkable achievement as the OED is a rare phenomenon, however, Lithuania can also be attributed to countries who achieved such heights as it has got its twenty volume Dictionary of Modern Lithuanian. Lexicography in the second half of the twentieth century saw further development of the Webster’s as well as various college dictionaries in the USA. The audience for the college dictionaries, according to Landau, extended beyond college students; yet, remained the main market for these dictionaries. Inspired by the success of American college dictionaries in the twentieth century, British desk dictionaries have come to resemble them starting with Collins

English Dictionary (1979), which had many qualities of an American college dictionary (Landau, 2004: 94-95).

2.2 Historical development of Russian lexicography

The initial period in the history of Russian lexicography is considered to be the 11th century. The first Russian dictionaries appeared during the early stages of the development of written Russian language. Their purpose was to explain unknown words (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:14). First Russian dictionaries were syncretic – held different kind of information concerning the entry word. Just as English dictionaries, Russian ones developed from glosses. These glosses appeared along with the text, words from which they explained. Put together glosses formed glossaries which grew and developed into first dictionaries. Therefore, the first stage in the development of Russian lexicography is often referred to as textual lexicography (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:14). Although early Russian lexicography was considered to be syncretic, certain kinds of dictionaries may be distinguished in that period: 1) Onomastical dictionaries (dealing with meaning of proper names); 2) Dictionaries of symbols; 3) Slavic-Russian dictionaries (dealing mostly with words from religious texts); 4) speech dictionaries (first bilingual dictionaries) (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:15). 16th-17th centuries saw the development of several lexicographical traditions on the basis of which dictionaries of that period were organised. The most prominent traditions were thematic and alphabetical. The latter produced numerous glossaries, whereas thematic lexicographic tradition focused on spoken language, in this respect, phrasebook dictionaries can be distinguished. They had a very clear structure: thematic word groups were given along with the dialogues illustrating their usage (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:17-18). 18th century was a turning point in Russian lexicography. Dictionaries were published as books, which made them more accessible to the people. Most of the dictionaries of that period are edited and corrected more than once. Despite the fact that dictionaries are published in greater amounts than before, the so called “dictionary famine” was constantly observed (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:17). Monolingual lexicography in the 18th century had two major trends. The first one explained the layers of the lexicon that were somewhat unclear (church language, borrowings, special terminology), therefore, it continued the previous lexicographic traditions. The second trend covered compiling of explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language, which was an 15

absolutely new trend in Russian lexicography. The growth in the interest towards the mother tongue in Russia was dictated by the overall growth of national self-consciousness, which was characteristic of the 18th century Russia. As a result, people took interest in the roots and history of Russian words, which led to the development of etymological studies, resulting in appearance of the first etymological dictionaries (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:17-18). Perhaps the most important work of lexicography in 18th century Russia was The Dictionary of Russian Academy. The six-volume dictionary was published in a surprisingly short period of time – from 1783 to 1794. The work contained 43 257 words and was edited by E. R. Dashkova, who persuaded many prominent literary and academic figures of the time into working on the dictionary. Only one fiftieth of all the words in the dictionary could be attributed to loanwords, due to the ‘purity’ policy prevailing at that period of time. The Dictionary of Russian Academy gave birth to the dictionaries of phraseological units as it contained 2700 phraseological units (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:17-18). In the 19th century Russia several fundamental explanatory dictionaries, as well as regional, historical and etymological dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms, dictionaries of jargon, dictionaries of professionalisms and many bilingual dictionaries were compiled. The most prominent lexicographers of that time were A. Vostokov, V. Dal, I. Sreznevskij. Numerous works of these authors gave birth to collection and systematization of written and spoken lexicon. A special place in Russian lexicography belonged to V. Dal, whose explanatory dictionary (200 000 words) remained among the most actively used works of lexicography until the present day (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:27-33). The explanatory dictionary compiled by Dal followed the below stated principles: 1. To show the wealth of Russian language as widely as possible: not only written, literary language, but also spoken-by-the-nation language, including terms of various crafts and trades. 2. To show “the spirit” of the Russian language – its word forming relationship. 3. To portrait spiritual and moral views of the Russian nation, its character, customs and virtues (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:19). Russian lexicography of the 20th century continued the traditions set up in the 19th century. An opinion that full coverage of the Russian lexicon was possible and more useful in a series of dictionaries rather than a single dictionary was presented and accepted. An idea of a system of dictionaries that would allow full and systematic coverage of the Russian lexicon was developed and gradually put into practice. In Russian lexicography this system consists of: explanatory dictionaries of contemporary literary Russian language, dictionaries of Russian dialects, historical dictionaries of Russian language of different periods, dictionaries of

synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, dictionaries of phraseological units, etc. (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000:37).

2.3 The Age of Digital Lexicography

The inevitable technological progress driven, in the first place, by the development and spread of personal computers into the households of common people had a severe impact on the modern linguistics. By the beginning of the 21st century, all the fields of applied linguistics, including lexicography, have been effected by the innovations such as word processors, digital corpora and many kinds of software developed for linguistic needs. As noted by Ooi: “Nowadays, ‘dictionary-making’ takes on a number of new meanings, especially with the computer which offers its vast resources of storage, retrieval, analysis, dissemination and exchange of data as well as increased sophistication in database design and linguistic research: partly from such a development, the contribution to a dictionary-making process now prominently includes (among others) linguists, language engineers, and computer scientinsts” (Ooi, 1998:1). The term electronic dictionary can be used to refer to any reference material stored in electronic form that gives information about spelling, meaning, or use of words. Thus a spell- checker in a word-processing program, a device that scans and translates printed words, a glossary for on-line teaching materials, or an electronic version of a respected hard-copy dictionary are all electronic dictionaries of a sort (Nesi, 2000). A dictionary on a computer was often considered to be but an electronic image of a certain printed dictionary that was equipped with a user friendly interface and some electronic means of searching for the information. When electronic dictionaries are being looked at from the point of view of theoretical lexicography, a lot of attention is paid to their convenient electronic form, while the content of the dictionary, its lexical peculiarities, structure of an entry, topicality of meanings – are not usually analysed. Therefore, it makes it look like the creators of the electronic dictionaries basically copy the content of a paper dictionary into another medium. The duty of the lexicographer, thus, seems to be simply to preserve the canonical texts in this new electronic medium. Such point of view, however, underestimates the possibilities of modern technology. The new form of a dictionary helps to eliminate the inevitable drawbacks of paper lexicography and elevates lexicography itself to a qualitatively new level (Savina and Tipikina, 1999). The spread of electronic dictionaries in the Russian Federation, as noted by Schmerling and Shishlova, started with the CD-ROMs and carried onto the Internet. By the end of the 17

twentieth century, as stated by the authors, there were several demonstrational projects of online dictionaries (Schmerling, 1999). However, the full versions of the most of these projects became available only in the second half of the first decade of the twenty first century. The dawn of the CD-ROM dictionaries can be traced to year 1992 (Shishlova, 1999). Like any other change in the field of linguistics, computational lexicography developed gradually. According to Cerquiglini (cited in Pruvost 2000:188), three phases of the development of lexicography in the digital age can be distinguished: 1. computer - assisted (paper) lexicography; 2. transfer of existing paper dictionaries to an electronic medium; 3. electronic dictionaries in their own right, conceived afresh for the electronic environment. During each of these phases, dictionary makers and metalexicographers have conjured up their own version of ‘the dictionary of the future’ – and by extension, and in symbiosis with it, also ‘the user of the future’ and ‘the lexicographer of the future’ (de Schryver, 2003:143). The phases presented above, however, do not illustrate the entire path of the development of the electronic lexicography. The early beginnings of the electronic-dictionary age can be traced back to the late-1960s, when Olney and Revard keypunched the entire Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary onto paper tape from paper text, for the purpose of computational exploration (Wilks, 1996:81). In the same year at Brown University in the USA Nelson Francis and Henry Kucera assembled the first computer corpus, which became known as the Brown Corpus (Jackson, 2001:148-149). The advent of computer typesetting techniques made keypunching of dictionaries onto tapes easier, as the magnetic tapes from which dictionaries themselves had been printed ensured the availability of machine-readable versions, and thus ‘machine-readable dictionaries‘(MRDs) (de Schryver, 2003:144). During the late-1970s and throughout the 1980s, the most widely used MRD in natural language processing (NLP) was the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (Procter, 1978). Before long dictionary publishers created genuine databases for storing and manipulating the data of their reference works, which means that NLP researchers could use these (instead of the earlier typesetting tapes) to populate the lexical components of their NLP systems. The development of these databases, coupled to hardware advances, logically led to the first human readable electronic dictionaries available for the public at large. Indeed, from the late 1980s onwards, electronic dictionaries have been available online (whether or not by subscription), on CD-ROM and other disks, or in handheld devices (de Schryver, 2003:145).

Unfortunately, the quality of most of the Online dictionaries arouses suspition, if not alert. According to Carr, Internet dictionaries are mushrooming. There are literally many thousands of them, unfortunately mostly the result of sloppy and hasty compilations or the in-progress output of so-called ‘bottomup collaborative editing.’ The latter is a process whereby new types of references are evolving upward from readers directly onto the Net (Carr, 1997:214). According to Selegey, development of the electronic lexicography was induced by three major problems that were common to traditional (paper) lexicography: 1. The bigger the volume of the dictionary, the more exhausting and longer are entries, which makes it difficult to use the dictionary. Such contradiction led to certain bias on the market of the paper dictionaries: it seemed that there was a large group of dictionaries that were fairly primitive, but relatively user friendly. These dictionaries were opposed by a small group of Professional dictionaries that could not be used for a quick extraction of information. 2. The more exhausting and deeper are dictionary entries, the less the dictionaries itself corresponds to the current cultural and linguistic situation. Extremely long cycle of compiling, editing and updating of fundamental paper dictionaries led to fact that the picture of the world that they established in the system of their meanings, examples and translations often differed from objective reality. Many dictionaries which based the major part of their corpus of entry words on the linguistic knowledge and atmosphere of the middle of the twentieth century now represent lexicographic museums or, in case of specialized dictionaries, terminological graveyards. 3. The more interesting the concept of the dictionary was, the narrower was its lexical basis. As a result, universal dictionaries displayed a lack of influence of the achievements of theoretical lexicography on its practical counterpart. Even though scientific lexicographic projects existed they only covered as much as ten per cent of the entire realm of lexicography (Selegey). Electronic versions of paper dictionaries themselves offered solutions to some of the problems mentioned above. First of all, the possibilities of displaying the information for a selected entry word are far more sophisticated. These include the possibility to present only certain parts of information based on different criteria (different projections of a dictionary), various means of graphic presentation which are unavailable in paper dictionaries. Other possibilities of electronic dictionaries include use of different linguistic technologies (such as morphological and syntactical analysis) which enable the access to the information, recognition of sound, etc. (Selegey).

It is a known fact that any typology of reference works is to a very great degree fluid, and this is no different when it comes to electronic dictionaries. In the beginning of the 1990s, Martin (1992: 193–194) noticed what he called ‘objects’, in the lexicographical field: 1. dictionaries for human users; 2. computer-based dictionaries; 3. machine - readable dictionaries; 4. lexical / term banks; 5. machine dictionaries; 6. lexical databases; 7. artificial intelligence lexicons. As one can notice, no attempt is made to differentiate between computational and non- computational ‘objects’. It should not come as a surprise that the first dedicated electronic dictionary typologies have also been developed where electronic dictionaries first became popular, that is in the Far East (de Shryver, 2003:147). According to de Shryver, Ide’s typology (cited in Sharpe 1995: 40–41) is based on differences in hardware and software and only focuses on electronic bilingual dictionaries. Ide differentiates between: 1. specific electronic bilingual dictionaries; 2. electronic notebooks; 3. CD-ROM electronic bilingual dictionaries; 4. electronic dictionary software. A typology solely based on hardware and software does not seem to be very efficient, since it requires constant readjustments to cater for the never-ending innovations. Indeed, two years after Ide’s four-way classification of electronic bilingual dictionaries, Sharpe (1995:41) already had to add two further types of such dictionaries: 1. floppy-disk based portable electronic bilingual dictionaries; 2. electronic bilingual dictionaries with hand-held optical character recognition scanners (de Shryver, 2003:147). Shortly, a more convincing two-step metalexicographic electronic dictionary typology by Lehr appeared in print. In a first step, electronic dictionaries are classified on technical grounds, the main opposition being online vs. offline dictionaries, the offline dictionaries were further divided into pocket electronic dictionaries and personal computer dictionaries, and the latter then being further subdivided into CD-ROM, floppy disk(s) and other dictionaries. In a second step, each of these electronic dictionaries can then be evaluated on metalexicographic grounds. Either an electronic dictionary is based on a paper dictionary or it is a new development, and each of the latter types can further have a print appearance (i.e.

onscreen the electronic dictionary looks like a printed dictionary page) or have an innovative appearance (i.e. the electronic dictionary does not mimic the display of paper dictionaries) (de Schryver, 2003:147). Upon closer inspection, it became obvious that neither of the classifications offered above could possibly cover electronic dictionaries of the present day. A somewhat more sophisticated typological classification of dictionaries was offered by de Schryver, who while designing his typology had one question in mind: WHO accesses WHAT and WHERE? (de Shryver, 2003:148-152). The field of electronic lexicography developed so quickly and persistently that it aroused just concerns among the lexicographers that the field of traditional (paper) lexicography may soon be rendered obsolete. As noted by Meijs: “I would not be surprised if for most general uses dictionaries in book-form will be antiquated before the end of the century.’ (Meijs 1990: 69–70). Electronic dictionaries, however, also possess certain disadvantages. First of all, the major drawback of an electronic dictionary is that it requires a computer to be switched on, according to de Schryver it is still crucial in many parts of the world. The second obvious drawback is that electronic dictionaries (especially online dictionaries) require more thorough quality control, which in turn requires reasonable funding. Finally, electronic dictionaries do not hold any aesthetic or symbolic value, they do not add to the interior of the room if put on the shelf (as a CD) nor are they suitable for pleasure reading (de Schryver, 2003:152). Peculiarities of the current study put certain restrictions which, in one way or another, limit the choice of dictionaries. The ease of access to the information and possibility to copy data for the process of sampling and building corpora played a major role in the choice of reference books for the current study. Having these criteria in mind, a CD-ROM version of the 8th edition of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary and the online version of Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary were chosen for the current study. Before the research was carried out, the process of the development of the electronic versions of these dictionaries was revised. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (OALD), which consists of 184,500 words, phrases and entries, is characterised as a monolingual dictionary for learners of English, restricting the number of words used in definitions (Trippel, 2006:51). The development of the electronic version of the OALD seemed hardly possible if its ‘big brother’ the 20 volume Oxford English Dictionary itself hadn’t moved into the electronic age. Perhaps the most significant event that introduced electronic version of the Oxford English dictionary took place in 1992 when a CD-ROM edition of the work was published. Suddenly a massive,

twenty-volume work that took up four feet of shelf space and weighed 68 kilograms was reduced to a slim, shiny disk that took up virtually no space and weighed just a few grams. The Oxford English Dictionary on CD-ROM came to be a great success. The electronic format revolutionized the way people used the Dictionary to search and retrieve information. Complex investigations into word origins or quotations that would have been impossible to conduct using the print edition now took only a few seconds. Because the electronic format made the Oxford English Dictionary so easy to use, its audience now also includes users not even remotely affiliated with the academic society (http://www.oed.com/public/oedhistory). Technological evolution kept changing the face of the Oxford English Dictionary, which was now available as an online publication. The content of the Dictionary was also comprehensively revised. However, instead of new material being added in supplements to the main edition, or simply interspersing new information throughout the body of the old edition, the entire work was updated. This was the first time that material written by Murray and the other early editors had been changed since 1928. Such ambitious work resulted in an updated and revitalized version of the Oxford English Dictionary (http://www.oed.com/public/oedhistory). One of the first attempts to put Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary onto the Internet was made by Sergei Moskalev within his project “Brockhouse‘s Generative Encyclopaedia Online“. The aim of this project was to get the Internet community acquainted with Russian culture and language of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. This project also hosted the demonstrational online version of the Ozhegov’s online dictionary (Schmerling, 1999). Nowadays however, the project no longer hosts the Ozhegov’s online dictionary. The full version of this explanatory reference book can be found in on at least two domains: www.slovarozhegova.ru; www.ozhegov.org. Samples for the current study were obtained from the dictionary accessible on www.slovarozhegova.ru. This explanatory online reference book was launched in 2007, it represents the online image of a paper dictionary first published by Ozhegov in 1949, it was updated and republished several times, since 1992 all the works concerning the dictionary were supervised by Shvedova (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000). The dictionary contains 80 000 words, phraseological units and idioms. The electronic dictionary has a three-level search engine. The first is called alphabetical, it is accessible in the right corner of the screen and allows search of words based on their first letter. This kind of search is analogical to one that can be done with the paper dictionary. The second level allows the search of an entry by keypunching it in the search field. The final level, the so called advanced search, is useful for those who do not remember the correct spelling of the

entire word, but know a couple of first letters. The search system allows reader to look through the words or phrases which start with the letters that the reader has keypunched (www.slovarozhegova.ru).

III. DICTIONARY –A PRODUCT OF LEXICOGRAPHY 3.1 Typological Classification of Dictionaries

Classification of dictionaries is one of the most problematic fields of study for the theoretical lexicographers. Different authors give different criteria on the basis of which dictionaries can be classified. One of the most obvious typology of dictionaries was offered, among many scholars, by Rey. He distinguished between four major kinds of dictionaries: a) monolingual, linguistic dictionaries, which can range anywhere between short, simple synchronic learner’s dictionaries and vast cultural, often historical descriptions; b) bilingual and multilingual general dictionaries; c) terminological works involving one or several languages; d) ethnographic dictionaries (Ilson, ed., 1986: 93). Other scholars provide a somewhat more sophisticated typologies of dictionaries. Malkiel, for instance, offers a classification of dictionaries based on three categories: range, perspective and presentation (Malkiel, 1968:258). According to the author, the category of range primarily dwells on the question: how well does the dictionary cover the entire lexicon? Another aspect of range, suggested by the author, is the number of languages covered (whether it is monolingual, bilingual or multilingual). The final aspect of range is the extent of concentration on lexical data (Malkiel, 1968:258-259). The author states, that the category of perspective is based on how the compiler views the work and what approach is taken. The key issue is to distinguish between diachronic (covering an extended time) and synchronic (focused on one period of time) approaches. The second issue that perspective is concerned with is the organization of the dictionary: whether it is organized alphabetically, by sound, by concept, or by some other means. Finally, perspective is also concerned with the level of tone detached (whether it is perceptive (didactic) or facetious (Malkiel, 1968). According to Landau, the category of presentation offered by Malkiel is concerned with how material of a given perspective is presented. This category deals with the problem of completeness of definitions. For instance, explanatory dictionaries tend to have fuller definitions than bilingual dictionaries. Furthermore, the category of presentation also deals with the form of verbal documentation employed. Forms of verbal documentation may include cited quotations, invented phrases, bibliographic references, etc. Finally, graphical illustrations, as well as special features, such as pronunciation and usage of the lexical items, are of great interest to the category of presentation (Landau, 2004). Landau stated that Malkiel’s classification of dictionaries held certain value, as it suggested relationships between types of dictionaries, thus revealing their peculiarities via 24

displaying similarities and differences between them. Henceforth, it could be observed that diachronic dictionaries, for instance, tended to have few or no pictorial illustrations; bilingual dictionaries were seldom diachronic and usually alphabetic in arrangement (Landau, 2004). Crystal suggested that there are certain elements ever present in the dictionary entry, on the basis of which systematic comparison between different dictionaries can be made. These elements are as follows: 1. An abstract definition; 2. An illustration of its use from the reader’s language; 3. An illustration of its use from other languages; 4. An amplification of the definition or some of its terms; 5. An account of its historical provenance or current theoretical status; 6. An evaluation of its significance; 7. A list of historical sources or corpus citations (Crystal, 1997). Yet another typological classification of dictionaries was offered by Arnold. First of all, the author distinguishes between unilingual and translation (bilingual and multilingual) dictionaries. Unilingual or explanatory dictionaries are further subdivided with regard to the time into diachronic and synchronic dictionaries (Arnold, 1986:272). Diachronic dictionaries display the development of English vocabulary by recording the history of form and meaning for every word registered, whereas synchronic or descriptive dictionaries are concerned with the present-day meaning and usage of the words. However, the boundary between synchronic and diachronic dictionaries is not rigid, therefore, these two principles are often mixed (Arnold, 1986:273). Moreover, the author states that both bilingual (or multilingual) and unilingual dictionaries can be subdivided into general and special. General dictionaries usually present vocabulary as a whole, they bare a degree of completeness depending on the scope and bulk of the book. A fine example of general dictionaries is “The Oxford English Dictionary”. According to I.V. Arnold general dictionaries often have a very specific aim, yet they are still considered to be general due to their coverage. Examples of such dictionaries may include frequency dictionaries or even rhyming dictionaries (Arnold, 1986:273). Furthermore, general dictionaries are often compared to special dictionaries that aim at covering only a certain specific part of a vocabulary. Special dictionaries may be further subdivided according to certain criteria. First of all, according to the sphere of human activity in which words covered by a dictionary are used (Cf.: technical terms). What is more, these dictionaries can be classified according to the type of units themselves (e.g. phraseological

dictionaries). Finally, relationship existing between words may also be used as a criterion for classification (e.g. dictionary of synonyms). The last pattern of classification offered by the author suggests division of dictionaries into linguistic and non-linguistic. Arnold states that non-linguistic dictionaries give information on all branches of knowledge and are also known as the encyclopedias. Encyclopedias deal with concepts rather than words. Whereas, linguistic dictionaries deal with all the possible aspects of lexical items, including spelling, pronunciation, categorical features, semantics, etc. (Arnold, 1986:274). Tekorienė & Maskeliūnienė offer a following typological classification of English dictionaries. First of all, distinction can be made between dictionaries that are arranged alphabetically and dictionaries that follow semantic arrangement pattern. From the point of view of typological classification, dictionaries can be divided into general and restricted dictionaries. (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). The first person to approach the problem of typological classification of dictionaries in Russian language was Scherba. He offered typological distinction of dictionaries based on six kinds of opposition between them (Scherba, 1974). 1. Academic dictionary – glossary. According to the author academic dictionary was seen as a regulatory dictionary describing lexical system of a given language. It must not have any facts that would contradict synchronic usage of the words in the language in question. Glossaries, on the other hand, may include a wider variety of words that may sometimes cross the borders of regulatory literary language. 2. Encyclopaedic dictionary – general dictionary. The opposition between these two dictionaries is, according to the author, misleadingly obvious. The author focused on the problem of the semantic component of proper names, and whether they had to be included into the general dictionary. It was stressed that encyclopaedic dictionaries were the ones that included most information concerning proper names and terms. 3. Thesaurus – general (explanatory or translational). The scholar stated that any dictionary fully covering words that were used in the language in question at least once could be referred to as thesaurus. 4. General dictionary – ideological dictionary. According to the researcher, the concepts in the ideological dictionary should be arranged in such a way that they reflected their relationship. 5. Explanatory dictionary – translation dictionary. Explanatory dictionaries, as stated by the author, appeared in order to either be applied to a particular literary language,

or to regulate the language (e.g. French Academic Dictionary), whereas translation dictionary emerged from the need of translating one language into another. 6. Non-historical – historical dictionary. A fully historical dictionary, according to the author, gave information on the history of all the words in a particular period of time. Such dictionary included not only the information on the birth of new words, but also on the “death” of words or change in their linguistic features (Scherba, 1974). According to Kozyrev and Cherniak, typological classification offered by Scherba held value as it allowed linguists to give a truthful account of what forms explanatory and translation dictionaries may assume. However, other types of lexicographical volumes remained unnoticed by the author (Kozyrev and Cherniak, 2000). The classification model offered by Scherba was further investigated by many contemporary linguists. Morkovkin compared typological classification of dictionaries to the Mendeleev's periodic table and stated that there should always be some empty “windows” left for the new dictionaries to occupy (Morkovkin, 2003). Some authors, Kotelova for instance, claimed that encyclopaedias have to be separated from the dictionaries as the only common feature these two books had was alphabetic arrangement of the concepts (Kotelova, 1976:30). Russian philologist Vvedenskaja offered the classification of dictionaries which focuses on two major types of Russian dictionaries, those are encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries. Linguistic dictionaries dwell on description of linguistic units, such as words, morphemes, phrases and idiomatic expressions. Whereas encyclopaedic dictionaries deal with scientific terms, historical events, geographical facts, biographies of famous people, etc (Vvedenskaja, 2007). Encyclopaedic dictionaries split into several categories such as: universal, special (focused on certain field or subject), regional, biographical and popular-scientific dictionaries (Vvedenskaja, 2007). The objective of linguistic dictionaries is, first of all, to characterize various linguistic units (words, idioms, phrases and morphemes). However, they are also used to describe a given linguistic unit with all its features and forms it may take. This is actually the reason why there are so many different dictionaries in Russian language as well as various means of classifying them. One of the ways of classifying Russian dictionaries is according to the deployment of the explained words. In such classification we can speak of alphabetic, idiographic and node dictionaries of word-coining (Vvedenskaja, 2007). According to the author, most dictionaries in Russian language can be referred to as alphabetic. These include: explanatory, orthographic, orthoepic, etymologic, and many other

kinds of dictionaries. The so called reverse dictionaries also belong to alphabetic dictionaries. Reverse dictionaries are unique in the sense that they have words arranged not according to their first, but according to their last letters. Furthermore, words are arranged alphabetically form back to front. The purpose of such arrangement of dictionary entries is to illustrate the exceptions in the patterns of declension of Russian words, as it is the ending of the word rather than its root which influences inflectional changes in the process of declension (Vvedenskaja, 2007). Other Russian linguists, Vinogradov for example, offer different classification of linguistic dictionaries. His classification is based on the linguistic material that a particular dictionary explained as well as on the objectives of the dictionary. Therefore, he distinguished translation dictionaries, that can be either bilingual or multilingual, explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries if synonyms, historical dictionaries, etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of word-coining (Vinogradov, 1977). According to Shanskij there are some dictionaries of purely practical character, for example orthographic dictionaries, orthoepic dictionaries, etc. Some dictionaries in Russian language deal not only with single words but also with phrases, for example dictionaries of idiomatic expressions (Shanskij, 1987). The classification of dictionaries, it would seem, is carried out on the basis of certain characteristics that the dictionaries either possess or do not. Landau offered a model of typological dictionary classification based on the following characteristics: 1. Number of languages. According to the number of languages used in the dictionary, monolingual and bilingual dictionaries could be distinguished. Furthermore, bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional (monodirectional) or bidirectional; that is , they may go in one direction only, from English, let us say, to French, or be combined with another dictionary that goes from French to English. There are also dictionaries in which the entry words are translated into two other languages (trilingual dictionaries) or more than two other languages (multilingual dictionaries). 2. Variety of English. English dictionaries vary according to the variety of English they represent. For example: Dictionary of American English, A Dictionary of Canadianisms, The Australian National Dictionary, Dictionary of Jamaican English, etc. 3. Primary language of the market. Monolingual dictionaries differ in the primary language of their intended users. Some monolingual dictionaries are intended for native speakers of English, and others are designed for foreign learners, a market that

is divided pedagogically into English as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL). 4. Form of presentation. Dictionaries and other language reference books differ in the manner in which access to their information is provided, especially as to whether their word list are arranged alphabetically or thematically, and, allied to this, whether they are produced in books or exist in electronic form. 5. Manner of financing. Dictionaries differ in how they are financed and in the expectation of profit. Scholarly dictionaries are usually funded by government agencies or foundation grants in addition to university support, supplemented by individual donations, and are not designed to make money for investors. Whereas commercial dictionaries are supported by private investors who expect to make money. 6. Age of users. Dictionaries differ in the age of the intended user: some are aimed at children, others at adults. 7. Period of time covered. Dictionaries differ in the period of time covered by their lexicons. Diachronic, or historical, dictionaries deal with an extended period of time with the chief purpose of tracing the development of forms and meanings of each headword over the period covered. Synchronic dictionaries, on the other hand, deal with a narrow band of time and attempt to represent the lexicon as it exists or existed at a particular point in time. 8. Size. Dictionaries differ in how fully they cover the lexicon. 9. Scope of coverage by subject. Dictionaries differ in scope in respect to the subjects they cover. Here we can make a distinction between general dictionaries, special-field dictionaries, subject-field dictionaries, etc. 10. Limitations in the aspects of language covered. Dictionaries differ in scope in respect to the aspect of language covered. This allows us to speak about special-purpose dictionaries (Landau, 2004). The features of dictionaries mentioned above imply that dictionaries possess certain characteristics that may be a subject to further subdivision. Such subdivision is proposed, among others, by Denisov (1976). The scholar offers a classification of dictionaries based on four classificatory criteria: linguistic, psychological, sociological and semiotic. According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, psychological and sociological characteristics contribute greatly to how the final version of the dictionary will look like. The authors claim that such aspects of dictionaries as age of users, relation of the prospective users to the language or

even nationality of users fall under psychological and sociological characteristics of the dictionaries (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). The dictionaries chosen for the study can be classified using the patterns discussed above. Attempt to classify the OALD according to Landau‘s classification revealed that the dictionary was monolingual, it had to do with fifteen varieties of English, it was written in the primary language of the market (foreign language learning), it was a commercial dictionary (it was intended to bring profit), it was intended for both teenagers and adults, it was a synchronic dictionary, it contained 184,500 words, phrases and meanings, it was a general dictionary, it was not constricted by limitations in the aspects of language covered. The entries in the dictionary were arranged alphabetically, the dictionary was available in both printed volume and electronic format. Landau‘s typology is more appropriate for English dictionaries, therefore, Ozhegov‘s dictionary was classified according to Malkiel‘s typology. According to Malkiel‘s typology the following aspects of the dictionary were governed by the category of range: The dictionary was monolingual. The following categories of words were excluded from the dictionary: special words, words used in different dialects of Russian language (if they were not widely used in literary language as means of expression), words with obviously rude shade of meaning. archaic words, complicated abbreviations and acronyms, proper names. Study of the pecularities of the dictionary according to the category of perspective revealed that the dictionary: followed the synchronic approach; had alphabethically organised entries. The study of the aspects of the dictionary covered by the category of presentation revealed that: definitions given in the dictionary were rather full (if compared to entries provided by bilingual dictionaries); mostly invented phrases were used as examples in the entries; no graphical illustrations were given in the dictionary.

3.2 Linguistic Characteristics of Dictionaries

The current research, however, focused on the linguistic and semiotic characteristics of the dictionaries, to which the following sections were dedicated. It is only natural for a dictionary, being a written work, to possess certain linguistic characteristics, on the basis of which typological classification would be possible. Some authors, for instance Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė, stated that linguistic characteristics of dictionaries included the following features: 1. The range and scope of the material assembled; 2. Type of information presented about the headword of each entry; 30

3. Type of arrangement or the sequence of items; 4. Purpose of enterprise. According to the authors, each of the aspects mentioned above covered a certain field of problems and therefore, required a more thorough investigation (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Such investigation was carried out within a comparative study by Selmistratis & Nakutienė (Selmistraitis & Nakutienė, 2011:47-59). 1. The range and scope of the material assembled. The following characteristics are governed by this aspect: 1.1 Density of entries; Density of entries, according to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, is difficult, or nearly impossible, to measure, due to the fact that it is enormously hard to establish the precise size of the whole lexicon. Further difficulties may arise due to the fact that some authors consolidate homonyms under a single entry. Dictionaries may also differ in the wealth of recorded meanings of polysemous word, therefore, the comprehensiveness of a dictionaries is to be discussed only if they were compiled using the same pattern. Moreover, the problem of the number of entries is treated by lexicographers differently than it is by laymen, as the term ‘entry’ often invokes different concepts in minds of the professionals in the field than in the minds of those without proper training in the discipline of lexicography. It would seem that what seems to be a single entry to laymen, may actually be interpreted as two or more entries by professional lexicographers (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). In some cases, dictionaries contain a number of entries which are basically derivatives, according to Malkiel, such ‘heavy saturation with recurrent derivational schemes at once arouses the suspicion of an experienced reader’ (Malkiel, 1962:9). Conclusion can be made that density of entries is a quantitative property that does not necessarily speak for the quality of the dictionary in question, however, according to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, it can be used for typological classification of dictionaries. 1.2 Temporal, spatial, social and frequentative projection of the lexical material covered; Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė claim that language is a phenomenon that exists in time, space and social environment, hence, the full coverage of language by dictionaries involves treatment of all social and regional dialects since the earliest records until the present day. This objective in very difficult to achieve, moreover it is not necessary in every type of dictionary. Therefore, coverage of dictionaries is often restricted by the period of time, territory and social environment from which they draw lexical items (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004).

The scope of the vocabularies in modern dictionaries can also be determined by the frequency of the words included. This way, the vocabulary can be subdivided into several layers based on the frequency of occurrence of lexical items. This approach prevails in all the dictionaries designed for learners (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 1.3 Type of items registered Even though general dictionaries usually record words, in some cases they can also register some sort of phrases, idioms and morphemes. 1.4 Extent of concentration on lexical and encyclopaedic data The fact that encyclopaedias and dictionaries were not always recognized as discrete provinces of knowledge led to permeation of encyclopaedic-style data into the dictionaries. The examples of such data are finely illustrated by the examples of proper names, geographical descriptions and a prodigality of comments on ordinary words. Encyclopaedic entries in dictionaries may be diminished to a supplement or form part of the same unique alphabetical succession of items as the ordinary words (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 1.5 Number of languages involved Yet another way of classifying dictionaries by range involves rating them by the number of languages involved. Therefore, we can speak of monolingual, bilingual, trilingual and polyglot (multilingual) dictionaries. Bilingual dictionaries do not necessarily serve as translation dictionaries. In the case with dead languages they can be used to explain the source language by means of the target language (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Other scholars find the problem of dictionary languages quite intriguing, Hacken, for instance, claimed that it is difficult to say what interpretation of language is meant in the dictionary context. Usually the term is applied as a reference to corpus. However, a corpus can never constitute the language being described. According to Hacken, The lexicographer had to decide which occurrences in a corpus are errors and which reflect playful use of expressions not literally used in the text (Hacken, 2006). 2. Type of information given about each item According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, dictionaries can also be classified according to the type of information given about each item. Therefore, dictionaries that aim at giving exhaustive definitions of each entry try to include as much information about the lexical unit under investigation as possible. This information may include spelling, pronunciation, the indication of the class the entry word belongs to, the definition of the meaning, morphological properties, syntactic and stylistic properties, etymology, location in the subsystems of semantically related words. Alternatively, there are dictionaries that focus on some particular

type of information, English pronouncing dictionary by Daniel Jones (London, 1917) for instance (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 3. Patterns of arrangement Tekorienė and maskaliūnienė suggest that basic arrangement of dictionary items may be alphabetic, semantic or casual. 3.1 Alphabetic arrangement Most authors (cf. Landau 2004) agree that alphabetic arrangement dominates in most dictionaries, however, alphabetic arrangement does not necessarily mean arrangement according to the alphabet strictly a to z. Vvedenskaja, for instance, claims that reverse dictionaries also belong to those that are arranged alphabetically (Vvedenskaja 2007). Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė seconded the Russian scholar and added that rhyming dictionaries also follow the alphabetic arrangement pattern (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 3.2 Semantic arrangement According to lexicographers, there are two kinds of dictionaries that are organized according to bonds of meaning between the lexical items they describe: ideological dictionaries, or dictionaries of synonyms, and systematic dictionaries. The main purpose of dictionaries of synonyms is to indicate chains of synonyms, near-synonyms, and groups of semantically related words. Sometimes such dictionaries also include antonyms, however, there also exist special dictionaries of antonyms. One of the greatest dictionaries of synonyms is The Oxford Thesaurus. An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms (L. Urdang) (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Systematic dictionaries group words according to the semantic fields. The arrangement usually proceeds from hyperonyms to respective hyponyms. Such arrangement is usual for terms of particular sciences (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 3.3 Casual arrangement Casual arrangement of headwords in dictionaries is, actually, a mixture of alphabetic and semantic arrangements. One of the possible examples of such arrangement is Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, it follows the following pattern of headword arrangement: The individual groups of synonyms are classified according to the systematic classification of notions (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 4. Arrangement of the meanings of a polysemous word The arrangement of meanings of the same headword is nearly as significant for the characterization of the dictionaries as the arrangement of headwords themselves. Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė suggest that there are three major major ways in which the meanings of a polysemous word can be arranged:

1. The historical order. The meanings are arranged in the sequence of their historical development. The primary objective of this kind of dictionaries is to trace historical development of lexicon. 2. The order of meanings can be arranged in accordance with the frequency of use, i.e. the most common meanings come first. 3. The logical lay out of the meanings. This order reflects the hierarchical relations between the meanings (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 5. Illustrative examples The illustrative examples provided in dictionaries pursue a number of aims. The prevailing aim, however, is to clarify the meaning and usage, or to reflect typical patterns of collocations or the difference between synonymous words. In diachronically compiled dictionaries, illustrations may be used to present the difference between the first and the last recorder occurrences of the headword and the changes in its form. Illustrative examples may be drawn from (1) literary sources of high literary value, (2) any written or recorded data, the principle of selection being the most typical usage of the meaning in point, (3) examples may be constructed by the authors to cover the needs of the entry (Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 6. Prescriptive vs. descriptive purpose of a dictionary According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, the aims of the dictionary reflect the needs of a particular society. Often needs arising in the society introduce new concepts in lexicography, for instance the need to establish and maintain a national standard of a language has given rise to the prescriptive or normative concept in lexicography. To a certain degree, all the dictionaries carry out the prescriptive function as they not only give information on a word, but also provide aid to those who compose a text of their own, and are not sure about the correct usage of a word. The prescriptive tendency in lexicography is opposed to the descriptive principle, to which the lexicographer is an objective recorder of the language. A descriptive dictionary records not only the standard language, but also dialectal words, archaisms, or occasional usages by individual authors. Such dictionaries are often more historical and encyclopedic than prescriptive dictionaries (Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė, 2004). 7. Productive vs. receptive purpose of a dictionary According to Hartmann and James Dictionaries aiming at reception are often termed passive dictionaries. They are designed to help with decoding tasks, such as the comprehension of text, whereas dictionaries concerned with production, i.e. with encoding tasks, such as writing, are sometimes referred to as active dictionaries (Hartmann and James 1998:106).

According to Bogaards, the receptive value of a dictionary can be compared on a basis of these three criteria: the ease of a word’s findability, the comprehensibility of the definition, examples and all illustrative material that helps the user to understand the meaning of a word; and information about its usability (Hartmann and James 1998:107).

3.3 Semiotic Characteristics of Dictionaries

Semiotic characteristics of a dictionary cover the ways and methods in which information about the words is given in the entries. According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė this editorial and typographic techniques of presentation constitute the so-called semiotic characteristics of a dictionary. These characteristics cover the wording of the definitions, marking of pronunciation, use of special symbols and abbreviations, typographic style and graphic illustrations (Tekorienė & Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Perhaps the most obvious, yet crucial, semiotic characteristic of the dictionary is the entry term. According to Landau, the entry term (which represents a paradigm) is represented in a dictionary by a canonical form, which is sometimes referred to as the lemma. Depending on the type of the dictionary, the entries given in it might differ. First of all, differences might occur in the very entry terms, it is not only because the problem of different spelling possibilities (which was solved with the appearance of standard English) but also such aspects as homonymy and polysemy of words. Usage of the so called “run-on entries” is also a common practice in compiling entries. Sometimes, dictionary entries encounter a problem of the absence of standard nomenclature, especially in various fields of science (Landau, 2004).

Lexicographic definitions Widmer claims that the term ‘definition’ seems to be problematic when it is used to refer to dictionary entries. According to the author, the most important problem when using the word is the confusion of its meaning in philosophy and logic with its meaning in lexicography (Widmer, 1998). Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė claimed that meanings of words may be defined in different ways: 1. By means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases. 2. By full sentence definitions built on the typical syntactical pattern of the word defined, which is a characteristic feature of COBUILD dictionaries. 3. With the help of synonymous words. 4. By describing the thing which the word designated, i.e. by encyclopaedic description. 35

5. By means of cross-references. 6. Sometimes two kinds of definitions may be used in conjunction (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Robinson offered the classification of lexicographic definitions based on their content rather than their form. The author’s classification focused on the ways and means the referent of the headword was explained to the reader. Such approach to lexicographic definitions was said to be communicative influenced further development of the subject (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). The problem of lexical definitions is also widely discussed by Sydney Landau, who presents Ladislav Zgusta’s principles of defining. According to Landau, Zgusta enumerates the following principles of defining: 1. All words within a definition must be explained. 2. The lexical definition should not contain words “more difficult to understand” than the word defined. 3. The defined word may not be used in its definition, nor may derivations or combinations of the combined word unless they are separately defined. But one part- of-speech may be used to define another, as “to use a crib” if the noun sense of crib (in the sense of a secret copy of notes, etc.) has been defined. 4. The definition must correspond to the part-of-speech of the word defined (Landau, 2004).

Phonetic notation The pronunciation system, according to Landau, is one in which the entry word is respelled in alphabetic characters with diacritical marks over certain vowels and with primary and secondary stress marks indicated (Landau, 2004:118). One of the distinctive features of English languages is that English words can be pronounced in more than one way. Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė state that variations in pronunciation may be regional, stylistic and prosodic. The phonetic notations used in most British dictionaries of the 20th century are built on the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The alphabet was designed to be applicable to all languages. It consists of symbols which are ordinary letters of the Roman alphabet or variations of them (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). Although a dictionary states that the phonetic transcription employed is fully in accordance with the principles of the International Phonetic Association and makes use of only their authorized symbols, the signs employed and their value may slightly differ from dictionary to

dictionary. For easier reference, a complete list of phonetic symbols used in the dictionary together with explanatory key words is usually given in some prominent place (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004).

Illustrations. Pictorial dictionaries According to Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė, Illustrations are used in dictionaries to explain the meaning of words. The use of illustrations, therefore, is a peculiar way of presenting information and as such it belongs to semiotic characteristics of a dictionary. To explain the meaning of words dictionaries may use illustrations either as means complementary to verbal definitions, or as the primary means. According to the lexicographers, the extent to which pictorial illustrations are used depends on the intended users and the kind of material recorded (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). A pictorial dictionary is a dictionary in which the headwords are names for what is pictured in the dictionary of symbolised by pictures. Pictorial dictionaries are ordered onomasiologically and have one or more indices. The pictures in such dictionaries take over the function of lexicographical definitions. Therefore, we can safely assume that pictorial dictionaries link words with pictures (Sterkenburg, ed. 2003:134). The above mentioned characteristics of dictionaries shape the definitions provided by the dictionary. Therefore, different dictionaries may provide explanations of the entry terms that will differ not only in the manner of explaining, but also in, for instance, graphical presentation of the definition itself or presence and amount of illustrations.

IV. JUXTAPOSITION OF LINGUISTIC AND SEMIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN DICTIONARIES 4.1 Juxtaposition of Linguistic Characteristics

This part of the paper deals with the comparison of the linguistic and semiotic information given by OALD and Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary. Most of the linguistic features of the dictionaries were discussed in the theoretical overview, therefore, this part focused on the comparison of those features that could be compared and discussed for the purposes of scientific study. This involved the type of information given about items in the dictionary. This information may include spelling, pronunciation, the definition of the meaning, syntactic and stylistic properties, etymology, etc.

4.1.1 Pronunciation

The pronunciation in the 8th edition of OALD is given directly beneath the headword. The headword itself is divided into syllables, which, in a way, introduces the pronunciation guide offered by the dictionary at the very beginning of the entry. Main Entry: acad • emy Pronunciation: BrE / əˈkædəmi /; NAmE / əˈkædəmi /

Main Entry: acro • bat • ics Pronunciation: BrE / ˌækrəˈbætɪks /; NAmE / ˌækrəˈbætɪks /

Main Entry: leis • ure Pronunciation: BrE / ˈleʒə(r) / ; NAmE / ˈliːʒər /

Main Entry: head • mas • ter Pronunciation: BrE / ˌhedˈmɑːstə(r) /; NAmE / ˌhedˈmæstər /

Main Entry: manu • fac • tur • ing Pronunciation: BrE / ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ /; NAmE / ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ /

Since British pronunciation is so often different from the American pronunciation, two variants are always provided. The dictionary deals with fifteen varieties of English, however, it focuses on North American and British pronunciation only. If the word can be pronounced in more than one way, all the variants are provided. Consider: Main Entry: ob • el • isk Pronunciation: BrE / ˈɒbəlɪsk /; NAmE / ˈɑːbəlɪsk /; NAmE / ˈoʊbəlɪsk /;

Main Entry: gar • age

Pronunciation: BrE / ˈɡærɑːʒ /; BrE / ˈɡærɑːdʒ /; BrE / ˈɡærɪdʒ /; NAmE / ɡəˈrɑːʒ /; NAmE / ɡəˈrɑːdʒ /

Main Entry: genre Pronunciation: BrE / ˈʒɒ̃rə /; BrE / ˈʒɒnrə /; NAmE / ˈʒɑːnrə /

Main Entry: haut • eur Pronunciation: BrE / əʊˈtɜː(r) /; NAmE / hɔːˈtɜːr /; NAmE / oʊˈtɜːr /

Main Entry: nau • sea Pronunciation: BrE / ˈnɔːziə /; NAmE / ˈnɔːziə /; BrE / ˈnɔːsiə /; NAmE / ˈnɔːsiə /

The purpose of OALD dictates the need to indicate all the possible variants of pronunciation. The CD-ROM version is also equipped with sound files that are represented in the interface by two speaker icons, which if pressed reproduce the word. The red speaker icon gives a North American pronunciation, whereas the blue icon provides British pronunciation. Stress mark is also given to indicate stressed syllables. Stress mark above the phoneme indicates the primary stress, whereas a stress mark below the phoneme indicates the secondary stress. The following examples illustrate different positions of the stress mark in the word: Main Entry: navi • ga • tion Pronunciation: ˌnævɪˈɡeɪʃn

Main Entry: oc • cu • pa • tion Pronunciation: ˌɒkjuˈpeɪʃn

Main Entry: pal • is • ade Pronunciation: ˌpælɪˈseɪd

Main Entry: pi • on • eer Pronunciation: ˌpaɪəˈnɪə(r)

Main Entry: rec • re • ation Pronunciation: ˌrekriˈeɪʃn

The words in Russian language are pronounced the same way they are spelled, except for some rather rare deviations, therefore the pronunciation, in most of the cases, is not given. However, in some extremely rare cases, when the pronunciation differs from the spelling, former is indicated in square brackets immediately after the headword. The pronunciation is indicated only for the part of the words that is pronounced differently than spelled. Consider:

Main Entry: ДЕТЕКТОР Pronunciation: ДЕТЕКТОР [дэтэ]

Main Entry: БАТТЕРФЛЯЙ 39

Pronunciation: БАТТЕРФЛЯЙ [тэ]

Main Entry: КОНТЕЙНЕР Pronunciation: КОНТЕЙНЕР [тэ]

Main Entry: МУЛИНЕ Pronunciation: МУЛИНЕ[нэ].

Main Entry: СТЮАРДЕССА Pronunciation: СТЮАРДЕССА [дэ]

Interestingly, the entries with the phonetic information provided are all of non-Russian origin. Therefore, a conclusion can be drawn that only the pronunciation of foreign words in Russian language differs from the spelling. It also seems that this deviation is applicable only to the sound e, which is usually pronounced as [je] in Russian, however, in words of foreign origin this letter is pronounced as [э] (reverse э). Furthermore, the stress in Ozhegov‘s online dictionary is not indicated, even though the paper version of the same dictionary provides this kind of information. Such deviation from the original version is very difficult to explain as mistakes concerning the inappropriate stressing of the words are common not only for language learners, but for native speakers as well. The analysis of the entries above revealed that the OALD paid much more attention to the issues of pronunciation. Such approaches to problems of pronunciation as division of words into syllables, indication of primary and secondary stress marks, phonetic notation of every single headword indicating both British and North American pronunciation, as well as possibility to reproduce the word were applied. Such thorough approach to problems of pronunciation was, by all means, dictated by the purpose of the enterprise as well as by the needs of contemporary students. The Ozhegov’s dictionary, on the other hand, serves a different purpose and was compiled in a very different way, which excluded the possibility of phonetic notation of every single headword. Furthermore, the intended users of the dictionary, ideally, should have included people who are familiar with certain rules of Russian pronunciation and for whom phonetic notation would be unnecessary. Therefore, the dictionary only included pronunciation of some words of foreign origin which differ in pronunciation of the letter e in favour of the reverse э, pronunciation of which might have been a problem for the users. Moreover, only the part of the word which possessed deviations was transcribed.

4.1.2 Orthographic Information

Orthography has to do with the writing systems used within one or another language. The scope of orthography, however, is not limited to spelling only, as it may also deal with the rules of punctuation and capitalization. The current study, nevertheless, focusses on nouns only, therefore, only the spelling will be taken into account. Perhaps the most obvious difference that concerns orthography is that of different systems of writing used in the dictionaries. The OALD uses Latin system of writing. The English alphabet consists of 26 letters, of which six are traditionally attributed to vowels and twenty to consonants. The online version of the Ozhegov’s Explanatory dictionary, on the other hand, uses the Russian alphabet also known as the Cyrillic alphabet, named in honour of St. Cyril, the Greek monk and scholar who is credited with devising an early version of it (Levine, 2009:1). The alphabet itself consist of 10 vowels, 20 consonants a semi-consonant/semi- vowel (Й), a hard sign and a soft sign (Wade, 2011:1). Ozhegov’s online dictionary does not provide variants of spelling, due to the fact that words in the current Russian dictionary follow the standard accepted in 1956 by the Academy of Science of USSR, the preface of the dictionary stated clearly that no variants of spelling were provided in the dictionary. As was anticipated, the situation with English words taken from the OALD was different. Such cases were usually found in the geographic variants of English. The following examples illustrate the problem of spelling variants in English:

Main Entry: kerb ( BrE ) Geographic Variant: ( NAmE curb )

Main Entry: axe (especially BrE ) Geographic Variant: US usually ax

Main Entry: fil • let Geographic Variant: NAmE also filet

Main Entry: flaut • ist ( BrE ) Geographic Variant: NAmE flut • ist

Main Entry: plough (BrE) Geographic Variant: NAmE plow

Main Entry: the • atre (especially BrE ) Geographic Variant: especially US theater

Main Entry: col • our Geographic Variant: especially US color

Main Entry: trav • el • ling Geographic VARIANT: especially US trav • el • ing

The OALD is generally concerned with British and American variants of spelling, therefore if it differs in any way, both variants are presented. The fact that both variants are provided in the entries perfectly illustrates that both forms exist in free variation. Yet another aspect of orthography emphasized in the OALD is the spelling of irregular plurals. To be precise, any deviation from the traditional plural inflection (-s) is explained. Such detailed explanation of plurals can, again, be explained by the fact that this particular dictionary focuses on the needs of learners. Consider the following examples:

Main Entry: academy Inflected Form: academies

Main Entry: amanuensis Inflected Form: amanuenses

Main Entry: colloquium Inflected Form: colloquia

Main Entry: embryo Inflected Form: embryos

Main Entry: naiad Inflected Form: naiads or naiades

Main Entry: Fish Inflected Form: fish or fishes

The instances above illustrate the examples of plurals given in the OALD. As seen in the examples, if more than one inflected forms are available all of the possibilities are given. As a rule, all the words of foreign origin as well as words plurals of which possess any irregularities are presented. Russian dictionary does not provide any examples of plurals, as all the plurals are made in accordance to a set of rules which does not allow any irregularities. Instead, the dictionary provides the ending of the noun in the genitive case. Consider the following Examples: Main Entry: КАРТЕЛЬ The Genitive Case: КАРТЕЛЬ, -я

Main Entry: ШАХМАТЫ The Genitive Case: ШАХМАТЫ, -ат

Main Entry: СИГАРЕТА The Genitive Case: СИГАРЕТА, -ы 42

Main Entry: КЛИЕНТ The Genitive Case: КЛИЕНТ, -а

Main Entry: СВЯЗЬ The Genitive Case: СВЯЗЬ, -и

Some of the loanwords in Russian can be neither declined nor do they possess plurals, thus they are provided with an abbreviation which informs the reader of the fact. Consider: Main Entry: ТАКСИ Declension: ТАКСИ, нескл.

Main Entry: КОНФЕТТИ Declension: КОНФЕТТИ, нескл.

Main Entry: ЭМУ Declension: ЭМУ, нескл.

Main Entry: ЖАБО Declension: ЖАБО, нескл.

Main Entry: МАКСИ Declension: МАКСИ, нескл.

Based on the analysis of the dictionary entries given above, the following conclusions can be drawn. First, the orthographic information provided in the dictionaries was to the greatest extent influenced by two major factors – the language of the dictionary itself and, once again, the purpose of the dictionary. The language of the dictionary determined not only the system of writing used in the dictionary, but also the kind of orthographic information provided in the entries. Russian entries, for instance, present the information on the genitive case of the headword. Declensions are characteristic of synthetic languages, to which Russian is attributed. English, on the other hand, is an analytic language, therefore, it expresses cases differently than synthetic languages do, and hence, there is no need to provide this kind of information in the dictionary entries. Second, the dictionaries provide the kind of information relevant for their purpose. On the one hand, entries from the Ozhegov’s dictionary (rather prescriptive in character) gave the information concerning orthography of declined forms. On the other hand, entries from the OALD provided information topical to those who studied English, for instance the information on the spelling of the geographical variants of the words that are used in absolute free variation in modern English, which is, by all means, a major issue for those who study the language.

4.1.3 Semantic, Stylistic and Etymological Information

Linguistic semantics is the study of meanings of words and sentences (Saeed, 2009). Semantic information is disclosed via the definitions of the headword. The definitions themselves will be given a thorough look at and compared in the upcoming chapter. This part of the study focused on comparison of semantic information given on the headwords rather than techniques of the presentation of that information.

Main Entry: acad • emy 1 a school or college for special training the Royal Academy of Music a police/military academy 2 (usually Academy) a type of official organization which aims to encourage and develop art, literature, science, etc. the Royal Academy of Arts 3 a secondary school in Scotland 4 a private school in the US 5 a secondary school in England which receives some of its money from a private business or person instead of from the government.

The entry given above provides five definitions of the word academy. The order in which the information is provided is not, by any means, random. As can be seen, the first piece of information deals with the most general meaning of the word. The second definition of the term narrows its usage to specific purposes, whereas, the definitions that follow seem to hold geographical variations of usage of the word.

Main Entry: АКАДЕМИЯ АКАДЕМИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Высшее научное или художественное учреждение .Российская а. наук. А. художеств. А. медицинских наук. 2. Название нек-рых высших учебных заведений. Военно-медицинская а. In terms of definitions employed by the Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary, the entry seems to be similar to its English counterpart. The first definition is even illustrated with an example similar to that provided by the OALD. Again, the most common usage of the word is given first; it is then followed by a less frequent usage of the term, which is also illustrated with an example. However, no geographical variants of usage are provided. 44

Main Entry: bea • con 1 a light that is placed somewhere to guide vehicles and warn them of danger a navigation beacon ( figurative ) He was a beacon of hope for the younger generation. see also Belisha beacon 2 a radio station whose signal helps ships and aircraft to find their position The plane was guided in by radio beacon. 3 (in the past) a fire lit on top of a hill as a signal

The first meaning of the word above covers its most general usage. The second meaning explains the word in a more modern context. The meaning is illustrated by a full-sentence example. The third meaning is marked as referring to the past and is not illustrated by an example.

Main Entry: МАЯК МАЯК, -а, м. Башня с сигнальными огнями на берегу моря, на острове, в устье реки. Береговой м. Плавучий м. (на якорях).

The meaning of the word offered by the Russian dictionary is restricted to a particular building (a tower) and to particular places (seashore, an island, mouth of a river). Such restrictions exclude the usage of the word in the sense of a gadget that was given as a second meaning of the word in the entry obtained from the OALD. Furthermore, the figurative usage of the word is also excluded as it is not common in Russian language, which uses expression the ray of hope instead. The comparative study of the entry terms for beacon in OALD and Ozhegov’s dictionaries revealed an interesting peculiarity. It appears that the definition provided by the OALD disclosed meaning of the word via certain diachrony as it aimed to show not only the general meaning of the word, but also its usage in the past context as well as its applicability in the context of modern life. To put it in other words, not only it defined the word itself, it also, to a certain extent, traced the development of its meaning. The entry obtained from the Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary, on the other hand, focused on a single meaning of the word, which considering the modern context may be outdated in certain cases.

Main Entry: pil • low 1 a square or rectangular piece of cloth filled with soft material, used to rest your head on in bed She lay back against the pillows. pillow talk (= conversations in bed between lovers) He lay back on the grass using his backpack as a pillow. The nurse plumped up the pillows. a pillow fight (= a game in which people hit each other with pillows ) 2 ( NAmE ) = cushion

Main Entry: ПОДУШКА 1. Зашитый со всех сторон чехол, набитый пухом(перьями, волосом, ватой), для подкладывания под голову, для сидения.Пуховая, перьевая п. Диванная п. Скажи подушке, а она подружке (поел. о том,что тайна, доверенная одному, станет известна всем).

The analysis of the entries given above revealed yet another set of differences and similarities of the dictionaries. To begin with, the information provided in the entries described the term in a similar way. However, a full sentence was used as an example in OALD, whereas Ozhegov’s dictionary relied on collocations as well as a proverb. The English entry also presented and explained an idiomatic expression and referred to a game. The phraseological unit presented in the English entry does not exist in Russian language, the reference to the game, on the other hand was probably skipped by Russian lexicographers due to the limitations in the scope of coverage of the dictionary. The meaning of the word can be disclosed in different contexts in the OALD, this is mostly due to the fact that additional banks of information are available via colourful buttons directly below the headword and pronunciation. The buttons dealing with semantics include: example banks, thesauri, cultural references, synonyms and which word sections.

Main Entry: ad • jec • tive Example Bank: ‘My’ is a possessive adjective. Adjectives qualify nouns. Attributive adjectives precede the noun. Predicative adjectives follow the noun. adjectives describing texture

Main Entry: bag • gage Thesaurus: baggage noun [U] (especially AmE) Please do not leave baggage unattended. bags suitcase | especially BrE luggage carry baggage/bags/a suitcase/luggage check (in) your baggage/bags/suitcase/luggage search sb's baggage/bags/suitcase/luggage

Main Entry: birth • day Cultural References: Birthdays are especially important to the very young and the very old. On their birthday, people receive birthday cards and birthday presents from their family and friends, etc.

Main Entry: block Synonyms: property, premises, complex, structure block.

All the synonyms given in the data bank are provided with additional explanations and notes concerning their usage.

Main Entry: diary Which Word: agenda / diary / schedule / timetable A book with a space for each day where you write down things that you have to do in the future is called a diary or a datebook (NAmE) (not an agenda). You may also have a calendar on your desk or hanging up in your room, where you write down your appointments. A diary or a journal is also the record that some people keep of what has happened during the day: the Diary of Anne Frank. In BrE your schedule is a plan that lists all the work that you have to do and when you must do each thing and a timetable is a list showing the fixed times at which events will happen: a bus/train timetable. In NAmE these are both called a schedule. Most of the words covered by the OALD and the Ozhegov‘s Explanatory Dictionary are neutral. This means that they do not belong to any particular style and can be used in any types of spoken or written language. However, certain types of words used by the dictionaries are bound to particular styles. In both dictionaries these words are marked by labels in round brackets indicating the type of context to which the word is bound. The OALD refers to these labels as registers. The Russian dictionary offers the following labels: a) книжн – refers to

literary language, often of foreign origin; b) высок. – elevated meaning; c) офиц. – formal; d) разг. – informal; e) прост. – colloquial; f) обл. – regional (dialect); g) презр. – condemning; h) неодобр. – disaproving; i) спец. – technical; j) стар. - old-use; k) устар. – archaic. The OALD uses the following registers: A) approving; B) disapproving; C) dialect; D) figurative; E) formal; F) humorous; G) informal; H) ironic; I) literary; J) offensive; K) slang; L) taboo; M) old-fashioned; N) old use;

The following entries were compared in order to find the stylistic differences between the headwords.

Approving style 1a) Main Entry: con • stancy Label and definition: ( approving ) the quality of being faithful 1b) Main Entry: ПОСТОЯНСТВО Label and definition: no label. Верность, твердость во взглядах,чувствах. П. в любви, в дружбе.

2a) Main Entry: drive Label and definition: ( approving ) a strong desire to do things and achieve sth; great energy. 2b) Main Entry: СТИМУЛ Label and definition: (книжн.). Побудительная причина, толчоk.

3a) Main Entry: en • ter • prise Label and definition: ( approving ) the ability to think of new projects and make them successful 3b) Main Entry: ИНИЦИАТИВА Label and definition: no label. Почин, внутреннее побуждение к новым формамдеятельности, предприимчивость.

4a) Main Entry: in • sight Label and definition: (approving) the ability to see and understand the truth about people or situations 4b) Main Entry: ПОНИМАНИЕ Label and definition: no label. Способность осмыслять, постигатьсодержание. смысл, значение чего-н.

5a) Main Entry: per • se • ver • ance Label and definition: (approving) the quality of continuing to try to achieve a particular aim despite difficulties 5b) Main Entry: УПОРСТВО Label and definition: no label. Последовательность и твердость в осуществлениичего-н. У. в достижении цели.

The analysis of the entries revealed that entries which were considered as the ones to be used in approving register in the OALD were usually attributed to neutral register in Ozhegov’s dictionary. Disapproving style 1a) Main Entry: ama • teur Label and definition: (usually disapproving) a person who is not skilled 1b) Main Entry: ЛЮБИТЕЛЬ Label and definition: no label. Человек, к-рый занимаетсякаким-н. делом не как профессионал, по увлечению, из интереса.

2a) Main Entry: back • water Label and definition: (often disapproving) a place that is away from the places where most things happen, and is therefore not affected by events, progress, new ideas, etc. 2b) Main Entry: ГЛУШЬ Label and definition: no label. То же, что захолустье.

3a) Main Entry: blow • hard Label and definition: NAmE , informal , disapproving ) a person who talks too proudly about sth they own or sth they have done. 3b) Main Entry: ХВАСТУН Label and definition: (разг.). Хвастливый человек.

4a) Main Entry: car • eer • ist Label and definition: (often disapproving) a person whose career is more important to them than anything else 4b) Main Entry: КАРЬЕРИСТ Label and definition: (неодобр.). Человек, проникнутый карьеризмом.

5a) Main Entry: cha • meleon Label and definition: (often disapproving) a person who changes their behaviour or opinions according to the situation. 5b) Main Entry: ХАМЕЛЕОН Label and definition: перен. Человек,к-рый, приспосабливаясь к обстановке, легко меняет свое поведение, взгляды,симпатии (неодобр.).

The analysis of the entries given above revealed that even though some entries in Ozhegov’s dictionary have obvious disapproving connotations to their meanings, this stylistic marker is not indicated in the entry. The readers, hence, are supposed to possess certain background knowledge which would enable appropriate interpretation of the word. Entries 4a and 4b, as well as 5a and 5b coincided in the stylistic label. Both words described in the entries have certain peculiarities to them. They are loanwords, therefore, they might have been unknown to people who have never encountered them before, this is why the stylistic label is provided in the entry.

Dialect

There is little use in trying to compare headwords that are labelled as dialect words, as the languages are completely different and belong to different phyla. Words marked as dialect in the OALD usually express concepts that are typical for certain geographical locations, or the ways of referring to a person (particularly a member of family). Consider:

Main Entry: beck Label and definition: (BrE , dialect) a small river.

Main Entry: mammy Label and definition: (dialect , informal) mother.

Main Entry: pike Label and definition: (dialect) a pointed top of a hill in the north of England the Langdale Pikes

Dialect label was also sometimes attributed to certain words in Ozhegov’s dictionary; however, it was nearly impossible to specify the field in which the concentration of such words would allow to draw conclusions about the area of usage for dialect words in the dictionary. Consider: 50

Main Entry: БУРАК Label and definition: (обл.). То же, что свекла.

Main Entry: КОЧЕТ Label and definition: (обл.). То же, что петух (в 1 знач.).

Figurative 1a) Main Entry: acro • bat • ics Label and definition: (figurative) vocal acrobatics (= performing skilfully with the voice when singing) 1b) Main Entry: АКРОБАТИКА Label and definition: no label. 1. Цирковая гимнастика. 2. Вид спорта. Спортивная а.(комплексы прыжковых, силовых, вольных и других упражнений).

2a) Main Entry: at • ro • phy Label and definition: (medical) the condition of losing flesh, muscle, strength, etc. in a part of the body because it does not have enough blood. (figurative , formal) The cultural life of the country will sink into atrophy unless more writers and artists emerge. 2b) Main Entry: АТРОФИЯ Label and definition: (спец.). Уменьшение ка-кого-н. органа, потеря им жизнеспособности.

3a) Main Entry: bell Label and definition: (figurative) Warning bells started ringing in her head as she sensed that something was wrong. 3b) Main Entry: КОЛОКОЛ Label and definition: Во все колокола ударять,звонить (также перен.: оповещать всех, предавать гласности).

4a) Main Entry: cita • del Label and definition: (figurative) citadels of private economic power. 4b) Main Entry: ЦИТАДЕЛЬ Label and definition: (высок.). Оплот, опорa.

5a) Main Entry: cross • roads Label and definition: (figurative) He has reached a career crossroads (= he must decide which way to go next in his career). 5b) Main Entry: РАСПУТЬЕ Label and definition: Перекресток двух или нескольких дорог.На р. (также перен.: в раздумье о том, как действовать дальше, внерешительности).

Entries analysed above revealed interesting facts. First of all, the figurative meaning was rarely explained with a definition in OALD, rather it was illustrated with an example that disclosed its meaning. Second, entries 3a,b and 5a,b coincided in stylistic label, which leads to an assumption that some figures of speech are universal and can be found in more than one language. Finally, stylistic perception of entries in the OALD and Ozhegov’s dictionary is sometimes different. For instance entries 4a,b are considered to stylistically coloured in both dictionaries, however, in OALD the emphasis is made on the figurative stylistic connotation, whereas Ozhegov’s dictionary finds the word to have elevated stylistic meaning.

Formal The words used in this register are usually attributed to language of official relations also to clerical and administrative language. 1a) Main Entry: abode Label and definition: (formal or humorous) the place where sb lives. 1b) Main Entry: МЕСТОЖИТЕЛЬСТВО Label and definition: (офиц.). Место постоянного проживания.

2a) Main Entry: ad • mit • tance Label and definition: (formal) the right to enter or the act of entering a building, an institution, etc. 2b) Main Entry: ДОПУСК Label and definition: Право входа или доступа куда-н. (офиц.).

3a) Main Entry: al • tru • ism Label and definition: (formal) the fact of caring about the needs and happiness of other people more than your own. 3b) Main Entry: АЛЬТРУИЗМ

Label and definition: (книжн.). Готовность бескорыстно действовать напользу другим, не считаясь со своими интересами.

4a) Main Entry: bra • vura Label and definition: (formal) great skill and enthusiasm in doing sth artistic. 4b) Main Entry: БРАВАДА Label and definition: (книжн.). Поведение того, кто бравирует, показнаяудаль.

5a) Main Entry: cac • oph • ony Label and definition: (formal) a mixture of loud unpleasant sounds 5b) Main Entry: КАКОФОНИЯ Label and definition: (книжн.). Лишенное всякого благозвучия, сумбурноесочетание звуков (в музыке, стихах).

Analysis of the entries labelled as formal revealed that some words which were attributed to this style in the OALD coincided in style with entries from Ozhegov’s dictionary. Furthermore, entries which did not coincide in the Russian dictionary were labelled as literary, which also implies a certain degree of formality.

Humorous The headwords labelled as humorous are intended to be funny. Ironically, this label is often accompanied by the label formal. This shows that formal language has absolutely different stylistic shade if used in informal situations. Consider the following Entries:

1a) Main Entry: ap • pur • ten • ance Label and definition: (formal or humorous) a thing that forms a part of sth larger or more important. 1b) Main Entry: ПРИНАДЛЕЖНОСТЬ Label and definition: (офиц.) - туда, куда следует.

2a) Main Entry: de • mise Label and definition: (formal or humorous) death 2b) Main Entry: СМЕРТЬ

Label and definition: 1. Прекращение жизнедеятельности организма. Его (тебя) только за смертью посылать (о том, ктовыполняет поручение медленно, с большой задержкой; разг. неодобр, и шутл.).

3a) Main Entry: edi • fi • ca • tion Label and definition: (formal or humorous) the improvement of sb's mind or character 3b) Main Entry: НАЗИДАНИЕ Label and definition: (книжн.) Наставление, поучение. Выслушиватьназидания (устар. и ирон.).

4a) Main Entry: strip • ling Label and definition: (old-fashioned or humorous) a young man who is older than a boy but who does not seem to be a real man yet. 4b)Main Entry: ЮНЕЦ Label and definition: Юноша, мальчик (ирон.).

5a) Main Entry: scrib • bler Label and definition: (disapproving or humorous) a journalist, author or other writer. 5b) Main Entry: ПИСАКА Label and definition: О том, кто пишет неумело или небрежно, грязно (в 1знач.) (разг. шутл.).

The entries discussed above seem to have similar labels in both dictionaries. In some cases the humorous label in OALD was replaced by ironic label in the Ozhegov’s dictionary. As mentioned before, the label humorous is often accompanied by other labels of more formal character, such as formal or literary.

Informal Headwords marked by this label are used in informal situations, often in conversations among friends. They are inappropriate for formal situations as they often have dubious meanings. In Ozhegov’s dictionary this kind of register is referred to as spoken or colloquial.

1a) Main Entry: babe Label and definition: (informal) an attractive young woman. 1b) Main Entry: КРАСОТКА

Label and definition: (прост.). Миловидная молодая женщина.

2a) Main Entry: ba • lo • ney Label and definition: ( informal , especially NAmE ) nonsense; lies. 2b) Main Entry: ЕРУНДА Label and definition: (разг.). 1. Вздор, пустяки, нелепость.

3a) Main Entry: beano Label and definition: (BrE , informal) a party. 3b) Main Entry: ГУЛЯНКА Label and definition: (прост.). Небольшая пирушка или веселоевремяпрепровождение в компании.

4a) Main Entry: breather Label and definition: (informal) a short pause for rest or to relax.

4b) Main Entry: ПЕРЕДЫШКА Label and definition: Непродолжительный перерыв, чтобы отдышаться, перевести дух.

5a) Main Entry: chat • ter • box Label and definition: (informal) a person who talks a lot, especially a child.

5b) Main Entry: БАЛАБОЛКА Label and definition: (разг.). Человек, любящий заниматься пустойболтовней, пустомеля.

The analysis of the entries revealed that certain informal words in English have their counterparts in Russian language.

Ironic Headwords labelled ironic use language to convey meaning opposite to that which words seem to originally possess. However, this label is never applied to the first meanings of the headwords, therefore, the entries with this label will not be compared. Few examples were given to illustrate the use of this label.

Main Entry: Sher • lock Label and definition: (informal, sometimes ironic) a person who tries to find an explanation for a crime or sth mysterious or who shows that they understand sth quickly, especially sth that is not obvious.

Main Entry: friend Definition: (ironic) used to talk about sb you do not know who has done sth silly or annoying.

Main Entry: mat • ter Example: ( ironic ) And then there's the little matter of the fifty pounds you owe me.

Literary Headwords labelled by this register are usually found in works of literature and imaginative writing. In Ozhegov’s dictionary these are often words of foreign origin which on numerous occasions have stylistically neutral synonyms in Russian language.

1a) Main Entry: au • gury Label and definition: (literary) a sign of what will happen in the future 1b) Main Entry: ПРЕДЗНАМЕНОВАНИЕ Label and definition: (книжн.). Явление, предвещающее что-н.Счастливое.

2a) Main Entry: bard Label and definition: (literary) a person who writes poems. 2b) Main Entry: БАРД Label and definition: У древних кельтов: певец-поэт.

3a) Main Entry: co • quette Label and definition: (literary, often disapproving) a woman who behaves in a way that is intended to attract men. 3b) Main Entry: КОКЕТКА Label and definition: Женщина (редко также о мужчине), стремящаясязаинтересовать собой, понравиться своим поведением, нарядом.

4a) Main Entry: dell

Label and definition: (literary) a small valley with trees growing in or around it. 4b) Main Entry: ЛОЩИНА Label and definition: Долина с пологими склонами.

5a) Main Entry: grove Label and definition: (literary) a small group of trees.

5b) Main Entry: РОЩА Label and definition: Небольшой, чаще лиственный лес.

Literary register rarely coincided in the entries from both dictionaries. Interestingly, it was never attributed to geographical terms in Ozhegov’s dictionary.

Offensive, slang, taboo All of these registers were excluded from the Ozhegov’s dictionary; therefore, it was impossible to compare entries. The examples illustrating the registers are provided below:

Main Entry: baldy Label and definition: (informal, offensive) a person who has no hair or almost no hair on their head.

Main Entry: acid Label and definition: (slang) = LSD

Main Entry: coon Label and definition: (taboo , slang) a very offensive word for a black person.

Old Fashioned, Old Use The old fashioned label refers to words which are not often used in contemporary language. Whereas the old use label refers to archaic words. Main Entry: aero • drome Label and definition: (old-fashioned) a small airport. Main Entry: АЭРОДРОМ Label and definition: Комплекс сооружений и технических средств,предназначенный для взлета, посадки, стоянки и обслуживания самолетов,вертолетов и планеров.

Main Entry: avi • ator Label and definition: (old-fashioned) a person who flies an aircraft. Main Entry: АВИАТОР Label and definition: Специалист по управлению, вождению и обслуживанию летательных аппаратов.

Main Entry: bou • doir Label and definition: (old-fashioned) a woman's small private room or bedroom. Main Entry: БУДУАР Label and definition: Гостиная хозяйки в богатом доме для неофициальныхприемов, а также обстановка такой гостиной.

Main Entry: bed • cham • ber Label and definition: (old use) a bedroom.

Main Entry: ОПОЧИВАЛЬНЯ Label and definition: (устар.). То же, что спальня (в 1знач.).

Main Entry: toc • sin Label and definition: (old use) a warning bell or signal.

Main Entry: НАБАТ Label and definition: Удары в колокол как сигнал к сбору людей в случае пожара, тревоги.

It seems from the comparison of entries that old use label sometimes coincides in both dictionaries. The old fashioned label, on the other hand did not happen to coincide in the given examples. This may be partially explained by the fact that OALD is a more recent dictionary and the time that divides both works, under the weight of certain circumstances, is enough for some words to be rendered obsolete, or at least to become old fashioned. According to Durkin, etymology is the investigation of word histories. It has traditionally been concerned most especially with those word histories in which the facts are not certain, and where a hypothesis has to be constructed to account either for a words origin or for a stage in its history (Durkin, 2009:1). Presence of etymological information in a dictionary

entry is also a linguistic characteristic. The electronic version of OALD provides neatly arranged etymological information accessible via the word history button directly beneath the headword.

Main Entry: biol • ogy Word Origin: early 19th cent.: coined in German, via French from Greek bios ‘life’ + -logy.

Main Entry: acu • punc • ture Word Origin: late 17th cent.: from Latin acu ‘with a needle’ + puncture.

Main Entry: clois • ter Word Origin: Middle English (in the sense ‘place of religious seclusion’): from Old French cloistre, from Latin claustrum, clostrum ‘lock, enclosed place’, from claudere, ‘to close’.

Main Entry: dia • betes Word Origin: mid 16th cent.: via Latin from Greek, literally siphon, from diabainein ‘go through’.

Main Entry: hell Word Origin: Old English hel, hell, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch hel and German Hölle, from an Indo-European root meaning ‘to cover or hide’. Ozhegov‘s dictionary provided no information whatsoever, therefore, no comparison can be made.

4.2 Juxtaposition of Semiotic Characteristics of Dictionaries 4.2.1 Patterns of Lexicographic Definitions

Tekorienė and Maskaliūnienė claimed that words in the dictionaries could be described according to six patterns of defining: 1. By means of descriptive definitions or paraphrases. 2. By full sentence definitions built on the typical syntactical pattern of the word defined, which is a characteristic feature of COBUILD dictionaries. 3. With the help of synonymous words. 4. By describing the thing which the word designated, i.e. by encyclopaedic description. 5. By means of cross-references. 59

6. Sometimes two kinds of definitions may be used in conjunction (Tekorienė, Maskaliūnienė, 2004). In order to narrow down the scope of research and to make comparison of the entries less problematic, only the patterns that are used to define the first meaning of the word will be discussed in the study.

Descriptive definitions and paraphrases Descriptive definitions aim at explaining entries by means of description or by paraphrasing them. The analysis of English and Russian entries revealed that this pattern of defining was used more frequently than the other ones. Moreover, this pattern often coincided in English and Russian entries, consider the following examples:

Main Entry: coop • er Definition: a person who makes barrels Main Entry: БОНДАРЬ Definition: Мастер, изготовляющий из деревянныхпланок крупную посуду (бочки, кадки, лоханки).

Main Entry: dec • ath • lon Definition: a sporting event in which people compete in ten different sports. Main Entry: ДЕСЯТИБОРЬЕ Definition: Спортивное состязание по десяти видам легкойатлетики.

Main Entry: fi • an • cée Definition: the woman that a man is engaged to. Main Entry: НЕВЕСТА Definition: Девушка или женщина, вступающая в брак, а также (разг.)девушка, достигшая брачного возраста.

Main Entry: lag • gard Definition: a slow and lazy person, organization, etc. Main Entry: УВАЛЕНЬ Definition: Неуклюжий и неповоротливый человек.

Main Entry: maj • esty

Definition: the impressive and attractive quality that sth has. Main Entry: ВЕЛИЧИЕ Definition: Наличие в ком-чем-н. выдающихся свойств,внушающих преклонение, уважение.

Main Entry: harm Definition: damage or injury that is caused by a person or an event. Main Entry: ВРЕД Definition: Ущерб, порча.

Main Entry: hear • er Definition: a person who hears sth or who is listening to sb. Main Entry: СЛУШАТЕЛЬ Definition: Тот, кто слушает кого-что-н.

Main Entry: hemi • sphere Definition: one half of the earth, especially the half above or below the equator. Main Entry: ПОЛУШАРИЕ Definition: Половина шара, а также предмет такой формы.

Main Entry: imam Definition: a religious man who leads the prayers in a mosque. Main Entry: ИМАМ Definition: Глава мусульманской общины.

Main Entry: just • ice Definition: the fair treatment of people. Main Entry: СПРАВЕДЛИВОСТЬ Definition: см. Справедливый.

Main Entry: lead • er Definition: a person who leads a group of people, especially the head of a country, an organization, etc. Main Entry: ЛИДЕР

Definition: Глава, руководитель политической партии,общественно-политической организации или вообще какой-н. группы людей;человек, пользующийся авторитетом и влиянием в каком-н. kоллективе.

Main Entry: mad • man Definition: a man who has a serious mental illness. Main Entry: СУМАСШЕДШИЙ Definition: Страдающий психическим расстройством.

Main Entry: maid • en Definition: a young girl or woman who is not married. Main Entry: ДЕВА Definition: (устар.). То же, что девушка (в 1 знач.).

Main Entry: man • kind Definition: all humans, thought about as one large group; the human race. Main Entry: ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСТВО Definition: Люди, человеческий род.

Main Entry: meadow Definition: a field covered in grass, used especially for hay. Main Entry: ЛУГ Definition: Участок, покрытый травянистойрастительностью.

Main Entry: naiad Definition: a water spirit. Main Entry: НАЯДА Definition: В древнегреческой мифологии: нимфа рек, ручьев и озер.

Most of the instances discussed above relied on the descriptive pattern of defining in both dictionaries. In some instances the OALD gave more precise definitions in other cases Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary described the word more accurately. The fact that most of the entries coincided in pattern of defining used, allowed one to assume that descriptive pattern of defining is the one that is used to describe entries more frequently than any other

ones. This assumption is to be investigated in the further chapters of the work which focus on quantitative analysis of the patterns of defining used in the entries.

Synonymic definitions It is a well-known fact that synonyms are words that have similar meaning. As noted by Crystal, even though the meaning is similar, it always holds certain differences (Crystal, 2007). From a lexicographic point of view, synonyms offer a convenient way of defining words. The following entries were considered in search of similarities and differences in terms of this pattern of defining: Main Entry: bag • gage Definition: luggage Main Entry: БАГАЖ Definition: Вещи, груз пассажиров, упакованные для отправки,перевозки.

Main Entry: jani • tor Definition: = custodian Main Entry: СТОРОЖ Definition: Работник, к-рый сторожит, охраняет что-н.

Main Entry: memo • ran • dum Definition: memo Main Entry: МЕМОРАНДУМ Definition: Вручаемый представителю другой страныдипломатический документ с изложением взглядов правительства на какой-н.вопрос.

Main Entry: red • skin Definition: = Red Indian Main Entry: КРАСНОКОЖИЙ Definition: С темно-желтой, красноватой окраской кожи (об американских индейцах).

Main Entry: bal • sam Definition: = balm Main Entry: БАЛЬЗАМ

Definition: Содержащееся в коре нек-рых деревьев (реже -- влистьях и древесине) густое ароматическое вещество, содержащее эфирные маслаи растворенные в них смолы.

Main Entry: bed • cham • ber Definition: a bedroom Main Entry: ОПОЧИВАЛЬНЯ Definition: То же, что спальня (в 1знач.).

Main Entry: cab Definition: a taxi. Main Entry: ТАКСИ Definition: Автомобиль с оплатой по таксе (по счетчику).

Main Entry: deity Definition: a god or goddess. Main Entry: БОЖЕСТВО Definition: То же, что бог.

Main Entry: en • ter • prise Definition: a company or business; Main Entry: ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕ Definition: Производственное или хозяйственное учреждение:завод, фабрика, мастерская.

Main Entry: oc • cu • pa • tion Definition: a job or profession Main Entry: ПРОФЕССИЯ Definition: Основной род занятий, трудовой деятельности.

Main Entry: school • room Definition: a classroom; Main Entry: КЛАСС Definition: Большая группа людей с определенным положением висторически сложившейся системе общественного производства и с определеннойролью в

общественной организации труда, объединенная одинаковым, обычнозаконодательно закрепленным, отношением к средствам производства, краспределению общественного богатства и общностью интересов.

Main Entry: tav • ern Definition: a pub or an inn; Main Entry: ТАВЕРНА Definition: В нек-рых странах на Западе: небольшой трактир,кабачок.

Main Entry: tem • blor Definition: an earthquake; Main Entry: ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЕ Definition: Подземные толчки и колебание отдельных участковземной поверхности.

Main Entry: um • bil • icus Definition: the navel; Main Entry: ПУПОК Definition: Впадина (у младенцев - выпуклость) на серединеживота, оставшаяся после отпадения пуповины.

The words selected for the corpus rarely coincided in this definition, chiefly because the use of this pattern only is rather rare among the examples from the corpus; it appeared to be used more often in conjunctions with other patterns of defining. Moreover, some of the synonyms provided by the OALD are actually geographical variants, phenomenon which is rare in the Russian language.

Full-sentence definitions The very name of this pattern of defining suggests that the definition will be presented as a full sentence. In this kind of definitions entries are explained by using a headword in the sentence, thus disclosing its meaning and usage. This pattern of defining is very frequent in COBUILD dictionaries, but was not used in the OALD as a single mean of defining. It was rarely used in conjunction with other patterns of defining.

Encyclopaedic definition

Encyclopaedic definitions are usually broader, and seek to define appearance and composition of the headword. Therefore, they focus on the physical characteristics of the entity or the object they define rather than its meaning. Consider the following examples of encyclopaedic definitions:

Main Entry: wolf Definition: a large wild animal of the dog family, that lives and hunts in groups. Main Entry: ВОЛК Definition: Хищное животное сем. псовых.

Main Entry: re • volver Definition: a small gun that has a container for bullets that turns around so that shots can be fired quickly without having to stop to put more bullets in. Main Entry: РЕВОЛЬВЕР Definition: Многозарядное ручное огнестрельное оружие с магазиномв виде вращающегося барабана.

Main Entry: yacht Definition: a large sailing boat, often also with an engine and a place to sleep on board, used for pleasure trips and racing. Main Entry: ЯХТА Definition: Большая и легкая спортивная парусная лодка.

Main Entry: whale Definition: a very large animal that lives in the sea and looks like a very large fish. There are several types of whale , some of which are hunted. Main Entry: КИТ Definition: Крупное морское млекопитающее с рыбообразным телом.

Main Entry: axe Definition: a tool with a wooden handle and a heavy metal blade, used for chopping wood, cutting down trees, etc. Main Entry: ТОПОР Definition: Насаженное на рукоятку металлическое орудие для рубки слезвием и обухом.

Main Entry: bal • cony Definition: a platform that is built on the upstairs outside wall of a building, with a wall or rail around it. Main Entry: БАЛКОН Definition: Выступающая из стены здания площадка с перилами, решеткой.

Main Entry: be • go • nia Definition: a plant with large shiny flowers that may be pink, red, yellow or white, grown indoors or in a garden. Main Entry: БЕГОНИЯ Definition: Декоративное растение с красивыми пестрыми листьямиразной формы, с мелкими цветками.

Main Entry: bell Definition: a hollow metal object, often shaped like a cup, that makes a ringing sound when hit by a small piece of metal inside it; the sound that it makes. Main Entry: КОЛОКОЛ Definition: Отлитый из медного сплава полый конус сязыком1 (в 3 знач.), издающий громкий звон.

Main Entry: blade Definition: the flat part of a knife, tool or machine, which has a sharp edge or edges for cutting. Main Entry: ЛЕЗВИЕ Definition: Острый край режущего, рубящего орудия.

Main Entry: can • ary Definition: a small yellow bird with a beautiful song, often kept in a cage as a pet. Main Entry: КАНАРЕЙКА Definition: Маленькая южная птичка сем. вьюрковых с ярким, обычножелтым оперением.

Main Entry: jade

Definition: a hard stone that is usually green and is used in making jewellery and decorative objects. Main Entry: НЕФРИТ Definition: Полупрозрачный минерал зеленого, серовато-белого илибелого цвета, поделочный камень.

Main Entry: ob • el • isk Definition: a tall pointed stone column with four sides, put up in memory of a person or an event. Main Entry: ОБЕЛИСК Definition: Памятник, сооружение в виде граненого, сужающегосякверху столба.

The encyclopaedic definitions usually coincided in both dictionaries, chiefly due to the fact that they are used to define entities that require encyclopaedic approach in order to be disclosed. Such entries may include technical terms, names of different representatives of flora and fauna, etc. The purpose of the OALD is to serve the needs of learners, who often have limited knowledge of language and seek simplicity rather than complicated and sophisticated encyclopaedic information. This is partially why the encyclopaedic definitions provided by the OALD were somewhat shorter and written in a less complicated language than in, for instance, Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Ozhegov’s online dictionary is meant for native speakers, however, it does not take advantage of encyclopaedic definitions to a greater extent than the OALD, probably because such definitions take up a lot of space, which is a problem for a dictionary that aims at covering as much of language as possible in a single volume.

Cross-referencing This pattern of defining relies on providing a reference to another word, meaning of which discloses or contributes to understanding of the headword. The OALD has got a very convenient way of cross-referencing, which employs hyperlinks moving the users straight to the definition of a reference word. This peculiar feature of the electronic version of the dictionary turns every highlighted word related to the headword into a cross-reference, and if pressed it automatically leads the user to the entry explaining the highlighted word. By learning the meaning of the reference word, the user learns or improves the knowledge of the meaning of the word that he/she initially looked for. Cross-referencing is much more often used to provide additional information on the entry term or to show how the meaning

contrasts with other related words rather than defining the term itself. If the cross-reference in the OALD is preceded by the words see also it will hyperlink the user to the words with a meaning that is similar to that of the entry term. Whereas entry terms preceded by the word compare hyperlink to the meaning that to a greater or lesser extent contrasts the meaning of a headword. This pattern was much more common in OALD than in Ozhegov’s dictionary, however, it was always used in conjunction with other patterns, therefore it will be also discussed in the part of the study which focuses on mixed definitions. The following are the examples of cross referencing (other patterns of defining were excluded from the instances) : Main Entry: de • odor • ant Cross-reference: see also antiperspirant; Main Entry: ДЕЗОДОРАНТ Cross-reference: no cross-reference.

Main Entry: bap • tism Cross-reference: compare christening. Main Entry: КРЕЩЕНИЕ Cross-reference: см. крестить, -ся.

Main Entry: head • mas • ter Cross-reference: see also head teacher; Main Entry: ДИРЕКТОР Cross-reference: no cross-reference

Main Entry: eagle Cross-reference: see also bald eagle, golden eagle; Main Entry: ОРЕЛ Cross-reference: no cross-reference

Main Entry: hair • pin Cross-reference: compare hairgrip; Main Entry: ШПИЛЬКА Cross-reference: no cross-reference.

Two kinds of definitions used in conjunction

The very title of this pattern of defining suggests usage of a combination of two different patterns to describe the entry term. The name of this pattern seems to be somewhat outdated as modern technologies enabled usage of more than two kinds of definitions to define the entry term, consider the following example:

Main Entry: dis • ciple Definition: a person who believes in and follows the teachings of a religious or political leader; Follower.

The example given above unites three patterns of defining. First of all, a descriptive definition is provided; secondly, a synonym is given; finally, the synonym appears to be a cross-reference that is linked to the definition of the word follower. The most common combinations of the patterns of defining used in the OALD are the fusion of descriptive and synonymic definitions and the conjunction of descriptive definition with a cross reference, they are discussed below.

Descriptive definition +synonymic definition Main Entry: gift Definition: a thing that you give to sb, especially on a special occasion or to say thank you; Present. Main Entry: ПОДАРОК Definition: Вещь, к-рую дарят, подарили.

Main Entry: ig • no • miny Definition: public shame and loss of honour. Disgrace. Main Entry: ПОЗОР Definition: Бесчестье, постыдное, унизительное положение.

Main Entry: mace Definition: a decorative stick, carried as a sign of authority by an official such as a mayor. Compare sceptre. Main Entry: ЖЕЗЛ Definition: Трость, короткая пажа, обычно украшенная, служащаясимволом власти, почетного положения.

Main Entry: men • tal • ity Definition: the particular attitude or way of thinking of a person or group. Mindset. Main Entry: МЕНТАЛИТЕТ Definition: Мировосприятие, умонастроение.

Main Entry: obs • tacle Definition: a situation, an event, etc. that makes it difficult for you to do or achieve sth; Hindrance. Main Entry: ПРЕПЯТСТВИЕ Definition: Помеха, задерживающая какие-н. действия илиразвитие чего-н., стоящая на пути осуществления чего-н.

Main Entry: au • gury Definition: a sign of what will happen in the future; omen. Main Entry: ПРЕДЗНАМЕНОВАНИЕ Definition: Явление, предвещающее что-н.Счастливое.

Main Entry: back • bone Definition: the row of small bones that are connected together down the middle of the back; spine. Main Entry: ПОЗВОНОЧНИК Definition: У человека и позвоночных животных: скелетная ось,образуемая цепью костей (или хрящей), идущих вдоль спины и заключающих всебе (в позвоночном канале) спинной мозг.

Main Entry: cha • rade Definition: a situation in which people pretend that sth is true when it clearly is not; pretence. Main Entry: ШАРАДА Definition: Загадка, в к-рой загаданное слово делится на несколькочастей - отдельных слов; такая загадка, представляемая в живых сценках.

Main Entry: co • quette Definition: a woman who behaves in a way that is intended to attract men; flirt. Main Entry: КОКЕТКА

Definition: Женщина (редко также о мужчине), стремящаясязаинтересовать собой, понравиться своим поведением, нарядом.

Main Entry: di • lemma Definition: a situation which makes problems, often one in which you have to make a very difficult choice between things of equal importance; predicament. Main Entry: ДИЛЕММА Definition: Сочетание суждений, умозаключений с двумяпротивоположными положениями, исключающими возможность третьего (спец.).

Descriptive definition + cross referencing Main Entry: abode Definition: the place where sb lives; see also abide. Main Entry: МЕСТОЖИТЕЛЬСТВО Definition: Место постоянного проживания.

Main Entry: bene • fit Definition: an advantage that sth gives you; a helpful and useful effect that sth has; see also cost-benefit, fringe benefit. Main Entry: ПОЛЬЗА Definition: Хорошие, положительные последствия, благо; выгода.

Main Entry: bi • ath • lon Definition: a sporting event that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting; compare decathlon , heptathlon , pentathlon , tetrathlon , triathlon. Main Entry: БИАТЛОН Definition: Вид зимнего двоеборья, включающий лыжную гонку истрельбу из винтовки.

Main Entry: biol • ogy Definition: the scientific study of the life and structure of plants and animals; compare botany, zoology. Main Entry: БИОЛОТИЯ Definition: Совокупность наук о живой природе, о закономерностяхорганической жизни.

Main Entry: breather Definition: a short pause for rest or to relax; see also heavy breather. Main Entry: ПЕРЕДЫШКА Definition: Непродолжительный перерыв, чтобы отдышаться, перевести дух.

Main Entry: com • mis • sion • aire Definition: a person in uniform whose job is to stand at the entrance to a hotel, etc. and open the door for visitors, find them taxis, etc.; see also doorman Main Entry: ШВЕЙЦАР Definition: Сторож при подъезде (в учреждении, гостинице,ресторане, богатом доме).

Main Entry: con • veni • ence Definition: the quality of being useful, easy or suitable for sb; compare inconvenience. Main Entry: УДОБСТВО Definition: ср. 1. ей. удобный.

Main Entry: cross • roads Definition: a place where two roads meet and cross each other; see also intersection, junction. Main Entry: РАСПУТЬЕ Definition: ср. Перекресток двух или нескольких дорог.

Main Entry: diary Definition: a book with spaces for each day of the year in which you can write down things you have to do in the future; see also journal, video diary. Main Entry: ДНЕВНИК Definition: Записи о каждодневных делах, текущих событиях, ведущиеся изо дня в день.

Main Entry: elec • tron Definition: a very small piece of matter (= a substance) with a negative electric charge, found in all atoms; see also neutron, proton. Main Entry: ЭЛЕКТРОН Definition: Элементарная частица с наименьшимотрицательным электрическим зарядом.

The analysis of the entries revealed that the descriptive and synonymic patterns in conjunction were used to define headwords in both dictionaries. The OALD employed this pattern of defining to describe all kinds of words, whereas Ozhegov’s dictionary used this pattern of defining mostly for abstract nouns meaning of which was difficult to disclose using a single pattern of defining. Descriptive pattern of defining along with a cross reference was often used in the OALD, however, there were no instances of this pattern among the examples from Ozhegov’s dictionary. Yet another pattern of defining consisting of two patterns of defining was the pattern encyclopaedic definition + a full sentence definition. The full sentence definition was never used on its own in the entries from the corpus.

Encyclopaedic definition + a full sentence definition Main Entry: bee Definition: a black and yellow flying insect that can sting. Bees live in large groups and make honey (= a sweet sticky substance that is good to eat). Main Entry: ПЧЕЛА Definition: Жалящее летающееперепончатокрылое общественное насекомое, перерабатывающее нектар (во 2знач.) в мед.

Main Entry: cas • ta • nets Definition: a musical instrument that consists of two small round pieces of wood that you hold in the hand and hit together with the fingers to make a noise. Castanets are used especially by Spanish dancers. Main Entry: КАСТАНЬЕТЫ Definition: Ударный музыкальный инструмент -надеваемые на пальцы и скрепленные попарно деревянные пластинки, к-рымипроизводят резкие щелкающие звуки.

Main Entry: cat • fish Definition: a large fish with long stiff hairs, like a cat's whiskers, around its mouth. There are several types of catfish, most of which are freshwater fish. Main Entry: СОМ Definition: Крупная пресноводная бесчешуйчатая хищная рыба.

Quantitative analysis of patterns of defining

The patterns of defining used to disclose the meanings of the headwords were analysed and the quantitative analysis of frequency of patterns of defining used in the dictionaries was carried out. In order to make the work less confusing, only the patterns describing the first meanings of headwords were taken into consideration. The results are presented below.

OALD 300 280290 250 Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary 200

150

100 80 84 58 50 25 30 16 13 0 0 Descriptive Encyclopaedic Synonymic Two kinds of Cross-references definitions used in conjunction Figure 1. Frequency of patterns of defining used in OALD and Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary.

The figure demonstrates the frequency of use of different patterns of defining in the OALD and the Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary. The most frequently used pattern is descriptive – 280, 290 uses accordingly. Encyclopaedic definitions were used in Ozhegov’s dictionary more often than in OALD. Both dictionaries rarely used synonymic definitions, perhaps due to the fact that synonymic definition alone can pose problems if the reader does not understand the meaning of the synonym as well. The combination of two kinds of patterns of defining was used quite often in the OALD; however, it was rarely used in Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary. This fact can be explained by the space saving policy adopted by the Russian dictionary. The OALD, on the other hand, used it more often as it is a very exhaustive mean of conveying the meaning of the headword. The extent to which the dictionaries employed different patterns of defining is presented on percentile scale below.

100% 90% 80% 70% 64%66% OALD 60% 50% 40% Ozhegov's 30% 18% Explanatory 13% 19% 20% Dictionary 10% 4% 3% 6% 7% 0% 0% Descriptive Encyclopaedic Synonymic Two kinds of Cross- definitions references used in conjunction

Figure 2. The percental share of different patterns of defining employed by the OALD and Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary.

4.2.2 Typographic Techniques and Graphical Illustrations Used in the Dictionaries

Abbreviations Abbreviations play a major role in printed versions of both dictionaries. Use of contractions provides obvious merits when it comes to paper dictionaries, as it would be difficult to imagine a volume of a dictionary which was compiled without turning to contractions. Economy of space is especially topical for Ozhegov’s Explanatory dictionary, which consists of a single volume. The OALD, however, also used the abbreviations on numerous occasions. Interestingly, the electronic format of the OALD rendered some abbreviations unnecessary. The following entry on the abbreviation e.g. can be found in the paper version of the dictionary:

Main Entry: e.g. / ˌiː ˈdʒiː / abbr.

Ironically, the very term abbreviation is contracted in the paper version of the dictionary, the electronic version, on the other hand, did not need such contractions a there were not many limitations in terms of space used up by the entries. Consider:

Main Entry: e.g. BrE / ˌiː ˈdʒiː / NAmE / ˌiː ˈdʒiː / abbreviation

Ozhegov’s dictionary did not contract the word abbreviation (Rus:сокращение) as it would be difficult to understand such term. Consider the example:

Main Entry: РАЙКОМ Definition: Сокращение: районный комитет.

The paper version of the OALD also used abbreviations of parts of speech, especially of those that consisted of two or more syllables. Furthermore, names of the verb forms, information on transitivity and intransitivity of the verbs, information on inflected forms and countability of nouns was also abbreviated, as well as such pronouns as somebody and something. The electronic version tended to use the full forms rather that contractions, which were only used for shortening the geographical variant of pronunciation and pronouns somebody and something.

Main Entry: zeal Pronunciation: BrE / ziːl / NAmE / ziːl /

The online version of Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary, similarly to its paper version, seemed to have employed the abbreviations to a much greater extent. It used astonishing 98 abbreviations covering different parts of speech, categorical information, etc.

Main Entry: ЛОТЕРЕЯ Definition: ЛОТЕРЕЯ, -и, ж. 1. Розыгрыш вещей, денежных сумм по билетам. Беспроигрышная л. Денежно-вещевая л. 2. первн. О деле, в к-ром можно рассчитывать на успех только как на случайность. II прил. лотерейный, -ая,-ое (к 1 знач.). Л. билет.

The online version of the Ozhegov’s explanatory dictionary hardly uses any symbols at all. The only case where we can speak of the usage of symbols as such is the use of hyphen (-) instead of the root of the word.

Main Entry: ЯРОСТЬ Definition: ЯРОСТЬ, -и.

The OALD uses eleven symbols in its printed edition; however, some of them are not to be found in the electronic version of the dictionary. Those symbols that can be found in the dictionary cannot be copied along with the entry, therefore, no examples of the usage of symbols can be included. Except for the tilde (~), which is used to replace the headword in the examples. Consider:

Main Entry: rea • son Examples: ~ (why…) I'd like to know the reason why you're so late. Give me one good reason why I should help you. ~ (that…) We aren't going for the simple reason that we can't afford it. ~ (for sth) She gave no reasons for her decision. ~ (for doing sth) I have no particular reason for doubting him. Other typographical techniques are also distinguished as semiotic characteristics of dictionaries. There are few typographic techniques used in the online version of Ozhegov’s Explanatory dictionary. First of all, the font used in the entries is size 9 Verdana. The headword is typed in bold font, whereas the main part of the entry is completed using normal font style. Information that needs to be highlighted is presented in the Italics. The definitions are presented in a linear manner.

Main Entry: ПРУД Definition: ПРУД, -а и -а, в (на) пруду, мн. -ы, -6в, м. Водоем в естественном иливыкопанном углублении, а также запруженное место в реке. П. зарос ряской.Разведение рыбы в прудах. II прил. прудовой, -ая, -ое. Прудовое рыбоводство.

Entries obtained from the OALD are much more sophisticated in terms of typographic techniques used in them. The headword is typed in font style Verdana, size 13.5. It is presented in bold and is coloured blue or red, depending on whether it is or not included in the list of keywords. Additional information banks such as word origin, culture, thesaurus,

collocations and example bank are presented as buttons, each coloured differently. Examples are presented in italics. Geographical variants, categorial information and parts of speech are highlighted in green colour. Cross-references are presented in red colour. The entry itself is organised in a column.

Main Entry: pharma • cist BrE / ˈfɑːməsɪst / NAmE / ˈfɑːrməsɪst / noun 1 ( NAmE also drug • gist ) a person whose job is to prepare medicines and sell or give them to the public in a shop/store or in a hospital We had to wait for the pharmacist to make up her prescription. compare chemist 2 pharma • cist's ( pl. pharma • cists ) ( BrE ) a shop that sells medicines They sell vitamin supplements at the pharmacist's. compare chemist see also pharmacy

A great number of typographical techniques employed in the OALD can be explained in at least two ways. First of all, the ever present technological progress made it possible for the lexicographers to enrich the dictionary in such a way that would be hardly applicable in the printed dictionaries. Due to these improvements the dictionary became not only more interactive but also more user-friendly. Also, the long years of study in the fields of ESL and EFL enabled scholars to identify the areas of dictionaries that needed updating in order to catch up with dynamically developing needs of contemporary students. The online version of Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary did not possess any kinds of graphical illustrations. The electronic version of OALD possessed hundreds of those. Moreover, illustrations used in OALD not only defined the entry term, but provided a bank of words affiliated with the entry term. If the picture is available for the entry it is accessible via pressing its smaller version in the upper right hand corner or by pressing a link titled see picture.

Main Entry: aero • plane Definition: a flying vehicle with wings and one or more engines See picture

figure 3 Illustration provided for the headword aeroplane

If pressed, some illustrations opened up to reveal numerous other graphical elements appropriate and helpful when it came to defining the entry term.

Main Entry: sport Definition: activity that you do for pleasure and that needs physical effort or skill, usually done in a special area and according to fixed rules

figure 4 Illustration provided for the headword sport The graphical illustration given above not only not only presents different kinds of sport, but also introduces certain pieces of equipment, names of the sportsmen and officials. Thus, it creates a number of entries within a single entry.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis of the scientific literature and the results of the research allow the following conclusions to be drawn: 1. The phonetic information was presented in the OALD in an exhaustive manner, whereas the Ozhegov’s dictionary provided phonetic information only when pronunciation deviated from the patterns established in the Russian language. 2. The OALD provided different geographical variants of spelling where available as well as peculiarities concerning the deviations in inflected forms, whereas the Ozhegov’s dictionary focused mainly on the endings of the nouns when declined in different cases. 3. The OALD used databanks making etymological information, cultural references, thesaurus, usage notes and additional example banks available. The Ozhegov’s dictionary provided neither of those. 4. Due to the restrictions applied by Ozhegov’s dictionary, certain stylistic labels such as offensive language, slang, taboo language were excluded from it. Interestingly, headwords would often coincide in style in both dictionaries. In some cases stylistic labels of the English headwords were realised differently in Russian headwords. Stylistic labels provided in the dictionaries were only given a brief look at and demand further investigation if the patterns of their use in both languages are to be established. 5. Both dictionaries heavily relied on descriptive pattern of defining (OALD - 64 %; Ozhegov’s Dictionary - 66%). Also, both dictionaries used the similar amount of synonymic definitions. 6. The intended audience of the OALD limits it in terms of use of encyclopaedic definitions (13%), which is somewhat more complicated than descriptive pattern of defining. The Ozhegov’s dictionary, on the other hand, uses more encyclopaedic definitions (18%). 7. Cross-referencing was never used as a single mean of defining in the OALD, probably because of the fact thet its users are interested in getting an explanation of the word’s meaning rather than a reference to another word, which might be unknown. Cross-references were rarely used in Ozhegov’s dictionary (7%). 8. Moreover, a combination of two patterns of defining was used in OALD three times more often than in the Russian dictionary, due to the space saving policy employed by

the latter. The most casual combinations of patterns were descriptive definition + cross-reference and descriptive definition + synonymic definition. 9. Electronic version of Ozhegov’s dictionary uses a great many of abbreviations which are used to provide categorial information as well as contract names of the parts of speech, etc. The abbreviations are useful as the dictionary aims at saving space (as it is an exact copy of the paper volume). The OALD, on the other hand, uses only few abbreviations compared to its paper counterpart as it has nearly no limitations in space the entries occupy. 10. . The OALD uses sophisticated and engaging typographic techniques, designed to help fulfil the needs of the intended user. Hardly any typographic techniques are used in Ozhegov’s dictionary. 11. The OALD provided hundreds of graphical illustrations. The pictures given in the dictionary represented a paradigm which upon a closer inspection not only contributed to disclosing the meaning of the headword, but also provided a list of entries related to the headword.

SANTRAUKA LINGVISTINĖS IR SEMIOTINĖS ŽODYNŲ CHARAKTERISTIKOS: PALYGINAMASIS TYRIMAS

Šio baigiamojo darbo tikslas - palyginti anglų ir rusų žodynų lingvistinius bei semiotinius bruožus. Tyrimui buvo pasirinktas Oxford Advanced Learner‘s žodynas ir Ožegovo aiškynamasis žodynas. Darbo tikslui pasiekti buvo iškelti šie uždaviniai: 1) apžvelgti teorinę medžiagą, susijusią su anglų ir rusų leksikografijos mokyklomis; 2) ištirti ir palyginti lingvistinius žodynų bruožus; 3) ištirti ir palyginti semiotinius žodynų bruožus. Atliekant tyrimą buvo naudojami kokybinis ir kiekybinis tyrimo metodai bei lyginamoji analizė. Tyrimo metu buvo išanalizuoti 438 angliški daiktavardžiai bei jų rusiški atitikmenys. Gauti rezultatai parodė, jog informacija, pateikta apie žodžius abiejuose žodynuose turėjo tiek panašumų, tiek ir skirtumų. Angliškame žodyne fonetinė informacija buco aprašyta žymiai išsamiau, tą patį galima pasakyti ir apie kitus lingvistinius bruožus. Angliškas žodynas pateikė informaciją apie žodžiu etimologiją, tačiau Ožegovo žodynas tokios informacijos neteikė. Išanalizavus žodžių apibrėžimus remiantis D. Tekorienes ir N. Maskaliūnienės (2004 m.) išskirtais reikšmių aiškinimo tipais, pastebėta, jog abiejuose žodynuose dominuoja aprašomasis (deskriptyvinis) būdas, sudaręs didžiąją dalį definicijų tiek anglų, tiek rusų kalbos žodyne. Antrasis pagal dažnumą apibrėžimų tipas angliškame žodyne buvo dviejų definicijos tipų junginys, tuo tarpu rusiškame žodyne antroje vietoje liko enciklopedinis aprašymo būdas. Tyrimas taip pat atskleidė, jog angliškame žodyne nebuvo naudojama kryžminių nuorodų, kurios buvo naudojamos rusiškame žodyne. Abu žodynai atsisakė taip vadinamų pilno sakinio apibrėžimų bei labai retai naudojo sinoniminius apibrėžimus. Skiriasi ir tipografiniai būdai, naudojami žodynuose, taip pat, angliškas žodynas naudojo daugybę grafinių iliustracijų, kurių nebuvo Ožegovo žodyne. Apibendrinant tyrimo rezultatus, darytina išvada, jog tiek lingvistiniai, tiek ir semiotiniai bruožai buvo labiau atskleisti angliškame nei rusiškame žodynuose.

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SOURCES 1. 8th Edition of Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (CD-ROM). 2. www.slovarozhegova.ru

APPENDICES1

A 1. abode BrE / əˈbəʊd / NAmE / əˈboʊd / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ usually singular ] ( formal or humorous ) the place where sb lives homeless people of no fixed abode (= with no permanent home) You are most welcome to my humble abode. see also abide v. , right of abode МЕСТОЖИТЕЛЬСТВО МЕСТОЖИТЕЛЬСТВО, -а, ср. (офиц.). Место постоянного проживания.Переменить м.

2. acad • emy BrE / əˈkædəmi / NAmE / əˈkædəmi / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. acad • emies ) 1 a school or college for special training the Royal Academy of Music a police/military academy 2 ( usually Academy ) a type of official organization which aims to encourage and develop art, literature, science, etc the Royal Academy of Arts 3 a secondary school in Scotland 4 a private school in the US 5 a secondary school in England which receives some of its money from a private business or person instead of from the government АКАДЕМИЯ АКАДЕМИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Высшее научное или художественное учреждение.Российская а. наук. А. художеств. А. медицинских наук. 2. Название нек-рыхвысших учебных заведений. Военно-медицинская а. II прил. академический,-ая,-ое.

3. ac • cord noun, verb BrE / əˈkɔːd / NAmE / əˈkɔːrd / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a formal agreement between two organizations, countries, etc The two sides signed a peace accord last July. in accord (with sth/sb) ( formal ) in agreement with This action would not be in accord with our policy. Botanists are not in complete accord about how many species exist. of your own acˈcord without being asked, forced or helped He came back of his own accord. The symptoms will clear up of their own accord. with ˌone acˈcord ( BrE , formal ) if people do sth with one accord , they do it at the same time, because they agree with each other СОГЛАШЕНИЕ СОГЛАШЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Взаимное согласие (во 2 знач.), договоренность.Прийти к соглашению. Тайное с. 2. Договор, устанавливающий какие-н. условия,взаимоотношения, права и обязанности сторон. Заключить с. Трудовое с.(договор между трудящимся и предприятием о выполнении работы и о ее оплате).

4. achieve • ment BrE / əˈtʃiːvmənt / NAmE / əˈtʃiːvmənt / noun THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a thing that sb has done successfully, especially using their own effort and skill the greatest scientific achievement of the decade It was a remarkable achievement for such a young player. They were proud of their children's achievements. 2 [ uncountable ] the act or process of achieving sth the need to raise standards of achievement in education Even a small success gives you a sense of achievement (= a feeling of pride) . ДОСТИЖЕНИЕ ДОСТИЖЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. достичь. 2. Положительный результат каких-н.усилий, успех. Достижения отечественной науки.

5. acro • bat • ics BrE / ˌækrəˈbætɪks / NAmE / ˌækrəˈbætɪks / 88

noun [ plural ] acrobatic acts and movements acrobatics on the high wire ( figurative ) vocal acrobatics (= performing skilfully with the voice when singing) АКРОБАТИКА АКРОБАТИКА, -и, ж. 1. Цирковая гимнастика. 2. Вид спорта. Спортивная а.(комплексы прыжковых, силовых, вольных и других упражнений). II прил.акробатический, -ая, -ое.

6. acu • punc • ture BrE / ˈækjupʌŋktʃə(r) / NAmE / ˈækjupʌŋktʃər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a Chinese method of treating pain and illness using special thin needles which are pushed into the skin in particular parts of the body ИГЛОТЕРАПИЯ ИГЛОТЕРАПИЯ, -и, ж. Лечение уколами специальных игл в определенные точки тела. II прил. иглотерапевтический, -ая, -ое.

7. ad • jec • tive BrE / ˈædʒɪktɪv / NAmE / ˈædʒɪktɪv / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( grammar ) a word that describes a person or thing, for example big , red and clever in a big house , red wine and a clever idea ‘Reliable’ is not an adjective that could be applied to my car. ad • jec • tival / BrE ˌædʒekˈtaɪvl ; NAmE ˌædʒekˈtaɪvl / adjective an adjectival phrase ad • jec • tival • ly / BrE ˌædʒekˈtaɪvəli ; NAmE ˌædʒekˈtaɪvəli / adverb In ‘bread knife’, the word ‘bread’ is used adjectivally. ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНОЕ, -ого, ср. или имя прилагательное. В грамматике: частьречи, обозначающая качество, свойство или принадлежность и выражающая этозначение в формах падежа, числа и (в ед. ч.) рода. Полные, краткиеприлагательные. Качественные, относительные прилагательные. Местоименныеприлагательные.

8. ad • or • ation BrE / ˌædəˈreɪʃn / NAmE / ˌædəˈreɪʃn / noun [ uncountable ] a feeling of great love or worship He gazed at her with pure adoration. The painting is called ‘Adoration of the Infant Christ’. ВОСХИЩЕНИЕ ВОСХИЩЕНИЕ, -я, ср. Высшее удовлетворение, восторг. Прийти в в. отчего-н. Выразить свое в.

9. ad • ver • tis • ing BrE / ˈædvətaɪzɪŋ / NAmE / ˈædvərtaɪzɪŋ / noun CULTURE EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] the activity and industry of advertising things to people on television, in newspapers, on the Internet, etc A good advertising campaign will increase our sales. Cigarette advertising has been banned. radio/TV advertising Val works for an advertising agency (= a company that designs advertisements) . a career in advertising РЕКЛАМА РЕКЛАМА, -ы, ж. I. Оповещение различными способами для создания широкой известности, привлечения потребителей, зрителей. Торговая Р. Театральная р.Сделать рекламу кому-н. (перен.: неумеренно расхвалить, разрекламировать).2. Объявление с таким оповещением. Световая р. II прил. рекламный, -ая, -ое.Р. характер статьи (перен.: рекламирующий ее содержание, хвалебный).

10. aero • plane BrE / ˈeərəpleɪn / NAmE / ˈerəpleɪn / ( BrE ) ( also air • plane especially in NAmE ) ( also plane BrE , NAmE ) noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a flying vehicle with wings and one or more engines See picture САМОЛEТ 89

САМОЛ EТ, -а, м. Летательный аппарат тяжелее воздуха с силовой установкой и крылом, создающим подъемную силу, аэроплан. Военный с.Гражданский с. Сверхзвуковой с. Реактивный с. Спортивный с. Лететь всамолете (на самолете, самолетом). * Ковер- самолет - в сказках: летающийковер, переносящий героев из одного места в другое. II прил. самолетный,-ая, -ое. С. спорт.

11. agate BrE / ˈæɡət / NAmE / ˈæɡət / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable , countable ] a hard stone with bands or areas of colour, used in jewellery АГАТ АГАТ, -а, м. Твердый слоистый минерал, разновидность халцедона, употр.для украшений, мелких изделий и в технике. II прил. агатовый, -ая, -ое.Агатовые глаза (перен.: черные и блестящие; контаминация с гагатовый).

12. agony BrE / ˈæɡəni / NAmE / ˈæɡəni / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. agonies ) [ uncountable , countable ] extreme physical or mental pain Jack collapsed in agony on the floor. It was agony not knowing where the children were. She waited in an agony of suspense. The worst agonies of the war were now beginning. Tell me now! Don't prolong the agony (= make it last longer) . It is inhuman to keep a man facing the agony of execution for so long. see pile on the agony/gloom at pile v. АГОНИЯ, -и, ж. Предсмертное состояние организма. II прил. агонический,-ая, -ое.

13. ad • mit • tance BrE / ədˈmɪtns / NAmE / ədˈmɪtns / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ( formal ) the right to enter or the act of entering a building, an institution, etc Hundreds of people were unable to gain admittance to the hall. He was refused admittance into the country. ДОПУСК ДОПУСК, -а, м. 1. Право входа или доступа куда-н. (офиц.). Иметь д. влабораторию. 2. Предельно допустимое отклонение от нормы, требуемогоразмера, формы при изготовлении чего-н., производстве каких-н. работ(спец.). II прил. допусковый, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.) и допускной, -ая, -ое (ко2 знач.).

14. aero • drome BrE / ˈeərədrəʊm / NAmE / ˈerədroʊm / ( BrE ) ( US air • drome ) noun ( old-fashioned ) a small airport АЭРОДРОМ АЭРОДРОМ, -а, м. Комплекс сооружений и технических средств,предназначенный для взлета, посадки, стоянки и обслуживания самолетов,вертолетов и планеров. II прил. аэродромный, -ая, oое.

15. air noun, verb BrE / eə(r) / NAmE / er / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK GAS 1 [ uncountable ] the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth and that we breathe air pollution Let's go out for some fresh air . I need to put some air in my tyres. currents of warm air whales coming up for air (= in order to breathe) The act lays down a minimum standard for air quality. SPACE 2 [ uncountable ] ( usually the air ) the space above the ground or that is around things I kicked the ball high in/into the air . Spicy smells wafted through the air . Music filled the night air. see also open air FOR PLANES 90

3 [ uncountable ] the space above the earth where planes fly It only takes three hours by air (= in a plane) . air travel/traffic The temple was clearly visible from the air. A surprise air attack (= from aircraft) was launched at night. IMPRESSION 4 [ singular ] the particular feeling or impression that is given by sb/sth; the way sb does sth The room had an air of luxury. She looked at him with a defiant air. There was an air of complete confidence about her. TUNE 5 [ countable ] ( old-fashioned ) ( often used in the title of a piece of music ) a tune Bach's Air on a G string BEHAVIOUR 6 airs [ plural ] ( disapproving ) a way of behaving that shows that sb thinks that they are more important, etc. than they really are I hate the way she puts on airs . ˌairs and ˈgraces ( BrE , disapproving ) a way of behaving that shows that sb thinks that they are more important, etc. than they really are airs Even when he became a star he didn't have any airs and graces. float/walk on ˈair to feel very happy Most couples feel they are walking on air on their wedding day. in the ˈair felt by a number of people to exist or to be happening There's romance in the air. ˌon/ˌoff (the) ˈair broadcasting or not broadcasting on television or radio We will be back on air tomorrow morning at 7. The programme was taken off the air over the summer. up in the ˈair not yet decided Our travel plans are still up in the air. more at a breath of (fresh) air at breath , (build) castles in the air at castle , clear the air at clear v. , with your nose in the air at nose n. , pluck sth out of the air at pluck v. , disappear, vanish, etc. into thin air out of thin air at thin adj. ВОЗДУХ ВОЗДУХ, -а, м. 1. Смесь газов, составляющая атмосферу Земли. Струя воздуха. В воздухе носится или чувствуется что-н. (перен.: заметно появлениекаких-н. идей, настроений). Повиснуть в воздухе (перен.: о ком-чем-н.,оказавшемся в неопределенном положении. Вопрос повис в воздухе). Поднять нав. (взорвать). Взлететь на в. (взорваться, разлететься от взрыва). Извоздуха делать что-н. (перен.: из ничего, из пустого места). Воздух!(команда в знач.: тревога, появился вражеский самолет). Война в воздухе(средствами авиации). 2. Такая атмосфера как дыхательная среда человека,живого организма. Дышать воздухом. Городской, деревенский в. Свежий в.Бывать па воздухе (не в помещении). Выйти на в. (из помещения). На вольномвоздухе (в саду или за городом). На открытом воздухе (не в помещении). Какв. нужен кто-н. (совершенно необходим). 3. То же, что атмосфера (во 2знач.). В. свободы. Дышать воздухом кулис (о театральной жизни). II прил.воздушный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2 знач.). Воздушная ванна. Воздушная линия связи(не кабельная, на опорах).

16. air • lock BrE / ˈeəlɒk / NAmE / ˈerlɑːk / noun 1 a small room with a tightly closed door at each end, which you go through to reach another area at a different air pressure, for example on a spacecraft or submarine 2 a bubble of air that blocks the flow of liquid in a pump or pipe ШЛЮЗ ШЛЮЗ, -а, х 1. Сооружение на реке, канале для пропуска судов при разномуровне воды на пути их следования, состоящее из камеры (камер) с воротами.Судоходный ш. 2. Устройство из изолирующих перемычек с лазом (люком) дляперехода из одного пространства, помещения в другое. Ш. на космическомкорабяе. и прил. шлюзный, -ая, oое. (к 1 знач.) и шлюэовоЙ, -ая, - бе.Шлюзовая камера. Шлюзовой отсек.

17. al • ba • tross BrE / ˈælbətrɒs / NAmE / ˈælbətrɔːs / NAmE / ˈælbətrɑːs / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a very large white bird with long wings that lives in the Pacific and Southern Oceans 2 [ usually singular ] ( formal ) a thing that causes problems or prevents you from doing sth The national debt is an albatross around the president's neck. АЛЬБАТРОС АЛЬБАТРОС, -а,м. Большая океаническая птица отряда буревестников.

18. al • ge • bra BrE / ˈældʒɪbrə / NAmE / ˈældʒɪbrə / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a type of mathematics in which letters and symbols are used to represent quantities al • ge • bra • ic / BrE ˌældʒɪˈbreɪɪk ; NAmE ˌældʒɪˈbreɪɪk / adjective АЛГЕБРА 91

АЛГЕБРА, -ы, ж. Раздел математики, изучающий такие качества величин,к-рые вытекают из отношений между величинами и не зависят от их природы. IIприл. алгебраический, -ая,-ое.

19. al • le • gory BrE / ˈæləɡəri / NAmE / ˈæləɡɔːri / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] ( pl. al • le • gories ) a story, play, picture, etc. in which each character or event is a symbol representing an idea or a quality, such as truth, evil, death, etc; the use of such symbols a political allegory the poet's use of allegory see also fable al • le • gor • ic • al / BrE ˌæləˈɡɒrɪkl ; NAmE ˌæləˈɡɔːrɪkl / adjective an allegorical figure/novel al • le • gor • ic • al • ly / BrE ˌæləˈɡɒrɪkli ; NAmE ˌæləˈɡɔːrɪkli ; ˌæləˈɡɑːrɪkli / adverb АЛЛЕГОРИЯ АЛЛЕГОРИЯ, -и, ж. (книжн.). Иносказание, выражение чего-н.отвлеченного, ка-кой-н. мысли, идеи в конкретном образе. Говоритьаллегориями (неясно, с малопонятными намеками на что-н.). II прил.аллегорический, -ая, -ое.

20. al • ter • ca • tion BrE / ˌɔːltəˈkeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌɔːltərˈkeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] ( formal ) a noisy argument or disagreement A youth became involved in an altercation with a police officer over a parking ticket. ССОРА ССОРА, -ы, ж. 1. Состояние взаимной вражды, серьезная размолвка. Быть вссоре с кем-н. 2. Взаимная перебранка. Шумная с.

21. al • tru • ism BrE / ˈæltruɪzəm / NAmE / ˈæltruɪzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) the fact of caring about the needs and happiness of other people more than your own Politicians are not necessarily motivated by pure altruism. АЛЬТРУИЗМ АЛЬТРУИЗМ, -а, м. (книжн.). Готовность бескорыстно действовать напользу другим, не считаясь со своими интересами. II прил. альтруистический,-ая, -ое.

22. ama • teur noun BrE / ˈæmətə(r) / NAmE / ˈæmətər / BrE / ˈæmətʃə(r) / NAmE / ˈæmətʃər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who takes part in a sport or other activity for enjoyment, not as a job The tournament is open to both amateurs and professionals. 2 ( usually disapproving ) a person who is not skilled This work was done by a bunch of amateurs! professional ama • teur • ism / BrE ˈæmətərɪzəm ; NAmE ˈæmətərɪzəm / / BrE ˈæmətʃərɪzəm ; NAmE ˈæmətʃərɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] New rules on amateurism allow payment for promotional work. ЛЮБИТЕЛЬ ЛЮБИТЕЛЬ, -я, м. 1. чего и с месту. Человек, к-рый имеет склонность,пристрастие к чему-н. Л. музыки. Л. поговорить. 2. Человек, к-рый занимаетсякаким-н. делом не как профессионал, по увлечению, из интереса. Садовод-л.Автомобилист-л. II ж. любительница, -ы. II прил. любительский, -ая, -ое (ко2 знач.). Л. спектакль. Любительская фотография.

23. ameth • yst BrE / ˈæməθɪst / NAmE / ˈæməθɪst / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] a purple semi-precious stone , used in making jewellery an amethyst ring АМЕТИСТ АМЕТИСТ, -а, м. Драгоценный камень фиолетового илиголубовато-фиолетового цвета, разновидность кварца. II прил. аметистовый,-ая, -ое.

24. ap • pur • ten • ance BrE / əˈpɜːtɪnəns / 92

NAmE / əˈpɜːrtɪnəns / noun WORD ORIGIN [ usually plural ] ( formal or humorous ) a thing that forms a part of sth larger or more important ПРИНАДЛЕЖНОСТЬ ПРИНАДЛЕЖНОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. принадлежать. 2. Предмет, входящий вкомплект с чем-н., дополняющий что-н. Канцелярские принадлежности. Швейныепринадлежности. Галстук - п. костюма. 3. Неотъемлемая особенность, свойствокого-чего-н. Любознательность - п. ребенка. * По принадлежности (направить,отдать и т. п.) (офиц.) - туда, куда следует.

25. at • ro • phy noun, verb BrE / ˈætrəfi / NAmE / ˈætrəfi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( medical ) the condition of losing flesh, muscle, strength, etc. in a part of the body because it does not have enough blood : ( figurative , formal ) The cultural life of the country will sink into atrophy unless more writers and artists emerge. АТРОФИЯ АТРОФИЯ, -и, ж. (спец.). Уменьшение ка-кого-н. органа, потеря имжизнеспособности. Л. мышцы. А. чувствительности (потеря чувствительности).

26. avi • ator BrE / ˈeɪvieɪtə(r) / NAmE / ˈeɪvieɪtər / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old-fashioned ) a person who flies an aircraft One of Australia's pioneering women aviators learnt to fly in the 1930s. an intrepid aviator АВИАТОР АВИАТОР, -а, м. Специалист по управлению, вождению и обслуживаниюлетательных аппаратов. II прил. авиаторский, -ая, -ое.

27. axe noun, verb BrE / æks / NAmE / æks / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( especially BrE ) ( US usually ax ) 1 a tool with a wooden handle and a heavy metal blade, used for chopping wood, cutting down trees, etc. see also battleaxe , ice axe , pickaxe 2 the axe [ singular ] ( informal ) ( often used in newspapers ) if sb gets the axe , they lose their job; if an institution or a project gets the axe , it is closed or stopped, usually because of a lack of money Up to 300 workers are facing the axe at a struggling Merseyside firm. Patients are delighted their local hospital has been saved from the axe. Protesters, anxious over the spending cuts, urged councillors to think again before wielding the axe. ˌhave an ˈaxe to grind to have private reasons for being involved in sth or for arguing for a particular cause She had no axe to grind and was only acting out of concern for their safety. These criticisms are commonly voiced by those who have some political axe to grind. ТОПОР ТОПОР, -а, м. Насаженное на рукоятку металлическое орудие для рубки слезвием и обухом. Плотницкий т. Рубить, тесать топором. * Хоть топор вешай(разг.) - о спертом воздухе, духоте в помещении. Как топор плавает кто(разг. шутл.) - совершенно не умеет плавать. Суп из топора (разг. шутл.) - отом, что приготовлено из случайно нашедшихся продуктов. II уменьш. топорик,-а, м. Туристский т. II прил. топорный, -ая, -ое,

B 28. babe BrE / beɪb / NAmE / beɪb / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 ( old use ) a baby 2 ( slang ) a word used to address a young woman, or your wife, husband or lover, usually expressing affection but sometimes considered offensive if used by a man to a woman he does not know What're you doing tonight, babe? 3 ( informal ) an attractive young woman a ˌbabe in ˈarms ( old-fashioned ) a very small baby that cannot yet walk more at out of the mouths of babes (and sucklings) at mouth n. КРАСОТКА КРАСОТКА, -и, ж. (прост.). Миловидная молодая женщина.

29. au • gury BrE / ˈɔːɡjʊri / NAmE / ˈɔːɡjʊri / 93

noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. au • guries ) ( literary ) a sign of what will happen in the future omen ПРЕДЗНАМЕНОВАНИЕ ПРЕДЗНАМЕНОВАНИЕ, -я, ср. (книжн.). Явление, предвещающее что-н.Счастливое п. Ласточки - п. весны.

30. bab • ble noun, verb BrE / ˈbæbl / NAmE / ˈbæbl / noun WORD ORIGIN [ singular ] 1 the sound of many people speaking at the same time a babble of voices 2 talking that is confused or silly and is difficult to understand I can't listen to his constant babble. 3 the sounds a baby makes before beginning to say actual words see also psychobabble ЛЕПЕТ ЛЕПЕТ, -а, м. Несвязная, неясная речь (ребенка). Детский л. (такжеперен.: о чем-н. невразумительном, неубедительном). Нежный л. Л. ручья(перен.).

31. back • bone BrE / ˈbækbəʊn / NAmE / ˈbækboʊn / noun 1 [ countable ] the row of small bones that are connected together down the middle of the back spine See picture 2 [ singular ] the most important part of a system, an organization, etc. that gives it support and strength Agriculture forms the backbone of the rural economy. 3 [ uncountable ] the strength of character that you need to do sth difficult He doesn't have the backbone to face the truth. ПОЗВОНОЧНИК1 ПОЗВОНОЧНИК1, -а, м. У человека и позвоночных животных: скелетная ось,образуемая цепью костей (или хрящей), идущих вдоль спины и заключающих всебе (в позвоночном канале) спинной мозг.

32. back • street noun, adjective BrE / ˈbækstriːt / NAmE / ˈbækstriːt / noun a small quiet street, usually in a poor part of a town or city, away from main roads He was born in the backstreets of Leeds. ПЕРЕУЛОК ПЕРЕУЛОК, -лка, м. Небольшая, обычно узкая улица, соединяющая собою дведругие. В глухом переулке. II прил. переулочный, - ая, -ое.

33.back • water BrE / ˈbækwɔːtə(r) / NAmE / ˈbækwɔːtər / noun 1 a part of a river away from the main part, where the water only moves slowly 2 ( often disapproving ) a place that is away from the places where most things happen, and is therefore not affected by events, progress, new ideas, etc a sleepy/quiet/rural backwater The region became more and more of an economic backwater. ГЛУШЬ ГЛУШЬ, -и, те. глушью, предл. в глуши, ж. 1. Глухое, заросшее место.Лесная г. Г. сада. 2. То же, что захолустье. Жить в глуши. Провинциальная г.

34. bag • gage BrE / ˈbæɡɪdʒ / NAmE / ˈbæɡɪdʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS WHICH WORD? EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] 1 ( especially NAmE ) = luggage excess baggage (= weighing more than the limit allowed on a plane) baggage handlers (= people employed to load and unload baggage at airports) ( NAmE ) We loaded our baggage into the car. 2 the beliefs and attitudes that sb has as a result of their past experiences She was carrying a lot of emotional baggage . 94

The party has now jettisoned its traditional ideological baggage. see bag and baggage at bag n. БАГАЖ БАГАЖ, -а, м. 1. Вещи, груз пассажиров, упакованные для отправки,перевозки. Сдать в б. Отправить багажом. Ручной б. (вещи пассажира,находящиеся при нем). 2. перен. Запас знаний, сведений (книжн.). Умственныйб. II прил. багажный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). Б. вагон.

35. bal • cony BrE / ˈbælkəni / NAmE / ˈbælkəni / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. bal • conies ) 1 a platform that is built on the upstairs outside wall of a building, with a wall or rail around it. You can get out onto a balcony from an upstairs room. See picture 2 an area of seats upstairs in a theatre see also circle , first balcony БАЛКОН БАЛКОН, -а, м. 1. Выступающая из стены здания площадка с перилами,решеткой. 2. Верхний или средний ярус в зрительном зале. II прил. балконный,-ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

36. ba • lo • ney BrE / bəˈləʊni / NAmE / bəˈloʊni / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] 1 ( informal , especially NAmE ) nonsense; lies Don't give me that baloney! 2 ( NAmE ) = bologna ЕРУНДА ЕРУНДА, -ы, ж. (разг.). 1. Вздор, пустяки, нелепость. Молоть всякуюерунду. 2. О чем-н. несущественном, незначительном. Сильно порезался? - E.!

37. bal • sam BrE / ˈbɔːlsəm / NAmE / ˈbɔːlsəm / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ uncountable , countable ] = balm 2 [ countable ] any plant or tree from which balm is obtained БАЛЬЗАМ БАЛЬЗАМ, -а (-у), м. 1. Содержащееся в коре нек-рых деревьев (реже -- влистьях и древесине) густое ароматическое вещество, содержащее эфирные маслаи растворенные в них смолы. 2. Целительное средство. Лечебный б. Этарадостная весть - б. для его души (перен.). II прил. бальзамный, -ая, -ое (к1 знач.) и бальзамический, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

38. bane BrE / beɪn / NAmE / beɪn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ singular ] the ~ of sb/sth something that causes trouble and makes people unhappy The neighbours' kids are the bane of my life . The poor train service has been the bane of commuters for years. ПРОКЛЯТИЕ ПРОКЛЯТИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Официальное отлучение от церкви, анафема.Наложить п. Предать проклятию еретика. 2. Крайнее и бесповоротное осуждение(высок.). П. па-ламам. а. Бранное слово, выражение негодования. Осыпатьпроклятиями кого-н. 4. проклятие! Выражает крайнее раздражение, досаду. Тьфуты, п.1

39. bap • tism BrE / ˈbæptɪzəm / NAmE / ˈbæptɪzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN a Christian ceremony in which a few drops of water are poured on sb or they are covered with water, to welcome them into the Christian Church and often to name them compare christening a ˌbaptism of ˈfire a difficult introduction to a new job or activity КРЕЩЕНИЕ КРЕЩЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. крестить, -ся. 2. Христианский обряд(таинство) принятия кого-н. в число верующих, приобщения к церкви инаречения личного имени. Принять к. 3. (К прописное). Зимний церковныйпраздник крещения Христа. * Боевое крещение -1) о первом участии в бою;

40. bari • tone BrE / ˈbærɪtəʊn / 95

NAmE / ˈbærɪtoʊn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a man's singing voice with a range between tenor and bass ; a man with a baritone voice 2 a musical instrument that is second lowest in pitch in its family bari • tone adjective compare alto , bass , tenor БАРИТОН БАРИТОН, -а, м. 1. Мужской голос, средний между тенором и басом. 2.Певец с таким голосом. 3. Медный духовой музыкальный инструмент среднегорегистра и тембра. II прил. баритонный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 3 знач.) ибаритоновый, -ая, oое (к 3 знач.).

41. bar • rier BrE / ˈbæriə(r) / NAmE / ˈbæriər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 an object like a fence that prevents people from moving forward from one place to another The crowd had to stand behind barriers. Show your ticket at the barrier. The car crashed into the safety barrier and burst into flames. see also crash barrier 2 a problem, rule or situation that prevents sb from doing sth, or that makes sth impossible the removal of trade barriers The world of Disney is a magical experience that knows no age barriers. ~ to sth Lack of confidence is a psychological barrier to success. Cost should not be a barrier to the use of legal services. 3 something that exists between one thing or person and another and keeps them separate The Yangtze river is a natural barrier to the north-east. the language barrier (= when people cannot communicate because they do not speak the same language) ~ between A and B There was no real barrier between reality and fantasy in his mind. ~ against sth Ozone is the earth's barrier against ultra-violet radiation. 4 a particular amount, level or number that it is difficult to get past the first player whose earnings passed the $10 million barrier БАРЬЕР БАРЬЕР, -а, м. 1. Преграда (род стенки, перекладина), поставленная напути (при скачках, беге). Взять б. (преодолеть его). 2. Загородка,ограждение. Б. ложи, балкона. 3. перен. Преграждение, препятствие длячего-н. Река - естественный б. для насту- пающих. Звуковой б.(аэродинамическое сопротивление, встречаемое летательным аппаратом придостижении им скорости звука). Психологический б. Языковой 6. (невозможностьобщения из-за незнания чужого языка). Таможенный б. Ведомственные барьеры.4. Черта, обозначающая расстояние между участниками дуэли (устар.).Поставить кого-н. к барьеру (перен.: заставить драться на дуэли). II прил.барьерный, -ая, -ое. Б. бег (в спорте).

42. bat • tal • ion BrE / bəˈtæliən / NAmE / bəˈtæliən / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 ( BrE ) a large group of soldiers that form part of a brigade 2 ( formal ) a large group of people, especially an organized group with a particular purpose a battalion of supporters БАТАЛЬОН БАТАЛЬОН [лье], -а,м. Войсковое подразделение из трех-четырех рот и специальных взводов, обычно входящее в состав полка или бригады. II прил.батальонный, -ая, -ое. Б. командир. Приказ батальонного (сущ.; батальонногокомандира). БАТАРЕЕЦ, -ейца, м. (разг.). Военнослужащий артиллерийскогорасчета.

43. bard BrE / bɑːd / NAmE / bɑːrd / noun WORD ORIGIN ( literary ) a person who writes poems the Bard of Avon (= Shakespeare) БАРД БАРД, -а, м. 1. У древних кельтов: певец-поэт. 2. Поэт и музыкант,исполнитель собственных песен. II прил. бардовый,-ая,-ое.

44. bea • con BrE / ˈbiːkən / NAmE / ˈbiːkən / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a light that is placed somewhere to guide vehicles and warn them of danger a navigation beacon ( figurative ) He was a beacon of hope for the younger generation. see also Belisha beacon 96

2 a radio station whose signal helps ships and aircraft to find their position The plane was guided in by radio beacon. 3 (in the past) a fire lit on top of a hill as a signal МАЯК МАЯК, -а, м. Башня с сигнальными огнями на берегу моря, на острове, вустье реки. Береговой м. Плавучий м. (на якорях). II уменьш. маячок, -чка,м. Проблесковый м. (мигающий световой фонарь на специальных автомашинах). IIприл. маячный, -ая, -ое. М. смотритель. М. огонь.

45. beano BrE / ˈbiːnəʊ / NAmE / ˈbiːnoʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. beanos ) ( BrE , informal ) a party ГУЛЯНКА ГУЛЯНКА, -и, ж. (прост.). Небольшая пирушка или веселоевремяпрепровождение в компании. Пойти на гулянку. Прийти с гулянки.

46. beaut • ician BrE / bjuːˈtɪʃn / NAmE / bjuːˈtɪʃn / noun a person, usually a woman, whose job is to give beauty treatments to the face and body КОСМЕТОЛОГ КОСМЕТОЛОГ, -а, м. Врач - специалист по косметологии.

47. bed • cham • ber BrE / ˈbedtʃeɪmbə(r) / NAmE / ˈbedtʃeɪmbər / noun ( old use ) a bedroom the royal bedchamber ОПОЧИВАЛЬНЯ ОПОЧИВАЛЬНЯ, -и, род. мн. -лен, ж. (устар.). То же, что спальня (в 1знач.). Царская о.

48. bee BrE / biː / NAmE / biː / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a black and yellow flying insect that can sting. Bees live in large groups and make honey (= a sweet sticky substance that is good to eat) a swarm of bees a bee sting Bees were buzzing in the clover. see also beehive , beeswax , bumblebee , queen bee 2 ( NAmE ) a meeting in a group where people combine work, competition and pleasure a sewing bee see also spelling bee the ˌbee's ˈknees ( informal ) an excellent person or thing She thinks she's the bee's knees (= she has a very high opinion of herself) . have a ˈbee in your bonnet (about sth) ( informal ) to think or talk about sth all the time and to think that it is very important Our teacher has a bee in his bonnet about punctuation. more at the birds and the bees at bird , busy as a bee at busy adj. ПЧЕЛА ПЧЕЛА, -ы, мн. пчелы, пчел, пчелам, ж. Жалящее летающееперепончатокрылое общественное насекомое, перерабатывающее нектар (во 2знач.) в мед. II уменьш. пчелка, -и, ж. II прил. пчелиный, -ая, -ое. П.улей. Пчелиная семья (колония медоносных пчел, состоящая из рабочих пчел,матки и трутней). Пчелиное молочко (секрет слюнных желез рабочих пчел, к-рымвыкармливаются личинки; спец.). П. яд (секрет нитевидной железы жалящегоаппарата рабочей пчелы).

49. be • go • nia BrE / bɪˈɡəʊniə / NAmE / ˈbeˈɡoʊniə / noun WORD ORIGIN a plant with large shiny flowers that may be pink, red, yellow or white, grown indoors or in a garden БЕГОНИЯ БЕГОНИЯ, -и, ж. Декоративное растение с красивыми пестрыми листьямиразной формы, с мелкими цветками. II прил. бего- ниевый, -ая, -ое. Семействобегониевых (сущ.).

50. bell BrE / bel / NAmE / bel / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE EXAMPLE BANK 97

1 a hollow metal object, often shaped like a cup, that makes a ringing sound when hit by a small piece of metal inside it; the sound that it makes A peal of church bells rang out in the distance. a bicycle bell His voice came down the line as clear as a bell . the bell of a trumpet (= the bell-shaped part at the end of it) a bell tower a bell-shaped flower wedding bells The dancers wore bells on their ankles. 2 an electrical device which makes a ringing sound when a button on it is pushed; the sound that it makes, used as a signal or a warning Ring the bell to see if they're in. The bell's ringing ! The bell went for the end of the lesson. An alarm bell went off. ( figurative ) Warning bells started ringing in her head as she sensed that something was wrong. give sb a ˈbell ( BrE , informal ) to call sb by telephone more at alarm bells ring/start ringing at alarm n. , pull the other one(—it's got bells on) at pull v. , ring a bell at ring v. , sound as a bell at sound adj. КОЛОКОЛ КОЛОКОЛ, -а,мн. -а, -6в,м. 1. Отлитый из медного сплава полый конус сязыком1 (в 3 знач.), издающий громкий звон. Бить, звонить в к. Ударыколокола. Церковный к. Звонница с колоколами. Во все колокола ударять,звонить (также перен.: оповещать всех, предавать гласности). 2.Конусообразный предмет для разных технических надобностей. 3. мн. Ударныймузыкальный инструмент - набор колоколов (в I знач.) разной величины. IIприл. колокольный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 3 знач.). К. звон. Колокольная музыка.

51. belly noun, verb BrE / ˈbeli / NAmE / ˈbeli / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. bellies ) 1 the part of the body below the chest stomach , gut They crawled along on their bellies. see also beer belly , pot belly 2 ( literary ) the round or curved part of an object the belly of a ship 3 -bellied ( in adjectives ) having the type of belly mentioned swollen-bellied round-bellied go belly ˈup ( informal ) to fail completely Last year the business went belly up after one of the partners resigned. ЖИВОТ1 ЖИВОТ1, -а, м. 1. Часть тела, прилегающая к тазу,в к-рой расположеныорганы пищеварения. Боль в животе. Ж. растет у кого-н. (толстеет кто-н.;разг.). Острый ж. (условное название остро протекающих заболеваний каких-н.органов брюшной полости; спец.). 2. Желудок, кишечник (разг.). Ж. болит.Животом мучиться (страдать от болей в желудке, кишечнике; прост.). IIуменьш. животик, - а, м. * Животики надорвешь (разг. шутл.) - о чем-н. оченьсмешном. В цирке были - животики надорвали.

52. bene • fit noun, verb BrE / ˈbenɪfɪt / NAmE / ˈbenɪfɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable , countable ] an advantage that sth gives you; a helpful and useful effect that sth has I've had the benefit of a good education. The new regulations will be of benefit to everyone concerned. It will be to your benefit to arrive early. He couldn't see the benefit of arguing any longer. the benefits of modern medicine It was good to see her finally reaping the benefits (= enjoying the results) of all her hard work. With the benefit of hindsight (= knowing what we have learnt since) , we would do things differently. For maximum benefit, take the tablets before meals. see also cost-benefit , fringe benefit 2 [ uncountable , countable ] ( BrE ) money provided by the government to people who need financial help because they are unemployed, ill/sick, etc How long have you been on benefit? see also child benefit , housing benefit , sickness benefit 3 [ countable , usually plural ] an advantage that you get from a company in addition to the money that you earn; money from an insurance company The insurance plan will provide substantial cash benefits to your family in case of your death. see also fringe benefit 4 [ countable ] an event such as a performance, a dinner, etc, organized in order to raise money for a particular person or charity a benefit match/concert The proceeds from the benefit will go directly to the refugee camps. 98

for sb's benefit especially in order to help or be useful to sb I have typed out some lecture notes for the benefit of those people who were absent last week. Don't go to any trouble for my benefit! give sb the ˌbenefit of the ˈdoubt to accept that sb has told the truth or has not done sth wrong because you cannot prove that they have not She may have been lying, but I felt I had to give her the benefit of the doubt. ПОЛЬЗА ПОЛЬЗА, -ы, ж. Хорошие, положительные последствия, благо; выгода. П.спорта. С пользой для дела. Извлечь пользу из чего-н. - В пользу - 1)кого-чего, в интересах кого-н., в -соответствии с чьими-н. выгодами. Решитьдело в пользу истца; 2) чего, в знач. предлога с род: п., за что-н., вподтверждение чего-н. Доводы в пользу предлагаемого решения. Говорить впользу кого-чего или чью - служить доказательством чьих-н. положительныхкачеств, правоты. Этот поступок говорит не в вашу пользу. На пользу пойтикому-чему - принести положительные результаты. Лекарство пошло больному напользу.

53. besom BrE / ˈbiːzəm / NAmE / ˈbiːzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN a brush for sweeping floors, made from sticks tied onto a long handle ВЕНИК ВЕНИК, -а, м. Связка веток, прутьев, сухих длинных стеблей. Подметать пол веником. Банный в. (для парения в бане). Кормовые веники. II прил.венкковый, -ая, -ое и веничный, -ая, -ое.

54. bi • ath • lon BrE / baɪˈæθlən / NAmE / baɪˈæθlən / noun WORD ORIGIN a sporting event that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting compare decathlon , heptathlon , pentathlon , tetrathlon , triathlon БИАТЛОН БИАТЛОН, -а, м. Вид зимнего двоеборья, включающий лыжную гонку истрельбу из винтовки. II прил. биатлонный, -ая, -ое.

55. big • ot • ry BrE / ˈbɪɡətri / NAmE / ˈbɪɡətri / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] the state of feeling, or the act of expressing, strong, unreasonable beliefs or opinions ФАНАТИЗМ ФАНАТИЗМ, -а, м. Образ мыслей и поведение фанатика. В прш.фанатический, -ая,-ое.

56. biol • ogy BrE / baɪˈɒlədʒi / NAmE / baɪˈɑːlədʒi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] 1 the scientific study of the life and structure of plants and animals a degree in biology compare botany , zoology 2 the way in which the body and cells of a living thing behave How far is human nature determined by biology? the biology of marine animals БИОЛОТИЯ БИОЛОТИЯ, -и, ж. Совокупность наук о живой природе, о закономерностях органической жизни. Космическая б. (изучающая жизнедеятельность организмов вусловиях космоса). II прил. биологический, -ая, -ое.

57. blab • ber • mouth BrE / ˈblæbəmaʊθ / NAmE / ˈblæbərmaʊθ / noun ( informal , disapproving ) a person who tells secrets because they talk too much БОЛТУН БОЛТУН, -а, м. (разг). Болтливый человек. II уменьш. болтунишка, -и, м.II ж. болтунья, -и, род. мн. -ний.

58. blade BrE / bleɪd / NAmE / bleɪd / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 the flat part of a knife, tool or machine, which has a sharp edge or edges for cutting see also razor blade , switchblade 2 one of the flat parts that turn around in an engine or on a helicopter 99

the blades of a propeller rotor blades on a helicopter 3 the flat wide part of an oar (= one of the long poles that are used to row a boat) that goes in the water 4 a single flat leaf of grass Not a blade of grass stirred. 5 the flat metal part on the bottom of an ice skate see also shoulder blade ЛЕЗВИЕ ЛЕЗВИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Острый край режущего, рубящего орудия. Л. ножа,топора, бри- твы, лемеха. 2. Тонкая стальная пластинка с острыми краями длябезопасной бритвы. II прил. лезвийный, -ая, -ое.

59. bless • ing BrE / ˈblesɪŋ / NAmE / ˈblesɪŋ / noun COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ usually singular ] God's help and protection, or a prayer asking for this to pray for God's blessing The bishop said the blessing. 2 [ usually singular ] approval of or permission for sth The government gave its blessing to the new plans. He went with his parents' blessing . 3 something that is good or helpful Lack of traffic is one of the blessings of country life. It's a blessing that nobody was in the house at the time. see also mixed blessing a blessing in disˈguise something that seems to be a problem at first, but that has good results in the end more at count your blessings at count v.

60. block noun, verb BrE / blɒk / NAmE / blɑːk / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK

SOLID MATERIAL 1 [ countable ] a large piece of a solid material that is square in shape and usually has flat sides a block of ice/concrete/stone a chopping block (= for cutting food on) see also breeze block , building block , cinder block БЛАГОСЛОВЕНИЕ БЛАГОСЛОВЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. благословить. 2. Обращенная к Богупросьба о благодати, помощи. Б. Господне. С божьим благословением приступитьк возведению храма.

61. BUILDING 2 [ countable ] ( BrE ) a tall building that contains flats or offices; buildings that form part of a school, hospital, etc. which are used for a particular purpose a tower block a block of flats an office block the university's science block STREETS 3 [ countable ] a group of buildings with streets on all sides She took the dog for a walk around the block. 4 [ countable ] ( NAmE ) the length of one side of a piece of land or group of buildings, from the place where one street crosses it to the next His apartment is three blocks away from the police station. AREA OF LAND 5 [ countable ] ( especially NAmE ) a large area of land 6 [ countable ] ( AustralE ) an area of land for building a house on AMOUNT 7 [ countable ] a quantity of sth or an amount of time that is considered as a single unit a block of shares a block of text in a document ( BrE ) The theatre gives discounts for block bookings (= a large number of tickets bought at the same time) . The three-hour class is divided into four blocks of 45 minutes each. THAT STOPS PROGRESS 8 [ countable , usually singular ] something that makes movement or progress difficult or impossible obstacle Lack of training acts as a block to progress in a career. see also roadblock , stumbling block , writer's block IN SPORT 9 [ countable ] a movement that stops another player from going forward 10 the blocks [ plural ] = starting blocks 100

FOR PUNISHMENT 11 the block [ singular ] (in the past) the piece of wood on which a person's head was cut off as a punishment go on the ˈblock to be sold, especially at an auction (= a sale in which items are sold to the person who offers the most money) have been around the ˈblock (a few times) ( informal ) to have a lot of experience put/lay your head/neck on the block to risk losing your job, damaging your reputation, etc. by doing or saying sth It's not a matter that I'm prepared to put my head on the block for. more at a chip off the old block at chip n. , I'll knock your block/head off at knock v. , a new kid on the block at new ЗДАНИЕ ЗДАНИЕ, -я, ср. Архитектурное сооружение, постройка, дом. Общественныездания. II уменьш. зданьице, -а, ср.

62. blow • hard BrE / ˈbləʊhɑːd / NAmE / ˈbloʊhɑːrd / noun ( NAmE , informal , disapproving ) a person who talks too proudly about sth they own or sth they have done ХВАСТУН ХВАСТУН, -а, м. (разг.). Хвастливый человек. и ас. хвастунья, -и, род.мн. -ний. и ушч. хвастунишка, -и, м. и ж.

63. bou • doir BrE / ˈbuːdwɑː(r) / NAmE / ˈbuːdwɑːr / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old-fashioned ) a woman's small private room or bedroom БУДУАР БУДУАР, -а, м. Гостиная хозяйки в богатом доме для неофициальных приемов, а также обстановка такой гостиной. II прил. будуарный, -ая, -ое.

64. bra • vura BrE / brəˈvjʊərə / NAmE / brəˈvjʊrə / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) great skill and enthusiasm in doing sth artistic a bravura performance БРАВАДА БРАВАДА, -ы, ас. (книжн.). Поведение того, кто бравирует, показнаяудаль.

65. breather BrE / ˈbriːðə(r) / NAmE / ˈbriːðər / noun EXAMPLE BANK ( informal ) a short pause for rest or to relax to take/have a breather Tell me when you need a breather. a five-minute breather see also heavy breather ПЕРЕДЫШКА ПЕРЕДЫШКА, -а ж. 1. Непродолжительный перерыв, чтобы отдышаться,перевести дух. Гнаться за кем-н. без передышки. Дать передышку кому-н. 2.перен. Перерыв в какой-н. деятельности, позволяющий собраться с силами. П. вспоре.

66. cab BrE / kæb / NAmE / kæb / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a taxi 2 the place where the driver sits in a bus, train or lorry/truck ТАКСИ ТАКСИ, нескл., ср. Автомобиль с оплатой по таксе (по счетчику). Взять т. Ехать на т. Легковое, грузовое т. Маршрутное т.

67. cac • oph • ony BrE / kəˈkɒfəni / NAmE / kəˈkɑːfəni / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable , singular ] ( formal ) a mixture of loud unpleasant sounds КАКОФОНИЯ 101

КАКОФОНИЯ, -и, ж. (книжн.). Лишенное всякого благозвучия, сумбурноесочетание звуков (в музыке, стихах). II прил. какофонический, -ая, -ое.

68. caf • feine BrE / ˈkæfiːn / NAmE / ˈkæfiːn / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a drug found in coffee and tea that makes you feel more active see also decaffeinated КОФЕИН КОФЕИН, -а, м. Возбуждающее средство, получаемое из кофейных зерен,чайных листьев и нек-рых других растений. II прил. кофеиновый, -ая, -ое.

69. cal • umny BrE / ˈkæləmni / NAmE / ˈkæləmni / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. cal • umnies ) ( formal ) 1 [ countable ] a false statement about a person that is made to damage their reputation He accused the press of publishing vicious calumnies. 2 [ uncountable ] the act of making such a statement slander a campaign of gossip and calumny КЛЕВЕТА КЛЕВЕТА, -ы, ж. Порочащая кого-что-н. ложь. Возводить клевету накого-н.

70. can • ary BrE / kəˈneəri / NAmE / kəˈneri / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. can • aries ) a small yellow bird with a beautiful song, often kept in a cage as a pet see like the cat that got/ate/swallowed the canary at cat КАНАРЕЙКА КАНАРЕЙКА, -и, ж. Маленькая южная птичка сем. вьюрковых с ярким, обычножелтым оперением. Домашние (комнатные) канарейки. II прил. канареечный, -ая,-ое.

71. can • teen BrE / kænˈtiːn / NAmE / kænˈtiːn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 ( especially BrE ) a place where food and drink are served in a factory, a school, etc. 2 a small container used by soldiers, travellers, etc. for carrying water or other liquid 3 ~ of cutlery ( BrE ) a box containing a set of knives, forks and spoons СТОЛОВАЯ СТОЛОВАЯ, -ой, ж. 1. Комната в квартире, в доме с обеденным столом, гдеедят и пьют. 2. Комплект мебели для такой комнаты. С. орехового дерева. 3.Учреждение общественного питания с подачей горячих обедов. Заводская с.Благотворительная с. (бесплатная, для неимущих). II прил. столбвский, -ая,-ое (к 3 знач.; разг.). Сто-ловская еда.

72. cap • tain noun, verb BrE / ˈkæptɪn / NAmE / ˈkæptɪn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 the person in charge of a ship or commercial aircraft Captain Cook The captain gave the order to abandon ship. Captain Jones and his co-pilot 2 an officer of fairly high rank in the navy, the army and the US air force Captain Lance Price see also group captain 3 the leader of a group of people, especially a sports team She was captain of the hockey team at school. He has just been made team captain. 4 an officer of high rank in a US police or fire department КАПИТАН КАПИТАН, -а, м. 1. Офицерское звание или чин, а также лицо, имеющее этозвание или носящее этот чин. К. медицинской службы. К. первого ранга.К-лейтенант (звание младшего офицера в военно-морском флоте, а также лицо,имеющее это звание). 2. Командир судна. К. дальнего плавания. К-наставник.K.-директор плавучего рыбозавода. 3. Глава спортивной команды. * Капитанпорта - начальник порта. II прил. капитанский, -ая, -ое. Капитанское звание.К мостик (на корабле).

73. car • eer • ist 102

BrE / kəˈrɪərɪst / NAmE / kəˈrɪrɪst / noun ( often disapproving ) a person whose career is more important to them than anything else a careerist politician КАРЬЕРИСТ КАРЬЕРИСТ, -а, м. (неодобр.). Человек, проникнутый карьеризмом. II ж.карьеристка, -и. II прил. карьеристский, -ая, -ое.

74. car • tel BrE / kɑːˈtel / NAmE / kɑːrˈtel / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable + singular or plural verb ] a group of separate companies that agree to increase profits by fixing prices and not competing with each other to operate an illegal cartel КАРТЕЛЬ КАРТЕЛЬ, -я, м. 1. Одна из форм монополий - объединение крупныхпредприятий какой-н. отрасли промышленности, сохраняющих коммерческую ипроизводственную самостоятельность, организованное в целях регулированияпроизводства, обеспечения господства на рынке, контроля над ценами иизвлечения монопольной прибыли. Нефтяной к. 2. [тэ]. Письмо с вызовом надуэль (устар.). II прил. картельный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

75. cas • ta • nets BrE / ˌkæstəˈnets / NAmE / ˌkæstəˈnets / noun WORD ORIGIN [ plural ] a musical instrument that consists of two small round pieces of wood that you hold in the hand and hit together with the fingers to make a noise. Castanets are used especially by Spanish dancers. КАСТАНЬЕТЫ КАСТАНЬЕТЫ, -ет, ед. -а, -ы, ж. Ударный музыкальный инструмент -надеваемые на пальцы и скрепленные попарно деревянные пластинки, к-рымипроизводят резкие щелкающие звуки. Народные к. (в Испании, Италии,латиноамериканских странах). Оркестровые к. II прил. кас-таньетный, -ая,-ое-

76. cat • fish BrE / ˈkætfɪʃ / NAmE / ˈkætfɪʃ / noun ( pl. cat • fish ) a large fish with long stiff hairs, like a cat's whiskers , around its mouth. There are several types of catfish , most of which are freshwater fish. СОМ СОМ, -а, м. Крупная пресноводная бесчешуйчатая хищная рыба. II прил.сомовий, -ья, -ье.

77. cav • ity BrE / ˈkævəti / NAmE / ˈkævəti / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. cav • ities ) ( formal or technical ) 1 a hole or empty space inside sth solid the abdominal cavity 2 a hole in a tooth ПОЛОСТЬ ПОЛОСТЬ, -к, мн. -и, -ей, ж. 1. В животном организме: внутреннеепространство - вместилище органов. Брюшная п. П. рта. 2. Полое пространствовнутри чего-н., в чем-н. Полости в толще земных пород. II прил.полостной,-ая,-ое. Полостная опе-рация.

78. cent BrE / sent / NAmE / sent / noun WORD ORIGIN ( abbr. c , ct ) a coin and unit of money worth 1% of the main unit of money in many countries, for example of the US dollar or of the euro see also per cent , red cent put in your two ˈcents' worth ( NAmE ) ( BrE put in your two ˈpennyworth , put in your two ˈpenn'orth ) ( informal ) to give your opinion about sth, even if other people do not want to hear it ЦЕНТ ЦЕНТ, -а, м. Мелкая монета в США и нек-рых других странах, равная однойсотой денежной единицы. II прил. центовый, -ая,: -ое.

79. cer • ti • tude BrE / ˈsɜːtɪtjuːd / NAmE / ˈsɜːrtɪtuːd / noun 103

WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable , countable ] ( formal ) a feeling of being certain; a thing about which you are certain ‘You will like Rome,’ he said, with absolute certitude. the collapse of moral certitudes УВЕРЕННОСТЬ УВЕРЕННОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. уверенный. 2. Твердая вера в кого-что-н.,убежденность. Чувство уверенности. У. в своих силах. У. в друзьях.

80. cita • del BrE / ˈsɪtədəl / NAmE / ˈsɪtədəl / BrE / ˈsɪtədel / NAmE / ˈsɪtədel / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK (in the past) a castle on high ground in or near a city where people could go when the city was being attacked : ( figurative ) citadels of private economic power ЦИТАДЕЛЬ ЦИТАДЕЛЬ [дэ], -и, ас. 1. В старину кре-пость, а также ее внутренняя,наиболее ук-1 репленная часть. 2. перст., чего. Оплот, опора (высок.).

81. cham • pagne BrE / ʃæmˈpeɪn / NAmE / ʃæmˈpeɪn / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] a French sparkling white wine (= one with bubbles) that is drunk on special occasions a glass of champagne a champagne reception (= a formal social occasion at which champagne is served) at the Imperial Hotel There are a number of fine champagnes (= types of champagne ) available at very reasonable prices. ШАМПАНСКОЕ ШАМПАНСКОЕ, -юго, ср. Игристое виноградное вино, насыщенное углекислымгазом.

82. cha • meleon BrE / kəˈmiːliən / NAmE / kəˈmiːliən / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a small lizard (= a type of reptile ) that can change colour according to its surroundings 2 ( often disapproving ) a person who changes their behaviour or opinions according to the situation ХАМЕЛЕОН ХАМЕЛЕОН, -а, м. 1. Пресмыкающееся теплых стран отряда ящериц, меняющеесвою окраску при цветовых изменениях в окружающей среде. 2. перен. Человек,к-рый, приспосабливаясь к обстановке, легко меняет свое поведение, взгляды,симпатии (неодобр.). II прш. хамелеоновый, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.) ихамелеонскяй, -ая, -ое (ко 2 знач.).

83. chat • ter • box BrE / ˈtʃætəbɒks / NAmE / ˈtʃætərbɑːks / noun EXAMPLE BANK ( informal ) a person who talks a lot, especially a child БАЛАБОЛКА БАЛАБОЛКА, -и, м. и ж. (разг.). Человек, любящий заниматься пустойболтовней, пустомеля.

84. cha • rade BrE / ʃəˈrɑːd / NAmE / ʃəˈreɪd / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a situation in which people pretend that sth is true when it clearly is not pretence Their whole marriage had been a charade—they had never loved each other. 2 charades [ uncountable ] a game in which one player acts out the syllables of a word or title and the other players try to guess what it is Let's play charades. ШАРАДА ШАРАДА, -ы, ж. Загадка, в к-рой загаданное слово делится на несколькочастей - отдельных слов; такая загадка, представляемая в живых сценкахРазгадать шараду. Разыграть шарады.

85. char • ac • ter BrE / ˈkærəktə(r) / NAmE / ˈkærəktər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS 104

COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK QUALITIES/FEATURES 1 [ countable , usually singular ] all the qualities and features that make a person, groups of people, and places different from others to have a strong/weak character character traits/defects The book gives a fascinating insight into Mrs Obama's character. Generosity is part of the American character. The character of the neighbourhood hasn't changed at all. 2 [ countable , usually singular , uncountable ] the way that sth is, or a particular quality or feature that a thing, an event or a place has nature the delicate character of the light in the evening The police pointed out the illegal character of the protest action. buildings that are very simple in character 3 [ uncountable ] ( approving ) strong personal qualities such as the ability to deal with difficult or dangerous situations Everyone admires her strength of character and determination. He showed great character returning to the sport after his accident. Adventure camps are considered to be character-building (= meant to improve sb's strong qualities) . 4 [ uncountable ] ( usually approving ) the interesting or unusual quality that a place or a person has The modern hotels here have no real character. a face with a lot of character STRANGE/INTERESTING PERSON 5 [ countable ] ( informal ) ( used with an adjective ) a person, particularly an unpleasant or strange one There were some really strange characters hanging around the bar. 6 [ countable ] ( informal ) an interesting or unusual person She's a character! REPUTATION 7 [ countable , uncountable ] ( formal ) the opinion that people have of you, particularly of whether you can be trusted or relied on She was a victim of character assassination (= an unfair attack on the good opinion people had of her) . a slur/attack on his character My teacher agreed to be a character witness for me in court. a character reference (= a letter that a person who knows you well writes to an employer to tell them about your good qualities) IN BOOK/PLAY/MOVIE 8 [ countable ] a person or an animal in a book, play or film/movie a major/minor character in the book cartoon characters Clint Eastwood's character is the most sympathetic in the movie. SYMBOL/LETTER 9 [ countable ] a letter, sign, mark or symbol used in writing, printing or on computers Chinese characters a line 30 characters long optical character recognition ˌin ˈcharacter | ˌout of ˈcharacter typical/not typical of a person's character Her behaviour last night was completely out of character. ˌin ˈcharacter (with sth) in the same style as sth The new wing of the museum was not really in character with the rest of the building. ХАРАКТЕР ХАРАКТЕР, -а, м. 1. Совокупность психических, духовных свойствчеловека, обнаруживающихся в его поведении. Сильный, волевой, твердый,смирный х. Выдержать х. (сохранить твердость, не уступить в чем-н.). Вхарактере чьем-н. (свойственно кому-н.). Человек с характером (с твердымхарактером). Человек без характера (слабовольный). Сильные характеры (такжеперен.: люди с сильным характером). Литературные характеры (персонажи с иххарактерными чертами). 2. Отличительное свойство, особенность, качествочего-н. Затяжной х. болезни. Беседа делового характера. X. местности.

86. cheap • skate BrE / ˈtʃiːpskeɪt / NAmE / ˈtʃiːpskeɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN ( informal , disapproving ) a person who does not like to spend money We really need a new heater, but the landlord's such a cheapskate we'll never get it. СКРЯГА СКРЯГА, -и, м. и ас. (разг.). Очень скупой человек. II прил.скряжиический, oая, -ое.

87. chess BrE / tʃes / NAmE / tʃes / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a game for two people played on a board marked with black and white squares on which each playing piece (representing a king, queen, castle, etc.) is moved according to special rules. The aim is to put the other player's king in a position from which it cannot escape (= to checkmate it) . ШАХМАТЫ ШАХМАТЫ, -ат. 1. Игра белыми и черными фигурами и пешками на доске в 64 клетки, состоящая в том, что каждый из двух партнеров стремится объявитьмат1 королю соперника, а также соответствующий вид спорта. Играть в ш.Первенство мира по 105

шахматам. 2. Фигуры и пешки для такой игры. Ш. из кости.Дорожные ш. II "уид. шахматный,-ая,-ое. Я/, хрузсотс. Я/. порядок(расположение рядов одноцветных квадратов, по диагонали пересекающихшахматную доску).

88. child • hood BrE / ˈtʃaɪldhʊd / NAmE / ˈtʃaɪldhʊd / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] the period of sb's life when they are a child childhood, adolescence and adulthood in early childhood childhood memories/experiences She had a happy childhood. He married his childhood sweetheart. childhood cancer a/sb's second ˈchildhood a time in the life of an adult person when they behave like a child again ДЕТСТВО ДЕТСТВО, -а, ср. Ранний, до отрочества, возраст; период жизни в таком возрасте. Счастливое д. Друг детства. Провести д. в деревне. Впасть в д. (отстарости потерять рассудок). Д. человечества (перен.). II прил. детский,-ая, -ое. Д. возраст. Детские годы.

89. chiv • alry BrE / ˈʃɪvəlri / NAmE / ˈʃɪvəlri / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] (in the Middle Ages) the religious and moral system of behaviour which the perfect knight was expected to follow the age of chivalry РЫЦАРСТВО РЫЦАРСТВО, -а, ср. 1. собир. В феодальной Европе: привилегированное военно-землевладельческое сословие, рыцари (в 1 знач.). 2.Самоотверженность, благородство (книжн.). Проявить р.

90. Christ BrE / kraɪst / NAmE / kraɪst / ( also Jesus , ˌJesus ˈChrist ) noun, exclamation noun WORD ORIGIN the man that Christians believe is the son of God and on whose teachings the Christian religion is based ХРИСТОС ХРИСТОС, род. п. Христа, дат. п. Христу, вин. п. Христа, те. п.Христом, предл. п. о Христе, м. Вошедшее в нек-рые выражения имя ИисусаХриста, культ к-рого лежит в основе христианства: Христа ради просить -просить милостыню, нищенствовать; Христа ради (разг.) - то же, что радиБога; Христос с тобой (разг.) - то же, что Бог с тобой; как у Христа запазухой (разг.) - спокойно и хорошо. Живет как у Христа за пазухой кто-н.;вот тебе (те) Христос! (устар. прост.) ~ уверение в истинности, ей-богу;Христом- богом просить (устар. прост.) - молить, умолять.

91. cig • ar • ette BrE / ˌsɪɡəˈret / NAmE / ˈsɪɡəret / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a thin tube of paper filled with tobacco , for smoking a packet/pack of cigarettes to light a cigarette СИГАРЕТА СИГАРЕТА, -ы, м. Папироса без мундштука. II уменъш. сигаретка, -и, ж.II прил. сигаретный, -ая, -ое и сигареточный, -ая, -ое.

92. city BrE / ˈsɪti / NAmE / ˈsɪti / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. cities ) 1 [ countable ] a large and important town the city centre one of the world's most beautiful cities a major city the country's capital city 106

Mexico City Manchester City Football Club See picture see also inner city 2 [ countable ] ( BrE ) a town that has been given special rights by a king or queen, usually one that has a cathedral the city of York 3 [ countable ] ( NAmE ) a town that has been given special rights by the state government 4 [ singular + singular or plural verb ] all the people who live in a city The city turned out to welcome the victorious team home. 5 the City [ singular ] ( BrE ) Britain's financial and business centre, in the oldest part of London a City stockbroker What is the City's reaction to the cut in interest rates? 6 [ uncountable ] ( informal ) used after other nouns to say that a place is full of a particular thing It's not exactly fun city here is it? cardboard city (= full of people living in cardboard boxes because they have nowhere else to live) see the freedom of the city at freedom ГОРОД ГОРОД, -а, мн. -а, -ов, м. 1. Крупный населенный пункт,административный, торговый, промышленный и культурный центр. Портовый г. За.городом жить (в пригородной местности), 3d город поехать (в пригороднуюместность). За городом (вне города). 2. Центральная главная часть этогонаселенного пункта в отличие от окраин и пригородов (разг.). Из новогорайона приходится в магазин ездить в г. 3. В старину на Руси: огражденноестеной, валом поселение; крепость. Китай-г. (в центре Москвы). 4. ед.Городская местность в отличие от сельской, деревенской. Сельская молодежьстремится в г. 5. В игре в городки: площадка, на к- рой ставятся фигуры изгородков (см. городок в 3 знач.).* Вечный город - Рим. Что ни город, тоноров, что изба, то обычай - поел. о пестроте, несходстве мнений, привычек.II уменъш. городок, -дка, м. (к 1 знач.). II унт. городишко, -а, м. (к 1знач.). II прил. городской, -ая, -ое (к 1,2 и 4 знач.) и городовой, -ая, -ое(к 1 знач.; устар.). Городское хозяйство. Городской сад. Городская черта(граница города). Городовое положение (устав о городском управлении).

93. class • mate BrE / ˈklɑːsmeɪt / NAmE / ˈklæsmeɪt / noun EXAMPLE BANK a person who is or was in the same class as you at school or college ОДНОКЛАССНИК ОДНОКЛАССНИК, -а, м. Ученик того же класса, в к-ром кто-н. учится,учился. Мы с ним одноклассники. II ж. одноклассница, -ы.

94. cli • ent BrE / ˈklaɪənt / NAmE / ˈklaɪənt / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who uses the services or advice of a professional person or organization a lawyer with many famous clients to act on behalf of a client Social workers must always consider the best interests of their clients. 2 ( computing ) a computer that is linked to a server КЛИЕНТ КЛИЕНТ, -а, м. 1. Лицо, пользующееся ус-лугами адвоката, нотариуса,банка. 2. Тот, кого обслуживают (в 1 знач.); посетитель, заказчик. К.ателье, парикмахерской, мастерской. II ж. клиентка, -и. II прил. клиентский,-ая,-ое.

95. clois • ter BrE / ˈklɔɪstə(r) / NAmE / ˈklɔɪstər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , usually plural ] a covered passage with arches around a square garden, usually forming part of a cathedral , convent or monastery 2 [ singular ] life in a convent or monastery the calm of the cloister МОНАСТЫРЬ МОНАСТЫРЬ, -я, м. 1. Религиозная община монахов или монахинь, представляющая собой отдельную церковно-хозяй-ственную организацию. Мужскойм. Женский м. 2. Территория, храм и все помещения такой общины. М. на берегуозера. Ограда монастыря. * В чужой монастырь со своим уставом не ходят -посл. о том, что в чужом месте не следует наводить свои порядки. Подвестипод монастырь кого (прост.) - подвести под неприятность, наказание. II прил.монастырский, -ая, -ое.

96. co • ali • tion BrE / ˌkəʊəˈlɪʃn / NAmE / ˌkoʊəˈlɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable + singular or plural verb ] a government formed by two or more political parties working together to form a coalition a two-party coalition a coalition government

107

2 [ countable + singular or plural verb ] a group formed by people from several different groups, especially political ones, agreeing to work together for a particular purpose a coalition of environmental and consumer groups 3 [ uncountable ] the act of two or more groups joining together They didn't rule out coalition with the Social Democrats. КОАЛИЦИЯ КОАЛИЦИЯ, -и, ж. (книжн). Объединение, союз (государств, партий) длядостижения общей цели. II прил. коалиционный, -ая, -ое. Коалиционноеправительство.

97. cock • tail BrE / ˈkɒkteɪl / NAmE / ˈkɑːkteɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a drink usually made from a mixture of one or more spirits (= strong alcoholic drinks) and fruit juice. It can also be made without alcohol a cocktail bar/cabinet/lounge 2 [ countable , uncountable ] a dish of small pieces of food, usually served cold a prawn/shrimp cocktail fruit cocktail 3 [ countable ] a mixture of different substances, usually ones that do not mix together well a lethal cocktail of drugs see also Molotov cocktail КОКТЕЙЛЬ КОКТЕЙЛЬ [тэ], -я, м. Напиток - смесь вина, сока с пряностями, сахаром;вообще смесь напитков с каким-н. добавками. Молочный к. (смесь фруктовогосока с молоком). * Кислородный коктейль - лечебная смесь, насыщеннаякислородом.

98. co • in • ci • dence BrE / kəʊˈɪnsɪdəns / NAmE / koʊˈɪnsɪdəns / noun WORD ORIGIN SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] the fact of two things happening at the same time by chance, in a surprising way a strange/an extraordinary/a remarkable coincidence What a coincidence! I wasn't expecting to see you here. It's not a coincidence that none of the directors are women (= it did not happen by chance) . By (sheer) coincidence , I met the person we'd been discussing the next day. 2 [ singular ] ( formal ) the fact of things being present at the same time the coincidence of inflation and unemployment 3 [ singular ] ( formal ) the fact of two or more opinions, etc. being the same a coincidence of interests between the two partners СОВПАДЕНИЕ СОВПАДЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. совпасть. 2. Случайная совмещенностькаких-н. событии, явлений. Неожиданное с. Я не хотел прийти вместе с ним:это просто с.

99. col • lo • quium BrE / kəˈləʊkwiəm / NAmE / kəˈloʊkwiəm / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. col • lo • quia / BrE kəˈləʊkwiə ; NAmE kəˈloʊkwiə / ) a formal academic seminar or conference КОЛЛОКВИУМ КОЛЛОКВИУМ, -а, м. 1. Беседа преподавателя со студентами с цельювыяснения их знаний. К. по химии. 2. Научное собрание с обсуждением докладовна определенную тему. К. геологов.

100. com • bin • ation BrE / ˌkɒmbɪˈneɪʃn / NAmE / ˌkɑːmbɪˈneɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] two or more things joined or mixed together to form a single unit His treatment was a combination of surgery, radiation and drugs. What an unusual combination of flavours! Technology and good management. That's a winning combination (= one that will certainly be successful) . Many course combinations are possible. 2 [ uncountable ] the act of joining or mixing together two or more things to form a single unit The firm is working on a new product in combination with several overseas partners. These paints can be used individually or in combination. 3 [ countable ] a series of numbers or letters used to open a combination lock I can't remember the combination. 4 combinations ( BrE ) [ plural ] a piece of underwear covering the body and legs, worn in the past СОЧЕТАНИЕ

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СОЧЕТАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. сочетать, -ся. 2. Соединение, расположениечего-н., образующее единство, целое. С. звуков. Красивое с. цветов. * Всочетании с кем-чем, в знач. предлога с те. п. - вместе, рядом с кем-чем-н.Талант в сочетании с работоспособностью.

101. com • mis • sion • aire BrE / kəˌmɪʃəˈneə(r) / NAmE / kəˌmɪʃəˈner / noun WORD ORIGIN ( BrE , becoming old-fashioned ) a person in uniform whose job is to stand at the entrance to a hotel, etc. and open the door for visitors, find them taxis, etc. see also doorman ШВЕЙЦАР ШВЕЙЦАР, -а, м. Сторож при подъезде (в учреждении, гостинице,ресторане, богатом доме). Звонок к швейцару (у входной двери). II прил.швейцарский, -ая, -ое

102. com • pas • sion BrE / kəmˈpæʃn / NAmE / kəmˈpæʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ~ (for sb) a strong feeling of sympathy for people who are suffering and a desire to help them to feel/show compassion She was known as a hard woman with no compassion, no emotion. In an overworked doctor, feelings of compassion are soon lost. СОСТРАДАНИЕ СОСТРАДАНИЕ, -я, ср. Жалость, сочувствие, вызываемые чьим-н.несчастьем, горем. С. к сиротам. Сделать что-н. из сострадания.

103. com • prom • ise noun, verb BrE / ˈkɒmprəmaɪz / NAmE / ˈkɑːmprəmaɪz / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] an agreement made between two people or groups in which each side gives up some of the things they want so that both sides are happy at the end After lengthy talks the two sides finally reached a compromise . In any relationship, you have to make compromises . a compromise solution/agreement/candidate 2 [ countable ] ~ (between A and B) a solution to a problem in which two or more things cannot exist together as they are, in which each thing is reduced or changed slightly so that they can exist together This model represents the best compromise between price and quality. 3 [ uncountable ] the act of reaching a compromise Compromise is an inevitable part of life. There is no prospect of compromise in sight. КОМПРОМИСС КОМПРОМИСС, -а, м. Соглашение на основе взаимных уступок. Пойти на к.II прил. компромиссный, -ая, -ое. Компромиссное решение.

104. con • cu • bine BrE / ˈkɒŋkjubaɪn / NAmE / ˈkɑːŋkjubaɪn / noun WORD ORIGIN (especially in some societies in the past) a woman who lives with a man, often in addition to his wife or wives, but who is less important than they are The sultan's wives and concubines lived in the harem. НАЛОЖНИЦА НАЛОЖНИЦА. -ы, ж. (устар.). То же, что любовница (во 2 знач.).

105. con • stancy BrE / ˈkɒnstənsi / NAmE / ˈkɑːnstənsi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) 1 the quality of staying the same and not changing the constancy of temperature inside the plane 2 ( approving ) the quality of being faithful fidelity He admired her courage and constancy. ПОСТОЯНСТВО ПОСТОЯНСТВО, -а, ср. 1. см. постоянный. 2. Неизменность в каком-н.отношении ка-ких-н. свойств, качеств, элементов (спец.). Закон постоянствасостава (химического соединения). 3. Верность, твердость во взглядах,чувствах. П. в любви, в дружбе.

106. con • fetti BrE / kənˈfeti / 109

NAmE / kənˈfeti / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] small pieces of coloured paper that people often throw at weddings over people who have just been married, or (in the US) at other special events КОНФЕТТИ КОНФЕТТИ, нескл., ср. Разноцветные бумажные кружочки, к-рыми осыпаютдруг друга на балах, маскарадах.

107. con • nec • tion ( BrE also old-fashioned con • nex • ion ) BrE / kəˈnekʃn / NAmE / kəˈnekʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK LINK 1 [ countable ] something that connects two facts, ideas, etc. link ~ (between A and B) Scientists have established a connection between cholesterol levels and heart disease. His resignation must have some connection with the recent scandal. ~ (with sth) a direct/close/strong connection with sth How did you make the connection (= realize that there was a connection between two facts that did not seem to be related) ?

BEING CONNECTED 2 [ uncountable , countable ] ~ (to sth) the act of connecting or the state of being connected Connection to the gas supply was delayed for three days. I'm having problems with my Internet connection. IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 3 [ countable ] a point, especially in an electrical system, where two parts connect A faulty connection caused the machine to stop. TRAIN/BUS/PLANE 4 [ countable ] a train, bus or plane at a station or an airport that a passenger can take soon after getting off another in order to continue their journey We arrived in good time for the connection to Paris. I missed the connection by five minutes. 5 [ countable , usually plural ] a means of travelling to another place There are good bus and train connections between the resort and major cities. PERSON/ORGANIZATION 6 [ countable , usually plural ] a person or an organization that you know and that can help or advise you in your social or professional life contact One of my business connections gave them my name. DISTANT RELATIVES 7 connections [ plural ] people who are your relatives, but not members of your close family She is British but also has German connections. a network of family connections in Italy in connection with sb/sth for reasons connected with sb/sth A man has been arrested in connection with the murder of the teenager. I am writing to you in connection with your recent job application. in this/that connection ( formal ) for reasons connected with sth recently mentioned СВЯЗЬ СВЯЗЬ, -и, о связи, в связи и в связи, ж. 1. (в связи). Отношениевзаимной зависимости, обусловленности, общности между чем-н. С. теории ипрактики. Причинная с. 2. (в связи). Тесное общение между кем-чем-н.Дружеская с. Укреплять международные связи. 3. (в связи и в связи). Любовныеотношения, сожительство. Любовная с. Быть в связи с кем-н. 4. мн. Близкоезнакомство с кем-н., обеспечивающее поддержку, покровительство, выгоду.Иметь связи во влиятельных кругах. Большие связи. 5. (в связи). Сообщение скем-чем-н., а также средства, к-рые дают возможность сноситься, сообщаться.Космическая с. Живая с. (через связных). Воздушная с. Междугороднаятелефонная с. 6. (в связи). Отрасль народного хозяйства, относящаяся ксредствам такого сообщения (почта, телеграф, телефон, радио), а такжесовокупности таких средств, сосредоточенные в соответствующих учреждениях.Служба связи. Работники связи. 7. (в связи), обычно мн. Часть строительнойконструкции, соединяющая ее основные элементы (спец.). * В связи с чем,предлог с те. п. - вследствие чего-н., из-за чего-н., будучи обусловленочем-н. Опоздание в связи с заносами. В связи с тем что, союз - по тойпричине что, на основании того что. Осведомился, в связи с тем что нужныточные сведения.

108. con • stancy BrE / ˈkɒnstənsi / NAmE / ˈkɑːnstənsi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) 1 the quality of staying the same and not changing the constancy of temperature inside the plane 2 ( approving ) the quality of being faithful fidelity He admired her courage and constancy. ПОСТОЯНСТВО ПОСТОЯНСТВО, -а, ср. 1. см. постоянный. 2. Неизменность в каком-н.отношении ка-ких-н. свойств, качеств, элементов (спец.). Закон постоянствасостава (химического соединения). 3. Верность, твердость во взглядах,чувствах. П. в любви, в дружбе. 110

109. con • tin • ent BrE / ˈkɒntɪnənt / NAmE / ˈkɑːntɪnənt / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] one of the large land masses of the earth such as Europe, Asia or Africa the continent of Africa the African continent 2 the Continent [ singular ] ( BrE ) the main part of the continent of Europe, not including Britain or Ireland We're going to spend a weekend on the Continent. КОНТИНЕНТ КОНТИНЕНТ, -а, м. То же, что материк. II прил. континентальный, -ая,-ое. К. климат (характерный для внутренних частей материков).

110. con • veni • ence BrE / kənˈviːniəns / NAmE / kənˈviːniəns / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] the quality of being useful, easy or suitable for sb We have provided seats for the convenience of our customers. For (the sake of) convenience , the two groups have been treated as one in this report. The position of the house combines quietness and convenience. In this resort you can enjoy all the comfort and convenience of modern tourism. compare inconvenience see also flag of convenience , marriage of convenience 2 [ countable ] something that is useful and can make things easier or quicker to do, or more comfortable It was a great convenience to have the school so near. The house had all the modern conveniences (= central heating, etc.) that were unusual at that time. see also public convenience at sb's conˈvenience ( formal ) at a time or a place which is suitable for sb Can you telephone me at your convenience to arrange a meeting? more at at your earliest convenience at early adj. УДОБСТВО УДОБСТВО, -а. ср. 1. ей. удобный. 3. обычно л<н. Приспособление,оборудование, делающее что-н. удобным, благоустроенным. Квартира со всемиудобствами.

111. coop • er BrE / ˈkuːpə(r) / NAmE / ˈkuːpər / noun WORD ORIGIN a person who makes barrels БОНДАРЬ БОНДАРЬ, -я и БОНДАРЬ, -я, м. Мастер, изготовляющий из деревянныхпланок крупную посуду (бочки, кадки, лоханки). II прил. бондарский,-ая,-ое ибондарский, -ая, -ое.

112. corn BrE / kɔːn / NAmE / kɔːrn / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a tall plant grown for its large yellow grains that are used for making flour or eaten as a vegetable; the grains of this plant see also corncob , corn on the cob УКУРУЗА КУКУРУЗА, -ы, ж. Злак с толстым стеблем и крупными съедобными желтымизернами, собранными в початок, а также зерна этого растения. II прил.кукурузный, -ая, -ое. Кукурузная мука. Кукурузные хлопья.

113. cor • ri • dor BrE / ˈkɒrɪdɔː(r) / NAmE / ˈkɔːrɪdɔːr / NAmE / ˈkɑːrɪdɔːr / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 ( NAmE also hall • way ) a long narrow passage in a building, with doors that open into rooms on either side His room is along the corridor. See picture 2 a passage on a train 3 a long narrow strip of land belonging to one country that passes through the land of another country; a part of the sky over a country that planes, for example from another country, can fly through see also air corridor 4 a long narrow strip of land that follows the course of an important road or river 111

the electronics industry in the M4 corridor the corridors of ˈpower ( sometimes humorous ) the higher levels of government, where important decisions are made КОРИДОР КОРИДОР, -а,м. 1. Проход (обычно узкий, длинный), соединяющий отдельныечасти квартиры, здания. 2. перен. Узкое, длинное пространство, соединяющеесобой что-н., проход. Горный к. Воздушный к. (полоса пролета для самолетов).* В коридорах власти (книжн.) - в кругах, близких к властям, кправительству. II прил. коридорный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). Коридорная система(расположение комнат, жилых помещений вдоль большого коридора).

114. couch noun, BrE / kaʊtʃ / NAmE / kaʊtʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a long piece of furniture like a bed, especially in a doctor's office on the psychiatrist's couch ДИВАН ДИВАН, -а, м. Предмет мебели с длинным, на несколько человек сиденьем,со спинкой, ручками или валиками. Мягкий, жесткий д. Кожаный, клеенчатый,бархатный д. (по виду обивки). Угловой д. с двумя сиденьями, расположеннымипод углом друг к другу). Садовый д. (жесткий - деревянный илиметаллический). II уменьш. диванчик, -а, м. II прил. диванный, -ая, -ое.Диванные подушки. Диванная обивка.

115. co • quette BrE / kɒˈket / NAmE / koʊˈket / noun WORD ORIGIN ( literary , often disapproving ) a woman who behaves in a way that is intended to attract men flirt co • quet • tish / BrE kɒˈketɪʃ ; NAmE koʊˈketɪʃ / adjective a coquettish smile co • quet • tish • ly / BrE ; NAmE / adverb

КОКЕТКА КОКЕТКА, -И, ж. Женщина (редко также о мужчине), стремящаяся заинтересовать собой, понравиться своим поведением, нарядом. КОКЕТКА2 ,-и,ж. Отрезная часть одежды, закрывающая верх груди и спины. Платье на кокетке.

116. cross • roads BrE / ˈkrɒsrəʊdz / NAmE / ˈkrɔːsroʊdz / noun EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. cross • roads ) a place where two roads meet and cross each other At the next crossroads, turn right. ( figurative ) He has reached a career crossroads (= he must decide which way to go next in his career) . see also intersection , junction at a/the ˈcrossroads at an important point in sb's life or development РАСПУТЬЕ РАСПУТЬЕ, -я, род. мн. -тай, ср. Перекресток двух или нескольких дорог.На р. (также перен.: в раздумье о том, как действовать дальше, внерешительности).

117. . dac • tyl BrE / ˈdæktɪl / NAmE / ˈdæktɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN ( technical ) a unit of sound in poetry consisting of one strong or long syllable followed by two weak or short syllables ДАКТИЛЬ ДАКТИЛЬ, -я, м. Трехсложная стихотворная стопа с ударением на первомслоге. II прил. дактилический, -ая, -ое.

118. dale BrE / deɪl / NAmE / deɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( literary or dialect ) a valley, especially in northern England the Yorkshire Dales a typical dales house ДОЛИНА

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ДОЛИНА, -ы, ж. Удлиненная впадина (вдоль речного русла, среди гор).Речная, горная, равнинная д. Подводная д. (на дне моря), II прил. долинный,-ая, -ое. Долинные участки.

119. dan • delion BrE / ˈdændɪlaɪən / NAmE / ˈdændɪlaɪən / noun WORD ORIGIN a small wild plant with a bright yellow flower that becomes a soft white ball of seeds called a dandelion clock ОДУВАНЧИК ОДУВАНЧИК, -а, м. Травянистое растение сем. сложноцветных с желтымицветками и семенами на пушистых волосках, разносимых ветром. * Божийодуванчик (разг. шутл.; ирон.) - о тихом и слабом, обычно старом человеке.Старушка божий одуванчик. II прил. одуванчиковый, -ая, -ое.

120. data BrE / ˈdeɪtə / NAmE / ˈdeɪtə / BrE / ˈdɑːtə / NAmE / ˈdætə / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK ( used as a plural noun in technical English, when the singular is datum ) 1 [ uncountable , plural ] facts or information, especially when examined and used to find out things or to make decisions This data was collected from 69 countries. the analysis/interpretation of the data raw data (= that has not been analysed) demographical/historical/personal data ( technical ) These data show that most cancers are detected as a result of clinical follow-up. 2 [ uncountable ] information that is stored by a computer data retrieval (= ways of storing or finding information on a computer) ДАННЫЕ ДАННЫЕ, -ых. 1. Сведения, необходимые для какого-н. вывода, решения. Поофициальным данным. Цифровые д. 2. Свойства, способности, качества какусловия или основания для чего-н. Хорошие голосовые д. Иметь все д. длянаучного роста.

121. dea • con BrE / ˈdiːkən / NAmE / ˈdiːkən / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 (in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox Churches) a religious leader just below the rank of a priest 2 (in some Nonconformist Churches) a person who is not a member of the clergy , but who helps a minister with church business affairs ДЬЯКОН ДЬЯКОН, -а, мн. -ы, -ов и -а, -ов, м. В православной церкви: низшийдуховный сан, помощник священника при совершении церковной службы. II ж.дьяконесса [нэ], -ы (в англиканской церкви). II прил. дьяконский, -ая, -ое.

122. de • bate noun, verb BrE / dɪˈbeɪt / NAmE / dɪˈbeɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] ~ (on/about/over sth) 1 a formal discussion of an issue at a public meeting or in a parliament. In a debate two or more speakers express opposing views and then there is often a vote on the issue a debate on abortion The minister opened the debate (= was the first to speak) . The motion under debate (= being discussed) was put to a vote. After a long debate, Congress approved the proposal. 2 an argument or discussion expressing different opinions a heated/wide-ranging/lively debate the current debate about tax There had been much debate on the issue of childcare. Whether he deserves what has happened to him is open to debate/a matter for debate (= cannot be certain or decided yet) . The theatre's future is a subject of considerable debate. ДЕБАТЫ ДЕБАТЫ, -ов (книжн.). Прения, обсуждение вопроса. Парламентские д.

123. dec • ath • lon BrE / dɪˈkæθlən / NAmE / dɪˈkæθlən / noun WORD ORIGIN a sporting event in which people compete in ten different sports 113

compare biathlon , heptathlon , pentathlon , tetrathlon , triathlon ДЕСЯТИБОРЬЕ ДЕСЯТИБОРЬЕ, -я, ср. Спортивное состязание по десяти видам легкойатлетики.

124. dec • or • ation BrE / ˌdekəˈreɪʃn / NAmE / ˌdekəˈreɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , usually plural ] a thing that makes sth look more attractive on special occasions Christmas decorations a table decoration 2 [ uncountable , countable ] a pattern, etc. that is added to sth and that stops it from being plain the elaborate decoration on the carved wooden door 3 [ uncountable ] the style in which sth is decorated a Chinese theme in the interior decoration 4 [ uncountable ] ( BrE ) the act or process of decorating sth such as the inside of a house by painting it, etc. 5 [ countable ] a medal that is given to sb as an honour His jacket was heavy with military decorations. BrE / dɪˈfendə(r) / NAmE / dɪˈfendər / noun WORD ORIGIN a person who defends and believes in protecting sth a passionate defender of human rights УКРАШЕНИЕ УКРАШЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. украсить. 2. Предмет, украшающий собойкого-что-н. Украшения из золота. Елочные украшения. 3. перен., чего. О том,кто (что) является лучшим среди других, гордостью (в 3 знач.). Этафигуристка o- у. команды. Новая пьеса - у, всего репертуара.

125. deity BrE / ˈdeɪəti / NAmE / ˈdeɪəti / BrE / ˈdiːəti / NAmE / ˈdiːəti / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. deities ) 1 [ countable ] a god or goddess Greek/Roman/Hindu deities 2 the Deity [ singular ] ( formal ) God БОЖЕСТВО БОЖЕСТВО, -а, ср. 1. То же, что бог. Языческие божества. 2; перен.Предмет обожания, преклонения. Она его б.

126. dell BrE / del / NAmE / del / noun WORD ORIGIN ( literary ) a small valley with trees growing in or around it ЛОЩИНА ЛОЩИНА, -ы, ж. Долина с пологими склонами. II уменьш. лощинка, -и, ж.II прил. лощинный, -ая, -ое.

127. de • lu • sion BrE / dɪˈluːʒn / NAmE / dɪˈluːʒn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a false belief or opinion about yourself or your situation the delusions of the mentally ill Don't go getting delusions of grandeur (= a belief that you are more important than you actually are) . He was suffering from paranoid delusions and hallucinations. Love can be nothing but a delusion. 2 [ uncountable ] the act of believing or making yourself believe sth that is not true He seems to have retreated into a world of fear and delusion. ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЕ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Состояние того, кто заблуждается, ошибается.Ввести в з. Впасть в з. 2. Ложное мнение. Распространенное з.

128. de • mise BrE / dɪˈmaɪz / NAmE / dɪˈmaɪz / noun WORD ORIGIN 114

EXAMPLE BANK [ singular ] 1 the end or failure of an institution, an idea, a company, etc. 2 ( formal or humorous ) death his imminent/sudden/sad demise СМЕРТЬ СМЕРТЬ, -и, мн. -и, -ей, ж. 1. Прекращение жизнедеятельности организма.Клиническая с. (короткий период после прекращения дыхания и сердечнойдеятельности, в к-рый еще сохраняется жизнеспособность тканей).Биологическая с. (необратимое прекращение биологических процессов в клеткахи тканях организма). Насильственная с. (убийство). Скоропостижная с.Погибнуть смертью героя. Быть при смерти. (умирать). Смерти в глаза смотреть(смерть близка; высок.). Его (тебя) только за смертью посылать (о том, ктовыполняет поручение медленно, с большой задержкой; разг. неодобр, и шутл.).Своей смертью умереть (умереть естественной смертью). Двум смертям небывать, а одной не миновать (поел.). Бледен как с. (очень бледен). 2. перен.Конец, полное прекращение ка-кой-н. деятельности. Политическая с. Творческаянеудача для него - с.З.в знач. сказ. и нареч. Очень, в высшей степени, оченьмного, ужас (в 5 знач.) (прост.). Народу с. сколько! Устали с.! С. питьхочется. * Смерть как (какой) (прост.) - то же, что ужас как (какой). Смертькак устал. С. какой голодный. До смерти (разг.) - очень, крайне. Устал досмерти. II прил. смертельный, -ая, -ое и смертный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.;устар. и высок.). Смертельный исход болезни. Смертельный случай. Смертныйчас. На смертном одре (об умирающем).

129. dem • on • stra • tor BrE / ˈdemənstreɪtə(r) / NAmE / ˈdemənstreɪtər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who takes part in a public meeting or march in order to protest against sb/sth or to show support for sb/sth Troops opened fire on the demonstrators. pro-democracy demonstrators 2 a person whose job is to show or explain how sth works or is done He works as a demonstrator in anatomy at Wolfson College. ДЕМОНСТРАНТ ДЕМОНСТРАНТ, -а, м. Участник демонстрации (во 2 знач.). II ж.демонстрантка, -и. ДЕМОНСТРАТИВНЫЙ, -ая, -ое; -вен, -вна. 1. Совершаемый сцелью демонстрации (в 5 знач.). Д. отказ от чего-н. Демонстративно (нареч.)покинуть собрание. 2. Являющийся демонстрацией (в 4 знач.). Д. маневр.

130. de • odor • ant BrE / diˈəʊdərənt / NAmE / diˈoʊdərənt / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] a substance that people put on their bodies to prevent or hide unpleasant smells (a) roll-on deodorant see also antiperspirant ДЕЗОДОРАНТ ДЕЗОДОРАНТ, -а, м. Средство для поглощения неприятных запахов. II прил.дезо-дорантный, -ая, -ое.

131. depth BrE / depθ / NAmE / depθ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK MEASUREMENT 1 [ countable , uncountable ] the distance from the top or surface to the bottom of sth What's the depth of the water here? Water was found at a depth of 30 metres. They dug down to a depth of two metres. Many dolphins can dive to depths of 200 metres. The oil well extended several hundreds of feet in depth . the depth of a cut/wound/crack 2 [ countable , uncountable ] the distance from the front to the back of sth The depth of the shelves is 30 centimetres. OF FEELINGS 3 [ uncountable ] the strength and power of feelings the depth of her love OF KNOWLEDGE 4 [ uncountable ] ( approving ) the quality of knowing or understanding a lot of details about sth; the ability to provide and explain these details a writer of great wisdom and depth a job that doesn't require any great depth of knowledge His ideas lack depth. DEEPEST PART 5 [ countable , usually plural ] the deepest, most extreme or serious part of sth the depths of the ocean to live in the depths of the country (= a long way from a town) in the depths of winter (= when it is coldest) She was in the depths of despair He gazed into the depths of her eyes. Her paintings reveal hidden depths (= unknown and interesting things about her character) . 115

OF COLOUR 6 [ uncountable ] the strength of a colour Strong light will affect the depth of colour of your carpets and curtains.

PICTURE/PHOTOGRAPH 7 [ uncountable ] ( technical ) the quality in a work of art or a photograph which makes it appear not to be flat see also deep ˌin ˈdepth in a detailed and thorough way I haven't looked at the report in depth yet. an in-depth study be out of your ˈdepth 1 ( BrE ) to be in water that is too deep to stand in with your head above water If you can't swim, don't go out of your depth. 2 to be unable to understand sth because it is too difficult; to be in a situation that you cannot control He felt totally out of his depth in his new job. more at plumb the depths at plumb v. ГЛУБИНА ГЛУБИНА, -ы, мн. -ины, -ин, ж. 1. Протяженность, расстояние отповерхности до дна или до какой-н. точки по направлению вниз. На глубине 200метров. Г. колодиа. 2. Место на дне водоема, большого углубления. Морскиеглубины. Глубины мироздания (перен.). 3. чего. Пространство, расположенноевглубь от границы, от края чего-н. В глубине леса, сада. В глубине зала. 4.перен., чего. Сила, степень проявления чего-н.; основательность. Г. идеи,чувства, знаний. * В глубине веков (книжн.) - в далекой древности. Изглубины веков (книжн.) - из далекой древности. В глубине души - глубоко всознании. Из глубины души - о проявлении скрытых переживаний. До глубиныдуши (тронут, удивлен, огорчен, возмущен кто-н.) - очень, чрезвычайно. IIприл. глубинный, -ая, -ое (к 1, 2 и 3 знач.). Глубинная бомба (противподводных лодок, якорных и донных мин).

132. de • sert • er BrE / dɪˈzɜːtə(r) / NAmE / dɪˈzɜːrtər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a person who leaves the army, navy, etc. without permission (= deserts ) ДЕЗЕРТИР ДЕЗЕРТИР, -а, м. Тот, кто дезертировал. II прил. дезертирский, -ая,-ое.

133. des • troy • er BrE / dɪˈstrɔɪə(r) / NAmE / dɪˈstrɔɪər / noun 1 a small fast ship used in war, for example to protect larger ships 2 a person or thing that destroys Sugar is the destroyer of healthy teeth. ЭСМИНЕЦ ЭСМИНЕЦ, -нца, м. Сокращение: эскадренный миноносец.

134. de • tect • or BrE / dɪˈtektə(r) / NAmE / dɪˈtektər / noun a piece of equipment for discovering the presence of sth, such as metal, smoke, explosives or changes in pressure or temperature a smoke detector ДЕТЕКТОР ДЕТЕКТОР [дэтэ], -а, м. 1. В радиотехнике: устройство дляпреобразования электрических колебаний. 2. Физический при-бор дляоонаружения радиоактивного или теплового излучения, а также различныхчастиц(во 2 знач.). * Детектор лжи - специальное устройство для проверкипсихического состояния допрашиваемого, испытуемого. II прил. детекторный,-ая, -ое.

135. de • vel • op • er BrE / dɪˈveləpə(r) / NAmE / dɪˈveləpər / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a person or company that buys land or buildings in order to build new houses, shops/stores, etc, or to improve the old ones, and makes a profit from doing this property developers 2 [ countable ] a person or a company that designs and creates new products a software developer 3 [ uncountable ] a chemical substance that is used for developing photographs from a film РАЗРАБОТЧИК РАЗРАБОТЧИК, -а, м. Специалист, занимающийся разработкой схемы, механизма, аппаратуры. Р. электрооборудования.

136. dia • betes BrE / ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz / NAmE / ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a medical condition which makes the patient produce a lot of urine and feel very thirsty. There are several types of diabetes . ДИАБЕТ 116

ДИАБЕТ, -а, м. Название ряда заболеваний, вызванных нарушением обменавеществ. Сахарный д. (сопровождающийся выделением сахара в моче). II прил.диабетический, -ая,-ое.

137. diary BrE / ˈdaɪəri / NAmE / ˈdaɪəri / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS WHICH WORD? EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. diaries ) 1 ( BrE ) ( NAmE date • book ) a book with spaces for each day of the year in which you can write down things you have to do in the future See picture a desk diary I'll make a note of our next meeting in my diary. 2 a book in which you can write down the experiences you have each day, your private thoughts, etc Do you keep a diary (= write one regularly) ? The writer's letters and diaries are being published next year. see also journal , video diary ДНЕВНИК ДНЕВНИК, -а, м. I. Записи о каждодневных делах, текущих событиях,ведущиеся изо дня в день. Вести д. Д. экспедиции. 2. Ученическая тетрадь длязаписи заданных уроков и для отметок об успеваемости и поведении. II прил.дневниковый, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

138. diet noun, verb BrE / ˈdaɪət / NAmE / ˈdaɪət / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] the food that you eat and drink regularly to have a healthy, balanced diet the Japanese diet of rice, vegetables and fish to receive advice on diet 2 [ countable ] a limited variety or amount of food that you eat for medical reasons or because you want to lose weight; a time when you only eat this limited variety or amount a low-fat, salt-free diet diet drinks (= with fewer calories than normal) I decided to go on a diet (= to lose weight) before my holiday. 3 [ singular ] a ~ of sth ( disapproving ) a large amount of a restricted range of activities Children today are brought up on a diet of television cartoons and soap operas.

139. diet • ary / BrE ˈdaɪətəri ; NAmE ˈdaɪəteri / adjective [ usually before noun ] dietary advice/changes/habits dietary fibre ПИТАНИЕ ПИТАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. питать, -ся. 2. Пища, характер и качество пищи.Молочное п. Детское п. Усиленное п. 3. Организация снабжения пищей.Общественное п. 4. перен. Энергия, топливо, необходимые для функционированиячего-н. (спец.). П. рации. Система питания двигателя.

140. di • lemma BrE / dɪˈlemə / NAmE / dɪˈlemə / BrE / daɪˈlemə / NAmE / daɪˈlemə / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a situation which makes problems, often one in which you have to make a very difficult choice between things of equal importance predicament to face a dilemma to be in a dilemma see on the horns of a dilemma at horn ДИЛЕММА ДИЛЕММА, -ы, ж. 1. Сочетание суждений, умозаключений с двумяпротивоположными положениями, исключающими возможность третьего (спец.). 2.Положение, при к-ром выбор одного из двух противоположных решений одинаковозатруднителен (книжн.). Стоять перед сложной дилеммой.

141. dio • rama BrE / ˌdaɪəˈrɑːmə / NAmE / ˌdaɪəˈrɑːmə / NAmE / ˌdaɪəˈræmə / noun WORD ORIGIN a model representing a scene with figures, especially in a museum 117

ДИОРАМА ДИОРАМА, -ы, ж. (спец.). 1. Картина, написанная с обеих сторон напросвечивающем материале. 2. Лентообразная, изогнутая полукругом картина срасположенными на переднем плане объемными предметами. Д. сражения. II прил.диорамный, -ая, -ое.

142. dirge BrE / dɜːdʒ / NAmE / dɜːrdʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a song sung in the past at a funeral or for a dead person 2 ( informal , disapproving ) any song or piece of music that is too slow and sad ПАНИХИДА ПАНИХИДА, -ы, ж. У христиан: церковная служба по умершему (во времяпохорон, а также на третий, девятый или сороковой день после смерти либо вгодовщину его смерти или рождения). Отслужить панихиду. Индивидуальная п.Общая п. Родительская п. * Гражданская панихида - траурные речи, посвященныепамяти умершего возле гроба или урны с прахом. II прил. панихидный, -ая,- ое. П. тон (перен.: печальный).

143. dis • ciple BrE / dɪˈsaɪpl / NAmE / dɪˈsaɪpl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who believes in and follows the teachings of a religious or political leader follower a disciple of the economist John Maynard Keynes 2 (according to the Bible) one of the people who followed Jesus Christ and his teachings when he was living on earth, especially one of the twelve Apostles УЧЕНИК УЧЕНИК, -а, х 1. Учащийся средней школы, профессионально-техническогоучилища. У. пятого класса. Первый у. (лучший). 2. Человек, к-рый учитсячему-н. у кого-н. У. мастера. У. слесаря. У. продавца. 3. Последователькакого-н. учения (во 2 знач.); тот, кто изучает, изучал что-н. подруководством кого-н. У. Станиславского. Достойный у. своего учителя. II ж.ученица, -ы. II прил. ученический, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2 знач.). Ученическаяпроизводственная бригада. Ученические годы (годы учебы).

144. drive noun BrE / draɪv / NAmE / draɪv / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK IN/OF VEHICLE 1 [ countable ] a journey in a car or other vehicle Let's go for a drive . a drive through the mountains It's a three-hour drive to London. 2 [ countable , uncountable ] the equipment in a vehicle that takes power from the engine to the wheels the drive shaft a car with four-wheel drive a left-/right-hand drive car (= a car where the driver and the controls are on the left/right) OUTSIDE HOUSE 3 ( also drive • way ) [ countable ] a wide hard path or a private road that leads from the street to a house There were two cars parked in/on the drive. See picture EFFORT 4 [ countable ] an organized effort by a group of people to achieve sth a recruitment/export/economy drive ~ for sth a drive for greater efficiency ~ to do sth the government's drive to reduce energy consumption

DESIRE/ENERGY 5 [ countable , uncountable ] a strong desire or need in people a strong sexual drive 6 [ uncountable ] ( approving ) a strong desire to do things and achieve sth; great energy He'll do very well—he has tremendous drive. IN SPORT 7 [ countable ] a long hard hit or kick She has a strong forehand drive (= in tennis ) . He scored with a brilliant 25-yard drive. COMPUTING 8 [ countable ] the part of a computer that reads and stores information on disks or tapes a 750GB hard drive a CD drive see also disk drive GAMES 9 [ countable ] ( BrE ) a social occasion when a lot of people compete in a game such as whist or bingo ANIMALS/ENEMY 10 [ countable ] an act of chasing animals or the enemy and making them go into a smaller area, especially in order to kill or capture them 118

ROAD 11 Drive ( abbr. Dr ) used in the names of roads 21 Island Heights Drive СТИМУЛ СТИМУЛ, -а, м. (книжн.). Побудительная причина, толчок (в 4 знач.);заинтересованность в совершении чего-н. С. для развития.

E 145. eagle BrE / ˈiːɡl / NAmE / ˈiːɡl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a large bird of prey (= a bird that kills other creatures for food) with a sharp curved beak and very good sight eagles soaring overhead see also bald eagle , golden eagle 2 ( in golf ) a score of two strokes less than the standard score for a hole (= two under par ) compare birdie , bogey ОРЕЛ ОРЕЛ, орла, м. 1. Крупная сильная хищная птица сем. ястребиных сизогнутым клювом, живущая в гористых или степных местностях. 2. перен. Огордом, смелом, сильном человеке. * Орел или решка? (разг.) - какой сторонойупадет монета? (вопрос при метании жребия) [первонач. о царской монете сизображением двуглавого орла]. II прил. орлиный, -ая, -ое. Орлиное гнездо.О. взор (гордый, смелый), б. нос (тонкий крючковатый нос).

146. ear • ring BrE / ˈɪərɪŋ / NAmE / ˈɪrɪŋ / noun EXAMPLE BANK a piece of jewellery that you fasten in or on your ear a pair of earrings СЕРЬГА СЕРЬГА, -и, мн. серьги, серег, серьгам и серьгам, ж. Украшение, обычнос драгоценным камнем, продеваемое в мочку уха. Бриллиантовые серьги. Всемсестрам по серьгам (поел.: всем, каждому досталось, каждый получил что-н.).II уменыи. сережка, -и, ж. Для милого дружка и сережка (сережку) из ушка(поел.).

147. ebb noun, verb BrE / eb / NAmE / eb / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK the ebb [ usually singular ] the period of time when the sea flows away from the land the ebb tide the ˌebb and ˈflow (of sth/sb) the repeated, often regular, movement from one state to another; the repeated change in level, numbers or amount the ebb and flow of the seasons She sat in silence enjoying the ebb and flow of conversation. He had known her long enough to recognize the ebb and flow of her moods. more at at a low ebb at low adj. ОТЛИВ ОТЛИВ, -а, м. 1. см. отлить1. 2. Периодически повторяющееся отступаниеграницы моря, океана. В часы отлива. II прил. отливный, -ая, -ое.

148. ecolo • gist BrE / iˈkɒlədʒɪst / NAmE / iˈkɑːlədʒɪst / noun 1 a scientist who studies ecology 2 a person who is interested in ecology and believes the environment should be protected ЭКОЛОГ ЭКОЛОГ, -а, м. Специалист по экологии.

149. ec • zema BrE / ˈeksɪmə / NAmE / ɪɡˈziːmə / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a skin condition in which areas of skin become red, rough and itchy ЭКЗЕМА ЭКЗЕМА [зэ], -ы, ж. Кожное нервно-аллергическое заболевание,сопровождающееся зудом и сыпью. К прил. экзематозный, -ая, -ое (спец.).

150. eel BrE / iːl / 119

NAmE / iːl / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] a long thin sea or freshwater fish that looks like a snake. There are several types of eel , some of which are used for food jellied eels УГОРЬ УГОРЬ, угря, мн. угри, -ей, м. Рыба со змеевидным телом. Отряд угрей.II прил. угревый, -ая, -ое.

151. egg • plant BrE / ˈeɡplɑːnt / NAmE / ˈeɡplænt / ( NAmE ) ( BrE au • ber • gine ) noun [ countable , uncountable ] a vegetable with shiny dark purple skin and soft white flesh БАКЛАЖАН БАКЛАЖАН, -а, род. мн, -ов, м. Огородное растение сем. пасленовых спродолговатым, обычно темно-фиолетовым плодом, а также плод его. II прил.баклажанный, -ая, -ое. Баклажанная икра.

152. edi • fi • ca • tion BrE / ˌedɪfɪˈkeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌedɪfɪˈkeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal or humorous ) the improvement of sb's mind or character The books were intended for the edification of the masses. НАЗИДАНИЕ НАЗИДАНИЕ, -я, ср. (книжн.) Наставление, поучение. Выслушивать назидания. В н. потомкам (устар. и ирон.).

153. elect • or BrE / ɪˈlektə(r) / NAmE / ɪˈlektər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a person who has the right to vote in an election ИЗБИРАТЕЛЬ ИЗБИРАТЕЛЬ, -я,м. Тот, кто участвует в выборах или имеет на это право.Встреча депутата с избирателями. II ж. избирательница, - ы. II прил.избирательский, -ая, -ое.

154. elec • tron BrE / ɪˈlektrɒn / NAmE / ɪˈlektrɑːn / noun WORD ORIGIN ( physics ) a very small piece of matter (= a substance) with a negative electric charge, found in all atoms see also neutron , proton ЭЛЕКТРОН ЭЛЕКТРОН, -а, м. (спец.). Элементарная частица с наименьшимотрицательным электрическим зарядом. II прил. электронный, ^ая, -ое.

155. elm BrE / elm / NAmE / elm / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ countable , uncountable ] ( also ˈelm tree ) a tall tree with broad leaves a line of stately elms The hedgerows were planted with elm. 2 [ uncountable ] the hard wood of the elm tree ВЯЗ ВЯЗ, -а, м. Большое лиственное дерево с прочной древесиной сем.ильмовых. II прил. вязовый, -ая, -ое.

156. em • bryo BrE / ˈembriəʊ / NAmE / ˈembrioʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. em • bryos ) a young animal or plant in the very early stages of development before birth, or before coming out of its egg or seed, especially a human egg in the first eight weeks after fertilization human embryos 120

( figurative ) the embryo of an idea an embryo politician (= one who is not yet very experienced) in embryo existing but not yet fully developed The idea already existed in embryo in his earlier novels. ЭМБРИОН ЭМБРИОН, -а, м, (спец.). Зародыш (в 1 знач.) на начальных стадияхразвития. II прил. эмбриональный, -ая, -ое и эмб-ряонный, -ая, oое (устар.).Эмбриональное развитие.

157. emo • tion BrE / ɪˈməʊʃn / NAmE / ɪˈmoʊʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] a strong feeling such as love, fear or anger; the part of a person's character that consists of feelings He lost control of his emotions. They expressed mixed emotions at the news. Emotions are running high (= people are feeling very excited, angry, etc.) . The decision was based on emotion rather than rational thought. She showed no emotion at the verdict. Mary was overcome with emotion. ЭМОЦИЯ ЭМОЦИЯ, -и, ж. Душевное переживание чувство. Положительные,отрицатеяьньи эмоции. Э. радости, 11 прил. эмоциональный, - ая, oое.Эмоциональное воздействие.

158. emu BrE / ˈiːmjuː / NAmE / ˈiːmjuː / noun WORD ORIGIN a large Australian bird that can run fast but cannot fly ЭМУ ЭМУ, нескл., м. Крупная австралийская птица, похожая на страуса.

159. en • clave BrE / ˈenkleɪv / NAmE / ˈenkleɪv / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK an area of a country or city where the people have a different religion, culture or nationality from those who live in the country or city that surrounds it АНКЛАВ АНКЛАВ, -а, м. (спец.). Часть территории государства, со всех сторонокруженная территорией других государств и не имеющая выхода к морю. IIприл. анклавный, -ая, -ое.

160. endo • crin • ology BrE / ˌendəʊkrɪˈnɒlədʒi / NAmE / ˌendoʊkrəˈnɑːlədʒi / noun [ uncountable ] ( medical ) the part of medicine concerning the endocrine system and hormones endo • crin • olo • gist / BrE ˌendəʊkrɪˈnɒlədʒɪst ; NAmE ˌendoʊkrəˈnɑːlədʒɪst / noun ЭНДОКРИНОЛОГИЯ ЭНДОКРИНОЛОГИЯ. -я. ж. Наука о железах внутренней секреции и оболезнях, связанных с нарушением их функций. II прил. эндокринологический,oая, -ое.

161. en • ergy BrE / ˈenədʒi / NAmE / ˈenərdʒi / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] the ability to put effort and enthusiasm into an activity, work, etc It's a waste of time and energy. She's always full of energy . nervous energy (= energy produced by feeling nervous) 2 energies [ plural ] the physical and mental effort that you use to do sth She put all her energies into her work. creative/destructive energies 3 [ uncountable ] a source of power, such as fuel, used for driving machines, providing heat, etc solar/nuclear energy It is important to conserve energy. 121

an energy crisis (= for example when fuel is not freely available) The £500 million programme is centred around energy efficiency and renewable power sources. 4 [ uncountable ] ( physics ) the ability of matter or radiation to work because of its mass, movement, electric charge, etc kinetic/potential, etc. energy ЭНЕРГИЯ ЭНЕРГИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Одно из основных свойств материи - мера ее движения,а также способность производить работу. Солнечная, тепловая, электрическая,механическая, ядерная э. Э. воды. Затрата энергии. 2. Решительность инастойчивость в действиях. Полон энергии кто-н. и ярид.энергетический,-ая,-ое (к 1 знач.).

162. en • ter • prise BrE / ˈentəpraɪz / NAmE / ˈentərpraɪz / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a company or business an enterprise with a turnover of $26 billion state-owned/public enterprises small and medium-sized enterprises 2 [ countable ] a large project, especially one that is difficult venture his latest business enterprise a joint enterprise The music festival is a new enterprise which we hope will become an annual event. 3 [ uncountable ] the development of businesses by the people of a country rather than by the government grants to encourage enterprise in the region an enterprise culture (= in which people are encouraged to develop small businesses) see also free enterprise , private enterprise 4 [ uncountable ] ( approving ) the ability to think of new projects and make them successful initiative a job in which enterprise is rewarded a man of enterprise Many hotels are showing enterprise and imagination by staging special events. ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕ ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Производственное или хозяйственное учреждение:завод, фабрика, мастерская. Крупное, мелкое п. Работать на предприятии. П.бытового обслуживания. Совместное п. (созданное на основе объединенияимущества учредителей). 2. Задуманное, предпринятое кем-н. дело (книжн.).Заманчивое п. Рискованное п.

163. fable BrE / ˈfeɪbl / NAmE / ˈfeɪbl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] a traditional short story that teaches a moral lesson, especially one with animals as characters; these stories considered as a group Aesop's Fables a land rich in fable 2 [ uncountable , countable ] a statement, or an account of sth, that is not true БАСНЯ БАСНЯ, -и, род. мн. -сен, ж. 1. Краткое иносказательное нравоучительноестихотворение, рассказ. 2. обычно мн. Вымысел, выдумка. 11 уменьш. басенка,-и, ж. (к 1 знач.). II прил. басенный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

164. fail • ure BrE / ˈfeɪljə(r) / NAmE / ˈfeɪljər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK NOT SUCCESSFUL 1 [ uncountable ] lack of success in doing or achieving sth The success or failure of the plan depends on you. The attempt was doomed to failure . All my efforts ended in failure . the problems of economic failure and increasing unemployment She is still coming to terms with the failure of her marriage. success 2 [ countable ] a person or thing that is not successful The whole thing was a complete failure. He was a failure as a teacher. A team learns from experience, both successes and failures. success NOT DOING STH 3 [ uncountable , countable ] ~ to do sth an act of not doing sth, especially sth that you are expected to do the failure of the United Nations to maintain food supplies Failure to comply with the regulations will result in prosecution. 122

His confession followed repeated failures to appear in court.

OF MACHINE/PART OF BODY 4 [ uncountable , countable ] the state of not working correctly or as expected; an occasion when this happens patients suffering from heart/kidney, etc. failure Production has been hampered by mechanical failure. A power failure plunged everything into darkness. The cause of the crash was given as engine failure. OF BUSINESS 5 [ countable , uncountable ] business ~ a situation in which a business has to close because it is not successful an alarming increase in business failures OF CROP/HARVEST 6 [ uncountable , countable ] crop/harvest ~ a situation in which crops do not grow correctly and do not produce food Bad weather has resulted in crop failure. ПРОВАЛ ПРОВАЛ, -а, м. 1. см. провалить, -ся. 2. Провалившееся место,углубление. Глубокий п. в горах. 3. Полная неудача в каком-н. деле. П.авантюры. Потерпеть п. 4. перен. Потеря восприятия окружающего, способностипонимать, ясно мыслить (при нек-рых болезнях, опьянении). П. памяти. IIприл. провальный, -ая, -ое (ко 2 знач.; спец.).

165. fal • setto BrE / fɔːlˈsetəʊ / NAmE / fɔːlˈsetoʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. fal • settos ) an unusually high voice, especially the voice that men use to sing very high notes ФАЛЬЦЕТ ФАЛЬЦЕТ, -а, м. В пении: очень высоких звук голоса (обычно мужского), атакже вообще очень тонкий

166. farce BrE / fɑːs / NAmE / fɑːrs / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] a funny play for the theatre based on ridiculous and unlikely situations and events; this type of writing or performance a bedroom farce (= a funny play about sex) 2 [ countable ] a situation or an event that is so unfair or badly organized that it becomes ridiculous The trial was a complete farce. ФАРС ФАРС, -а, м. 1. Театральная пьеса легкого, игривого содержания свнешними комическими эффектами. 2. перен. Нечто лицемерное, циничное. Грубыйф. II прил. фарсовый, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

167. fas • cism ( also Fascism ) BrE / ˈfæʃɪzəm / NAmE / ˈfæʃɪzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] an extreme right-wing political system or attitude which is in favour of strong central government and which does not allow any opposition ФАШИЗМ ФАШИЗМ, -а, м. Идеология воинствующего расизма, антисемитизма и шовинизма, опирающиеся на нее политические течения, а также открытаятеррористическая диктатура одной господствующей партии, созданный еюрепрессивный режим, направленный на подавление прогрессивных общественныхдвижений, на уничтожение демократии и развязывание войны. Победа надфашизмом. II прш. фашистский, -ая, -ое. Фашистская оккупация. Ф. режим.

168. fau • cet BrE / ˈfɔːsɪt / NAmE / ˈfɔːsɪt / ( NAmE ) ( BrE tap ) noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a device that controls the flow of water from a pipe the hot/cold faucet to turn a faucet on/off See picture КРАН КРАН , -а, м. 1. Запорное устройство в виде трубки для выпускажидкостей или газа из резервуара или трубопровода. Водопроводный, газовый к.Повернуть, открыть, закрыть к. 2. Прибор для управления тормозами. II прил.кранный, -ая, -ое.

169. fed • er • ation BrE / ˌfedəˈreɪʃn / NAmE / ˌfedəˈreɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 123

1 [ countable ] a country consisting of a group of individual states that have control over their own affairs but are controlled by a central government for national decisions, etc the Russian Federation 2 [ countable ] a group of clubs, trade/labor unions , etc. that have joined together to form an organization the International Tennis Federation 3 [ uncountable ] the act of forming a federation Many MPs are against federation in Europe. ФЕДЕРАЦИЯ ФЕДЕРАЦИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Союзное государство, состоящее из объединившихсягосударств или государственных образований, сохраняющих определеннуююридическую и политическую самостоятельность; соответствующая формагосударственного устройства. Российская Ф. 2. Союз отдельных обществ,организаций. Всемирная ф. демократической молодежи. Шахматная ф. II прш.федеративный, -ая, -ое и федеральный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). Федеративноеустройство. Федеративная единица. Федеральный канцлер.

170. felt BrE / felt / NAmE / felt / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a type of soft thick cloth made from wool or hair that has been pressed tightly together a felt hat see also feel , felt , felt v. ВОЙЛОК ВОЙЛОК, -a,м. Плотный толстый материал из валяной шерсти или изсинтетических волокон. II прил. войлочный, -ая, -ое. Войлочные стельки.

171. ferry noun, BrE / ˈferi / NAmE / ˈferi / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. ferries ) a boat or ship that carries people, vehicles and goods across a river or across a narrow part of the sea the cross-channel ferry service We caught the ferry at Ostend. the Dover-Calais ferry crossing the Staten Island ferry ПАРОМ ПАРОМ, -а, м. 1. Плоскодонное судно или плот для переправы через реку(озеро, пролив) людей, транспортных средств, грузов. Плыть на пароме. Речнойп. 2. Плавучее сооружение для перевозки пассажиров, транспортных средств,тяжелых грузов через водные преграды. Судно-п. Морской п. Самоходный п. IIприл. паромный, -ая, -ое. Паромная переправа. П. комплекс (плавучийжелезнодорожный мост).

172. fi • an • cée BrE / fiˈɒnseɪ / NAmE / ˌfiːɑːnˈseɪ / noun COLLOCATIONS the woman that a man is engaged to Paul and his fiancée were there. НЕВЕСТА НЕВЕСТА, -ы, ж. Девушка или женщина, вступающая в брак, а также (разг.)девушка, достигшая брачного возраста. Жених и н. У нее уже дочери невесты. *Христова невеста (устар. разг.) - о монашенке.

173. fiend BrE / fiːnd / NAmE / fiːnd / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a very cruel or unpleasant person 2 ( informal ) ( used after another noun ) a person who is very interested in the thing mentioned fanatic a crossword fiend 3 an evil spirit ИЗВЕРГ ИЗВЕРГ, -а, м. Жестокий человек, мучитель. * Изверг рода человеческого(разг., обычно бран.) - то же, что изверг.

174. fil • let noun, verb BrE / ˈfɪlɪt / NAmE / fɪˈleɪ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( NAmE also filet ) [ countable , uncountable ] a piece of meat or fish that has no bones in it 124

plaice fillets a fillet of cod fillet steak ФИЛЕ ФИЛЕ, нескл., ср. I. Мясо высшего сорта из хребтовой части туши,вырезка (в 3 знач.). 2. Кусок мяса или рыбы, очищенный от костей. Тресковоеф.я прил. филейный, oая, -ое.

175. fin • ery BrE / ˈfaɪnəri / NAmE / ˈfaɪnəri / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) brightly coloured and elegant clothes and jewellery, especially those that are worn for a special occasion The mayor was dressed in all his finery. НАРЯД НАРЯД, -а, м. 1. Одежда (в 1 знач.), костюм. Во всех нарядах хороша.Шутовской н. 2. Красивая нарядная одежда. Свадебный н. Только наряды на умеу кого-н. Осенний н. леса (перен.).

176. fire • brand BrE / ˈfaɪəbrænd / NAmE / ˈfaɪərbrænd / noun a person who is always encouraging other people to take strong political action, often causing trouble СМУТЬЯН СМУТЬЯН, -а,м. (разг. неодобр.). Человек, к-рый вносит смуту, раздоры.II ж. смутьянка, -и. II прил. смутьянский, -ая, -ое.

177. fire • work BrE / ˈfaɪəwɜːk / NAmE / ˈfaɪərwɜːrk / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a small device containing powder that burns or explodes and produces bright coloured lights and loud noises, used especially at celebrations : ( BrE ) to let off a few fireworks ( NAmE ) to set off a few fireworks a firework(s) display The firework spluttered and went out. 2 fireworks [ plural ] a display of fireworks When do the fireworks start? CULTURE 3 fireworks [ plural ] ( informal ) strong or angry words; exciting actions There'll be fireworks when he finds out! ФЕЙЕРВЕРК ФЕЙЕРВЕРК, -а, м. Во время торжеств, празднеств: высоко взлетающие изракеты (в 1 знач.) декоративные огни. Уапрошт ф. Рассыпаться фейерверком(также перен.: ярко, в разные стороны). Ф. слов (перен.: об излишнеммногословии). Я прш. фейерверочный, -ая, -ое. ФЕЙЕРВЕРКЕР, -а, л*. Вдореволюционной русской и нек-рых других армиях: звание военнослужащегомладшего начальствующего состава в артиллерии; лицо имеющее это звание.ФЕЛЛАХ, -а, м. В арабских странах: крестьянин-земледелец. 11 прил.феллахский, -ая, -ое.

178. fish noun, verb BrE / fɪʃ / NAmE / fɪʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. fish or fishes ) Fish is the usual plural form. The older form, fishes , can be used to refer to different kinds of fish. 1 [ countable ] a creature that lives in water, breathes through gills , and uses fins and a tail for swimming They caught several fish. tropical/marine/freshwater fish shoals (= groups) of fish a fish tank/pond There are about 30 000 species of fish in the world. The list of endangered species includes nearly 600 fishes. Fish stocks in the Baltic are in decline. In the pool she could see little silvery fish darting around. see also coarse fish , flatfish , sea fish , shellfish , wet fish 2 [ uncountable ] the flesh of fish eaten as food frozen/smoked/fresh fish fish pie The chef's fish dishes are his speciality. Fish forms the main part of their diet. a ˌfish out of ˈwater a person who feels uncomfortable or awkward because he or she is in surroundings that are not familiar have bigger/other fish to ˈfry to have more important or more interesting things to do neither ˌfish nor ˈfowl neither one thing nor another 125

The hovercraft has always suffered from the fact that it is neither fish nor fowl. an odd/a queer ˈfish ( old-fashioned , BrE ) a person who is slightly strange or crazy there are plenty more fish in the ˈsea there are many other people or things that are as good as the one sb has failed to get more at a big fish (in a small pond) at big adj. , a cold fish at cold adj. , a different kettle of fish at different , drink like a fish at drink v. , be like shooting fish in a barrel at shoot v. РЫБА РЫБА, -ы, ж. 1. Позвоночное водное животное с конечностями в видеплавников, дышащее жабрами. Хрящевые рыбы. Костные рыбы. Промысловая?.Морская, речная р. Нем как р. (молчит, ничего не говорит). лак р. в водечувствовать себя где-н. (непринужденно, хорошо; разг.). Ни р. ни мясо(перен.: о ком-чем-н. безличном, невыразительном; разг.). Как р. об ледбиться (мучительно искать выход из трудного положения; разг.). В мутной водерыбу ловить (перен.: извлекать выгоду для себя, пользуясь неясностьюобстановки, чьими-н. затруднениями; разг. неодобр.). 2. Часть туши (тушки)такого животного, употр. в пищу. Вареная, жареная, копченая р. Сырая р. Навторое - р. 3. перен. Вялый, холодный человек (разг.). 4. То, что сделано(собрано, соединено) для обмана (прост.). Вместо машинописи подсунули рыбу.II уменьш. рыбка, -и, ж. (к 1 и 2 знач,) и рыбонька, -и, ж. (к 1 знач.;ласковое обращение к женщине, ребенку; прост.). Рыбкой скользнуть (легко иплавно). 11 унич. рыбешка, -и, ж. (к 1 знач.). Мелкая р. (также перен.: онезначительном, невлиятельном человеке, людях; разг.). II прил.рыбный, -ая,-ое (к 1 и 2 знач.) и рыбий, -ья, -ье (к 1 и 3 знач.). Рыбная ловля. Рыбнаяпромышленность. Рыбный садок. Рыбный суп. Рыбный день (в к-рый готовятсярыбные, но не мясные блюда). Рыбий хвост. Рыбий жир (жидкий жир из печенитресковых рыб). Рыбья натура (холодная).

179. fist BrE / fɪst / NAmE / fɪst / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a hand when it is tightly closed with the fingers bent into the palm He punched me with his fist. She clenched her fists to stop herself trembling. He got into a fist fight in the bar. He banged a heavy fist on the table. see also ham-fisted , tight-fisted make a better, good, poor, etc. fist of sth ( BrE , old-fashioned , informal ) to make a good, bad, etc. attempt to do sth more at an iron fist/hand (in a velvet glove) at iron adj. , make/lose money hand over fist at money КУЛАК КУЛАК, -а, м. 1. Кисть руки со сжатыми пальцами. Тяжелый к. (сильный).Погрозить кулаком. Дело дошло до кулаков (до драки; разг.). Биться накулаках (кулаками, врукопашную). 2. перен. Сосредоточенная ударнаягруппировка войск. Собрать дивизию в к. Бронированный к. 3. Толкающее звенов нек-рых механизмах (спец.). II прил. кулачный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). К.бои. Кулачное право (перен.: произвол, грубая сила). II уменьш. кулачок,-чка, .м. (к 1 и 3 знач.). II прил. кулачковый, -ая, -ое (к 3 знач.).

180. flag noun, verb BrE / flæɡ / NAmE / flæɡ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a piece of cloth with a special coloured design on it that may be the symbol of a particular country or organization, or may have a particular meaning. A flag can be attached to a pole or held in the hand the Italian flag the flag of Italy The hotel flies the European Union flag . The American flag was flying . All the flags were at half mast (= in honour of a famous person who has died) . The black and white flag went down, and the race began. See picture see also blue flag 2 used to refer to a particular country or organization and its beliefs and values to swear allegiance to the flag He was working under the flag of the United Nations. 3 a piece of cloth that is attached to a pole and used as a signal or marker in various sports 4 a flower that is a type of iris and that grows near water yellow flags 5 = flagstone fly/show/wave the ˈflag to show your support for your country, an organization or an idea to encourage or persuade others to do the same keep the ˈflag flying to represent your country or organization Our exporters keep the flag flying at international trade exhibitions. more at like waving a red flag in front of a bull at red adj. ФЛАГ ФЛАГ, -а, м. Прикрепленное к древку или шнуру полотнище определенногоцвета или нескольких цветов, часто с эмблемой. Государственный ф. Российскийф. Андреевский ф. (кормовой флаг кораблей русского военного флота - белоеполотнище с голубым крестом, лежащим по диагонали). Корабль под иностраннымфлагом. Под-нять, спустить, вывесить ф. Белый ф. (парламентерский или знаккапитуляции). Сигнальный ф. Держать свой ф. где-н. (о морском командире:иметь пребывание на каком-н. корабле). Идти под флагом командующего эскадрой(имея на борту командующего, к-рому присвоен свои определенный флаг). Флагирасцвечивания (украшающие корабли в дни больших праздников). * Под флагомчего, в знач.. предло-га с род. п. - маскируясь, прикрывая чем-н. своиистинные цели, намерения. Под флагам доброжелательства. Остаться за флагом -не достигнуть цели, не быть допущенным куда-н. II прил. флажный, -ая, -ое ифлатовый, -ая, -ое. Флажный шест. Флажная сигнализация.

181. flash noun 126

BrE / flæʃ / NAmE / flæʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK LIGHT 1 [ countable ] a sudden bright light that shines for a moment and then disappears a flash of lightning Flashes of light were followed by an explosion. There was a blinding flash and the whole building shuddered. SIGNAL 2 [ countable ] the act of shining a light on sth, especially as a signal IN PHOTOGRAPHY 3 [ countable , uncountable ] a piece of equipment that produces a bright light for a very short time, used for taking photographs indoors, when it is dark, etc; the use of this when taking a photograph a camera with a built-in flash I'll need flash for this shot. flash photography OF BRIGHT COLOUR 4 [ countable ] ~ of sth the sudden appearance for a short time of sth bright a flash of white teeth On the horizon, she saw a flash of silver—the sea! SUDDEN IDEA/EMOTION 5 [ countable ] ~ of sth a particular feeling or idea that suddenly comes into your mind or shows in your face a flash of anger/inspiration, etc. When she looked at me, I caught a flash of recognition in her eyes. ‘Did you really win first prize?’ he said with a flash of genuine admiration. NEWS 6 [ countable ] = newsflash ON UNIFORM 7 [ countable ] ( BrE ) a band or small piece of cloth worn on a military uniform to show a person's rank ON BOOK/PACK 8 [ countable ] a band of colour or writing across a book, pack, etc. COMPUTING 9 Flash™ [ uncountable ] a program which creates moving images for websites a ˌflash in the ˈpan a sudden success that lasts only a short time and is not likely to be repeated He needed to prove that his success was not just a flash in the pan. in/like a ˈflash very quickly and suddenly The weekend seemed to be over in a flash. The answer came to me like a flash. more at quick as a flash at quick adv. ВОСПОМИНАНИЕ ВОСПОМИНАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Мысленное воспроизведение чего-н.сохранившегося в памяти. В. детства. Осталось одно в. от чего-н. (ничего неосталось; шутл.). 2. мм. Записки или рассказы о прошлом. Литературныевоспоминания. Вечер воспоминании.

182. flaut • ist BrE / ˈflɔːtɪst / NAmE / ˈflaʊtɪst / ( BrE ) ( NAmE flut • ist ) noun WORD ORIGIN a person who plays the flute ФЛЕЙТИСТ ФЛЕЙТИСТ, -а, м. Музыкант, играющий на флейте. II ж. флейтистка, -и.

183. flib • ber • ti • gib • bet BrE / ˈflɪbətidʒɪbɪt / NAmE / ˈflɪbərtidʒɪbɪt / BrE / ˌflɪbətiˈdʒɪbɪt / NAmE / ˌflɪbərtiˈdʒɪbɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN ( informal ) a person who is not serious enough or talks a lot about silly things БОЛТУН БОЛТУН, -а, м. (разг). Болтливый человек. II уменьш. болтунишка, -и, м.II ж. болтунья, -и, род. мн.

184. floor noun, verb BrE / flɔː(r) / NAmE / flɔːr / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS BRITISH/AMERICAN SYNONYMS WHICH WORD? 127

EXAMPLE BANK OF ROOM 1 [ countable , usually singular ] the surface of a room that you walk on a wooden/concrete/marble, etc. floor ceramic floor tiles The body was lying on the kitchen floor. The furniture and floor coverings date from the 1920s. The alterations should give us extra floor space. OF VEHICLE 2 ( NAmE also floor • board ) [ countable , usually singular ] the bottom surface of a vehicle The floor of the car was covered in cigarette ends. LEVEL OF BUILDING 3 [ countable ] all the rooms that are on the same level of a building Her office is on the second floor . the Irish guy who lives two floors above There is a lift to all floors. Their house is on three floors (= it has three floors) . see also ground floor OF THE SEA/FORESTS 4 [ countable , usually singular ] the ground at the bottom of the sea, a forest, etc the ocean/valley/cave/forest floor IN PARLIAMENT, ETC. 5 the floor [ singular ] the part of a building where discussions or debates are held, especially in a parliament; the people who attend a discussion or debate Opposition politicians registered their protest on the floor of the House. We will now take any questions from the floor. AREA FOR WORK 6 [ countable , usually singular ] an area in a building that is used for a particular activity on the floor of the Stock Exchange (= where trading takes place) see also dance floor , factory floor , shop floor FOR WAGES/PRICES 7 [ countable , usually singular ] the lowest level allowed for wages or prices Prices have gone through the floor (= fallen to a very low level) . compare ceiling ( 2 ) get/be given/have the ˈfloor to get/be given/have the right to speak during a discussion or debate ˌhold the ˈfloor to speak during a discussion or debate, especially for a long time so that nobody else is able to say anything She held the floor for over an hour. ˌtake (to) the ˈfloor to start dancing on a dance floor Couples took the floor for the last dance of the evening. wipe/mop the ˈfloor with sb ( informal ) to defeat sb completely in an argument or a competition more at be/get in on the ground floor at ground floor ПОЛ ПОЛ, -а (-у), о поле, на полу, мн. -ы, -ов, м. В доме, помещении:нижнее покрытие, настил. Паркетный п. Цементный, асфальтовый п. Земляной п.(утрамбованный грунт без настила). Натирать, мести, мыть п. До полу и допола. Рассыпать т полу. Упасть на п. Удариться об пол и об пол. II прил.половой, -ая, -ое. Половые доски. Половая щетка.

185. flower noun, verb BrE / ˈflaʊə(r) / NAmE / ˈflaʊər / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 the coloured part of a plant from which the seed or fruit develops. Flowers usually grow at the end of a stem and last only a short time The plant has a beautiful bright red flower. The roses are in flower early this year. The crocuses are late coming into flower . 2 a plant grown for the beauty of its flowers a garden full of flowers a flower garden/show 3 a flower with its stem that has been picked as a decoration I picked some flowers . a bunch of flowers a flower arrangement see also bouquet the flower of sth ( literary ) the finest or best part of sth They were cut down in the flower of their youth. ЦВЕТОК ЦВЕТОК, -тка, мн. цветки, -ов и цветы, -бв, м. 1. ( мн. цветки. -6в).Орган размножения растений с венчиком из лепестков вокруг пестика и тычиноксидячий ц, (без цветоножки; спец.). Женский ц. (только с пестиком илипестиками; спец.). Мужской ц. (только с тычинками; спец.). Ц. яблони. Ц.мака. 2. (мн. цветы, -ов). Травянистое растение, в пору цветения имеющееяркую, часто ароматную, распускающуюся из бутона головку или соцветие.Тепличные, комнатные цветы. 3. (мн. цветы, -ов). Яркая, часто ароматнаяголовка или соцветие на стебле такого растения. Срезать, рвать цветы. Букетцветов. Живые, искусственные цветы. Ваза с цветами. * Цветы каких - длявыполнения каких-и. дел, задач. В каких-то важных целях собрали | всехучеников. С целью чего, предлог с род. п. - для чего-н., в целях чего-н.Визит с целью переговоров. Пришел с целью поговорить. С той целью чтобы,союз - для того чтобы, затем чтобы. Явился раньше всех. с той целью чтобыпервым узнать подробности. II прил. целевой, -ая, -бе. Целевая установкаработы. 128

186. gab • ar • dine ( also gab • er • dine ) BrE / ˌɡæbəˈdiːn / BrE / ˈɡæbədiːn / NAmE / ˈɡæbərdiːn / noun 1 [ uncountable ] a strong material used especially for making raincoats 2 [ countable ] a coat, especially a raincoat , made of gabardine ГАБАРДИН ГАБАРДИН, -а (-у),м. Плотная шерстяная ткань с мелкими наклоннымирубчиками, а также (спец.) вообще ткань с такими рубчиками. II прил.габардиновый, -ая, -ое. Г. плащ.

187. gaffe BrE / ɡæf / NAmE / ɡæf / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a mistake that a person makes in public or in a social situation, especially sth embarrassing faux pas a social gaffe He made some real gaffes early in his career. ОПЛОШНОСТЬ ОПЛОШНОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. оплошный. 2. Ошибка, ошибочный поступок,промах. Допустить о.

188. gan • der BrE / ˈɡændə(r) / NAmE / ˈɡændər / noun WORD ORIGIN a male goose (= a bird like a large duck ) have/take a ˈgander (at sth) ( informal ) to look at sth more at what's sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander at sauce ГУСАК ГУСАК, -а, м. Самец гуся. II прил. гусачий, -ья, -ье.

189. gar • age noun BrE / ˈɡærɑːʒ / BrE / ˈɡærɑːdʒ / BrE / ˈɡærɪdʒ / NAmE / ɡəˈrɑːʒ / NAmE / ɡəˈrɑːdʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a building for keeping one or more cars or other vehicles in : ( BrE ) a house with a built-in garage ( NAmE ) a house with an attached garage a double garage (= one for two cars) a bus garage an underground garage (= for example under an office building) See picture 2 [ countable ] a place where vehicles are repaired and where you can buy a car or buy petrol/gas and oil a garage mechanic see also petrol station 3 [ uncountable ] a type of house music ГАРАЖ ГАРАЖ, -а, м. Помещение для стоянки, заправки и ремонта автомобилей,мотоциклов и других самоходных машин. II прил. гаражный, -ая, -ое. Гаражноестроительство.

190. gar • net BrE / ˈɡɑːnɪt / NAmE / ˈɡɑːrnɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN a clear dark red semi-precious stone that is fairly valuable ГРАНАТ ГРАНАТ, -а, м. Минерал класса силикатов; прозрачный драгоценныйкамень, пре-имущ. темно-красного цвета. II прил. гранатовый, -ая, -ое. Г.браслет (украшенный гранатами).

191. gas • tri • tis BrE / ɡæˈstraɪtɪs / NAmE / ɡæˈstraɪtɪs / noun [ uncountable ] ( medical ) an illness in which the inside of the stomach becomes swollen and painful ГАСТРИТ 129

ГАСТРИТ, -а, м. Воспаление слизистой оболочки желудка. II прил.гастрический, -ая, -ое и гастритный, -ая, -ое.

192. gauze BrE / ɡɔːz / NAmE / ɡɔːz / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] a type of light transparent cloth, usually made of cotton or silk 2 [ uncountable ] a type of thin cotton cloth used for covering and protecting wounds a gauze dressing 3 [ uncountable , countable ] material made of a network of wire; a piece of this wire gauze gauzy / BrE ; NAmE / adjective [ usually before noun ] a gauzy material МАРЛЯ МАРЛЯ, -и, ж. Тонкая хлопчатобумажная ткань из редко сплетенных нитей,применяемая гл. образом в медицине. II прил. марлевый, -ая, -ое. Марлеваяповязка. М. бинт.

193. gei • sha BrE / ˈɡeɪʃə / NAmE / ˈɡeɪʃə / ( also ˈgeisha girl ) noun WORD ORIGIN a Japanese woman who is trained to entertain men with conversation, dancing and singing ГЕЙША ГЕЙША, -и, ж. В Японии: профессиональная-танцовщица и певица,приглашаемая для приема и развлечения гостей [первонач. увеселявшаяпосетителей так наз. чайных домиков].

162. gen • er • al • iza • tion ( BrE also -isa • tion ) BrE / ˌdʒenrəlaɪˈzeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌdʒenrələˈzeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] a general statement that is based on only a few facts or examples; the act of making such statements a speech full of broad/sweeping generalizations to make generalizations about sth Try to avoid generalization. ОБОБЩЕНИЕ ОБОБЩЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. обобщить. 2. Общий вывод. Широкие обобщения.

194. genre BrE / ˈʒɒ̃rə / BrE / ˈʒɒnrə / NAmE / ˈʒɑːnrə / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( formal ) a particular type or style of literature, art, film or music that you can recognize because of its special features ЖАНР ЖАНР, -а, м. 1. Вид художественных произведений, характеризующийся темиили иными сюжетными и стилистическими признаками. Лирический, эпический ж.Вокальные, хоровые жанры. Ж. пейзажа, портрета. 2. Живопись на бытовыесюжеты (спец.). Пейзаж и ж. 3. перен. Манера, стиль. В новом жанре. II прил.жанровый, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2 знач.).

195. geom • etry BrE / dʒiˈɒmətri / NAmE / dʒiˈɑːmətri / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] the branch of mathematics that deals with the measurements and relationships of lines, angles, surfaces and solids 2 [ singular ] the measurements and relationships of lines, angles, etc. in a particular object or shape the geometry of a spider's web ГЕОМЕТРИЯ ГЕОМЕТРИЯ, -и, ж. Раздел математики, изучающий пространственныеотношения и формы. II прил. геометрический, -ая, -ое.

196. ges • ta • tion BrE / dʒeˈsteɪʃn / NAmE / dʒeˈsteɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ uncountable , singular ] the time that the young of a person or an animal develops inside its mother's body until it is born; the process of developing inside the mother's body a baby born at 38 weeks' gestation The gestation period of a horse is about eleven months. 2 [ uncountable ] ( formal ) the process by which an idea or a plan develops 130

development His book was nearly twenty years in gestation. БЕРЕМЕННОСТЬ БЕРЕМЕННОСТЬ, -и, ж. Состояние женщины (и живородящих вообще) в периодразвития в организме зародыша, плода. Отпуск по беременности.

197. ghost noun, verb BrE / ɡəʊst / NAmE / ɡoʊst / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] the spirit of a dead person that a living person believes they can see or hear Do you believe in ghosts (= believe that they exist) ? the ghost of her father that had come back to haunt her He looked as if he had seen a ghost (= looked very frightened) . 2 [ countable ] the memory of sth, especially sth bad The ghost of anti-Semitism still haunts Europe. 3 [ singular ] ~ of sth a very slight amount of sth that is left behind or that you are not sure really exists There was a ghost of a smile on his face. You don't have a ghost of a chance (= you have no chance) . 4 [ singular ] a second image on a television screen that is not as clear as the first, caused by a fault ПРИЗРАК ПРИЗРАК, -а, м. 1. Образ кого-чего-н., представляющийся в воображении,видение, то, что мерещится. Ночные призраки. П. прошлого. Призраки старогозамка. 2. перен. Вымысел, мираж, нечто кажущееся.П. надежды, счастья, любви.

198. gift noun, verb BrE / ɡɪft / NAmE / ɡɪft / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a thing that you give to sb, especially on a special occasion or to say thank you present The watch was a gift from my mother. Thank you for your generous gift. a free gift for every reader the gift of life ( formal ) The family made a gift of his paintings to the gallery. gifts of toys for the children 2 a natural ability talent ~ (for sth) She has a great gift for music. ~ (for doing sth) He has the gift of making friends easily. She can pick up a tune instantly on the piano. It's a gift. 3 [ usually singular ] ( informal ) a thing that is very easy to do or cheap to buy Their second goal was an absolute gift. At £500 it's a gift. be in the gift of sb | be in sb's ˈgift ( especially BrE ) if sth such as an important job or a special right or advantage is in sb's gift , that person can decide who to give it to All such posts are in the gift of the managing director (= only given by the managing director) . the gift of the ˈgab ( BrE ) ( US a gift for/of ˈgab ) ( informal , sometimes disapproving ) the ability to speak easily and to persuade other people with your words Joe's got the gift of the gab—he can sell anything. look a gift horse in the ˈmouth ( usually with negatives ) ( informal ) to refuse or criticize sth that is given to you for nothing I'm never one to look a gift horse in the mouth. more at God's gift to sb/sth at god ПОДАРОК ПОДАРОК, -рка, м. 1. Вещь, к-рую дарят, подарили. Сделать, получить п.П. судьбы (перен.: о большой и неожиданной удаче, радости). 2. перен. Что-н.хорошее, приятное (обычно как знак уважения, признательности). Его приезд -настоящий п.* Не подарок (разг.) - о ком-чем-н. неприятном, обременяющем.Этот новичок в классе не подарок. II уменьш. подарочек, -чка, м. (к 1знач.). II прил. подарочный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). П. набор. Подарочноеиздание книги. grove BrE / ɡrəʊv / NAmE / ɡroʊv / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 ( literary ) a small group of trees a grove of birch trees 2 a small area of land with fruit trees of particular types on it an olive grove 3 used in the names of streets Elm Grove РОЩА РОЩА, -и, ж. Небольшой, чаще лиственный лес. Березовая р. II уменьш.рощица,-ы, ж. 131

199. hab • er • dash • ery BrE / ˌhæbəˈdæʃəri / NAmE / ˈhæbərdæʃəri / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. hab • er • dash • eries ) 1 [ uncountable ] ( old-fashioned , BrE ) small articles for sewing, for example needles, pins, cotton and buttons 2 [ uncountable ] ( old-fashioned , NAmE ) men's clothes 3 [ countable ] a shop/store or part of a shop/store where haberdashery is sold ГАЛАНТЕРЕЯ ГАЛАНТЕРЕЯ, -и, ж. 1. собир. Мелкие принадлежности туалета, личногообихода (перчатки, ленты, гребенки, нитки и другие товары). Торговлягалантереей. 2. Магазин, торгующий такими принадлежностями (разг.). Купить вгалантерее. II прил. галантерейный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). Галантерейныетовары. * Галантерейное обхождение или обращение (устар. ирон.) - манеры,неумело усвоенные в подражание галантному поведению.

200. haem • or • rhage ( BrE ) ( NAmE hem • or • rhage ) noun, verb BrE / ˈhemərɪdʒ / NAmE / ˈhemərɪdʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] a medical condition in which there is severe loss of blood from inside a person's body a massive brain/cerebral haemorrhage He was checked for any signs of haemorrhage. 2 [ countable , usually singular ] ~ (of sb/sth) a serious loss of people, money, etc. from a country, a group or an organization Poor working conditions have led to a steady haemorrhage of qualified teachers from our schools. КРОВОИЗЛИЯНИЕ КРОВОИЗЛИЯНИЕ, -я, ср. Истечение крови из кровеносного сосуда в тканиили полости организма. К. в мозг

201. hair • pin BrE / ˈheəpɪn / NAmE / ˈherpɪn / noun 1 a small thin piece of wire that is folded in the middle, used by women for holding their hair in place compare hairgrip 2 = hairpin bend ШПИЛЬКА ШПИЛЬКА, -и, ж. 1. Род вилочки для за-калывания волос. Роговые шпильки.

202. hali • but BrE / ˈhælɪbət / NAmE / ˈhælɪbət / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] ( pl. hali • but ) a large flat sea fish that is used for food ПАЛТУС ПАЛТУС, -а, м. Северная морская рыба, родственная камбале. 1) прил.палтусовый, -ая, -ое.

203. ham • let BrE / ˈhæmlət / NAmE / ˈhæmlət / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a very small village СЕЛЕНИЕ СЕЛЕНИЕ, -я, ср. (книжн.). Населенный пункт - село, поселок.

204. hand • cuffs BrE / ˈhændkʌfs / NAmE / ˈhændkʌfs / ( also informal cuffs ) noun EXAMPLE BANK [ plural ] a pair of metal rings joined by a chain, used for holding the wrists of a prisoner together a pair of handcuffs She was led away in handcuffs . The prisoners wore handcuffs and iron chains on their legs. see also golden handcuffs НАРУЧНИКИ НАРУЧНИКИ, -ов, ед. -ик, -а, м. Металлические кольца, соединенныецепочкой, надеваемые на руки преступникам, заключенным. 132

205. hand • rail BrE / ˈhændreɪl / NAmE / ˈhændreɪl / noun a long narrow bar that you can hold onto for support, for example when you are going up or down stairs ПОРУЧЕНЬ ПОРУЧЕНЬ, -чня, обычно мн., м. На трапах, лестницах, в вагонах: планкаили натянутый канат, за к-рые держатся рукой при движении, спуске, подъеме.Держаться за поручни.

206. harm noun BrE / hɑːm / NAmE / hɑːrm / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] damage or injury that is caused by a person or an event He would never frighten anyone or cause them any harm . He may look fierce, but he means no harm . The court case will do serious harm to my business. The accident could have been much worse; luckily no harm was done . Don't worry, we'll see that the children come to no harm . I can't say I like Mark very much, but I don't wish him any harm . Hard work never did anyone any harm . Look, we're just going out for a few drinks, where's the harm in that ? The treatment they gave him did him more harm than good . it wouldn't do sb any harm (to do sth) used to suggest that it would be a good idea for sb to do sth It wouldn't do you any harm to smarten yourself up. ˌno ˈharm done ( informal ) used to tell sb not to worry because they have caused no serious damage or injury Forget it, Dave, no harm done. out of harm's ˈway in a safe place where sb/sth cannot be hurt or injured or do any damage to sb/sth She put the knife in a drawer, out of harm's way. I prefer the children to play in the garden where they're out of harm's way. there is no harm in (sb's) doing sth | it does no harm (for sb) to do sth used to tell sb that sth is a good idea and will not cause any problems He may say no, but there's no harm in asking. It does no harm to ask. ВРЕД ВРЕД, -а, м. Ущерб, порча. Причинить в. В. здоровью. Ни вреда ни пользыот кого-че-го-н. (совершенно бесполезен; разг.). * Во вред кому-чему, взнач. предлога с дат. п. - нанося ущерб, вредя. Действовать во вред делу. Вовред себе.

207. haut • eur BrE / əʊˈtɜː(r) / NAmE / hɔːˈtɜːr / NAmE / oʊˈtɜːr / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) an unfriendly way of behaving towards other people suggesting that you think that you are better than they are ВЫСОКОМЕРИЕ ВЫСОКОМЕРИЕ, -я, ср. Гордое и надменное поведение, отношение к кому-н.

208. head noun, verb BrE / hed / NAmE / hed / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK PART OF BODY 1 [ countable ] the part of the body on top of the neck containing the eyes, nose, mouth and brain She nodded her head in agreement. He shook his head in disbelief. The boys hung their heads in shame. The driver suffered head injuries. She always has her head in a book (= is always reading) . He still has a good head of hair (= a lot of hair) . See picture see also death's head MIND 2 [ countable ] the mind or brain I sometimes wonder what goes on in that head of yours. I wish you'd use your head (= think carefully before doing or saying sth) . The thought never entered my head . 133

I can't work it out in my head —I need a calculator. I can't get that tune out of my head . When will you get it into your head (= understand) that I don't want to discuss this any more! For some reason, she's got it into her head (= believes) that the others don't like her. Who's been putting such weird ideas into your head (= making you believe that) ? Try to put the exams out of your head (= stop thinking about them) for tonight. see also hothead MEASUREMENT 3 a head [ singular ] the size of a person's or animal's head , used as a measurement of distance or height She's a good head taller than her sister. The favourite won by a short head (= a distance slightly less than the length of a horse's head) . PAIN 4 [ countable , usually singular ] ( informal ) a continuous pain in your head headache I woke up with a really bad head this morning. OF GROUP/ORGANIZATION 5 [ countable , uncountable ] the person in charge of a group of people or an organization the heads of government/state She resigned as head of department . the crowned heads (= the kings and queens) of Europe the head gardener/waiter, etc. ( BrE ) the head boy/girl (= a student who is chosen to represent the school) OF SCHOOL/COLLEGE 6 [ countable ] ( often Head ) ( BrE ) the person in charge of a school or college headmaster , headmistress , head teacher I've been called in to see the Head. the deputy head SIDE OF COIN 7 heads [ uncountable ] the side of a coin that has a picture of the head of a person on it, used as one choice when a coin is tossed to decide sth compare tails n. ( 7 ) END OF OBJECT 8 [ countable , usually singular ] ~ (of sth) the end of a long narrow object that is larger or wider than the rest of it the head of a nail see also bedhead TOP 9 [ singular ] ~ of sth the top or highest part of sth at the head of the page They finished the season at the head of their league. OF RIVER 10 [ singular ] the ~ of the river the place where a river begins source OF TABLE 11 [ singular ] the ~ of the table the most important seat at a table The President sat at the head of the table. OF LINE OF PEOPLE 12 [ singular ] the ~ of sth the position at the front of a line of people The prince rode at the head of his regiment. OF PLANT 13 [ countable ] ~ (of sth) the mass of leaves or flowers at the end of a stem Remove the dead heads to encourage new growth. ON BEER 14 [ singular ] the mass of small bubbles on the top of a glass of beer OF SPOT 15 [ countable ] the part of a spot on your skin that contains a thick yellowish liquid (= pus ) see also blackhead IN TAPE/VIDEO RECORDER 16 [ countable ] the part of a tape recorder or video recorder that touches the tape and changes the electrical signals into sounds and/or pictures NUMBER OF ANIMALS 17 ~ of sth [ plural ] used to say how many animals of a particular type are on a farm, in a herd , etc. 200 head of sheep

OF STEAM 18 a ~ of steam [ singular ] the pressure produced by steam in a confined space The old engine still manages to build up a good head of steam. SEX 19 [ uncountable ] ( taboo , slang ) oral sex (= using the mouth to give sb sexual pleasure) to give head LINGUISTICS 20 [ countable ] the central part of a phrase, which has the same grammatical function as the whole phrase. In the phrase ‘the tall man in a suit’, man is the head. a/per ˈhead for each person The meal worked out at $20 a head. bang/knock your/their ˈheads together ( informal ) to force people to stop arguing and behave in a sensible way be banging, etc. your head against a brick ˈwall ( informal ) to keep trying to do sth that will never be successful Trying to reason with them was like banging my head against a brick wall. be/stand head and ˈshoulders above sb/sth 134

to be much better than other people or things His performance stood head and shoulders above the rest. bite/snap sb's ˈhead off ( informal ) to shout at sb in an angry way, especially without reason bring sth to a ˈhead | come to a ˈhead if you bring a situation to a head or if a situation comes to a head , you are forced to deal with it quickly because it suddenly becomes very bad bury/hide your head in the ˈsand to refuse to admit that a problem exists or refuse to deal with it can't make head nor ˈtail of sth to be unable to understand sth I couldn't make head nor tail of what he was saying. do sb's ˈhead in ( BrE , informal ) to make you feel confused, upset and/or annoyed Shut up! You're doing my head in. do sth standing on your ˈhead ( informal ) to be able to do sth very easily and without having to think too much from ˌhead to ˈfoot/ˈtoe covering your whole body We were covered from head to foot in mud. She was dressed from head to toe in red. get your ˈhead down ( informal ) 1 ( BrE ) to sleep I managed to get my head down for an hour. 2 = keep/get your head down get your ˈhead round sth ( BrE , informal ) to be able to understand or accept sth She's dead. I can't get my head round it yet. give sb their ˈhead to allow sb to do what they want without trying to stop them go head to ˈhead (with sb) to deal with sb in a very direct and determined way The company will be going head to head with the giant of the pharmaceuticals market. go to sb's ˈhead 1 ( of alcohol ) to make you feel drunk That glass of wine has gone straight to my head. 2 ( of success, praise, etc. ) to make you feel too proud of yourself in a way that other people find annoying have a good ˈhead on your shoulders to be a sensible person have a head for sth 1 to be good at sth to have a head for figures/business 2 if sb does not have a head for heights , they feel nervous and think they are going to fall when they look down from a high place have your head in the ˈclouds 1 to be thinking about sth that is not connected with what you are doing 2 to have ideas, plans, etc. that are not realistic have your ˈhead screwed on (the right way) ( informal ) to be a sensible person ˌhead ˈfirst 1 moving forwards or downwards with your head in front of the rest of your body He fell head first down the stairs. 2 without thinking carefully about sth before acting She got divorced and rushed head first into another marriage. headlong head over heels in ˈlove loving sb very much He's fallen head over heels in love with his boss. heads or ˈtails? used to ask sb which side of a coin they think will be facing upwards when it is tossed in order to decide sth by chance ˈheads will roll (for sth) ( informal , usually humorous ) used to say that some people will be punished because of sth that has happened hold your ˈhead high | hold up your ˈhead to be proud of or not feel ashamed about sth that you have done She managed to hold her head high and ignore what people were saying. in over your ˈhead involved in sth that is too difficult for you to deal with After a week in the new job, I soon realized that I was in over my head. keep/get your ˈhead down to avoid attracting attention to yourself If I were you, I'd keep your head down for a couple of weeks. keep your ˈhead | keep a clear/cool ˈhead to remain calm in a difficult situation keep your ˈhead above water to deal with a difficult situation, especially one in which you have financial problems, and just manage to survive I'm not sure how much longer we'll be able to keep our heads above water. laugh, scream, etc. your ˈhead off ( informal ) to laugh, etc. a lot and very loudly lose your ˈhead to become unable to act in a calm or sensible way on your (own) head ˈbe it used to tell sb that they will have to accept any unpleasant results of sth that they decide to do Tell him the truth if you want to, but on your own head be it! out of/off your ˈhead ( BrE , informal ) 1 crazy 2 not knowing what you are saying or doing because of the effects of alcohol or drugs over sb's ˈhead 135

1 too difficult or complicated for sb to understand A lot of the jokes went (= were) right over my head. 2 to a higher position of authority than sb I couldn't help feeling jealous when she was promoted over my head. I'm not happy that you went over my head to ask for this time off. put our/your/their ˈheads together to think about or discuss sth as a group stand/turn sth on its ˈhead to make people think about sth in a completely different way take it into your head to do sth to suddenly decide to do sth, especially sth that other people think is stupid take it into your head that… to suddenly start thinking sth, especially sth that other people think is stupid turn sb's ˈhead ( of success, praise, etc. ) to make a person feel too proud in a way that other people find annoying two heads are better than ˈone ( saying ) used to say that two people can achieve more than one person working alone more at like a bear with a sore head at bear n. , put/lay your head/neck on the block at block n. , not bother yourself/your head with/about sth at bother v. , drum sth into sb/into sb's head at drum v. , have eyes in the back of your head at eye n. , hold/put a gun to sb's head at gun n. , not harm/touch a hair of sb's head at hair , let your heart rule your head at heart , hit the nail on the head at hit v. , put ideas into sb's head at idea , I'll knock your block/head off! at knock v. , laugh your head off at laugh v. , need (to have) your head examined at need v. , (have) an old head on young shoulders at old , a price on sb's head at price n. , sth rears its (ugly) head at rear v. , ring in your ears/head at ring v. , have a roof over your head at roof n. , scratch your head at scratch v. , sb's thick head at thick adj. , off the top of your head at top n. ГОЛОВА ГОЛОВА, -ы, вин. голову, мн. головы, голов, головам, ж. 1. Часть телачеловека (или животного), состоящая из черепной коробки и лица (у животногоморды); у беспозвоночных - передний, относительно обособленный участок телас органами чувств и ротовым отверстием. Голову повесить, понурить (такжеперен.: прийти в уныние; разг.). С высоко поднятой головой (также перен.:гордо). Склонить (обнажить) голову перед кем-н. (также перен.: выразить своеуважение, преклонение; высок.).

209. head • mas • ter BrE / ˌhedˈmɑːstə(r) / NAmE / ˌhedˈmæstər / noun EXAMPLE BANK ( NAmE usually prin • ci • pal ) a teacher who is in charge of a school, especially a private school see also head teacher ДИРЕКТОР ДИРЕКТОР, -а, лот. -a, -ОВ,М. Руководитель предприятия, учреждения илиучебного заведения. II ж. директорша, -и (разг.) и директриса, -ы (в учебныхзаведениях, устар.; теперь разг.). II прил. директорский, -ая,-ое.

210. hear • er BrE / ˈhɪərə(r) / NAmE / ˈhɪrər / noun a person who hears sth or who is listening to sb listener СЛУШАТЕЛЬ СЛУШАТЕЛЬ, -я, м. 1. Тот, кто слушает кого-что-н. Внимательный с. 2. Внек-рых учебных заведениях: учащийся, студент. С. военной академии. С.курсов. II ж. слушательница, -ы. II прил. слушательский, -ая, -ое.Слушательская аудитория.

211. hea • then noun, adjective BrE / ˈhiːðn / NAmE / ˈhiːðn / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old-fashioned , offensive ) 1 used by people who have a strong religious belief as a way of referring to a person who has no religion or who believes in a religion that is not one of the world's main religions 2 used to refer to a person who shows lack of education ЯЗЫЧНИК ЯЗЫЧНИК, -а, м. Последователь язычества. II ж. язычница, -ы.

212. heel noun, BrE / hiːl / NAmE / hiːl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK PART OF FOOT 1 [ countable ] the back part of the foot below the ankle See picture PART OF SOCK/SHOE 2 [ countable ] the part of a sock, etc. that covers the heel 3 [ countable ] the raised part on the bottom of a shoe, boot, etc. that makes the shoe, etc. higher at the back shoes with a low/high heel a stiletto heel The sergeant clicked his heels and walked out. compare sole n. ( 2 ) -HEELED 136

4 ( in adjectives ) having the type of heel mentioned high-heeled shoes see also well heeled SHOES 5 heels [ plural ] a pair of women's shoes that have high heels She doesn't often wear heels. see also kitten heels PART OF HAND 6 [ countable ] ~ of your hand/palm the raised part of the inside of the hand where it joins the wrist See picture UNPLEASANT MAN 7 [ countable ] ( old-fashioned , informal ) a man who is unpleasant to other people and cannot be trusted see also Achilles heel , down at heel at/on sb's ˈheels following closely behind sb He fled from the stadium with the police at his heels. bring sb/sth to ˈheel 1 to force sb to obey you and accept discipline a non-violent means of bringing the rebels to heel 2 to make a dog come close to you come to ˈheel 1 ( of a person ) to agree to obey sb and accept their orders 2 ( of a dog ) to come close to the person who has called it (hard/hot) on sb's/sth's ˈheels very close behind sb/sth; very soon after sth News of rising unemployment followed hard on the heels of falling export figures. He ran ahead, with the others hot on his heels ˌtake to your ˈheels to run away from sb/sth ˌturn/ˌspin on your ˈheel to turn around suddenly so that you are facing in the opposite direction under the ˈheel of sb ( literary ) completely controlled by sb The island spent several centuries under the heel of the British Empire. more at cool your heels at cool v. , dig your heels/toes in at dig v. , drag your feet/heels at drag v. , head over heels in love at head n. , kick your heels kick up your heels at kick v. , tread on sb's heels at tread v. ПЯТКА ПЯТКА, -и, ас. 1. Задняя часть ступни, а также часть чулка или обуви,закрывающая ее. Пятки гудят (от ходьбы, усталости; разг.). Рваные пятки (начулках). Показать пятки (также перен.: обратиться в бегство; разг.).Наступать на пятки ко-му-н. (также перен.: догонять, настигать; разг.).Только пятки сверкают или засверкали у кого-н. (перен.: быстро бежит;разг.). 2. Нижний, задний конец какого-н. устройства, приспособления(спец.). Л. косы.* Левой пяткой (делать что-н.) (прост неодобр.) - плохо,кое-как. II прил. пяточный, -ая,-ое.

213. hell BrE / hel / NAmE / hel / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ singular ] ( usually Hell ) ( used without a or the ) in some religions, the place believed to be the home of devils and where bad people go after death 2 [ uncountable , singular ] a very unpleasant experience or situation in which people suffer very much The last three months have been hell. He went through hell during the trial. Her parents made her life hell. Being totally alone is my idea of hell on earth . 3 [ uncountable ] a swear word that some people use when they are annoyed or surprised or to emphasize sth. Its use is offensive to some people. Oh hell, I've burned the pan. What the hell do you think you are doing? Go to hell! I can't really afford it, but, what the hell (= it doesn't matter) , I'll get it anyway. He's as guilty as hell. ( NAmE ) ‘Do you understand?’ ‘Hell, no. I don't.’ all ˈhell broke loose ( informal ) suddenly there was a lot of noise, arguing, fighting or confusion There was a loud bang and then all hell broke loose. beat/kick (the) ˈhell out of sb/sth | knock ˈhell out of sb/sth ( informal ) to hit sb/sth very hard He was a dirty player and loved to kick hell out of the opposition. (just) for the ˈhell of it ( informal ) just for fun; for no real reason They stole the car just for the hell of it. from ˈhell ( informal ) used to describe a very unpleasant person or thing; the worst that you can imagine They are the neighbours from hell. get the hell ˈout (of…) ( informal ) to leave a place very quickly Let's get the hell out of here. give sb ˈhell ( informal ) 1 to make life unpleasant for sb He used to give his mother hell when he was a teenager. My new shoes are giving me hell (= are hurting me) . 2 to shout at or speak angrily to sb 137

Dad will give us hell when he sees that mess. go to hell in a ˈhandbasket ( NAmE , informal ) = go to the dogs at dog n. hell for ˈleather ( old-fashioned , BrE , informal ) as quickly as possible to ride hell for leather hell hath no ˈfury (like a woman ˈscorned) ( BrE ) used to refer to sb, usually a woman, who has reacted very angrily to sth, especially the fact that her husband or lover has been unfaithful (come) hell or high ˈwater despite any difficulties I was determined to go, come hell or high water. Hell's ˈteeth ( old-fashioned , BrE , informal ) used to express anger or surprise Hell's teeth, I promised I'd be back by two. like ˈhell 1 ( informal ) used for emphasis She worked like hell for her exams. My broken finger hurt like hell. 2 ( informal ) used when you are refusing permission or saying that sth is not true ‘I'm coming with you.’ ‘Like hell you are’ (= you certainly are not) . a/one hell of a… | a/one helluva… / BrE ˈheləvə ; NAmE ˈheləvə / ( slang ) used to give emphasis to what a person is saying The firm was in a hell of a mess when he took over. This holiday is going to cost a hell of a lot of money. It must have been one hell of a party. It's taken him a hell of a long time to get here. That's one helluva big house you've got. play (merry) ˈhell with sth/sb ( BrE , informal ) to affect sth/sb badly Driving on these rough roads has played hell with my tyres. scare, annoy, etc. the ˈhell out of sb ( informal ) to scare, annoy, etc. sb very much to ˈhell and back ( informal ) used to say that sb has been through a difficult situation We'd been to hell and back together and we were still good friends. to ˈhell with sb/sth ( informal ) used to express anger or dislike and to say that you no longer care about sb/sth and will take no notice of them ‘To hell with him,’ she thought, ‘I'm leaving.’ more at like a bat out of hell at bat n. , bug the hell/crap/shit out of sb at bug v. , not have/stand a cat in hell's chance at cat , catch hell at catch v. , not have a hope (in hell) at hope n. , the devil/hell to pay at pay v. , raise hell at raise v. , the road to hell is paved with good intentions at road , not have a snowball's chance in hell at snowball n. АД АД, -а, об аде, в аду, м. 1. В религиозных представлениях: место, гдедуши грешников после смерти предаются вечным мукам. Муки ада (также перен.).Благими намерениями вымощена дорога в ад (о том, что хорошие намерения частозабываются, уступая место недобрым делам; книжн.). 2. перен. Невыносимыеусловия, тяжелое состояние; хаос и ужас, царящие где-н. Душевный ад. IIприл, адский, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

214. hemi • sphere BrE / ˈhemɪsfɪə(r) / NAmE / ˈhemɪsfɪr / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 one half of the earth, especially the half above or below the equator the northern/southern hemisphere 2 either half of the brain the left/right cerebral hemisphere 3 one half of a sphere (= a round solid object) ПОЛУШАРИЕ ПОЛУШАРИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Половина шара, а также предмет такой формы.Полушария головного мозга. 2. Одна из половин земного шара или небеснойсферы. Северное п. Южное п

215. herb BrE / hɜːb / NAmE / ɜːrb / NAmE / hɜːrb / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a plant whose leaves, flowers or seeds are used to flavour food, in medicines or for their pleasant smell. Parsley , mint and oregano are all herbs a herb garden ( NAmE ) an herb garden 2 ( technical ) a plant with a soft stem that dies down after flowering © Oxford University Press, 2010 ТРАВА ТРАВА, -ы, мн. травы, трав, травам, ж. 1. обычно мн. Многолетнее илиоднолетнее растение с неодеревеневающим, обычно мягким и зеленым невысокимстеблем. Лесные, луговые, сеяные травы. Кормовые травы. Сорная т.Лекарственные (целебные) травы. Как та. растет (о ребенке: без всякогоприсмотра; разг.). Стань передо мной, как лист перед травой (в сказках:требование появиться сразу, вдруг).

216. ibex BrE / ˈaɪbeks / NAmE / ˈaɪbeks / 138

noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. ibex ) a mountain goat with long curved horns КОЗЕРОГ КОЗЕРОГ, -а,м. Дикий горный козел с большими рогами.

217. icon • og • raphy BrE / ˌaɪkəˈnɒɡrəfi / NAmE / ˌaɪkəˈnɑːɡrəfi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] the use or study of images or symbols in art ИКОНОГРАФИЯ ИКОНОГРАФИЯ, -и, ж. (спец.). 1. Описание и изучение изображенийкаких-н. лиц в произведениях живописи, скульптуры, а также описание сюжетов.Я. Пушкина.

218. ideol • ogy BrE / ˌaɪdiˈɒlədʒi / NAmE / ˌaɪdiˈɑːlədʒi / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] ( pl. ideol • ogies ) ( sometimes disapproving ) 1 a set of ideas that an economic or political system is based on Marxist/capitalist ideology 2 a set of beliefs, especially one held by a particular group, that influences the way people behave the ideology of gender roles alternative ideologies ideo • logic • al / BrE ˌaɪdiəˈlɒdʒɪkl ; NAmE ˌaɪdiəˈlɑːdʒɪkl / adjective ideological differences ideo • logic • al • ly / BrE ˌaɪdiəˈlɒdʒɪkli ; NAmE ˌaɪdiəˈlɑːdʒɪkli / adverb ideologically correct ИДЕОЛОГИЯ ИДЕОЛОГИЯ, -и, ж. Система взглядов, идей, характеризующих какую-н.социальную группу, класс, политическую партию, общество, II прил.идеологический, -ая, -ое. Идеологическая борьба.

219. ig • no • miny BrE / ˈɪɡnəmɪni / NAmE / ˈɪɡnəmɪni / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( formal ) public shame and loss of honour disgrace They suffered the ignominy of defeat. ПОЗОР ПОЗОР, -а, м. Бесчестье, постыдное, унизительное положение. Покрытьсебя позором (книжн.). Выставить на п. кого-н. (поставить в унизительноеположение). Клеймить позором кого-н. (гневно обличать; высок.). П. на чъю-н.голову (позорно, очень стыдно). II прил. позорный, -ая, -ое. П. столб (встарое время: столб, к к-рому привязывали преступника). Поставить(пригвоздить) к позорному столбу (перен.: заклеймить, предать позору,высок.).

220. il • lu • min • ation BrE / ɪˌluːmɪˈneɪʃn / NAmE / ɪˌluːmɪˈneɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable , countable ] light or a place that light comes from The only illumination in the room came from the fire. 2 illuminations [ plural ] ( BrE ) bright coloured lights used to decorate a town or building for a special occasion Christmas illuminations 3 [ countable , usually plural ] a coloured decoration, usually painted by hand, in an old book 4 [ uncountable ] ( formal ) understanding or explanation of sth spiritual illumination In that flash of illumination, he realized where he had gone wrong. ОСВЕЩЕНИЕ ОСВЕЩЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. осветить. 2. Свет от какого-н. источника.Естественное, искусственное о. Яркое о. 3. Техническое оборудование, дающеесвет. Провести электрическое о. Ремонт освещения. 4. То, или иноеобъяснение, истолкование. Новое о. событий.

221. imam BrE / ɪˈmɑːm / NAmE / ɪˈmɑːm / noun WORD ORIGIN ( in Islam ) 139

1 a religious man who leads the prayers in a mosque 2 Imam the title of a religious leader ИМАМ ИМАМ, -а, м. Глава мусульманской общины. II прил. имамский, -ая, -ое.

222. im • mor • tal • ity BrE / ˌɪmɔːˈtæləti / NAmE / ˌɪmɔːrˈtæləti / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] the state of being immortal belief in the immortality of the soul He is well on his way to showbusiness immortality. БЕССМЕРТИЕ БЕССМЕРТИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Посмертная слава (высок.). Стяжать себе б. 2. Врелигиозных представлениях: вечное существование души, обитающей в теле ипокидающей его после смерти, загробная жизнь. Вера в б. души.

223. im • peri • al • ism BrE / ɪmˈpɪəriəlɪzəm / NAmE / ɪmˈpɪriəlɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] ( usually disapproving ) 1 a system in which one country controls other countries, often after defeating them in a war Roman imperialism 2 the fact of a powerful country increasing its influence over other countries through business, culture, etc cultural/economic imperialism im • peri • al • is • t ( also im • peri • al • is • tic / BrE ɪmˌpɪəriəˈlɪstɪk ; NAmE ɪmˌpɪriəˈlɪstɪk / ) adjective an imperialist power imperialist ambitions ИМПЕРИАЛИЗМ ИМПЕРИАЛИЗМ, -а. м. Высшая стадия капитализма, характеризующаясягосподством крупных монополий во всех сферах жизни, борьбой междукапиталистическими странами за источники сырья и рынки сбыта, за чужиетерритории. II прил. империалистический, -ая,-ое.

224. im • pos • tor ( BrE also im • pos • ter ) BrE / ɪmˈpɒstə(r) / NAmE / ɪmˈpɑːstər / noun WORD ORIGIN a person who pretends to be sb else in order to trick people САМОЗВАНЕЦ САМОЗВАНЕЦ, -нца, м. Тот, кто выдает себя за другого человека, присвоивего имя, звание. II ж. самозванка, -и

225. in • can • ta • tion BrE / ˌɪnkænˈteɪʃn / NAmE / ˌɪnkænˈteɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] special words that are spoken or sung to have a magic effect; the act of speaking or singing these words ЗАКЛИНАНИЕ ЗАКЛИНАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. заклинать. 2. В народных представлениях:магические слова, звуки, к-рыми заклинают (во 2 знач.). Произноситьзаклинания.

226. in • cite • ment BrE / ɪnˈsaɪtmənt / NAmE / ɪnˈsaɪtmənt / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] ~ (to sth) the act of encouraging sb to do sth violent, illegal or unpleasant incitement to racial hatred ПОДСТРЕКАТЕЛЬСТВО ПОДСТРЕКАТЕЛЬСТВО, -а, ср. Побуждение, призыв к вредным, опасным своимипоследствиями или неблаговидным, преступным действиям. II прил.подстрекательский, -ая, -ое.

227. in • crust • ation ( also en • crust • ation ) BrE / ˌɪnkrʌˈsteɪʃn / NAmE / ˌɪnkrʌˈsteɪʃn / noun [ uncountable , countable ] the process of forming a hard outer covering or layer; the covering or layer that is formed

ИНКРУСТАЦИЯ ИНКРУСТАЦИЯ, -и, ж. 1. см. инкрустировать. 2. Украшение, выполненноеспособом инкрустирования. И. из дерева. Шкатулка с перламутровойинкрустацией. 140

index noun, verb BrE / ˈɪndeks / NAmE / ˈɪndeks / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 ( pl. in • dexes ) a list of names or topics that are referred to in a book, etc, usually arranged at the end of a book in alphabetical order or listed in a separate file or book Look it up in the index. Author and subject indexes are available on a library database. 2 ( BrE ) = card index 3 ( pl. in • dexes or in • dices / BrE ˈɪndɪsiːz ; NAmE ˈɪndɪsiːz / ) a system that shows the level of prices and wages, etc. so that they can be compared with those of a previous date the cost-of-living index The Dow Jones index fell 15 points this morning. stock-market indices house price indexes 4 ( pl. in • dices / BrE ˈɪndɪsiːz ; NAmE ˈɪndɪsiːz / ) a sign or measure that sth else can be judged by The number of new houses being built is a good index of a country's prosperity. 5 ( usually indices [ plural ] ) ( mathematics ) the small number written above a larger number to show how many times that number must be multiplied by itself. In the equation 4 2 = 16, the number 2 is an index. ИНДЕКС ИНДЕКС [дэ], -а,м. (спец.). 1. Список, указатель. И. выходящих книг. 2.Цифровой (или буквенный) показатель чего-н. И. иен. И. промышленногопроизводства. 3. Условное обозначение в системе какой-н. классификации.Почтовый и. II прил. индексный, -ая, - ое.

228. in • di • vidu • al • ism BrE / ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəlɪzəm / NAmE / ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəlɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] 1 the quality of being different from other people and doing things in your own way She owes her success to her individualism and flair. 2 the belief that individual people in society should have the right to make their own decisions, etc, rather than be controlled by the government Capitalism stresses innovation, competition and individualism. in • di • vidu • al • ist / BrE ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəlɪst ; NAmE ˌɪndɪˈvɪdʒuəlɪst / noun She's a complete individualist in her art. in • di • vidu • al • is • tic / BrE ˌɪndɪˌvɪdʒuəˈlɪstɪk ; NAmE ˌɪndɪˌvɪdʒuəˈlɪstɪk / ( also in • di • vidu • al • ist ) adjective an individualistic culture His music is highly individualistic and may not appeal to everyone. ИНДИВИДУАЛИЗМ ИНДИВИДУАЛИЗМ, -а,м. 1. Нравственный принцип, ставящий интересыотдельной личности выше интересов общества. 2. Стремление к выражению своейличности, своей индивидуальности. II прил. индивидуалистический, -ая,-ое.

229. in • equal • ity BrE / ˌɪnɪˈkwɒləti / NAmE / ˌɪnɪˈkwɑːləti / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] ( pl. in • equal • ities ) the unfair difference between groups of people in society, when some have more wealth, status or opportunities than others inequality of opportunity economic inequalities between different areas racial inequality equality see also unequal НЕРАВЕНСТВО НЕРАВЕНСТВО, -а, ср. 1. Отсутствие равенства (в 1 и 2 знач.),равноправия. Н. сил. Социальное н. 2. В математике: соотношение междувеличинами, показывающее, что одна величина больше или меньше другой. Знакнеравенства (>, <).

230. in • sight BrE / ˈɪnsaɪt / NAmE / ˈɪnsaɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] ( approving ) the ability to see and understand the truth about people or situations a writer of great insight With a flash of insight I realized what the dream meant. 2 [ countable , uncountable ] ~ (into sth) an understanding of what sth is like The book gives us fascinating insights into life in Mexico. I hope you have gained some insight into the difficulties we face. ПОНИМАНИЕ

141

ПОНИМАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. понять. 2. Способность осмыслять, постигатьсодержание. смысл, значение чего-н. П. законов природы. Это выше моегопонимания (не могу этого понять). 3. То или иное толкование чего-н.Правильное п. значения слова.

231. jabot BrE / ˈʒæbəʊ / NAmE / ˈʒæboʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN a decorative frill (= decoration made from folds of cloth) on the front of a shirt ЖАБО ЖАБО, нескл., ср. Пышная отделка у воротника из кружев или легкойткани.

232. jacket BrE / ˈdʒækɪt / NAmE / ˈdʒækɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a piece of clothing worn on the top half of the body over a shirt, etc. that has sleeves and fastens down the front; a short, light coat a denim/tweed jacket I have to wear a jacket and tie to work. see also bomber jacket , dinner jacket , donkey jacket , flak jacket , life jacket , smoking jacket , sports jacket , straitjacket 2 ( also ˈdust jacket ) a loose paper cover for a book, usually with a design or picture on it 3 an outer cover around a hot water pipe, etc, for example to reduce loss of heat 4 ( BrE ) the skin of a baked potato potatoes baked in their jackets 5 ( especially NAmE ) = sleeve ( 3 ) КУРТКА КУРТКА, -и, ж. Короткая верхняя одежда на застежке. Спортивная к.Кожаная к. II уменьш. курточка, -и, ж. II прил. курточный, -ая, -ое.

233. jade BrE / dʒeɪd / NAmE / dʒeɪd / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] 1 a hard stone that is usually green and is used in making jewellery and decorative objects a jade necklace 2 objects made of jade a collection of Chinese jade 3 ( also ˌjade ˈgreen ) a bright green colour НЕФРИТ НЕФРИТ, -а, м. Полупрозрачный минерал зеленого, серовато-белого илибелого цвета, поделочный камень. II прил. нефритовый, - ая, -ое.

234. just • ice BrE / ˈdʒʌstɪs / NAmE / ˈdʒʌstɪs / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] the fair treatment of people laws based on the principles of justice They are demanding equal rights and justice. injustice see also poetic justice , rough justice 2 [ uncountable ] the quality of being fair or reasonable Who can deny the justice of their cause? He demanded, not without justice, that he should be allowed to express his views. injustice 3 [ uncountable ] the legal system used to punish people who have committed crimes the criminal justice system The European Court of Justice ( BrE ) They were accused of attempting to pervert the course of justice . ( NAmE ) They were accused of attempting to obstruct justice . see also miscarriage of justice 4 ( also Just • ice ) [ countable ] ( NAmE ) a judge in a court (also used before the name of a judge) see also chief justice 5 Just • ice [ countable ] ( BrE , CanE ) used before the name of a judge in a court of appeal Mr Justice Davies bring sb to ˈjustice to arrest sb for a crime and put them on trial in court 142

do justice to ˈsb/ˈsth; do sb/sth ˈjustice 1 to treat or represent sb/sth fairly, especially in a way that shows how good, attractive, etc. they are That photo doesn't do you justice. He didn't play as well as he can, but to do him justice, it was his first game since his injury. The review did not do justice to her talents. 2 to deal with sb/sth correctly and completely You cannot do justice to such a complex situation in just a few pages. I didn't feel well and wasn't able to do justice to the meal she had cooked (= I could not eat all the food) . do yourself ˈjustice to do sth as well as you can in order to show other people how good you are She didn't do herself justice in the exam. more at pervert the course of justice at pervert v. СПРАВЕДЛИВОСТЬ СПРАВЕДЛИВОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. справедливый. 2. Справедливое отношение ккому-н., беспристрастие. Чувство справедливости. Поступить посправедливости.* Отдать справедливость кому-чему (книжн.) - признать закем-чем-н. какие-н. достоинства, правоту, отдать должное.

235. kaf • tan ( also caf • tan ) BrE / ˈkæftæn / NAmE / ˈkæftæn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a long loose piece of clothing, usually with a belt at the waist, worn by men in Arab countries 2 a woman's long loose dress with long wide sleeves КАФТАН КАФТАН, -а, м. Старинная мужская долгополая верхняя одежда. * Тришкинкафтан (разг. неодобр.) - о частичных и внешних исправлениях, тольковредящих делу, не приносящих пользы [по одноименной басне И. А. Крылова]. IIуменьш.-унин. кафтанишко, -а, мн. -шки, -шек, -шкам, м. II прил. кафтанный,-ая, -ое.

236. kao • lin BrE / ˈkeɪəlɪn / NAmE / ˈkeɪəlɪn / ( also ˌchina ˈclay ) noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a type of fine white clay used in some medicines and in making porcelain for cups, plates, etc. КАОЛИН КАОЛИН, -а, м. Белая глина высокого качества. II прил. каолиновый, -ая,-ое. kerb ( BrE ) ( NAmE curb ) BrE / kɜːb / NAmE / kɜːrb / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK the edge of the raised path at the side of a road, usually made of long pieces of stone The bus mounted the kerb (= went onto the pavement / sidewalk ) and hit a tree. See picture ОБОЧИНА ОБОЧИНА, -ы, ж. Боковая часть, край (дороги, пути). Ехать обочиной.Съехать на обочину. По обочине шоссе.

237. kid • ney BrE / ˈkɪdni / NAmE / ˈkɪdni / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ countable ] either of the two organs in the body that remove waste products from the blood and produce urine a kidney infection See picture 2 [ uncountable , countable ] the kidneys of some animals that are cooked and eaten steak and kidney pie ПОЧКА ПОЧКА, -и, ж. 1. Не развившийся еще побег растения; зачаток цветка,листа. Почки на деревьях. Набухают, лопаются, распускаются почки. 2. Унек-рых низших животных или растений, размножающихся бесполым путем: выростна теле материнского организма, постепенно разрастающийся, отпадающий иформирующий дочернюю особь (спец.). II прил. почковый, -ая, -ое (спец.).

238. label noun, verb BrE / ˈleɪbl / NAmE / ˈleɪbl / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS 143

SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a piece of paper, etc. that is attached to sth and that gives information about it tag , ticket The washing instructions are on the label. price/address labels We tested various supermarkets' own label pasta sauces (= those marked with the name of the shop/store where they are sold) . He'll only wear clothes with a designer label . 2 ( disapproving ) a word or phrase that is used to describe sb/sth in a way that seems too general, unfair or not correct I hated the label ‘housewife’. 3 a company that produces and sells music, CDs, etc the Virgin record label It's his first release for a major label. ЭТИКЕТКА ЭТИКЕТКА, -и, ас. Ярлычок с фабричным. торговым клеймом, надписью. Э.на бутылке. II прил. этикеточный, -ая, oое.

239. lack noun, verb BrE / læk / NAmE / læk / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , singular ] ~ (of sth) the state of not having sth or not having enough of sth dearth , shortage a lack of food/money/skills The trip was cancelled through lack of (= because there was not enough) interest. There was no lack of volunteers. She showed a distinct lack of enthusiasm for the idea of becoming a mother. see not for want/lack of trying at try v. ОТСУТСТВИЕ ОТСУТСТВИЕ, -я, ср. Положение, когда нет в наличии кого-чего-н., когдакто-что-н. отсутствует. О. средств. В его о. Быть в отсутствии. Заотсутствием кого-чего-н. (из-за отсутствия кого-чего-н.). Ос-вобожден заотсутствием улик. * Полное отсутствие всякого присутствия (прост. шутл.) - отом, кто глуп, совсем ничего не понимает, не соображает.

240. lag • gard BrE / ˈlæɡəd / NAmE / ˈlæɡərd / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old-fashioned ) a slow and lazy person, organization, etc. УВАЛЕНЬ УВАЛЕНЬ, -льня, м. (разг.). Неуклюжий и неповоротливый человек. У. тыэтакий!

241. lamp noun, verb BrE / læmp / NAmE / læmp / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a device that uses electricity, oil or gas to produce light a table/desk/bicycle, etc. lamp to switch on/turn off a lamp a street lamp see also fog lamp , hurricane lamp , lava lamp , standard lamp 2 an electrical device that produces rays of heat and that is used for medical or scientific purposes an infra-red/ultraviolet lamp see also blowlamp , sunlamp ЛАМПА ЛАМПА, -ы, ж. Осветительный или нагревательный прибор различногоустройства. Электрическая л. Лампы, дневного света. Паяльная л. *Электронно-волновая лампа (спец.) - электрический вакуумный прибор,генерирующий сверхвысокочастотные колебания. II уменьш. лампочка,-и, ж. IIлрил. ламповый, -ая, -ое и лампочный, -ая, -ое. Ламповыйрадиоприемник (наэлектронных лампах).

242. land • mark BrE / ˈlændmɑːk / NAmE / ˈlændmɑːrk / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 something, such as a large building, that you can see clearly from a distance and that will help you to know where you are The Empire State Building is a familiar landmark on the New York skyline. 2 ~ (in sth) an event, a discovery, an invention, etc. that marks an important stage in sth milestone The ceasefire was seen as a major landmark in the fight against terrorism. a landmark decision/ruling in the courts 3 ( especially NAmE ) a building or a place that is very important because of its history, and that should be preserved 144

monument ОРИЕНТИР ОРИЕНТИР, -а, м. 1. Неподвижный предмет, по к-рому ориентируются.Световой о. Выбрать правильный о. 2. перен. Избранная цель в жизни,поведении. Правильные жизненные ориентиры. II прил. ориен-тирный, -ая, -ое(к 1 знач.).

243. lapel BrE / ləˈpel / NAmE / ləˈpel / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK one of the two front parts of the top of a coat or jacket that are joined to the collar and are folded back to wear a flower in your lapel He grabbed him by the lapels of his jacket. ОТВОРОТ ОТВОРОТ, -а, м. 1. см. отвернуть. 2. Отогнутый край одежды, обуви.Пиджак с широкими отворотами (лацканами). Отвороты на брюках. Сапоги сотворотами II прил. отворотный, -ая, -ое.

244. lar • ynx BrE / ˈlærɪŋks / NAmE / ˈlærɪŋks / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. la • ryn • ges / BrE ləˈrɪndʒiːz ; NAmE ləˈrɪndʒiːz / ) ( anatomy ) the area at the top of the throat that contains the vocal cords voice box See picture ГОРТАНЬ ГОРТАНЬ, -и, ж. Верхняя часть горла между глоткой и трахеей, органдыхания и образования голоса. II прил. гортанный, -ая, ое.

245. la • ther noun, verb BrE / ˈlɑːðə(r) / NAmE / ˈlæðər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , singular ] a white mass of small bubbles that is produced by mixing soap with water to work up a good lather get into a ˈlather | work yourself into a ˈlather ( BrE , informal ) to get anxious or angry about sth, especially when it is not necessary Calm down—don't work yourself into a lather about it. in a ˈlather ( BrE , informal ) in a nervous, angry or excited state worked up Dad was in a right lather about something. ПЕНА ПЕНА, -ы, ж. 1. Пузырчатая масса, образующаяся на поверхности нек-рыхжидкостей. Морская п. Снять пену с бульона. Мыльная п. (на мыльной воде). 2.Пузырчатая загустевшая слюна, выступающая на губах, при нек-рых болезненныхприпадках, гневе. С пеной у рта или с пеной на губах (также перен.: всильном раздражении, яростно). 3. Сгустившийся белыми хлопьями пот,выступающий на теле лоща-ди. Конь в пене (взмылен). II прил. пенный,-ая,-ое.

246. laun • der • ette ( also laun • drette ) BrE / lɔːnˈdret / NAmE / lɔːnˈdret / ( both BrE ) ( NAmE Laun • dro • mat™ / BrE ˈlɔːndrəmæt ; NAmE ˈlɔːndrəmæt / ) noun a place where you can wash and dry your clothes in machines that you operate by putting in coins ПРАЧЕЧНАЯ ПРАЧЕЧНАЯ [шн], -ой, ж. Предприятие, занимающееся стиркой белья, атакже помещение для стирки. Фабрика-п. П. самообслуживания. П. при доме.

247. law • suit BrE / ˈlɔːsuːt / BrE / ˈlɔːsjuːt / NAmE / ˈlɔːsuːt / ( also suit ) noun EXAMPLE BANK a claim or complaint against sb that a person or an organization can make in court He filed a lawsuit against his record company. ИСК ИСК, -а, м. Заявление в суд или арбитраж о разрешении какого-н.гражданского спора. Предъявить и. Отозвать и. Денежный и. Встречный и. IIприл. исковой, -ая, -ое. Исковое заявление.

248. lead • er BrE / ˈliːdə(r) / NAmE / ˈliːdər / noun 145

THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who leads a group of people, especially the head of a country, an organization, etc a political/spiritual, etc. leader the leader of the party union leaders He was not a natural leader . She's a born leader . 2 a person or thing that is the best, or in first place in a race, business, etc She was among the leaders of the race from the start. The company is a world leader in electrical goods. see also market leader 3 ( BrE ) ( also con • cert • master NAmE , BrE ) the most important violin player in an orchestra 4 ( BrE ) = editorial ЛИДЕР ЛИДЕР, -а, м. 1. Глава, руководитель политической партии,общественно-политической организации или вообще какой-н. группы людей;человек, пользующийся авторитетом и влиянием в каком-н. коллективе.Политический л. 2. Спортсмен или спортивная команда, идущие первыми всостязании. Л. турнира. Гонка за лидером (в велоспорте: вслед за идущимвпереди мотоциклом). 3. Корабль, возглавляющий колонну, группу судов. IIприл. лидерский, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2 знач.; разг.).

249. leash noun, verb BrE / liːʃ / NAmE / liːʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( especially NAmE ) ( BrE also lead ) a long piece of leather, chain or rope used for holding and controlling a dog All dogs must be kept on a leash in public places. see strain at the leash at strain v. ПРИВЯЗЬ ПРИВЯЗЬ, -и, ж. Предмет, служащий для привязывания кого-чего-н. Держатьсобаку на привязи. Посадить на п. Оторваться от привязи. Лодка на привязи.

250. lec • ture noun, verb BrE / ˈlektʃə(r) / NAmE / ˈlektʃər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK ~ (to sb) (on/about sth) 1 a talk that is given to a group of people to teach them about a particular subject, often as part of a university or college course to deliver/give a lecture to first-year students to attend a series of lectures on Jane Austen a lecture room/hall 2 a long angry talk that sb gives to one person or a group of people because they have done sth wrong I know I should stop smoking—don't give me a lecture about it. ЛЕКЦИЯ ЛЕКЦИЯ, -и, ж. Устное изложение учебного предмета или какой-н. темы, атакже запись этого изложения. Читать лекции. Цикл лекций. Конспект лекций.Тетрадь с лекциями по физике. Целую лекцию прочитал по поводу моегоповедения (перен.: длинную нотацию). II прил. лекционный, -ая, -ое.

251. leg • acy noun, adjective BrE / ˈleɡəsi / NAmE / ˈleɡəsi / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. leg • acies ) 1 money or property that is given to you by sb when they die inheritance They each received a legacy of $5 000. 2 a situation that exists now because of events, actions, etc. that took place in the past Future generations will be left with a legacy of pollution and destruction. The problems were made worse by the legacy of centuries of neglect. НАСЛЕДИЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ, -я, ср. (книжн.). Явление духовной жизни, быта, уклада,унаследованное, воспринятое от прежних поколений, от предшественников.Идейное н. Н. прошлого.

252. leis • ure BrE / ˈleʒə(r) / NAmE / ˈliːʒər / 146

noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] time that is spent doing what you enjoy when you are not working or studying These days we have more money and more leisure to enjoy it. leisure activities/interests/pursuits Make the most of your leisure time! the leisure industry at ˈleisure ДОСУГ ДОСУГ, -а, м. 1. Свободное от работы время. В часы досуга. На досуге(когда свободен). Провести свой д. с пользой. 2. е знач. сказ., кому, снеопр. Есть, имеется свободное время (устар.). Гуляют и веселятся, когда имд. Д. ли мне разбирать ваши споры! (т. е. недосуг, нет времени).

253. len • til BrE / ˈlentl / NAmE / ˈlentl / noun WORD ORIGIN a small green, orange or brown seed that is usually dried and used in cooking, for example in soup or stew ЧЕЧЕВИЦА ЧЕЧЕВИЦА, -ы, ж. Растение сем. бобовых, а также его круглые, с двухсторон выпуклые зерна. I) прил. чечевичный, -ая, -ое. За чечевичную похлебкупродать кого-л. (перен.: изменить, предать из мелкой корысти, выгоды; книжн.презр. [по библей-! скому сказанию об Исаве, продавшем свое правопервородства брату-близнецу за чечевичную похлебку]).

254. mace BrE / meɪs / NAmE / meɪs / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE 1 [ countable ] a decorative stick, carried as a sign of authority by an official such as a mayor compare sceptre 2 [ countable ] a large heavy stick that has a head with metal points on it, used in the past as a weapon 3 [ uncountable ] the dried outer covering of nutmegs (= the hard nuts of a tropical tree), used in cooking as a spice ЖЕЗЛ ЖЕЗЛ, -а и -а, м. 1. Трость, короткая пажа, обычно украшенная, служащаясимволом власти, почетного положения. Фельдмаршальский ж. 2. (-а). Стержень,вручаемый машинисту на железных дорогах как раз-решение продолжать путь(спец.). 3. (- а). Короткая палка, к-рой регулировщик движения дает указаниятранспорту, пешехо-дам (спец.). II прил. жезловой, -ая, -оe (ко 2 знач.).Жезловая система регулирования движения.

255. mad • man BrE / ˈmædmən / NAmE / ˈmædmən / noun ( pl. mad • men / BrE ˈmædmən ; NAmE ˈmædmən / ) a man who has a serious mental illness The killing was the act of a madman. He drove like a madman . Some madman (= stupid person) deleted all the files. see also madwoman СУМАСШЕДШИЙ СУМАСШЕДШИЙ, -ая, -ее. 1. Страдающий психическим расстройством. С.человек. Дом для сумасшедших (сущ.). 2. Предназначенный для душевнобольных(разг.). С. дом. Сумасшедшая рубаха, (смирительная; устар.). 3. перен.Крайне безрассудный, безумный .(во 2 знач.). Сумасшедшие планы. Сумасшедшаяидея. 4. перен. Крайний, исключительный (по величине, степени) (разг.). С.успех. Сумасшедшая скорость. Сумасшедшие деньги (очень большие). * Каксумасшедший (разг.) - очень сильно. Хохочет как сумасшедший. Ветер дует каксумасшедший.

256. mag • net BrE / ˈmæɡnət / NAmE / ˈmæɡnət / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a piece of iron that attracts objects made of iron towards it, either naturally or because of an electric current that is passed through it 2 [ usually singular ] ~ (for sb/sth) a person, place or thing that sb/sth is attracted to In the 1990s the area became a magnet for new investment. 3 an object with a magnetic surface that you can stick onto a metal surface fridge magnets of your favourite cartoon characters МАГНИТ МАГНИТ, -а, м. Кусок железной руды, обладающий свойством притягивать железные или стальные предметы. Искусственный м. (намагниченное тело,предмет из металла, сплава). Как м. притягивает кто-что-н. кого-н.(неудержимо тянет, влечет). II прил. магнитный, -ая, -ое- М. железняк(минерал). Магнитное поле.

257. maid • en noun, adjective 147

BrE / ˈmeɪdn / NAmE / ˈmeɪdn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 ( literary ) a young girl or woman who is not married stories of knights and fair maidens 2 ( also ˌmaiden ˈover ) ( in cricket ) an over in which no points are scored ДЕВА ДЕВА, -ы, ж. (устар.). То же, что девушка (в 1 знач.). * Старая дева(разг.) - о немолодой девушке, не вступавшей в брачные отношения.

258. maj • esty BrE / ˈmædʒəsti / NAmE / ˈmædʒəsti / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. maj • esties ) 1 [ uncountable ] the impressive and attractive quality that sth has the sheer majesty of St Peter's in Rome the majesty of the music 2 [ countable ] His/Her/Your Majesty a title of respect used when speaking about or to a king or queen Their Majesties, the King and Queen of Spain The Prime Minister is here to see you, Your Majesty. 3 [ uncountable ] royal power ВЕЛИЧИЕ ВЕЛИЧИЕ, -я, ср. (высок.). Наличие в ком-чем-н. выдающихся свойств,внушающих преклонение, уважение. В. подвига. В. духа. В. Пушкина, * С высотысвоего величия (ирон.) - с чрезмерной важностью, с пренебрежением к другим.

259. male noun BrE / meɪl / NAmE / meɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a male person, animal or plant The male of the species has a white tail. a male-dominated profession ( formal ) The body is that of a white male aged about 40. Haemophilia is a condition that affects mostly males. compare female САМЕЦ САМЕЦ, -мца, м. 1. Особь животного мужского пола. С. во главе стада.2.0 чрезмерно чувственном мужчине.

260. mam • moth noun, adjective BrE / ˈmæməθ / NAmE / ˈmæməθ / noun WORD ORIGIN an animal like a large elephant covered with hair, that lived thousands of years ago and is now extinct МАМОНТ МАМОНТ, -а, м. Ископаемое млекопитающее сем. слонов с длинной шерстью ибольшими загнутыми бивнями. II прил. мамонтовый, -ая, -ое. Мамонтовая кость.

261. mange BrE / meɪndʒ / NAmE / meɪndʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a skin disease which affects mammals , caused by a parasite see also mangy ЧЕСОТКА ЧЕСОТКА, -и, ж. Болезнь кожи, вызываемая клещами и характеризующаясясильным зудом. II прил. чесоточный, -ая, -ое. Ч. клещ.

262. man • kind BrE / mænˈkaɪnd / NAmE / mænˈkaɪnd / noun MORE ABOUT EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] all humans, thought about as one large group; the human race the history of mankind an invention for the good of all mankind The future of mankind is at stake. compare womankind see also humankind ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСТВО ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСТВО, -а, ср., собцр. Люди, человеческий род. 148

263. manu • fac • tur • ing BrE / ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ / NAmE / ˌmænjuˈfæktʃərɪŋ / noun THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] the business or industry of producing goods in large quantities in factories, etc Many jobs in manufacturing were lost during the recession. The company has established its first manufacturing base in Europe. ПРОИЗВОДИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ ПРОИЗВОДИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. производительный. 2. Эффективностьтрудовой, производственной деятельности. Высокая п. труда.

264. mari • gold BrE / ˈmæriɡəʊld / NAmE / ˈmæriɡoʊld / noun WORD ORIGIN an orange or yellow garden flower. There are several types of marigold . НОГОТКИ НОГОТКИ, -ов, ед. ноготок, -тка, м. Однолетнее садовое растение соранжево-желтыми цветками, лекарственная кален-дула. II прил. ноготковый,-ая, -ое.

265. mar • mot BrE / ˈmɑːmət / NAmE / ˈmɑːrmət / noun WORD ORIGIN a small European or American animal that lives in holes in the ground СУРОК СУРОК, -рка, м. Небольшое животное сем. беличьих, зимой впадающее вспячку. Спит как с. кто-н. (крепко, не просыпаясь;разг.). II прил. сурковый,-ая, -ое, сурочий, -ья, -ье и сурчиный, -ая, -ое. Сурковая шкурка. Сурочьянорка. Сурчиный жир.

266. mar • tyr noun, verb BrE / ˈmɑːtə(r) / NAmE / ˈmɑːrtər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who suffers very much or is killed because of their religious or political beliefs the early Christian martyrs a martyr to the cause of freedom 2 ( usually disapproving ) a person who tries to get sympathy from other people by telling them how much he or she is suffering He makes a martyr of himself whenever it's his turn to do the housework. 3 ~ to sth ( informal ) a person who suffers very much because of an illness, problem or situation She's a martyr to her nerves. I feel like a martyr to this vacuum cleaner. МУЧЕНИК МУЧЕНИК, -a, м. Человек, к-рый подвергается физическим или нравственным мучениям, испытывает много страданий. II ж. мученица, -ы. II прил.мученический, -ая, -ое. mas • sacre noun, verb BrE / ˈmæsəkə(r) / NAmE / ˈmæsəkər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] 1 the killing of a large number of people especially in a cruel way the bloody massacre of innocent civilians Nobody survived the massacre. 2 ( informal ) a very big defeat in a game or competition The game was a 10–0 massacre for our team. РЕЗНЯ РЕЗНЯ, -и, ж. Массовое жестокое избиение, массовые убийства. Кровавая р.

267. match noun, verb BrE / mætʃ / NAmE / mætʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK FOR LIGHTING FIRES 1 [ countable ] a small stick made of wood or cardboard that is used for lighting a fire, cigarette, etc a box of matches to strike a match (= to make it burn) 149

to put a match to sth (= set fire to sth) If you suspect a gas leak do not strike a match or use electricity. He took all her letters into the yard and put a match to them. IN SPORT 2 [ countable ] ( especially BrE ) a sports event where people or teams compete against each other : ( BrE ) a football match ( NAmE , BrE ) a tennis match They are playing an important match against Liverpool on Saturday. to win/lose a match see also shooting match , slanging match , Test match AN EQUAL 3 [ singular ] a ~ for sb | sb's match a person who is equal to sb else in strength, skill, intelligence, etc I was no match for him at tennis. I was his match at tennis. SB/STH THAT COMBINES WELL 4 [ singular ] a person or thing that combines well with sb/sth else The curtains and carpet are a good match . Jo and Ian are a perfect match for each other. STH THE SAME 5 [ countable ] a thing that looks exactly the same as or very similar to sth else I've found a vase that is an exact match of the one I broke. This paint is a close enough colour match to the original. MARRIAGE 6 [ countable ] ( old-fashioned ) a marriage or a marriage partner He was determined that his daughter should make a good match (= find a suitable husband) . see also love match find/meet your ˈmatch (in sb) to meet sb who is equal to, or even better than you in strength, skill or intelligence He thought he could beat anyone at chess but he's met his match in Peter. more at the man of the match at man n. СПИЧКА СПИЧКА, -и, ас. Тонкая палочка с головкой- из воспламеняющегосявещества для получения огня. Чиркнуть спинкой. Как с. кто-н. (очень худ;разг.). II прил. спичечный, -ая, -ое. С. коробок.

268. ma • tri • archy BrE / ˈmeɪtriɑːki / NAmE / ˈmeɪtriɑːrki / noun ( pl. ma • tri • archies ) a social system that gives power and authority to women rather than men compare patriarchy МАТРИАРХАТ МАТРИАРХАТ, -а, м. При первобытнообщинном строе: сменившаясяпатриархатом эпоха главенствующего положения женщины в родовой группе, приустановлении родства (по женской линии), в хозяйственной и общественнойжизни. II прил. матриархальный, - ая, -ое.

270. maxi BrE / ˈmæksi / NAmE / ˈmæksi / noun WORD ORIGIN a long coat, dress or skirt that reaches to the ankles МАКСИ МАКСИ. 1. нескл., ср. Юбка, платье, пальто максимальной длины. Носитьм. В моде - м. 2. неизм. О юбке, платье, пальто: максимально длинный.М.-палыпо. Юбка м.

271. meadow BrE / ˈmedəʊ / NAmE / ˈmedoʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a field covered in grass, used especially for hay water meadows (= near a river) See picture ЛУГ ЛУГ, -а, о луге, на лугу, мн. -а, -ов, м. Участок, покрытый травянистойрастительностью. Зеленый л. Заливной л. Идти полугу ипо лугу. Альпийскиелуга (горные). II уменьш. лужок, -жка,м. II прил. луговой, -ая, -ое. Луговыерастения. Л. волк (койот).

272. mech• an • ism BrE / ˈmekənɪzəm / NAmE / ˈmekənɪzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a set of moving parts in a machine that performs a task a delicate watch mechanism The mechanism for locking the door of the washing machine is childproof. 2 a method or a system for achieving sth mechanisms for dealing with complaints from the general public 150

The college has established an effective student support mechanism. 3 a system of parts in a living thing that together perform a particular function the balance mechanism in the ears Pain acts as a natural defence mechanism . МЕХАНИЗМ МЕХАНИЗМ, -а, м. 1. Внутреннее устройство (система звеньев) машины,прибора, аппарата, приводящее их в действие. Звено механизма. М. часов.Заводной м. 2. перен. Система, устройство, определяющие порядок какого-н.вида деятельности. Государственный м. 3. перен. Последовательностьсостояний, процессов, определяющих собою какое-н. действие, явление. М.кровообращения, II прил. механический, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

273. mel • an • cho • lia BrE / ˌmelənˈkəʊliə / NAmE / ˌmelənˈkoʊliə / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old-fashioned ) a mental illness in which the patient is depressed and worried by unnecessary fears МЕЛАНХОЛИЯ МЕЛАНХОЛИЯ, -и, ж. Болезненно-угнетенное состояние, тоска, хандра.Впасть в меланхолию. II прил. меланхолический, -ая, -ое. Меланхолическоенастроение.

274. memo • ran • dum BrE / ˌmeməˈrændəm / NAmE / ˌmeməˈrændəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. memo • randa / BrE ˌmeməˈrændə ; NAmE ˌmeməˈrændə / ) 1 ( formal ) = memo an internal memorandum leaks of confidential memoranda 2 ( law ) a record of a legal agreement which has not yet been formally prepared and signed The two sides have signed a memorandum of understanding aimed at ending the conflict. 3 a proposal or report on a particular subject for a person, an organization, a committee, etc a detailed memorandum to the commission on employment policy МЕМОРАНДУМ МЕМОРАНДУМ, -а, м. (офиц.). Вручаемый представителю другой страныдипломатический документ с изложением взглядов правительства на какой-н.вопрос.

275. men • tal • ity BrE / menˈtæləti / NAmE / menˈtæləti / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ usually singular ] ( pl. men • tal • ities ) the particular attitude or way of thinking of a person or group mindset I cannot understand the mentality of football hooligans. a criminal/ghetto mentality see also siege mentality МЕНТАЛИТЕТ МЕНТАЛИТЕТ, -а, м. (книжн.). Мировосприятие, умонастроение. М. русскогонарода.

276. naiad BrE / ˈnaɪæd / NAmE / ˈnaɪæd / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. naiads or nai • ades / BrE ˈnaɪædiːz ; NAmE ˈnaɪædiːz / ) ( in ancient stories ) a water spirit НАЯДА НАЯДА, -ы, ж. В древнегреческой мифологии: нимфа рек, ручьев и озер(перен.: об обнаженных купальщицах; ирон.).

277. nanny BrE / ˈnæni / NAmE / ˈnæni / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. nannies ) 1 a woman whose job is to take care of young children in the children's own home 2 ( also nan ) ( both BrE ) ( used by children, especially as a form of address ) a grandmother When is Nanny coming to stay? my nan and grandad see also granny 151

the ˈnanny state ( BrE ) a disapproving way of talking about the fact that government seems to get too much involved in people's lives and to protect them too much, in a way that limits their freedom НЯНЯ НЯНЯ, -и, род. мн. нянь и няней, ж. 1. Работница, занимающаяся уходом за детьми. Н. с ребенком. Н. в яслях. 2. Санитарка в лечебном учреждении.Больничная н. 3. Уборщица в школе. II ласк. нянечка, -и, ж. (к 1 знач,) инянюшка, -и, ж. (к 1 знач.). II м, нянь, -я (о мужчине, нянчущем ребенка;разг. шутл.). Усатый н.

278. nar • ra • tor BrE / nəˈreɪtə(r) / NAmE / nəˈreɪtər / noun a person who tells a story, especially in a book, play or film/movie; the person who speaks the words in a television programme but who does not appear in it a first-person narrator РАССКАЗЧИК РАССКАЗЧИК, -а, м. Тот, кто рассказывает что-н. Хороший р. (человек,умеющий интересно рассказывать). Образ рассказ-чиха (в сказе во 2 знач., вхудожественном повествовании от чьего-н. лица: образ того, от чьего лицаведется рассказ). II ж. рассказчица, -ы. II прил. рассказчицкий, -ая,-ое.

279. na • tion BrE / ˈneɪʃn / NAmE / ˈneɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a country considered as a group of people with the same language, culture and history, who live in a particular area under one government an independent nation the African nations 2 [ singular ] all the people in a country population The entire nation, it seemed, was watching TV. na • tion • hood / BrE ˈneɪʃnhʊd ; NAmE ˈneɪʃnhʊd / noun [ uncountable ] Citizenship is about the sense of nationhood. НАЦИЯ НАЦИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Исторически сложившаяся устойчивая общность людей,образующаяся в процессе формирования общности их территории, экономическихсвязей, литературного языка, особенностей культуры и духовного облика. 2. Внек-рых сочетаниях: страна, государство. Организация Объединенных Наций. IIприл. национальный, -ая, -ое. Национальные интересы. Национальноеравноправие.

280. nat • ur • al • ism BrE / ˈnætʃrəlɪzəm / NAmE / ˈnætʃrəlɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] 1 a style of art or writing that shows people, things and experiences as they really are 2 ( philosophy ) the theory that everything in the world and life is based on natural causes and laws, and not on spiritual or supernatural ones НАТУРАЛИЗМ НАТУРАЛИЗМ, -а, м. 1. Направление в литературе и искусстве последнейтрети 19 в., стремящееся к внешне точному изображению действительности. 2.Фактографическое, внешнее воспроизведение жизни, быта. Излишний н. 3.Движение, проповедующее отказ от благ современной цивилизации, жизнь вусловиях, близких к природе. II прил. натуралистический, -ая, -ое инатуралистский, -ая, -ое (к 3 знач.). Натуралистическое искусство.Натуралистические подробности.

281. nau • sea BrE / ˈnɔːziə / NAmE / ˈnɔːziə / BrE / ˈnɔːsiə / NAmE / ˈnɔːsiə / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] the feeling that you have when you want to vomit , for example because you are ill/sick or are disgusted by sth A wave of nausea swept over her. Nausea and vomiting are common symptoms. see also ad nauseam ТОШНОТА ТОШНОТА, -ы, ж. Ощущение, предшествующее рвоте. Почувствовать тошноту.Противно до тошноты (также перен.). II прил. тошнотный, -ая, -ое. Г. запах(вызывающий тошноту).

282. navi • ga • tion BrE / ˌnævɪˈɡeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌnævɪˈɡeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] 1 the skill or the process of planning a route for a ship or other vehicle and taking it there 152

navigation systems an expert in navigation 2 the movement of ships or aircraft the right of navigation through international waters

283. nav • iga • tion • al / BrE ˌnævɪˈɡeɪʃənl ; NAmE ˌnævɪˈɡeɪʃənl / adjective navigational aids НАВИГАЦИЯ НАВИГАЦИЯ, -и, ж. 1. Наука о вождении судов и летательных аппаратов.Школа навигации. Воздушная н. Межпланетная (космическая) н. 2. Время, втечение к-рого возможно судоходство, а также само судоходство. Начало, конецнавигации. Н. открыта. II прил. навигационный, -ая, -ое. Навигационныеприборы. Н. период. Навигационные сигналы.

284. neck • lace noun, verb BrE / ˈnekləs / NAmE / ˈnekləs / noun a piece of jewellery consisting of a chain, string of beads , etc. worn around the neck a diamond necklace ОЖЕРЕЛЬЕ ОЖЕРЕЛЬЕ, -я, род. мн. -лий, ср. 1. Шейное украшение. Жемчужное о. О.из монет, 2. перен. Шейное оперение птиц. Яркое о. у петуха.

285. oxy • gen BrE / ˈɒksɪdʒən / NAmE / ˈɑːksɪdʒən / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ( symb. O ) a chemical element. Oxygen is a gas that is present in air and water and is necessary for people, animals and plants to live.

КИСЛОРОД КИСЛОРОД, -а (-у), м. Химический элемент, бесцветный газ, входящий всостав воздуха, необходимый для дыхания и горения. II прил. кислородный,-ая, -ое. Кислородное голодание, кислородная недостаточность (пониженноесодержание кислорода в организме; спец.).

286. ob • el • isk BrE / ˈɒbəlɪsk / NAmE / ˈɑːbəlɪsk / NAmE / ˈoʊbəlɪsk / noun WORD ORIGIN a tall pointed stone column with four sides, put up in memory of a person or an event ОБЕЛИСК ОБЕЛИСК, -а, м. Памятник, сооружение в виде граненого, сужающегосякверху столба. Воздвигнуть о. II прил. обелисковый, -ая, - ое.

287. oboe BrE / ˈəʊbəʊ / NAmE / ˈoʊboʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN a musical instrument of the woodwind group. It is shaped like a pipe and has a double reed at the top that you blow into. ГОБОЙ ГОБОЙ, -я, м. Деревянный духовой язычковый музыкальный инструмент ввиде расширяющейся трубки. II прил. гобой-ный, -ая, - ое.

288. obs • tacle BrE / ˈɒbstəkl / NAmE / ˈɑːbstəkl / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 ~ (to sth/to doing sth) a situation, an event, etc. that makes it difficult for you to do or achieve sth hindrance A lack of qualifications can be a major obstacle to finding a job. So far, we have managed to overcome all the obstacles that have been placed in our path. The MP claims that there is now no obstacle to him standing at the next general election. 2 an object that is in your way and that makes it difficult for you to move forward The area was full of streams and bogs and other natural obstacles. 3 ( in showjumping ) a fence, etc. for a horse to jump over ПРЕПЯТСТВИЕ ПРЕПЯТСТВИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Помеха, задерживающая какие-н. действия илиразвитие чего-н., стоящая на пути осуществления чего-н. Чинить препятствиякому-н. Преодолеть все препятствия. 2. Преграда на пути, задерживающаяпередвижение. По-лоса препятствий (участок местности, специальнооборудованный для обучения преодолению препятствий, встречающихся на полебоя, а также в условиях, требующих преодоления каких-н. преград; спец.). Бег(скачки) с препятствиями (также перен.: о чем-н., 153

289. oc • cu • pa • tion BrE / ˌɒkjuˈpeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌɑːkjuˈpeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a job or profession Please state your name, age and occupation below. 2 [ countable ] the way in which you spend your time, especially when you are not working Her main occupation seems to be shopping. 3 [ uncountable ] the act of moving into a country, town, etc. and taking control of it using military force; the period of time during which a country, town, etc. is controlled in this way the Roman occupation of Britain The zones under occupation contained major industrial areas. occupation forces 4 [ uncountable ] ( formal ) the act of living in or using a building, room, piece of land, etc The offices will be ready for occupation in June. The following applies only to tenants in occupation after January 1 2010. The level of owner occupation (= people owning their homes) has increased rapidly in the last 30 years. ПРОФЕССИЯ ПРОФЕССИЯ, -и, ж. Основной род занятий, трудовой деятельности. Попрофессии инженер. Производственные профессии. Выбор профессии. Лицасвободных профессий (люди умственного труда, не связанные служебнымиобязанностями или занимающиеся частной практикой). Самая древняя п. (опроституции). II прил. профессиональный, -ая, -ое. Профессиональноемастерство. Профессиональные интересы. П. союз (массовая добровольнаяорганизация, объединяющая работников какой-н. отрасли производства, сферыобслуживания и культуры).

290. octet BrE / ɒkˈtet / NAmE / ɑːkˈtet / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ countable + singular or plural verb ] a group of eight singers or musicians 2 [ countable ] a piece of music for eight singers or musicians ОКТЕТ ОКТЕТ, -а, м. 1. Музыкальное произведение для восьми исполнителей ссамостоятельными партиями для каждого. 2. Ансамбль из восьми исполнителей.II прил. октетный, -ая, -ое.

291. odys • sey BrE / ˈɒdəsi / NAmE / ˈɑːdəsi / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ singular ] ( literary ) a long journey full of experiences From the Odyssey , a Greek poem that is said to have been written by Homer, about the adventures of Odysseus . After a battle in Troy Odysseus had to spend ten years travelling before he could return home. ОДИССЕЯ ОДИССЕЯ, -и, ж. (книжн.). Богатые событиями странствия, похождения [по названию древнегреческой эпической поэмы Гомера, описывающей странствияОдиссея]. Рассказал всю свою одиссею.

292. of • fend • er BrE / əˈfendə(r) / NAmE / əˈfendər / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 ( rather formal ) a person who commits a crime a persistent/serious/violent, etc. offender a young offender institution see also first offender , sex offender 2 a person or thing that does sth wrong The report on sexual discrimination at work shows that some of the worst offenders are women. When it comes to pollution, the chemical industry is a major offender. ПРЕСТУПНИК ПРЕСТУПНИК, -а, м. Человек, к-рый совершает или совершил преступление.П. осужден. Военный п. II ж. преступница, -ы.

293. ohm BrE / əʊm / NAmE / oʊm / noun WORD ORIGIN ( physics ) a unit for measuring electrical resistance ОМ ОМ, -а, род. мн. омов и при счете преимущ. ом, м. Единицаэлектрического сопротивления. II прил. омический, -ая, -ое.

294. oint • ment BrE / ˈɔɪntmənt / 154

NAmE / ˈɔɪntmənt / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] a smooth substance that you rub on the skin to heal a wound or sore place cream antiseptic ointment see a/the fly in the ointment at fly n. МАЗЬ МАЗЬ, -и, ж. 1. Наружное лекарство - мягкая смесь жиров с лечебными веществами. Цинковая м. 2.Густое вещество для смазки чего-н. М для обуви.Лыжная м. * На мази (прост.) - в благоприятном положении. Дело на мази. IIприл. мазевый, -ая, ое (спец.).

295. oli • garch BrE / ˈɒlɪɡɑːk / NAmE / ˈɑːləɡɑːrk / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a member of an oligarchy 2 an extremely rich and powerful person, especially a Russian who became rich in business after the end of the former Soviet Union the power of the oligarchs to influence the government ОЛИГАРХ ОЛИГАРХ, -а, м. 1. Правитель олигархии (в 1 знач.). 2. Представительфинансово-промышленного капитала.

296. pace 1 noun, verb BrE / peɪs / NAmE / peɪs / see also pace 2 noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ singular , uncountable ] the speed at which sb/sth walks, runs or moves to set off at a steady/gentle/leisurely pace Congestion frequently reduces traffic to walking pace . The ball gathered pace as it rolled down the hill. The runners have noticeably quickened their pace. 2 [ singular , uncountable ] ~ (of sth) the speed at which sth happens It is difficult to keep up with the rapid pace of change. We encourage all students to work at their own pace (= as fast or as slow as they can) . I prefer the relaxed pace of life in the country. Rumours of corruption and scandal gathered pace (= increased in number) . 3 [ countable ] an act of stepping once when walking or running; the distance travelled when doing this step She took two paces forward. To be a really good runner he needs to lengthen his pace a little. Competitors must stand at a distance of 20 paces from each other. 4 [ uncountable ] the fact of sth happening, changing, etc. quickly He gave up his job in advertising because he couldn't stand the pace . The novel lacks pace (= it develops too slowly) . a pace bowler (= in cricket , a person who bowls the ball fast) see also pacy go through your ˈpaces | show your ˈpaces to perform a particular activity in order to show other people what you are capable of doing We watched the horses going through their paces. The British team showed its paces during a training session in the hotel pool. keep ˈpace (with sb/sth) to move, increase, change, etc. at the same speed as sb/sth She found it hard to keep pace with him as he strode off. Until now, wage increases have always kept pace with inflation. The company is struggling to keep pace with changes in the market. off the ˈpace ( in sport ) behind the leader or the leading group in a race or a competition Tiger Woods is still three shots off the pace (= in golf ) . put sb/sth through their/its ˈpaces to give sb/sth a number of tasks to perform in order to see what they are capable of doing Youngsters will be put through their paces by qualified instructors. We sent our reporter to put Ford's newest model through its paces. set the ˈpace 1 to do sth at a particular speed or to a particular standard so that other people are then forced to copy it if they want to be successful The company is no longer setting the pace in the home computer market. 2 ( in a race ) to run faster than the other people taking part, at a speed that they then try to copy Willis set the pace for the first mile. more at force the pace at force v. , at a snail's pace at snail ТЕМП ТЕМП, -а, м. 1. Степень быстроты в исполнении музыкальногопроизведения, а также в движениях, в исполнении чего-н., в чтении. Быстрый,медленный т. Потеря темпа в игре. 2. Степень быстроты в осуществлениичего-н., в исполнении како-го-н. дела, задания. Быстрые темпы строительства.* В темпе (разг.) - быстро, энергично. Игра проходит в темпе. 11 прил.темповый, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). 155

297. pa • goda BrE / pəˈɡəʊdə / NAmE / pəˈɡoʊdə / noun WORD ORIGIN a temple (= religious building) in S or E Asia in the form of a tall tower with several levels, each of which has its own roof that extends beyond the walls ПАГОДА ПАГОДА, -ы, ж. Буддийский или индуистский храм, хранилище религиозныхреликвий.

298.pal • is • ade BrE / ˌpælɪˈseɪd / NAmE / ˌpælɪˈseɪd / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a fence made of strong wooden or metal posts that are pointed at the top, especially used to protect a building in the past 2 palisades [ plural ] ( US ) a line of high steep cliffs , especially along a river or by the sea or ocean ЧАСТОКОЛ ЧАСТОКОЛ, -а, м. Забор из тесно вбитых кольев. Ч. штыков, (перен.: омножестве поднятых вверх штыков).

299. panic noun, verb BrE / ˈpænɪk / NAmE / ˈpænɪk / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable , usually singular ] 1 a sudden feeling of great fear that cannot be controlled and prevents you from thinking clearly a moment of panic They were in a state of panic. Office workers fled in panic as the fire took hold. There's no point getting into a panic about the exams. a panic attack (= a condition in which you suddenly feel very anxious, causing your heart to beat faster, etc.) a panic decision (= one that is made when you are in a state of panic ) A look of panic crossed his face. The mere thought of flying fills me with panic. 2 a situation in which people are made to feel very anxious, causing them to act quickly and without thinking carefully News of the losses caused (a) panic among investors. Careful planning at this stage will help to avoid a last-minute panic. There's no panic (= we do not need to rush) , we've got plenty of time. panic buying/selling (= the act of buying/selling things quickly and without thinking carefully because you are afraid that a particular situation will become worse) ˈpanic stations ( BrE , informal ) a situation in which people feel anxious and there is a lot of confused activity, especially because there is a lot to do in a short period of time It was panic stations when the deadline was brought forward by a week. ПАНИКА ПАНИКА, -и, ж. Крайний, неудержимый страх, сразу охватывающий человекаили многих людей. Впасть в панику. В толпе началась п. Без паники! (призывуспокоиться, не бояться; разг.). II прил. панический, -ая, -ое.

300. pa • pyrus BrE / pəˈpaɪrəs / NAmE / pəˈpaɪrəs / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. pa • pyri / BrE pəˈpaɪriː ; NAmE pəˈpaɪriː / ) 1 [ uncountable ] a tall plant with thick stems that grows in water 2 [ uncountable ] paper made from the stems of the papyrus plant, used in ancient Egypt for writing and drawing on 3 [ countable ] a document or piece of paper made of papyrus ПАПИРУС ПАПИРУС, -а, м. 1. Тропическое травянистое растение сем. осоковых. 2.Материал для письма, изготовленный из этого растения (у египтян и др.древних народов), а также рукопись на этом материале. Древние папирусы. IIприл. папирусный, -ая, -ое. Папирусная бумага. П. свиток.

301. para • site BrE / ˈpærəsaɪt / NAmE / ˈpærəsaɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a small animal or plant that lives on or inside another animal or plant and gets its food from it fleas, lice and other parasites an intestinal parasite of cattle 2 ( disapproving ) a person who always relies on or benefits from other people and gives nothing back He regards students as parasites on society. ПАРАЗИТ

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ПАРАЗИТ, -а, м. 1. Организм (растение, животное), питающийся за счетдругого организма и вредящий ему. Грибы-паразиты. Насекомые-паразиты. 2.Человек, к-рый живет чужим трудом, тунеядец (презр.). II ж. паразитка, -и(ко 2 знач.; разг.). II прил. паразитный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.) ипаразитский, -ая, -ое (ко 2 знач.; прост.).

302. par • od • ist BrE / ˈpærədɪst / NAmE / ˈpærədɪst / noun a person who writes parodies ПАРОДИСТ ПАРОДИСТ, -а, м. Автор пародий (в 1 знач.). II ж. пародистка, -и(разг.).

303. pas • sen • ger BrE / ˈpæsɪndʒə(r) / NAmE / ˈpæsɪndʒər / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who is travelling in a car, bus, train, plane or ship and who is not driving it or working on it a passenger train (= carrying passengers, not goods) 2 ( informal , disapproving , especially BrE ) a member of a group or team who does not do as much work as the others The firm cannot afford to carry passengers. ПАССАЖИР ПАССАЖИР, -а, м. Тот, кто совершает поездку в транспортном средстве.Пассажиры поезда, теплохода, автобуса, трамвая. II ж. пассажирка, -и. IIприл. пассажирский, -ая, -ое. П. поезд.

304. pa • tent noun, adjective, verb noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK / BrE ˈpætnt ; ˈpeɪtnt ; NAmE ˈpætnt / [ countable , uncountable ] an official right to be the only person to make, use or sell a product or an invention; a document that proves this to apply for/obtain a patent on an invention The device was protected by patent . ПАТЕНТ ПАТЕНТ, -а, м. 1. Документ, свидетельствующий о праве изобретателя наего изобретение, о его приоритете. Получить п. на изобретение. 2.Свидетельство на право занятия торговлей, промыслом. II прил. патентный,-ая, -ое. Патентное право.

305. paunch BrE / pɔːntʃ / NAmE / pɔːntʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN a fat stomach on a man The driver had a paunch hanging over his belt. paunchy / BrE ; NAmE / adjective Mr Steed was middle-aged and paunchy, with deep shadows under his eyes. ПУЗО ПУЗО, -а, ср. (прост.). То же, что живот (в 1 знач.). П. отрастил (отолстом человеке; неодобр.). * От пуза (есть, наесться) - сколько хочешь; доотвала.

306. peach noun, adjective BrE / piːtʃ / NAmE / piːtʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ countable ] a round fruit with soft red and yellow skin, yellow flesh and a large rough seed inside a peach tree compare nectarine 2 [ singular ] ~ (of a…) ( old-fashioned , informal ) a particularly good or attractive person or thing He's a real peach. That was a peach of a shot! 3 [ uncountable ] a pinkish-orange colour ПЕРСИК ПЕРСИК, -а, м. Южное фруктовое дерево сем. розоцветных, дающее сочныемясистые плоды с пушистой кожицей и крупной косточкой, а также самый плодего. Щеки как п. (румяные, с пушком). II прил. персиковый, -ая, -ое. П.джем.

307. peel • ings BrE / ˈpiːlɪŋz / NAmE / ˈpiːlɪŋz / ( NAmE also peels ) noun [ plural ] the skin of fruit or vegetables that has been removed ШЕЛУХА ШЕЛУХА, -и, ж. 1. Ободочка нек-рых плодов, овощей, а также кожура семян. Картофельная ш. Ш. подсолнуха. 2. перен. Нечтс внешнее, ненужное,наносное (разг.). Ш случайных впечатлений.

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308. pen • nant BrE / ˈpenənt / NAmE / ˈpenənt / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 a long narrow pointed flag, for example one used on a ship to give signals 2 ( in the US ) a flag given to the winning team in a sports league, especially in baseball The Dodgers defeated the Mets 6–0 to win the pennant. ВЫМПЕЛ ВЫМПЕЛ, -а, мн. -ы, -ов и -а, -ов, м. 1. Узкий длинный раздвоенный наконце флаг на мачте военного корабля. 2. Узкий треугольный флажок илиполотнище, служащие знаком чего-н. Переходящий в. (в соревновании). 3.Снабженный длинным флажком или лентой футляр, в к-ром заключен предмет,сбрасываемый с летательного аппарата. Сбросить в. с донесением.

309. pere • grine BrE / ˈperɪɡrɪn / NAmE / ˈperɪɡrɪn / ( also ˌperegrine ˈfalcon ) noun WORD ORIGIN a grey and white bird of prey (= a bird that kills other creatures for food) that can be trained to hunt for sport САПСАН САПСАН, -а, м. Хищная птица сем. соколиных, род сокола. Ловчий с. Охотас сапсаном. Вольерное разведение сапсанов.

310. per • mis • sion BrE / pəˈmɪʃn / NAmE / pərˈmɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] the act of allowing sb to do sth, especially when this is done by sb in a position of authority ~ (for sth) You must ask permission for all major expenditure. ~ (for sb/sth) (to do sth) The school has been refused permission to expand. No official permission has been given for the event to take place. She took the car without permission . poems reprinted by kind permission of the author ( formal ) With your permission, I'd like to say a few words. 2 [ countable , usually plural ] an official written statement allowing sb to do sth The publisher is responsible for obtaining the necessary permissions to reproduce illustrations. see also planning permission РАЗРЕШЕНИЕ РАЗРЕШЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. разрешить,-ся. 2. Право на совершениечего-н., а также документ, удостоверяющий такое право. Получить р. на работув архивах. Попросить разрешения (чтобы разрешили). Р. на отстрел кабанов. 3.Степень различимости изображения чего-н. (спец.). Фотография поверхности сбольшим разрешением деталей. * С вашего (его, моего и т. д.) разрешения - тоже, что с вашего (его, моего и т. д.) позволения. С вашего разрешения,ееоЭн. ел. - то же, что с вашего позволения.

311. per • se • ver • ance BrE / ˌpɜːsɪˈvɪərəns / NAmE / ˌpɜːrsəˈvɪrəns / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ( approving ) the quality of continuing to try to achieve a particular aim despite difficulties They showed great perseverance in the face of difficulty. The only way to improve is through hard work and dogged perseverance. УПОРСТВО УПОРСТВО, -а, ср. 1. Последовательность и твердость в осуществлениичего-н. У. в достижении цели. 2. То же, что упрямство. * С упорством,достойным лучшего применения (ирон.) - о чьей-н. непонятной и неумнойнастойчивости.

312. pes • sim • ism BrE / ˈpesɪmɪzəm / NAmE / ˈpesɪmɪzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ~ (about/over sth) a feeling that bad things will happen and that sth will not be successful; the tendency to have this feeling There is a mood of pessimism in the company about future job prospects. This widespread pessimism does not seem justified. optimism ПЕССИМИЗМ ПЕССИМИЗМ, -а, м. Мрачное мироощущение, при к-ром человек не верит вбудущее, во всем склонен видеть унылое, плохое; противоп. оптимизм. II прил.пессимистический, -ая, -ое.

313. pharma • cist BrE / ˈfɑːməsɪst / NAmE / ˈfɑːrməsɪst / 158

noun 1 ( NAmE also drug • gist ) a person whose job is to prepare medicines and sell or give them to the public in a shop/store or in a hospital We had to wait for the pharmacist to make up her prescription. compare chemist 2 pharma • cist's ( pl. pharma • cists ) ( BrE ) a shop that sells medicines They sell vitamin supplements at the pharmacist's. compare chemist see also pharmacy ФАРМАЦЕВТ ФАРМАЦЕВТ, -а, м. Аптечный работник фармацевтическим образованием,специа лист по фармацевтике.

314. phoe • nix BrE / ˈfiːnɪks / NAmE / ˈfiːnɪks / noun WORD ORIGIN (in stories) a magic bird that lives for several hundred years before burning itself and then being born again from its ashes to rise like a phoenix from the ashes (= to be powerful or successful again) ФЕНИКС ФЕНИКС, -а, м. В нек-рых древних мифологиях: птица, обладающаяспособностью сжигать себя и возрождаться из пепла, символ вечногообновления. Как ф. из пепла возник кто-н. (книжн.).

315. phys • ician BrE / fɪˈzɪʃn / NAmE / fɪˈzɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( especially NAmE ) a doctor, especially one who is a specialist in general medicine and not surgery compare surgeon This word is now old-fashioned in BrE . Doctor or GP is used instead. ТЕРАПЕВТ ТЕРАПЕВТ, -а, м. Врач - специалист по терапии.

316. pie BrE / paɪ / NAmE / paɪ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] 1 fruit baked in a dish with pastry on the bottom, sides and top a slice of apple pie Help yourself to some more pie. a pie dish see also custard pie 2 ( especially BrE ) meat, vegetables, etc. baked in a dish with pastry on the bottom, sides and top a steak and kidney pie see also mince pie , pork pie , shepherd's pie a ˌpiece/ˌslice/ˌshare of the ˈpie a share of sth such as money, profits, etc. ˌpie in the ˈsky ( informal ) an event that sb talks about that seems very unlikely to happen This talk of moving to Australia is all just pie in the sky. more at as American as apple pie at American adj. , as easy as pie at easy adj. , eat humble pie at eat , have a finger in every pie at finger n. , as nice as pie at nice ПИРОГ ПИРОГ, -а, м. Печеное изделие из раскатанного теста с начинкой. Сладкийп. П. с мясом, с грибами, с капустой. Поживиться от общего пирога (перен.:урвать что-н. для себя; неодобр.). Пригласить на пироги кого-н. (чтобыугостить пирогами). * Вот такие (какие) пироги (прост, шутл.) - вот какобстоят дела, вот что получилось (обычно о чем-н. сложном, неприятном). IIуменьш. пирожок, -жка, м. II прил. пирожный, -ая, -ое и пироговый, -ая, -ое.П. противень.

317. pil • low noun, verb BrE / ˈpɪləʊ / NAmE / ˈpɪloʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a square or rectangular piece of cloth filled with soft material, used to rest your head on in bed She lay back against the pillows. pillow talk (= conversations in bed between lovers) He lay back on the grass using his backpack as a pillow. The nurse plumped up the pillows. a pillow fight (= a game in which people hit each other with pillows ) See picture 2 ( NAmE ) = cushion ПОДУШКА

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ПОДУШКА, -и, ж. 1. Зашитый со всех сторон чехол, набитый пухом(перьями, волосом, ватой), для подкладывания под голову, для сидения.Пуховая, перьевая п. Диванная п. Скажи подушке, а она подружке (поел. о том,что тайна, доверенная одному, станет известна всем).

318. pi • on • eer noun, verb BrE / ˌpaɪəˈnɪə(r) / NAmE / ˌpaɪəˈnɪr / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 ~ (in/of sth) a person who is the first to study and develop a particular area of knowledge, culture, etc. that other people then continue to develop trailblazer a pioneer in the field of microsurgery a computer pioneer a pioneer aviator a pioneer design (= one that introduces new ideas, methods, etc.) 2 one of the first people to go to a particular area in order to live and work there the pioneer spirit ПИОНЕР ПИОНЕР, -а,м. 1. Человек, к-рый одним из первых пришел и поселился в новой неисследованной стране, местности.

319. pity noun, verb BrE / ˈpɪti / NAmE / ˈpɪti / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS WORD FAMILY EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable ] ~ (for sb/sth) a feeling of sympathy and sadness caused by the suffering and troubles of others I could only feel pity for what they were enduring. He had no pity for her. a look/feeling/surge of pity I took pity on her and lent her the money. ( formal ) I beg you to have pity on him. I don't want your pity. 2 [ singular ] used to show that you are disappointed about sth shame a ~ (that…) It's a pity that you can't stay longer. ‘I've lost it!’ ‘Oh, what a pity .’ What a pity that she didn't tell me earlier. a ~ (to do sth) It seems a pity to waste this food. This dress is really nice. Pity it's so expensive. Oh, that's a pity . It would be a great pity if you gave up now. more's the ˈpity ( BrE , informal ) unfortunately ‘Was the bicycle insured?’ ‘No, more's the pity!’ ЖАЛОСТЬ ЖАЛОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. Сострадание, соболезнование. Сделать что-н. изжалости. Ж. к больному. 2. Печаль, сожаление. С жалостью смотреть на что-н.Какая ж.! (как жаль!).

320. plant noun, verb BrE / plɑːnt / NAmE / plænt / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK LIVING THING 1 [ countable ] a living thing that grows in the earth and usually has a stem , leaves and roots, especially one that is smaller than a tree or bush All plants need light and water. flowering/garden/indoor plants a tomato/potato plant the animal and plant life of the area see also bedding plant , house plant , pot plant , rubber plant FACTORY 2 [ countable ] a factory or place where power is produced or an industrial process takes place a nuclear reprocessing plant Japanese car plants a chemical plant see also sewage plant MACHINERY 3 [ uncountable ] the large machinery that is used in industrial processes The company has been investing in new plant and equipment. STH ILLEGAL

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4 [ countable , usually singular ] ( informal ) something that sb has deliberately placed among another person's clothes or possessions in order to make them appear guilty of a crime He claimed that the drugs found in his house were a plant. PERSON 5 [ countable ] a person who joins a group of criminals or enemies in order to get and secretly report information about their activities РАСТЕНИЕ РАСТЕНИЕ, -я, ср. Организм, обычно развивающийся в неподвижномсостоянии, получающий питание (в отличие от животных) из воздуха (путемфотосинтеза) и почвы. Царство растений (одна из четырех высших сферорганического мира;спец.). Высшие растения (с корнем, стеблем и листьями).Низшие растения (не расчлененные на корень, стебель и листья). Древовидныерастения. Цветковые, клубневые растения. Водные, земноводные растения.Дикорастущие, лесные, полевые, луговые, болотные растения. Культурные,сельскохозяйственные, технические, кормовые, лекарственные растения.Декоративные, оранжерейные, садовые, комнатные растения. Полезные, сорныерастения. II име"ьш. растеньице, -а, ср. II прил. растительный, -ая, -ое. Р.покров (растительность). Р. мир (мир растений). Растительная пища.Растительное масло. Р. орнамент (с изображением растений или их элементов).

321. play • wright BrE / ˈpleɪraɪt / NAmE / ˈpleɪraɪt / noun EXAMPLE BANK a person who writes plays for the theatre, television or radio dramatist compare screenwriter , scriptwriter ДРАМАТУРГ ДРАМАТУРГ, -a, м. Писатель - автор драматических произведений.

322. plough ( NAmE plow ) noun, verb BrE / plaʊ / NAmE / plaʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a large piece of farming equipment with one or several curved blades, pulled by a tractor or by animals. It is used for digging and turning over soil, especially before seeds are planted. see also snowplough 2 the Plough ( BrE ) ( NAmE the ˌBig ˈDipper ) [ singular ] a group of seven bright stars that can only be seen from the northern half of the world under the ˈplough ( BrE , formal ) ( of land ) used for growing crops, not for keeping animals on arable ПЛУГ ПЛУГ, -а, мн. -и, -ов, м. 1. Сельскохозяйственное орудие с широким металлическим лемехом и отвалом для вспашки земли. Тракторный п. 2. Сходноепо устройству орудие - часть снегоуборочной машины, снегопаха. Снежный п. 3.перен. Прием торможения при спуске на лыжах. Спуститься плугом. I) уменьш.плужок, -жка, м. (к 1 и 2 знач.). II прил. плуговой, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2знач.) и плужный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2 знач.).

323. pock • mark BrE / ˈpɒkmɑːk / NAmE / ˈpɑːkmɑːrk / noun a hollow mark on the skin, often caused by disease or infection ОСПИНА ОСПИНА, -ы, ж. Щербина на теле от оспы. Лицо в оспинах. II уменьш.оспинка, -и, ж.

324. po • lice • man BrE / pəˈliːsmən / NAmE / pəˈliːsmən / noun THESAURUS MORE ABOUT EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. po • lice • men / BrE pəˈliːsmən ; NAmE pəˈliːsmən / ) a male police officer ПОЛИЦЕЙСКИЙ ПОЛИЦЕЙСКИЙ, -ая, -ое. 1. см. полиция. 2. полицейский, -ого, м.Служащий полиции.

325. pol • yg • amy BrE / pəˈlɪɡəmi / NAmE / pəˈlɪɡəmi / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] ( technical ) the custom of having more than one wife at the same time compare polyandry pol • yg • am • ist / BrE pəˈlɪɡəmɪst ; NAmE pəˈlɪɡəmɪst / noun pol • yg • am • ous / BrE pəˈlɪɡəməs ; NAmE pəˈlɪɡəməs / adjective a polygamous marriage/society 161

ПОЛИГАМИЯ ПОЛИГАМИЯ, -и, ж. (спец.). 1. Форма брака у нек-рых племен и народов,при к-рой мужчина может иметь несколько жен, групповой брак, многобрачие. 2.Спаривание самца с несколькими самками или самки с несколькими самцами. IIприл. полигамный, -ая, -ое.

326. pond BrE / pɒnd / NAmE / pɑːnd / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a small area of still water, especially one that is artificial a fish pond See picture across the ˈpond ( informal ) on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean from Britain/the US more at a big fish (in a small pond) at big adj. ПРУД ПРУД, -а и -а, в (на) пруду, мн. -ы, -6в, м. Водоем в естественном иливыкопанном углублении, а также запруженное место в реке. П. зарос ряской.Разведение рыбы в прудах. II прил. прудовой, -ая, -ое. Прудовое рыбоводство.

327. popu • lace BrE / ˈpɒpjələs / NAmE / ˈpɑːpjələs / ( usually the populace ) noun WORD ORIGIN [ singular + singular or plural verb ] ( formal ) all the ordinary people of a particular country or area He had the support of large sections of the local populace. The populace at large is/are opposed to sudden change. НАСЕЛЕНИЕ НАСЕЛЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. населить. 2. Жители какого-н. места,местности. Н. района. Перепись населения. 3. Животные, живущие в каком-н.одном месте (спец.). Рыбное н. водохранилища.

328. quail noun, verb BrE / kweɪl / NAmE / kweɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] ( pl. quails or quail ) a small brown bird, whose meat and eggs are used for food; the meat of this bird ПЕРЕПЕЛ ПЕРЕПЕЛ, -а, мн. -а, -ов, м. Маленькая полевая птица сем. фазановых. IIприл. перепелиный, -ая, -ое-

329. queen BrE / kwiːn / NAmE / kwiːn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK FEMALE RULER 1 the female ruler of an independent state that has a royal family to be crowned queen kings and queens the Queen of Norway Queen Victoria 2 ( also ˌqueen ˈconsort ) the wife of a king BEST IN GROUP 3 ~ (of sth) a woman, place or thing that is thought to be one of the best in a particular group or area the queen of fashion a movie queen Venice, queen of the Adriatic AT FESTIVAL 4 a woman or girl chosen to perform official duties at a festival or celebration a carnival queen a May queen (= at a festival to celebrate the coming of spring) a homecoming queen see also beauty queen IN CHESS 5 the most powerful piece used in the game of chess that can move any number of squares in any direction IN CARDS 6 a playing card with the picture of a queen on it INSECT 7 a large female insect that lays eggs for the whole group a queen bee 162

HOMOSEXUAL 8 ( informal , taboo ) an offensive word for a male homosexual who behaves like a woman see the King's/Queen's English at English , turn King's/Queen's evidence at evidence , the uncrowned king/queen at uncrowned КОРОЛЕВА КОРОЛЕВА, -ы, ж. 1. см. король. 2. Жена короля (в 1 знач.).

330. rabbi BrE / ˈræbaɪ / NAmE / ˈræbaɪ / noun WORD ORIGIN a Jewish religious leader or a teacher of Jewish law the Chief Rabbi (= the leader of Jewish communities in a particular country) Rabbi Sacks РАВВИН РАВВИН, -а, м. В иудаизме: служитель культа, духовный наставник,руководитель религиозной общины. II прил. раввинский, -ая, - ое.

331. radar BrE / ˈreɪdɑː(r) / NAmE / ˈreɪdɑːr / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a system that uses radio waves to find the position and movement of objects, for example planes and ships, when they cannot be seen They located the ship by radar. a radar screen compare sonar below/under the ˈradar used to say that people are not aware of sth Experts say a lot of corporate crime stays under the radar. The conflict has slipped below the radar of the mass media. on/off the ˈradar screen used to say that people's attention is on or not on sth The issue of terrorism is back on the radar screen. Since the scandal broke, all other issues seem to have disappeared off the radar screen as far as the media is concerned. more at bubble under the radar at bubble v. РАДАР РАДАР, -а, м. (спец.). Радиолокационная станция. II прил. радарный,-ая, -ое. Радарная установка.

332. raf • fle noun, verb BrE / ˈræfl / NAmE / ˈræfl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a way of making money for a particular project or organization. People buy tickets with numbers on them and some of these numbers are later chosen to win prizes raffle prizes/tickets I won this bottle of wine in a raffle. compare lottery ЛОТЕРЕЯ ЛОТЕРЕЯ, -и, ж. 1. Розыгрыш вещей, денежных сумм по билетам.Беспроигрышная л. Денежно-вещевая л. 2. первн. О деле, в к-ром можнорассчитывать на успех только как на случайность. II прил. лотерейный, -ая,-ое (к 1 знач.). Л. билет.

333. rail • road • er BrE / ˈreɪlrəʊdə(r) / NAmE / ˈreɪlroʊdər / ( NAmE ) ( BrE rail • way • man , rail • man ) noun a person who works for a rail company ЖЕЛЕЗНОДОРОЖНИК ЖЕЛЕЗНОДОРОЖНИК, -а, м. Работник железнодорожного транспорта. II ж.железнодорожница, -ы.

334. ram • page noun noun WORD ORIGIN / BrE ˈræmpeɪdʒ ; NAmE ˈræmpeɪdʒ / [ usually singular ] a sudden period of wild and violent behaviour, often causing damage and destruction Gangs of youths went on the rampage in the city yesterday. A state of emergency was declared following overnight rampages by student demonstrators. ЯРОСТЬ ЯРОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. Сильный гнев. Прийти в я. 2. перен. Напор,неукротимость (высок.). Я. волн.

335. rash noun 163

BrE / ræʃ / NAmE / ræʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , usually singular ] an area of red spots on a person's skin, caused by an illness or a reaction to sth I woke up covered in a rash. I come out in a rash (= a rash appears on my skin) if I eat chocolate. The sun brought her out in (= caused) an itchy rash. a heat rash (= caused by heat) compare spot 2 [ singular ] ~ (of sth) a lot of sth; a series of unpleasant things that happen over a short period of time spate a rash of movies about life in prison Rising prices are the result of the recent rash of strikes in the steel industry. There has been a rash of burglaries in the area over the last month. СЫПЬ СЫПЬ, -и, ж. Мелкие пятнышки или прыщики, появляющиеся на теле принек-рых болезнях. Аллергическая с. Скарлатинная с.

336. rav • ine BrE / rəˈviːn / NAmE / rəˈviːn / noun WORD ORIGIN a deep, very narrow valley with steep sides The track continued along the bottom of the ravine. See picture УЩЕЛЬЕ УЩЕЛЬЕ, -я, род. мн. -лий, ср. Узкая и глубокая с обрывистыми склонамидолина; расселина в горах. Горное у. II прил. ущель-ный, -ая, -ое.

337. rea • son noun, verb BrE / ˈriːzn / NAmE / ˈriːzn / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS LANGUAGE BANK SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a cause or an explanation for sth that has happened or that sb has done ~ (why…) I'd like to know the reason why you're so late. Give me one good reason why I should help you. ~ (that…) We aren't going for the simple reason that we can't afford it. ~ (for sth) She gave no reasons for her decision. ~ (for doing sth) I have no particular reason for doubting him. He said no but he didn't give a reason . For some reason (= one that I don't know or don't understand) we all have to come in early tomorrow. The man attacked me for no apparent reason . She resigned for personal reasons . For reasons of security the door is always kept locked. He wants to keep them all in his office for reasons best known to himself . people who, for whatever reason , are unable to support themselves ‘Why do you want to know?’ ‘ No reason ’ (= I do not want to say why) . ‘Why did she do that?’ ‘She must have her reasons ’ (= secret reasons which she does not want to tell) . ( formal ) He was excused by reason of (= because of) his age. 2 [ uncountable ] a fact that makes it right or fair to do sth ~ (to do sth) They have reason to believe that he is lying. We have every reason (= have very good reasons) to feel optimistic. You have no reason to accuse him of laziness. ~ (why…) There is no reason why we should agree to this. ~ (for sth/for doing sth) This result gives us all the more reason for optimism. She complained, with reason (= rightly) , that she had been underpaid. 3 [ uncountable ] the power of the mind to think in a logical way, to understand and have opinions, etc Only human beings are capable of reason (= of thinking in a logical way, etc.) . to lose your reason (= become mentally ill) the conflict between faith and reason 4 [ uncountable ] what is possible, practical or right I can't get her to listen to reason . Why can't they see reason ? to be open to reason (= to be willing to accept sensible advice) He's looking for a job and he's willing to do anything within reason . it ˌstands to ˈreason ( informal ) it must be clear to any sensible person who thinks about it It stands to reason that they'll leave if you don't pay them enough. more at there's no rhyme or reason to/for sth without rhyme or reason at rhyme n. ПРИЧИНА ПРИЧИНА, -ы, ж. 1. Явление, вызывающее, обусловливающее возникновениедругого явления. П. пожара. П. спешки в том, что не хватает времени. 2.Основание, предлог для каких-н. действий. Уважительная п. Смеяться безпричины. 4- По причине чего, в знач.

164

предлога с под. п. - вследствиечего-н., из-за чего-н., благодаря чему-н. Не работал по причине болезни. Попричине того что, по той причине что, союз (книжн.) - из-за того что. По тойпростой причине что (разг.) - из-за того что, потому что, именно поэтому.

338. re • cid • iv • ist BrE / rɪˈsɪdɪvɪst / NAmE / rɪˈsɪdɪvɪst / noun WORD ORIGIN ( formal ) a person who continues to commit crimes, and seems unable to stop, even after being punished

339. re • cid • iv • ism / BrE rɪˈsɪdɪvɪzəm ; NAmE rɪˈsɪdɪvɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] РЕЦИДИВИСТ РЕЦИДИВИСТ, -а, м. Преступник, отбывший наказание и вновь совершающий преступление (преступления). Вор-р. II ж. рецидивистка, -и. II прил.рецидивистский,-ая, -ое.

340. rec • re • ation BrE / ˌrekriˈeɪʃn / NAmE / ˌrekriˈeɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ uncountable ] the fact of people doing things for enjoyment, when they are not working the need to improve facilities for leisure and recreation the increasing use of land for recreation 2 [ countable ] ( BrE ) a particular activity that sb does when they are not working hobby , pastime His recreations include golf, football and shooting. ОТДЫХ ОТДЫХ, -а, м. Проведение нек-рого времени без обычных занятий, работыдля восстановления сил. Нужен о. кому-н. На отдыхе кто-н. (в отпуске). Назаслуженном отдыхе кто-н, (на пенсии). Дом отдыха (стационарное учреждениедля восстановления сил, укрепления здоровья). * Ни отдыху, ни сроку недавать кому (разг.) - не давать ни минуты отдыха, передышки.

341. red • skin BrE / ˈredskɪn / NAmE / ˈredskɪn / noun ( old-fashioned , taboo , offensive ) = Red Indian КРАСНОКОЖИЙ КРАСНОКОЖИЙ, -ая, -ее; -ож. 1. С красной кожей, из красной кожи.Краснокожая физиономия. Краснокожая книжка (в красном- переплете). 2. полн.ф. С темно-желтой, красноватой окраской кожи (об американских индейцах).Краснокожие индейцы.. Вождь краснокожих (сущ.).

342. re • flex BrE / ˈriːfleks / NAmE / ˈriːfleks / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK an action or a movement of your body that happens naturally in response to sth and that you cannot control; sth that you do without thinking The doctor tested her reflexes. to have quick/slow reflexes a reflex response/reaction Only the goalkeeper's reflexes (= his ability to react quickly) stopped the ball from going in. Almost as a reflex action , I grab my pen as the phone rings. РЕФЛЕКС РЕФЛЕКС, -а, м. Непроизвольная реакция организма на внешние или внутренние раздражители. Рефлексы головного мозга. Условный р.(приобретенный в результате неоднократного воздействия раздражителей).Безусловный р. (врожденный). II прил. рефлекторный, -ая, -ое и рефлективный,-ая, -ое. Рефлекторная реакция. Рефлективные движения.

343. regi • cide BrE / ˈredʒɪsaɪd / NAmE / ˈredʒɪsaɪd / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable , countable ] ( formal ) the crime of killing a king or queen; a person who is guilty of this crime ЦАРЕУБИЙСТВО ЦАРЕУБИЙСТВО, -а, ср. Убийство царя.

344. re • inforce • ment BrE / ˌriːɪnˈfɔːsmənt / NAmE / ˌriːɪnˈfɔːrsmənt / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 reinforcements [ plural ] extra soldiers or police officers who are sent to a place because more are needed to send in reinforcements 2 [ uncountable , singular ] the act of making sth stronger, especially a feeling or an idea the reinforcement of existing prejudices by the media 165

УКРЕПЛЕНИЕ УКРЕПЛЕНИЕ, -я, ср. Ц. см. укрепить, -ся. 2. Оборонительное сооружение.Полевые укрепления. Долговременные укрепления.

345. re • mark noun, verb BrE / rɪˈmɑːk / NAmE / rɪˈmɑːrk / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] something that you say or write which expresses an opinion, a thought, etc. about sb/sth comment to make a remark He made a number of rude remarks about the food. What exactly did you mean by that last remark? a casual remark that led to a major discovery 2 [ uncountable ] ( old-fashioned or formal ) the quality of being important or interesting enough to be noticed note The exhibition contains nothing that is worthy of remark. ЗАМЕЧАНИЕ ЗАМЕЧАНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Краткое суждение по поводу чего-н. Верное з.Замечания рецензента. 2. Указание на ошибку; выговор. Строгое з. 3. заопоздание. * На замечании быть у кого (разг.) - о провинившемся: быть назаметке у кого-н.

346. ren • min • bi BrE / ˈrenmɪnbi / NAmE / ˈrenmɪnbi / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. ren • min • bi ) 1 the renminbi [ singular ] the money system of China 2 = yuan ЮАНЬ ЮАНЬ, -я, м. Денежная единица в Китае.

347. res • on • ance BrE / ˈrezənəns / NAmE / ˈrezənəns / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ uncountable ] ( formal ) ( of sound ) the quality of being resonant Her voice had a strange and thrilling resonance. 2 [ countable , uncountable ] ( technical ) the sound or other vibration produced in an object by sound or vibrations of a similar frequency from another object 3 [ uncountable , countable ] ( formal ) ( in a piece of writing, music, etc. ) the power to bring images, feelings, etc. into the mind of the person reading or listening; the images, etc. produced in this way ОТДЫХ ОТДЫХ, -а, м. Проведение нек-рого времени без обычных занятий, работыдля восстановления сил. Нужен о. кому-н. На отдыхе кто-н. (в отпуске). Назаслуженном отдыхе кто-н, (на пенсии). Дом отдыха (стационарное учреждениедля восстановления сил, укрепления здоровья). * Ни отдыху, ни сроку недавать кому (разг.) - не давать ни минуты отдыха, передышки.

348. re • sult noun, verb BrE / rɪˈzʌlt / NAmE / rɪˈzʌlt / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS COLLOCATIONS LANGUAGE BANK LANGUAGE BANK SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK CAUSED BY STH 1 [ countable , uncountable ] ~ (of sth) a thing that is caused or produced because of sth else She died as a result of her injuries. The failure of the company was a direct result of bad management. He made one big mistake, and, as a result, lost his job. The farm was flooded, with the result that most of the harvest was lost. The end result (= the final one) of her hard work was a place at medical school. This book is the result of 25 years of research. OF GAME/ELECTION 2 [ countable ] ~ (of sth) the final score or the name of the winner in a sports event, competition, election, etc They will announce the result of the vote tonight. the election results the football results 3 [ countable , usually singular ] ( BrE , informal ) a victory or a success, especially in a game of football ( soccer ) We badly need to get a result from this match. OF EXAM 166

4 [ countable , usually plural ] ( BrE ) the mark/grade you get in an exam or in a number of exams Have you had your results yet? OF TEST/RESEARCH 5 [ countable ] ~ (of sth) the information that you get from a scientific test or piece of research the result of an experiment SUCCESS 6 results [ plural ] things that are achieved successfully The project is beginning to show results. a coach who knows how to get results from his players РЕЗУЛЬТАТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТ, -а, м. 1. То, что получено в завершение какой-н.деятельности, работы, итог. Результаты исследования. Результаты конкурса. 2.Показатель мастерства (обычно спортивного). Р. пловца. Р. в беге "а 100м.Улучшить свои результаты. Лучшийр. дня. * В результате чего, предлог с род.п. - вследствие чего-н., из-за чего-н. Ущерб в результате аварии. Пострадалв результате неосторожности. В результате того что, союз (книжн.) -вследствие того что, из-за того что. Всегда опаздывает, в результате тогочто не может рассчитать время. А (и) в результате, в знач. союза - и потому,и вследствие этого. Не рассчитали время, а (и) в результате опоздали. IIприл. результатный, -ая, -ое.

349. reve • la • tion BrE / ˌrevəˈleɪʃn / NAmE / ˌrevəˈleɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] ~ (about/concerning sth) | ~ (that…) a fact that people are made aware of, especially one that has been secret and is surprising disclosure startling/sensational revelations about her private life He was dismissed after revelations that confidential files were missing. 2 [ uncountable ] ~ (of sth) the act of making people aware of sth that has been secret disclosure The company's financial problems followed the revelation of a major fraud scandal. 3 [ countable , uncountable ] something that is considered to be a sign or message from God These events were seen as a divine revelation. see also reveal come as/be a revelation (to sb) to be a completely new or surprising experience; to be different from what was expected His performance in the race today was a revelation to everyone. My trip to Texas was a revelation. ОТКРЫТИЕ ОТКРЫТИЕ, -я, ср. 1. см. открыть. 2. То, что открыто, вновьустановлено, найдено. Сделать о. Научное о

350. re • volver BrE / rɪˈvɒlvə(r) / NAmE / rɪˈvɑːlvər / NAmE / rɪˈvɔːlvər / noun EXAMPLE BANK a small gun that has a container for bullets that turns around so that shots can be fired quickly without having to stop to put more bullets in РЕВОЛЬВЕР РЕВОЛЬВЕР, -а,м. Многозарядное ручное огнестрельное оружие с магазиномв виде вращающегося барабана. Р. системы Нагана. Спортивный р. II прил.револьверный,-ая, -ое. * Револьверный станок (спец.) - токарный илисверлильный станок с вращающейся головкой, в к-рой закрепляется несколькорежущих инструментов.

351. rhu • barb BrE / ˈruːbɑːb / NAmE / ˈruːbɑːrb / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] 1 the thick red stems of a garden plant, also called rhubarb , that are cooked and eaten as a fruit rhubarb pie 2 a word that a group of actors repeat on stage to give the impression of a lot of people talking at the same time РЕВЕНЬ РЕВЕНЬ, -я (-ю), м. Травянистое растение сем. гречишных с толстымкорневищем и крупными листьями, употр. в медицине, кулинарии. Кисель изревеня. 11 прил. ревенный, -ая, -ое и ревеневый, -ая, -ое.

352. rifle noun, verb BrE / ˈraɪfl / NAmE / ˈraɪfl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a gun with a long barrel which you hold to your shoulder to fire ВИНТОВКА ВИНТОВКА, -и, ж. Ручное огнестрельное оружие с винтовой нарезкой вканале ствола, с надевающимся штыком. В. с оптическим прицелом. II прил.винтовочный, -ая, -ое.

S 167

353. sab • bath BrE / ˈsæbəθ / NAmE / ˈsæbəθ / ( often the Sabbath ) noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ singular ] ( in Judaism and Christianity ) the holy day of the week that is used for resting and worshipping God. For Jews this day is Saturday and for Christians it is Sunday to keep/break the Sabbath (= to obey/not obey the religious rules for this day) © Oxford University Press, 2010 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8th edition ШАБАШ ШАБАШ, -а, м. 1. В иудаизме: субботний отдых. 2. В средневековыхповерьях сборище ведьм.

354. safety BrE / ˈseɪfti / NAmE / ˈseɪfti / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. safeties ) 1 [ uncountable ] the state of being safe and protected from danger or harm a place where children can play in safety The police are concerned for the safety of the 12-year-old boy who has been missing for three days. He was kept in custody for his own safety . 2 [ uncountable ] the state of not being dangerous I'm worried about the safety of the treatment. safety standards a local campaign to improve road safety The airline has an excellent safety record . 3 [ uncountable ] a place where you are safe I managed to swim to safety . We watched the lions from the safety of the car. They reached safety seconds before the building was engulfed in flames. 4 [ countable ] ( NAmE ) = safety catch 5 [ countable ] ( NAmE ) (in American football ) a defending player who plays in a position far away from the other team ˌsafety ˈfirst ( saying ) safety is the most important thing there's ˌsafety in ˈnumbers ( saying ) being in a group makes you safer and makes you feel more confident БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ, -и, ас. 1. см. безопасный. 2. Состояние, при к-ром неугрожает опасность, есть защита от опасности. В безопасности кто-н. Техникабезопасности. Б. движения. Международная б.

355. sal • mon BrE / ˈsæmən / NAmE / ˈsæmən / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] ( pl. sal • mon ) a large fish with silver skin and pink flesh that is used for food. Salmon live in the sea but swim up rivers to lay their eggs a whole salmon smoked salmon wild and farmed salmon Scotland's wild salmon population is in danger of being overwhelmed by the farmed variety. ЛОСОСЬ ЛОСОСЬ, -я и ЛОСОСЬ, -я, м. Крупная рыба с нежным мясом розового цвета.П прил. лососевый, -ая, -ое и лососий, -ья, -ье. Семейство лососевых (сущ.).Лососий балык.

356. salt • petre ( US salt • peter ) BrE / ˌsɔːltˈpiːtə(r) / BrE / ˌsɒltˈpiːtə(r) / NAmE / ˌsɔːltˈpiːtər / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a white powder used for preserving food and making matches and gunpowder СЕЛИТРА СЕЛИТРА, -ы, ж. Азотнокислая соль калия, натрия, аммония, употр. втехнике взрывчатых веществ, в агрономии. Калийная с. II прил. селитряный,-ая, -ое и селитровый, -ая,-ое.

357. samba BrE / ˈsæmbə / NAmE / ˈsæmbə / noun 168

WORD ORIGIN a fast dance originally from Brazil; a piece of music for this dance САМБА САМБА, -ы, ж. Бальный парный танец бразильского происхождения, а такжемузыка в быстром и экспрессивном темпе этого танца, йприл. самбовый, -ая,-ое.

358. sam • urai BrE / ˈsæmuraɪ / NAmE / ˈsæmuraɪ / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. sam • urai ) ( from Japanese ) (in the past) a member of a powerful military class in Japan © Oxford University Press, 2010 САМУРАЙ САМУРАЙ, -я, м. 1. В феодальной Японии:член военно-феодальногосословия, а также его светской верхушки. 2. мн. Вообще о японских военных(разг.). II прил. самурайский, -ая, -ое.

359. sand • box BrE / ˈsændbɒks / NAmE / ˈsændbɑːks / ( NAmE ) ( BrE sand • pit ) noun an area in the ground or a shallow container, filled with sand for children to play in ПЕСОЧНИЦА ПЕСОЧНИЦА, -ы, ж. 1. Коробочка с песком для посыпания (просушки) написанного чернилами (устар.). 2. В локомотиве: ящик с песком,автоматически выбрасываемым на рельсы при буксовании колес (спец.): 3.Заполненный песком низкий широкий ящик для детской игры в песок. Дети играютв песочнице.

360. sani • ta • tion BrE / ˌsænɪˈteɪʃn / NAmE / ˌsænɪˈteɪʃn / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] the equipment and systems that keep places clean, especially by removing human waste disease resulting from poor sanitation A lack of clean water and sanitation were the main problems. САНИТАРИЯ САНИТАРИЯ, -и, ж. Относящиеся к системе здравоохранения меры по поддержанию чистоты, соблюдению правил гигиены. II прил. санитарный, -ая,-ое.

361. sar • casm BrE / ˈsɑːkæzəm / NAmE / ˈsɑːrkæzəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] a way of using words that are the opposite of what you mean in order to be unpleasant to sb or to make fun of them ‘That will be useful,’ she snapped with heavy sarcasm (= she really thought it would not be useful at all) . a hint/touch/trace of sarcasm in his voice САРКАЗМ САРКАЗМ, -а,л<. (книжн_). 1. Язвительная насмешка, злая ирония. Вголосе звучит с. 2. Едкое, насмешливое замечание.

362. sash BrE / sæʃ / NAmE / sæʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a long strip of cloth worn around the waist or over one shoulder, especially as part of a uniform 2 either of a pair of windows, one above the other, that are opened and closed by sliding them up and down inside the frame ПОЯС ПОЯС, -а, мн. -а, -ов, м. 1. Лента, шнур, ремень или прошитая полосаткани для завязывания, застегивания по талии. Кожаный п. П. юбки. 3а пояс иза пояс заткнуть кого-н. (безусловно превзойти кого-н. в чем-н.; разг.).Заткнуть топор за п. 2. перен. Пространство, окружающее, опоясывающее что-н.Лесопарковый (зеленый) п. столицы. 3. То же, что талияПо п. в воде. Трава допояса. Кланяться в п. (согнув туловище). 4. Выделяемая по какому-н. признакучасть земной поверхности (между какими-н. параллелями или между двумямеридианами), а также часть небесной сферы. Физико-географический п.Тропический п. Часовой п. П. зодиака. 5. Пространство, выделяемое внутритерритории страны на основании каких-н. собственных признаков. Тарифный п.6. Часть скелета, служащая для причленения к туловищу и опоры конечностей(спец.). Плечевой п. Тазовый п. II уменьш. поясок, -ска, м. (к 1 знач.). IIприл. поясной, -ая, -ое (к 1, 3, 4, 5 и 6 знач.). П. ремень. П. поклон (впояс).П. портрет (до пояса). П. тариф. Поясное время.

363. sat • el • lite BrE / ˈsætəlaɪt / NAmE / ˈsætəlaɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN 169

COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK 1 an electronic device that is sent into space and moves around the earth or another planet. It is used for communicating by radio, television, etc. and for providing information a weather/communications satellite The interview came live by satellite from Hollywood. satellite television/TV (= broadcast using a satellite ) a satellite broadcast/channel/picture The information was sent via a satellite link. 2 a natural object that moves around a larger natural object in space The moon is a satellite of earth. 3 a town, a country or an organization that is controlled by and depends on another larger or more powerful one satellite states СПУТНИК СПУТНИК, -а, м. 1. Тот, кто совершает путь вместе с кем-н. Веселый с.С. жизни (перен.: о муже). 2. перен. То, что сопутствует чему-н., появляетсявместе с чем-н. Улыбка - с. хорошего настроения. 3. Небесное тело,обращающееся вокруг планеты. Луна - с. Земли. 4. Космический аппарат,запускаемый на околопланетную, окололунную или гелиоцентрическую орбиту спомощью ракетных устройств. Искусственный с. Земли (Луны, Венеры, Марса),Искусственный с. Солнца. 4- Город-спутник - город, соседствующий с большимгородом и связанный с ним тесными производственными, хозяйственными икультурными отношениями. II ж. спутница, -ы (к 1 знач.). С. жизни (перен.: ожене). II прил. спутниковый, -ая, -ое (к 4 знач.;спец.). Спутниковаярадиосвязь. Спутниковая метеорология.

364. Sat • ur • na • lia BrE / ˌsætəˈneɪliə / NAmE / ˌsætərˈneɪliə / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] an ancient Roman festival that took place in December, around the time that Christmas now takes place ВАКХАНАЛИЯ ВАКХАНАЛИЯ, -и, ас. 1. обычно мн. В античном мире: празднество в честь Вакха - бога вина и веселья. 2. перен. Крайняя степень беспорядка,неистового разгула (книжн.). II прил. вакханальный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

365. sav • eloy BrE / ˈsævəlɔɪ / NAmE / ˈsævəlɔɪ / noun WORD ORIGIN [ countable , uncountable ] ( BrE ) a type of sausage made from pork that is sold cooked and ready to eat СЕРВЕЛАТ СЕРВЕЛАТ, -а, м. Сорт копченой колбасы.

366. saxo • phone BrE / ˈsæksəfəʊn / NAmE / ˈsæksəfoʊn / ( also informal sax ) noun WORD ORIGIN a metal musical instrument that you blow into, used especially in jazz САКСОФОН САКСОФОН, -а. м. Медный духовой мундштучный музыкальный инструмент, по тембру близкий к кларнету. II прил. саксофонный, -ая, -ое.

367. scale noun, verb BrE / skeɪl / NAmE / skeɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN THESAURUS EXAMPLE BANK SIZE 1 [ singular , uncountable ] the size or extent of sth, especially when compared with sth else They entertain on a large scale (= they hold expensive parties with a lot of guests) . Here was corruption on a grand scale . On a global scale, 77% of energy is created from fossil fuels. to achieve economies of scale in production (= to produce many items so the cost of producing each one is reduced) ~ of sth It was impossible to comprehend the full scale of the disaster. It was not until morning that the sheer scale of the damage could be seen (= how great it was) . see also full-scale , large-scale , small-scale RANGE OF LEVELS 2 [ countable ] a range of levels or numbers used for measuring sth a five-point pay scale to evaluate performance on a scale from 1 to 10 The salary scale goes from £12 000 to £20 000. a scale of charges see also Richter scale , sliding scale , timescale 3 [ countable , usually singular ] the set of all the different levels of sth, from the lowest to the highest At the other end of the scale , life is a constant struggle to get enough to eat. 170

the social scale MARKS FOR MEASURING 4 [ countable ] a series of marks at regular intervals on an instrument that is used for measuring How much does it read on the scale? WEIGHING INSTRUMENT 5 scales [ plural ] ( NAmE also scale ) an instrument for weighing people or things bathroom/kitchen/weighing scales ( figurative ) the scales of justice (= represented as the two pans on a balance ( 5 ) ) See picture OF MAP/DIAGRAM/MODEL 6 [ countable ] the relation between the actual size of sth and its size on a map, diagram or model that represents it a scale of 1:25 000 a scale model/drawing Both plans are drawn to the same scale. Is this diagram to scale (= are all its parts the same size and shape in relation to each other as they are in the thing represented) ? IN MUSIC 7 [ countable ] a series of musical notes moving upwards or downwards, with fixed intervals between each note, especially a series of eight starting on a particular note the scale of C major to practise scales on the piano compare key n. ( 5 ) , octave OF FISH/REPTILE 8 [ countable ] any of the thin plates of hard material that cover the skin of many fish and reptiles The beast was a dragon, with great purple and green scales. IN WATER PIPES, ETC. 9 ( BrE also fur ) [ uncountable ] a hard greyish-white substance that is sometimes left inside water pipes and containers for heating water see also limescale ON TEETH 10 [ uncountable ] a hard substance that forms on teeth, especially when they are not cleaned regularly compare plaque see tip the balance/scales tip the scales at sth at tip v. МАСШТАБ МАСШТАБ, -а, м. 1. Отношение длины линий на карте, чертеже кдействительной длине. М. - 25 километров в сантиметре. 2. Размах, охват,значение. Широкий м. работ. В мировом масштабе. II прил. масштабный, -ая,-ое. Масштабная линейка. Масштабная стройка.

368. scan • dal BrE / ˈskændl / NAmE / ˈskændl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable , uncountable ] behaviour or an event that people think is morally or legally wrong and causes public feelings of shock or anger a series of sex scandals to cause/create a scandal The scandal broke (= became known to the public) in May. There has been no hint of scandal during his time in office. a promising career wrecked by scandal 2 [ uncountable ] talk or reports about the shocking or immoral things that people have done or are thought to have done to spread scandal newspapers full of scandal 3 [ singular ] ~ (that…) an action, attitude, etc. that you think is shocking and not at all acceptable disgrace It is a scandal that such a large town has no orchestra. СКАНДАЛ СКАНДАЛ, -й,м. 1. Случай, происшествие, позорящее его участников.Разразился с. Политический с. 2. Происшествие, громкая ссора, нарушающиепорядок. Устроить кому-н. с. У соседей опять с. II прил. скандальный, -ая,-ое. Скандальная хроника (в газете). Скандальная ругань.

369. scare • crow BrE / ˈskeəkrəʊ / NAmE / ˈskerkroʊ / noun a figure made to look like a person, that is dressed in old clothes and put in a field to frighten birds away ЧУЧЕЛО ЧУЧЕЛО, -а, ср. 1. Точное воспроизведение животного - его фигура,покрытая шкурой, перьями. Ч. медведя. Набить ч. Изготовление чучел. 2. Всаду, в огороде:

370. scent noun, verb BrE / sent / NAmE / sent / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable , countable ] the pleasant smell that sth has The air was filled with the scent of wild flowers. 171

These flowers have no scent. 2 [ uncountable , countable , usually singular ] the smell that a person or an animal leaves behind and that other animals such as dogs can follow trail The dogs must have lost her scent. The hounds were now on the scent of (= following the smell of) the fox. 3 [ uncountable ] ( especially BrE ) a liquid with a pleasant smell that you wear on your skin to make it smell nice a bottle of scent She dabbed some scent on her neck. 4 ~ of sth [ singular ] the feeling that sth is present or is going to happen very soon The scent of victory was in the air. There is an unmistakeable scent of recovery in the air. put/throw sb off the ˈscent to do sth to stop sb from finding you or discovering sth She changed taxis to throw her pursuers off the scent. on the ˈscent (of sth) close to discovering sth Scientists are on the scent of a cure. ДУХИ ДУХИ, -ов. Парфюмерное средство - ароматическая жидкость на спиртовом растворе.

371. schist BrE / ʃɪst / NAmE / ʃɪst / noun WORD ORIGIN [ uncountable ] a type of rock formed of layers of different minerals, that breaks naturally into thin flat pieces СЛАНЕЦ СЛАНЕЦ, -нца, м. Слоистые горные породы, обладающие способностьюраскалываться на тонкие пластины, слои. Горючие сланцы. Осадочные сланцы.Кристаллические сланцы. II прил. сланцевый, -ая, -ое.

372. scho • las • ti • cism BrE / skəˈlæstɪsɪzəm / NAmE / skəˈlæstɪsɪzəm / noun [ uncountable ] a system of philosophy, based on religious principles and writing, that was taught in universities in the Middle Ages СХОЛАСТИКА СХОЛАСТИКА, -и, ж. 1. Средневековая философия, создавшая системуи скусственных, чисто формальных логических аргументов для теоретического обоснования догматов церкви. 2. Знания, оторванные от жизни, основывающиесяна отвлеченных рассуждениях, не проверяемых опытом. И прил. схоластический,-ая. -ое.

373. school • room BrE / ˈskuːlruːm / NAmE / ˈskuːlruːm / BrE / ˈskuːlrʊm / NAmE / ˈskuːlrʊm / noun ( old-fashioned ) a classroom КЛАСС КЛАСС, -а, м. Большая группа людей с определенным положением висторически сложившейся системе общественного производства и с определеннойролью в общественной организации труда, объединенная одинаковым, обычнозаконодательно закрепленным, отношением к средствам производства, краспределению общественного богатства и общностью интересов. Общественныеклассы. II прил. классовый, -ая, -ое. Классовые противоречия. Классовоеобщество (разделенное на классы). КЛАСС2, -а,м. 1. Относительно целостноемножество каких-н. единиц, существующее в составе сложного единства,расчленяемого на такие множества. Классы слов. К. негативных явлений. К.млекопитающих. К. птиц. К земноводных. К. насекомых. 2. Разряд чего-н.,выделяемый по качеству. К каюты. Ресторан первого, второго класса. Классыморских судов. 3. Группа учеников, учащихся одного и того же года обученияили (в нек-рых специальных учебных заведениях) проходящая один и тот жепредмет. Начальные, старшие классы. Ученик первого класса. К фортепьяно,рояля (в консерватории: факультет или одно из подразделений факультета).Окотить консерваторию по классу вокала. 4.Школь-ная комната для занятий.Просторные классы. Уборка класса. 5. Степень, уровень чего-н., ранг (в 1знач.). Специалист высшего класса. Международный к. Игра высокого класса.Показать к. в игре (хорошую игру; разг.). 6. В математике: то же, чтомножество (во 2 знач.). II прил. классный, -ая, -ое (к 1,2,3,4 и 5 знач.).Классное расписание. Классная комната.

374. scimi • tar BrE / ˈsɪmɪtə(r) / NAmE / ˈsɪmɪtər / noun WORD ORIGIN a short curved sword with one sharp edge, used especially in Eastern countries ЯТАГАН ЯТАГАН, -а. м. Большой кривой турецкий кинжал.

375. score • board BrE / ˈskɔːbɔːd / NAmE / ˈskɔːrbɔːrd / 172

noun EXAMPLE BANK a large board on which the score in a game or competition is shown ТАБЛО ТАБЛО, нескл., ср. Световой сигнальный информационный щит. Световое т.Электронное т. Информационное т.

376. scourge noun, verb BrE / skɜːdʒ / NAmE / skɜːrdʒ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ usually singular ] ~ (of sb/sth) ( formal ) a person or thing that causes trouble or suffering the scourge of war/disease/poverty Inflation was the scourge of the 1970s. 2 a whip used to punish people in the past БЕДСТВИЕ БЕДСТВИЕ, -я, ср. Большое несчастье. Стихийное б.

377. scrap • book BrE / ˈskræpbʊk / NAmE / ˈskræpbʊk / noun a book with empty pages where you can stick pictures, newspaper articles, etc. АЛЬБОМ АЛЬБОМ, -а.,м. 1. Тетрадь из плотных листов в переплете для рисунков,каких-н. коллекции, фотографии. А. для марок. А. для открыток. 2. Собраниерисунков, репродукций, чертежей в виде книги, папки. А. видов Москвы.Архитектурный а. 3. Несколько объединенных одним названием музыкальныхпроизведений одного исполнителя или одного ансамбля, записанных награмпластинку, кассету или на компакт-диск. Песня из популярного альбома.Записать новый а. II прил. альбомный, -ая, oое (к 1 и 2 знач.).

378. screen • play BrE / ˈskriːnpleɪ / NAmE / ˈskriːnpleɪ / noun COLLOCATIONS the words that are written for a film/movie (= the script ) , together with instructions for how it is to be acted and filmed She won an Oscar for the movie's screenplay. СЦЕНАРИЙ СЦЕНАРИЙ, -я, м. 1. Драматическое произведение с подробным описаниемдействия и реплик, предназначенное для создания кино- или телефильма, атакже краткая сюжетная схема театрального представления, спектакля. Игровой,документальный с. С. кинокомедии. Оперный, балетный, пантомимический с.(либретто). Отступление от сценария во время съемок. 2. Список действующихлиц пьесы с указанием порядка и времени выхода на сцену (спец.). 3. Заранееподготовленный детальный план проведения какого-н. зрелища, вообще (перен.)осуществления чего-н. С. спортивного праздника. Не по сценарию (перен.: нетак, как было задумано, не так, как должно было быть; ирон.). * Режиссерскийсценарий - режиссерское описание, содержащее интонационно-жес-товую ипространственную детализациютекста пьесы. II прил. сценарный, -ая, -ое (к 1и 2 знач.). С. факультет.

379. script • writer BrE / ˈskrɪptraɪtə(r) / NAmE / ˈskrɪptraɪtər / noun EXAMPLE BANK a person who writes the words for films/movies, television and radio plays compare playwright , screenwriter СЦЕНАРИСТ СЦЕНАРИСТ, -а, м. Автор сценария фильма. II ж. сценаристка, -и. IIприл. сце-наристский, -ая, -ое.

380. scru • ple noun, verb BrE / ˈskruːpl / NAmE / ˈskruːpl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , usually plural , uncountable ] a feeling that prevents you from doing sth that you think may be morally wrong I overcame my moral scruples. He had no scruples about spying on her. She is totally without scruple . СОМНЕНИЕ СОМНЕНИЕ, -я, ср. 1. Неуверенность в истинности чего-н., отсутствиетвердой веры в кого-что-н. Испытывать с. Взять под с..что- н. (начатьсомневаться). 2. Затруднение, недоумение при разрешении какого-н. вопроса.Разрешить все сомнения. 4 Вне (всякого) или без (всякого) сомнения (книжн.)- несомненно, безусловно.

381. scrib • bler BrE / ˈskrɪblə(r) / NAmE / ˈskrɪblər / noun 1 ( disapproving or humorous ) a journalist, author or other writer 2 ( CanE ) a book with plain paper for writing in, especially for children at school 173

ЮНЕЦ ЮНЕЦ, юнца, м. Юноша, мальчик. Безусые юнцы (ирон.).

382. scum BrE / skʌm / NAmE / skʌm / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ uncountable , singular ] a layer of bubbles or an unpleasant substance that forms on the surface of a liquid Skim off any scum. stinking water covered by a thick green scum 2 [ uncountable , plural ] ( informal ) an insulting word for people that you strongly disapprove of Don't waste your sympathy on scum like that. Drug dealers are the scum of the earth (= the worst people there are) . scummy / BrE ˈskʌmi ; NAmE ˈskʌmi / adjective scummy water scummy people dropping litter ПЕНА ПЕНА, -ы, ж. 1. Пузырчатая масса, образующаяся на поверхности нек-рыхжидкостей. Морская п. Снять пену с бульона. Мыльная п. (на мыльной воде). 2.Пузырчатая загустевшая слюна, выступающая на губах, при нек-рых болезненныхприпадках, гневе. С пеной у рта или с пеной на губах (также перен.: всильном раздражении, яростно). 3. Сгустившийся белыми хлопьями пот,выступающий на теле лоща-ди. Конь в пене (взмылен). II прил. пенный,-ая,-ое.

383. sea • farer BrE / ˈsiːfeərə(r) / NAmE / ˈsiːferər / noun ( old-fashioned or formal ) a sailor МОРЯК МОРЯК, -а.,м. 1. Человек, к-рый служит во флоте. Военные моряки. 2.Человек, опытный в морском деле. Старый м. II уменьш. морячок, -чка,м. (к 1знач.). II ж. морячка, -и (ко 2 знач.; разг.). II прил. моряцкий, -ая, -ое.

384. seam BrE / siːm / NAmE / siːm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a line along which two edges of cloth, etc. are joined or sewn together a shoulder seam 2 a thin layer of coal or other material, between layers of rock under the ground They struck a rich seam of iron ore. ( figurative ) The book is a rich seam of information. 3 a line where two edges meet, for example the edges of wooden boards Light was spilling in through the seams of the door. be bursting/bulging at the ˈseams ( informal ) to be very full, especially of people be falling/coming apart at the ˈseams ( informal ) to be going very badly wrong and likely to stop functioning completely She was falling apart at the seams, spending most of her time in tears. His little world fell apart at the seams. more at fray at/around the edges/seams at fray v. ШОВ ШОВ, шва, м. 1. Место соединения сшитых кусков ткани, кожи, мягкогоматериала; линия, проложенная строчкой1. Машинный, рутой ш. Прочный ш.Распороть по швам. По всем швам трещит что-н. (также перен,: приходит вполный упадок, разрушается; разг,). 2. Хирургическое соединение тканей,краев раны. Наложить швы. Снять швы (удалить нити из сросшихся краев раны).3. Место соединения, скрепления чего-н. (спец.). Черепные швы. Швы каменнойкладки. Межпанельный ш. 4. Способ шитья, вышивки. Наметочмый шов.Стебельчатый ш. * Руки по швам - о позе в стойке1 с руками, вытянутыми вдольтуловища. Н прил. шовный, -ая, -ое (к 1, 2 и 3 знач.; спец.). Ш. материал (вхирургии).

385. sea • shore BrE / ˈsiːʃɔː(r) / NAmE / ˈsiːʃɔːr / ( usually the seashore ) noun SYNONYMS [ usually singular ] the land along the edge of the sea or ocean, usually where there is sand and rocks He liked to look for shells on the seashore. See picture ВЗМОРЬЕ ВЗМОРЬЕ, -я, род. мн. -рий, ср. Морское побережье, а также море у берега. Жить на в., у взморья.

386. seca • teurs BrE / ˌsekəˈtɜːz / NAmE / ˌsekəˈtɜːrz / noun WORD ORIGIN [ plural ] ( BrE ) a garden tool like a pair of strong scissors, used for cutting plant stems and small branches 174

a pair of secateurs СЕКАТОР СЕКАТОР, -а, м. Садовые ножницы для обрезки ветвей, нарезки черенков.II прил. секаторный, -ая, -ое.

387. sect • ar • ian • ism BrE / sekˈteəriənɪzəm / NAmE / sekˈteriənɪzəm / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ( often disapproving ) strong support for one particular religious or political group, especially when this leads to violence between different groups СЕКТАНТСТВО СЕКТАНТСТВО, -а, ср. 1. Общее название отделившихся от господствующейцеркви религиозных течений, противоборствующих ей и образующих отдельныесекты (в1 знач.). Христианское с. Идеологи сектантства. 2. перен.Общественная замкнутость и узость во взглядах, свойственные людям,ограничивающимся своими мелкими групповыми интересами (книжн. неодобр.).

388. se • du • cer BrE / sɪˈdjuːsə(r) / NAmE / sɪˈduːsər / noun a person who persuades sb to have sex with them © Oxford University Press, 2010 СОБЛАЗНИТЕЛЬ СОБЛАЗНИТЕЛЬ, -я, м. Тот, кто соблазнил, соблазняет кого-н. II ж.соблазнительница, -ы.

389. seg • ment noun, verb noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK / BrE ˈseɡmənt ; NAmE ˈseɡmənt / 1 a part of sth that is separate from the other parts or can be considered separately She cleaned a small segment of the painting. Lines divided the area into segments. 2 one of the sections of an orange, a lemon, etc. 3 ( geometry ) a part of a circle separated from the rest by a single line 4 ( phonetics ) the smallest speech sound that a word can be divided into СЕГМЕНТ СЕГМЕНТ, -а,м. 1. В математике: то же, что отрезок прямой. 2. Вгеометрии: часть круга, ограниченная дугой и ее хордой, а также часть шара,отделенная секущей плоскостью. 3. Один из многих однородных члеников теланек-рых животных, а также один из однородных участков како-го-н. органа(спец.). С. червя. С. позвонка. II прил. сегментный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2знач.) и сегментарный, - ая, -ое (к 3 знач.):

390. sell • er BrE / ˈselə(r) / NAmE / ˈselər / noun EXAMPLE BANK 1 a person who sells sth a flower seller The law is intended to protect both the buyer and the seller. see also bookseller compare vendor 2 a good, poor, etc. ~ a product that has been sold in the amounts or way mentioned This particular model is one of our biggest sellers. see also best-seller a ˌseller's ˈmarket a situation in which people selling sth have an advantage, because there is not a lot of a particular item for sale, and prices can be kept high ПРОДАВЕЦ ПРОДАВЕЦ, -вца, м. 1. Работник магазина, лавки, отпускающий товар покупателям. Магазин без продавца (на самообслуживании). 2. Человек, к-рыйпродает что-н. Я. цветов. II ж. продавщица, -ы.

391. table noun, verb BrE / ˈteɪbl / NAmE / ˈteɪbl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK FURNITURE 1 a piece of furniture that consists of a flat top supported by legs a kitchen table A table for two, please (= in a restaurant) . I'd like to book a table for tonight (= in a restaurant) . to set the table (= to put the plates, knives, etc. on it for a meal) ( BrE also ) to lay the table to clear the table (= take away the dirty plates, etc. at the end of a meal) He questioned her next morning over the breakfast table (= during breakfast) . ( BrE , formal ) Children must learn to behave at table . 175

a billiard/snooker/pool table There are many compounds ending in table . You will find them at their place in the alphabet. PEOPLE 2 the people sitting at a table for a meal or to play cards, etc He kept the whole table entertained with his jokes. see also round-table LIST OF FACTS/NUMBERS 3 a list of facts or numbers arranged in a special order, usually in rows and columns a table of contents (= a list of the main points or information in a book, usually at the front of the book) Table 2 shows how prices and earnings have increased over the past 20 years. see also the periodic table IN SPORT 4 a list of sports teams, countries, schools, etc. that shows their position in a competition, etc If Arsenal win this game they'll go to the top of the table. school performance league tables MATHEMATICS 5 = multiplication table Do you know your six times table? see also turntable , water table ˌbring sth to the ˈparty/ˈtable to contribute sth useful to a discussion, project, etc What Hislop brought to the table was real commitment and energy. on the ˈtable 1 ( BrE ) ( of a plan, suggestion, etc. ) offered to people so that they can consider or discuss it Management have put several new proposals on the table. 2 ( especially NAmE ) ( of a plan, suggestion, etc. ) not going to be discussed or considered until a future date turn the ˈtables (on sb) to change a situation so that you are now in a stronger position than the person who used to be in a stronger position than you more at lay/put your cards on the table at card n. , drink sb under the table at drink v. , wait at table wait tables at wait v. СТОЛ СТОЛ1, -а, м. 1. Предмет мебели в виде широкой горизонтальной пластинына опорах, ножках. Обеденный, письменный, рабочий, кухонный, садовый с.Овальный, круглый, квадратный с. Сесть за с. Встать из-за стола. Сесть за с.переговоров (перен.:начать равноправные переговоры). 2. Предмет специальногооборудования или часть станка сходной формы. Операционный с. Поднять с.станка. 3. ед. Питание, пища. Сдается комната со столом. Диетический с.Мясной с. Однообразный с. 4. Отделение в учреждении или учреждение, ведающеекаким-н. специальным кругом дел. Адресный с. Справочный с. С. находок. С.заказов (отдел в магазине, где покупатели делают предварительные заказы напокупки). С. гражданской палаты (в царской России). * Круглый стол -собрание, совещание, участники к-рого обсуждают специальные вопросы в форменепосредственной беседы, обмена мнениями. Переговоры за круглым столом. IIуменьш. столик, -а, м. (к I знач.). II прил. столовый, -ая, -ое (к 1 иустар. к 3 знач.). Столовая доска. Столовые деньги.

392. tack noun, verb BrE / tæk / NAmE / tæk / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ uncountable , singular ] the way in which you deal with a particular situation; the direction of your words or thoughts a complete change of tack It was a brave decision to change tack in the middle of the project. When threats failed, she decided to try/take a different tack . His thoughts wandered off on another tack . I find gentle persuasion is the best tack. 2 [ countable , uncountable ] ( technical ) the direction that a boat with sails takes as it sails at an angle to the wind in order to fill its sails They were sailing on (a) port/starboard tack (= with the wind coming from the left/right side) . 3 [ countable ] a small nail with a sharp point and a flat head, used especially for fixing a carpet to the floor a carpet tack compare nail n. ( 2 ) 4 [ countable ] ( NAmE ) = thumbtack see also Blu-tack 5 [ countable ] a long loose stitch used for holding pieces of cloth together temporarily, before you sew them finally 6 [ uncountable ] ( technical ) the equipment that you need for riding a horse, such as a saddle and bridle a tack room (= the room where this equipment is kept) see (get down to) brass tacks at brass КУРС КУРС1, -а, м. 1. Направление движения, путь (корабля, летательногоаппарата, транспортного средства). Идти по заданному курсу. Держать иливзять к. на север. 2. перен. Направление какой-н. политической, общественнойдеятельности. Внешнеполитический к. К. на разоружение. 3. Цена, по к-ройпродаются ценные бумаги. Валютный к. Биржевой к. Устойчивый, неустойчивый к.валюты. К. рубля падает, растет. * В курсе чего (быть) и в курс чего (войти,ввести) - об осведомленности в чем-н. Быть в курсе дела. Он уже в курсе (вкурсе дела; разг.). Ввести кого-н. в курс событий. Не в курсе кто (разг.) -не осведомлен, не знает в чем дело. II прил. курсовой, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 3знач.). Курсовое движение. Курсовая таблица. КУРС2, -а, м. 1. Законченныйцикл, весь объем специального обучения, каких-н. процедур. Кончить к. вуниверситете. К. грязелечения. 2. Отдельная годичная ступень образования ввысшей школе и в специальных учебных заведениях, а также группа учащихсяэтой ступени. Староста курса. Студент третьего курса, 3. Изложение научнойдисциплины в высшей школе, в специальном учебном заведении. Прочитать,прослушать к. лекций. К. русской истории. II прил. курсовой, -ая, -ое (к I и2 знач.). Курсовая работа (исследовательская работа студента).

393. taffy BrE / ˈtæfi / NAmE / ˈtæfi / noun 176

WORD ORIGIN ( pl. taffies ) [ uncountable , countable ] ( NAmE ) a type of soft sweet/candy made of brown sugar boiled until it is very thick and given different shapes and colours ИРИСКА ИРИСКА, -и, ж. (разг.). Одна конфета ириса.

394. tailor noun, verb BrE / ˈteɪlə(r) / NAmE / ˈteɪlər / noun WORD ORIGIN a person whose job is to make men's clothes, especially sb who makes suits, etc. for individual customers ПОРТНОЙ ПОРТНОЙ, -оro, м. Мастер, специалист по шитью одежды. Мужской п. II ж.портниха, -и. II прил. портновский, -ая. -ое.

395. tak • ings BrE / ˈteɪkɪŋz / NAmE / ˈteɪkɪŋz / noun EXAMPLE BANK [ plural ] ( BrE ) the amount of money that a shop/store, theatre, etc. receives from selling goods or tickets over a particular period of time ВЫРУЧКА ВЫРУЧКА, -и, ж.1.см. выручить. 2. Вырученные от продажи чего-н. деньги.Днев-ная в.

396. the Tal • mud BrE / ˈtælmʊd / NAmE / ˈtælmʊd / NAmE / ˈtɑːlmʊd / noun WORD ORIGIN [ singular ] a collection of ancient writings on Jewish law and traditions Tal • mud • ic / BrE ˌtælˈmʊdɪk ; NAmE ˌtælˈmʊdɪk / / BrE ˌtælˈmjuːdɪk ; NAmE ˌtælˈmjuːdɪk / / NAmE ˌtɑːlˈmʊdɪk ; ˌtɑːlˈmjuːdɪk / adjective ТАЛМУД ТАЛМУД, -а, м. 1. (Т прописное) В иудаизме: свод толкований Ветхогозавета и предписания (религиозные, нравственные, бытовые), основанные наэтих толкованиях. 2. перен. Начетничество, схоластика (во 2 знач.) (книжн.).II прил. талмудистский, -ая, - ое и талмудический, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.).

397. tan • dem BrE / ˈtændəm / NAmE / ˈtændəm / noun WORD ORIGIN a bicycle for two riders, one behind the other in ˈtandem (with sb/sth) a thing that works or happens in tandem with sth else works together with it or happens at the same time as it The two systems are designed to work in tandem. Stock prices pushed sharply higher this afternoon in tandem with a rise in the dollar. ТАНДЕМ ТАНДЕМ [дэ], -а и ТАНДЕМ [дэ], -а, м. (спец.). Машина, механизм, вк-ром однородные устройства расположены последовательно на одной оси.Велосипед-т. (сдвоенный, двухместный). II прил. тандемнЫй, -ая, -ое итандемный, -ая, -ое.

398. tank • ard BrE / ˈtæŋkəd / NAmE / ˈtæŋkərd / noun WORD ORIGIN a large, usually metal, cup with a handle, that is used for drinking beer from КРУЖКА КРУЖКА, -и, ж. 1. Сосуд в форме стакана с ручкой. Фаянсовая, глиняная,алюминиевая к. 2. Железная коробка с отверстием в крышке для сбора денег.Церковная к. II уменью, кружечка, -и, ж. II прил. кружечный, -ая, -ое.

399. tapir BrE / ˈteɪpə(r) / NAmE / ˈteɪpər / noun WORD ORIGIN an animal like a pig with a long nose, that lives in Central and S America and SE Asia ТАПИР ТАПИР, -а, м. Непарнокопытное млекопитающее тропических лесов свытянутыми в хобот носом и верхней губой. Семейство тапиров.

400. taste noun BrE / teɪst / NAmE / teɪst / noun WORD ORIGIN 177

EXAMPLE BANK FLAVOUR 1 [ countable , uncountable ] the particular quality that different foods and drinks have that allows you to recognize them when you put them in your mouth a salty/bitter/sweet, etc. taste I don't like the taste of olives. This dish has an unusual combination of tastes and textures. The soup has very little taste.

SENSE 2 [ uncountable ] the sense you have that allows you to recognize different foods and drinks when you put them in your mouth I've lost my sense of taste. SMALL QUANTITY 3 [ countable , usually singular ] a small quantity of food or drink that you try in order to see what it is like Just have a taste of this cheese. Do you want a taste? SHORT EXPERIENCE 4 [ singular ] a short experience of sth This was my first taste of live theatre. Although we didn't know it, this incident was a taste of things to come . ABILITY TO CHOOSE WELL 5 [ uncountable ] a person's ability to choose things that people recognize as being of good quality or appropriate He has very good taste in music. They've got more money than taste. The room was furnished with taste. WHAT YOU LIKE 6 [ countable , uncountable ] what a person likes or prefers ~ (for sth) That trip gave me a taste for foreign travel. ~ (in sth) She has very expensive tastes in clothes. The colour and style is a matter of personal taste . Modern art is not to everyone's taste . There are trips to suit all tastes. be in bad, poor, the worst possible, etc. ˈtaste to be offensive and not at all appropriate Most of his jokes were in very poor taste. be in good, the best possible, etc. ˈtaste to be appropriate and not at all offensive leave a bad/nasty ˈtaste in the mouth ( of events or experiences ) to make you feel disgusted or ashamed afterwards to ˈtaste in the quantity that is needed to make sth taste the way you prefer Add salt and pepper to taste. more at there's no accounting for taste at account v. , an acquired taste at acquire , a taste/dose of your own medicine at medicine ВКУС ВКУС, -а (-у),м. 1. Одно из внешних чувств человека и животных, органом которого служит слизистая оболочка языка и полости рта. 2. Ощущение наязыке, во рту или свойство пищи, являющееся источником этого ощущения.Плоды, приятные на в. Горький в. во рту. Кислый в. лимона. II прил.вкусовой, -ая, -оe. Вкусовые ощущения.

401. tav • ern BrE / ˈtævən / NAmE / ˈtævərn / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( old use or literary ) a pub or an inn ТАВЕРНА ТАВЕРНА, -ы, ж. В нек-рых странах на Западе: небольшой трактир,кабачок.

402. tea • pot BrE / ˈtiːpɒt / NAmE / ˈtiːpɑːt / noun EXAMPLE BANK a container with a spout , a handle and a lid, used for making and serving tea see a tempest in a teapot at tempest ЧАЙНИК ЧАЙНИК, -а, м. 1. Сосуд с ручкой и носиком для кипячения воды или длязаварки чая. Электрический ч. Эмалированный ч. Фарфоровый ч. 2. О неумелом,малоопытном человеке, плохо знающем свое дело, а также вообще о глупом,неумном человеке (прост.). II уменьш. чайничек, -чка, м. (к 1 знач.). IIприл. чайниковыЙ, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8th edition

403. tech • no • crat BrE / ˈteknəkræt / NAmE / ˈteknəkræt / noun an expert in science, engineering, etc. who has a lot of power in politics and/or industry tech • no • crat • ic / BrE ˌteknəˈkrætɪk ; NAmE ˌteknəˈkrætɪk / adjective [ usually before noun ] © Oxford University Press, 2010 ТЕХНОКРАТ 178

ТЕХНОКРАТ, -а, м. Представитель тех-нократии.

404. tele • meter BrE / ˈtelimiːtə(r) / NAmE / ˈtelimiːtər / noun ( technical ) a device for sending, receiving and measuring scientific data over a long distance tele • meter verb ~ sth (to sth) Data from these instruments is telemetered to the laboratory. ДАЛЬНОМЕР ДАЛЬНОМЕР, -и,м. Прибор для определения расстояния. Оптический д.Акустический д.

405. tem • blor BrE / ˈtemblə(r) / NAmE / ˈtemblər / noun ( NAmE ) an earthquake (= a sudden, violent shaking of the earth's surface) © Oxford University Press, 2010 ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЕ ЗЕМЛЕТРЯСЕНИЕ, -я, ср. Подземные толчки и колебание отдельных участковземной поверхности

406. tenet BrE / ˈtenɪt / NAmE / ˈtenɪt / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( formal ) one of the principles or beliefs that a theory or larger set of beliefs is based on one of the basic/central tenets of Christianity ПРИНЦИП ПРИНЦИП, -а, м. 1. Основное, исходное положение какой-н. теории,учения, мировоззрения, теоретической программы. Принципы науки. Эстетическиепринципы. 2. Убеждение, взгляд на вещи. Держаться твердых принципов.Отказаться от чего-н. из принципа. 3. Основная особенность в устройствечего-н. Механизм действует по принципу насоса. * В принципе - в основном, вобщем, в целом. В принципе я согласен.

407. term noun, verb BrE / tɜːm / NAmE / tɜːrm / noun WORD ORIGIN LANGUAGE BANK SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK see also terms 1 [ countable ] a word or phrase used as the name of sth, especially one connected with a particular type of language a technical/legal/scientific, etc. term a term of abuse ‘Register’ is the term commonly used to describe different levels of formality in language. 2 ( NAmE also tri • mes • ter ) [ countable , uncountable ] (especially in Britain) one of the three periods in the year during which classes are held in schools, universities, etc the spring/summer/autumn/fall term Many students now have paid employment during term . ( BrE ) It's nearly the end of term . ( NAmE ) the end of the term see also semester , termly , term-time 3 [ countable ] a period of time for which sth lasts; a fixed or limited time during the president's first term of/in office He faces a maximum prison/jail term of 25 years. a long term of imprisonment The term of agreement can be for either two or three years. 4 [ singular ] ( formal ) the end of a particular period of time, especially one for which an agreement, etc. lasts the term of the loan His life had reached its natural term. This view of the economy is approaching its term (= it will soon be old-fashioned) ( medical ) The pregnancy went to full term (= lasted the normal length of time) . 5 [ countable ] ( mathematics ) each of the various parts in a series, an equation , etc. in terms of | in … terms in terms of at terms in the ˈlong/ˈshort/ˈmedium term used to describe what will happen a long, short, etc. time in the future Such a development seems unlikely, at least in the short term (= it will not happen for quite a long time) . In the longer term, children of depressed mothers are more likely to suffer from childhood depression. see also long-term , medium-term , short-term ТЕРМИН ТЕРМИН, -а, м. Слово или словосочетание - название определенногопонятия ка-кой-н. специальной области науки, техники, искусства. Техническиетермины. Термины математики. Словарь музыкальных терминов. II прил.терминологический, -ая, -ое. 179

408. tes • ti • mony BrE / ˈtestɪməni / NAmE / ˈtestɪmoʊni / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. tes • ti • monies ) 1 [ uncountable , singular ] ~ (to sth) ( formal ) a thing that shows that sth else exists or is true testament This increase in exports bears testimony to the successes of industry. The pyramids are an eloquent testimony to the ancient Egyptians' engineering skills. 2 [ countable , uncountable ] a formal written or spoken statement saying what you know to be true, usually in court a sworn testimony Her claim was supported by the testimony of several witnesses. Can I refuse to give testimony? © Oxford University Press, 2010 СВИДЕТЕЛЬСТВО СВИДЕТЕЛЬСТВО, -а, ср. 1. Показание свидетеля. С. очевидцев. 2. То, чтоподтверждает, удостоверяет какое-н. событие. Исторические свидетельства. 3.Документ, удостоверяющий что-н. Брачное с. С. о рождении.

409. the • atre ( especially US theater ) BrE / ˈθɪətə(r) / NAmE / ˈθiːətər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 [ countable ] a building or an outdoor area where plays and similar types of entertainment are performed Broadway theatres an open-air theatre How often do you go to the theatre ? See picture see also lecture theatre 2 ( also ˈmovie theater ) ( both NAmE ) ( BrE cin • ema ) [ countable ] a building in which films/movies are shown 3 [ uncountable ] plays considered as entertainment an evening of live music and theatre ( BrE ) I like music, theatre and cinema. current ideas about what makes good theatre (= what makes good entertainment when performed) 4 [ uncountable ] ( also the theatre [ singular ] ) the work of writing, producing and acting in plays I want to work in theatre. He was essentially a man of the theatre. 5 [ countable , uncountable ] ( BrE ) = operating theatre a theatre sister (= a nurse who helps during operations) He's still in theatre . 6 [ countable , usually singular ] ~ (of war, etc.) ( formal ) the place in which a war or fighting takes place an intelligence officer in the Pacific theatre © Oxford University Press, 2010 ТЕАТР1 ТЕАТР1, -а, м. 1. Искусство представления драматических произведений насцене; само такое представление. Музыка и т. Увлекаться театром. 2.Зрелищное предприятие, помещение, где представляются на сцене такиепроизведения. Драматический, оперный т. Т. мимики и жеста (пантомимы). Идтив т., из театра. Т.-кабаре (небольшой эстрадный театр в ресторане, кафе). 3.кого. Совокупность драматических произведений какого-н. писателя илинаправления, школы. Г. Шекспира. II прил. театральный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 2знач.).

410. thief BrE / θiːf / NAmE / θiːf / noun WORD ORIGIN COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. thieves / BrE θiːvz ; NAmE θiːvz / ) a person who steals sth from another person or place a car/jewel, etc. thief see also theft , see honour among thieves at honour n. , thick as thieves at thick adj. ВОР ВОР, -а, мн. -ы, -бв, м. 1. Человек, к-рый ворует, преступник,занимающийся кражами. Не клади плохо, не вводи вора в грех (посл.). Непойман -не е. (поел.). В. у вора дубинку украл (посл. о двух обманщиках,обманывающих друг друга). Доброму вору все впору (посл.: что ни дадут, всесгодится, за все спасибо). 2. В старину изменник, злодей. Тушинский в.(Лжедмитрий II). Поделом вору (вору) и мука (посл.). 4 Вор в законе - всреде уголовных преступников: вор-рецидивист, принятый на специальной сходкев привилегированное сообщество, объединяющее главарей воровского мира. IIумвньш. воришка, -и, м. (к 1 знач.).II ж. воровка, -и (к 1 знач.). II собир.ворье, -я, ср. II прил. воровской, -ая, -бе. В. притон.

411. toc • sin BrE / ˈtɒksɪn / NAmE / ˈtɑːksɪn / 180

noun WORD ORIGIN ( old use ) a warning bell or signal НАБАТ НАБАТ, -а, м. Удары в колокол как сигнал к сбору людей в случае пожара,тревоги. Бить, ударить в н. (также перен.: о тревожном призыве на помощь, онеобходимости срочного вмешательства во что-н.). II прил. набатный, -ая,-ое. Н. колокол.

412. udder BrE / ˈʌdə(r) / NAmE / ˈʌdər / noun WORD ORIGIN an organ shaped like a bag that produces milk and hangs underneath the body of a cow, goat , etc. ВЫМЯ ВЫМЯ, -мени, (редко) мн. вымена, -ен, -енам, ср. Молочные железы у самок млекопитающих животных. Коровье, козье, овечье в. В. свиньи, собаки,кошки. II прил. выменной, -ая, -ое.

413. ulcer BrE / ˈʌlsə(r) / NAmE / ˈʌlsər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a sore area on the outside of the body or on the surface of an organ inside the body which is painful and may bleed or produce a poisonous substance a stomach ulcer see also mouth ulcer ЯЗВА ЯЗВА, -ы. 1. ж. Длительно не заживающее воспаленное место на коже илислизистой оболочке. Открытые язвы. Гангренозная я. 2. ж., перен. Зло, вред.Язвы общества. 3. м. и ас., перен. Человек, к-рый любит язвить (разг.). Ну ия. же ты! 4. ж. Болезненное поражение слизистой оболочки полого органа(спец.)- Я. желудка. Я. двенадцати-перстной кишки. * Сибирская язва - остраяинфекционная болезнь животных и человека. И уменыи. язвочка, -и, ас. (к 1 и3 знач.). 1) прия,. язвенный, -ая, -ое (к 1 и 4 знач.). Язвенная болезнь.

414. um • bil • icus BrE / ʌmˈbɪlɪkəs / NAmE / ʌmˈbɪlɪkəs / BrE / ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪkəs / NAmE / ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪkəs / noun WORD ORIGIN ( pl. um • bil • ici / BrE ʌmˈbɪlɪsaɪ ; NAmE ʌmˈbɪlɪsaɪ / / BrE ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪsaɪ ; NAmE ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪsaɪ / / BrE ʌmˈbɪlɪkaɪ ; NAmE ʌmˈbɪlɪkaɪ / / BrE ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪkaɪ ; NAmE ˌʌmbɪˈlaɪkaɪ / or um • bil • icuses ) ( technical ) the navel ПУПОК ПУПОК, -пка, м. 1. Впадина (у младенцев - выпуклость) на серединеживота, оставшаяся после отпадения пуповины. 2. У птиц: часть желудка. *Рвать (себе) пупок (прост, неодобр.) - стараться изо всех сил, надрываться.II уменъш. пупочек, -чка, м. II прил. пупочный, -ая, -ое (к 1 знач.) ипупковый, -ая, -ое (ко 2 знач.).

415. uncle BrE / ˈʌŋkl / NAmE / ˈʌŋkl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 the brother of your mother or father; the husband of your aunt Uncle Ian I'm going to visit my uncle. I've just become an uncle (= because your brother/sister has had a baby) . 2 used by children, with a first name, to address a man who is a close friend of their parents see Bob's your uncle at Bob ДЯДЯ ДЯДЯ, -и, мн. -и, -ей и (прост.) -дья, -ьев, м. 1. Брат отца или матери, а также муж тетки. Родной д. Двоюродный д. 2. (мн. -и, -ей). Всочетании с именем собственным - уважительно о простом немолодом мужчине, атакже обращение к взрослому мужчине (прост.). Сантехник д. Вася. Ну-ка, д;подвиньтесь! 3. (мн. -и, -ей). То же, что мужчина (в 1 знач.) (в детскойречи и прост, шутл.). Приходил какой-то д. * На дядю, для дяди (делать,работать) (прост. неодобр.) - для кого-то постороннего или неизвестно длякого. На дядю надеяться (прост, ирон.) - рассчитывать, что дело сделаетсякем-то другим или само собой. Добрый дядя (разг. ирон.) - о человеке, щедромза чужой счет. Дядя Степа (разг. шутл.) - о человеке очень высокого роста[по имени персонажа детского стихотворения С. Михалкова]. II ласк. дяденька,-и, м., дядечка, -и, м. и дядюшка, -и. .и. (к 1 и 2 знач.). II уменьш.дядек, дядька, м. (к 1 и 2 знач.; прост.). II унич. дадька, -и,м.

416. under • tone BrE / ˈʌndətəʊn / NAmE / ˈʌndərtoʊn / 181

noun EXAMPLE BANK ~ (of sth) a feeling, quality or meaning that is not expressed directly but is still noticeable from what sb says or does undercurrent His soft words contained an undertone of warning. The play does not have the political undertones of the novel. compare overtone in an ˈundertone | in ˈundertones in a quiet voice ‘I must leave now,’ he said in an undertone. ПОДТЕКСТ ПОДТЕКСТ, -а, м. (книжн.) Внутренний, скрытый смысл текста,высказывания; содержание, к-рое вкладывается в текст чтецом или актером. IIприл. подтекстовый, -ая, -ое.

417. va • cancy BrE / ˈveɪkənsi / NAmE / ˈveɪkənsi / noun SYNONYMS EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. va • cancies ) 1 [ countable ] a job that is available for sb to do job vacancies a temporary vacancy ~ (for sb/sth) vacancies for bar staff to fill a vacancy There's a vacancy in the accounts department. 2 [ countable ] a room that is available in a hotel, etc I'm sorry, we have no vacancies. 3 [ uncountable ] lack of interest or ideas emptiness the vacancy of her expression ВАКАНСИЯ ВАКАНСИЯ, -и, ж. Вакантная должность, место. Открылась в.

418. vac • uum noun, verb BrE / ˈvækjuəm / NAmE / ˈvækjuəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 a space that is completely empty of all substances, including all air or other gas a vacuum pump (= one that creates a vacuum ) vacuum-packed foods (= in a package from which most of the air has been removed) 2 [ usually singular ] a situation in which sb/sth is missing or lacking His resignation has created a vacuum which cannot easily be filled. 3 [ usually singular ] the act of cleaning sth with a vacuum cleaner to give a room a quick vacuum in a ˈvacuum existing separately from other people, events, etc. when there should be a connection This kind of decision cannot ever be made in a vacuum. ВАКУУМ ВАКУУМ, -а, м. 1. Состояние сильно разреженного газа при низком давлении (спец.). 2. перен. Полное отсутствие, острый недостаток чего-н.(книжн.). Духовный в. (моральная опустошенность). II прил. вакуумный, -ая,oое (к 1 знач.).

419. va • grant BrE / ˈveɪɡrənt / NAmE / ˈveɪɡrənt / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE EXAMPLE BANK ( formal or law ) a person who has no home or job, especially one who begs (= asks for money) from people БРОДЯГА БРОДЯГА, -и, м. и ж. 1. Обнищавший, бездомный человек, скитающийся безопределенных занятий. 2. Человек, к-рый любит странствовать, жить в разныхместах (разг.). 3. О ком-н. заслуживающем удивления (прост.). Опять он сухимиз воды вышел? Ну, силен (хитер) б.! II уменъш. бродяжка, -и, м. и ж. (к 1 и2 знач.) II прил. бродяжий, -ья, -ье (к 1 и 2 знач.).

420. valet noun, verb noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK / BrE ˈvæleɪ ; NAmE ˈvæleɪ / / BrE ˈvælɪt ; NAmE ˈvælɪt / / NAmE væˈleɪ / 1 a man's personal servant who takes care of his clothes, serves his meals, etc. 2 ( BrE ) a hotel employee whose job is to clean the clothes of hotel guests 182

3 ( NAmE ) a person who parks your car for you at a hotel or restaurant КАМЕРДИНЕР КАМЕРДИНЕР, -а, м. Слуга при господине в богатом дворянском доме. IIприл. камердинерский, -ая, -ое.

421. val • our ( especially US valor ) BrE / ˈvælə(r) / NAmE / ˈvælər / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] ( literary ) great courage, especially in war bravery val • or • ous / BrE ˈvælərəs ; NAmE ˈvælərəs / adjective see discretion is the better part of valour at discretion ДОБЛЕСТЬ ДОБЛЕСТЬ, -и, ж. (высок.). 1. Мужество, отвага, храбрость. Воинская д.2. Высокая самоотверженность в работе, в деятельности. Трудовая д.

422. wea • ther noun, verb BrE / ˈweðə(r) / NAmE / ˈweðər / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] 1 the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time, such as the temperature, and if there is wind, rain, sun, etc hot/cold/wet/fine/summer/windy, etc. weather Did you have good weather on your trip? I'm not going out in this weather! There's going to be a change in the weather . if the weather holds/breaks (= if the good weather continues/changes) The weather is very changeable at the moment. ‘Are you going to the beach tomorrow?’ ‘It depends on the weather.’ We'll have the party outside, weather permitting (= if it doesn't rain) . a weather map/chart a weather report The tent protected us from the worst of the weather. 2 the weather ( informal ) a report of what the weather will be like, that is on the radio or television, or in the newspapers to listen to the weather in ˈall weathers ( BrE ) in all kinds of weather, good and bad She goes out jogging in all weathers. keep a ˈweather eye on sb/sth to watch sb/sth carefully in case you need to take action Keep a weather eye on your competitors. under the ˈweather ( informal ) if you are or feel under the weather , you feel slightly ill/sick and not as well as usual ПОГОДА ПОГОДА, -ы, ж. Состояние атмосферы в данном месте, в данное время.Хорошая, плохая п. Солнечная, дождливая п. Прогноз погоды. Карта погоды.Сидеть у моря, ждать погоды (о длительном ожидании чего-н. неопределенного;разг. неодобр.). Изменения политической погоды (перен.).* Погоды не делаеткто-что - не имеет определяющего значения в каком-н. деле. Его мнение неделает погоды. II уменьш. погодка, -и, ж. II прил. погодный, -ая, -ое.По-годные условия.

423. wed • ding BrE / ˈwedɪŋ / NAmE / ˈwedɪŋ / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE COLLOCATIONS EXAMPLE BANK a marriage ceremony, and the meal or party that usually follows it a wedding present a wedding ceremony/reception Have you been invited to their wedding? She looked beautiful on her wedding day . All her friends could hear wedding bells (= they thought she would soon get married) . see also diamond wedding , golden wedding , shotgun wedding , silver wedding , white wedding СВАДЬБА СВАДЬБА, -ы, род. мн. -деб, ж. Брачный обряд. Справить или (устар. ипрост.) сыграть свадьбу. До свадьбы заживет (говорится в утешение тому, ктоушибся, кому больно; разг. шутл.). На Маланьину свадьбу наготовить (оченьмного, так, что всего не съесть; прост.). * Серебряная свадьба -двадцатипятилетие супружеской жизни. Золотая свадьба - пятидесятилетиесупружеской жизни. Бриллиантовая свадьба - семидесятипятилетие супружескойжизни. II уменьш.-ласк. свадебка, -и, род мн. -бок, ж. II прил. свадебный,-ая, -ое.

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424. wee • vil BrE / ˈwiːvl / NAmE / ˈwiːvl / noun WORD ORIGIN a small insect with a hard shell, that eats grain, nuts and other seeds and destroys crops ДОЛГОНОСИК ДОЛГОНОСИК, -а, м. Небольшой жук с вытянутой головой, вредительсельскохозяйственных растении. Амбарный д.

425. wench BrE / wentʃ / NAmE / wentʃ / noun WORD ORIGIN ( old use or humorous ) a young woman ДЕВКА ДЕВКА, -и, ж. (устар. и прост.). То же, что девушка (в 1 и 2 знач.). Вдевках засидеться (долго не выходить замуж; разг.).

426. whale BrE / weɪl / NAmE / weɪl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a very large animal that lives in the sea and looks like a very large fish. There are several types of whale , some of which are hunted whale meat see also blue whale , killer whale , pilot whale , sperm whale have a ˈwhale of a time ( informal ) to enjoy yourself very much; to have a very good time The kids had a whale of a time at the theme park. КИТ КИТ, -а,м. 1. Крупное морское млекопитающее с рыбообразным телом.Зубатые киты. Беззубые киты. 2. чаще мн., перен. Человек, на к-ром держитсявсе дело. Киты науки. * Три кита (устар. и книжн.) - тройственная основа,сильная опора че-го-н.[по старинному представлению о том, что Земля покоитсяна трех китах]. Дер-жаться на трех китах, II прил. китовый, -ая, -ое (к 1знач.).

427. wheel • bar • row BrE / ˈwiːlbærəʊ / NAmE / ˈwiːlbæroʊ / ( also bar • row ) noun EXAMPLE BANK a large open container with a wheel and two handles that you use outside to carry things ТАЧКА ТАЧКА, -и, ж. Ручная тележка [первонан. на одном переднем колесе сдвумя длинными ручками]. Толкать тачку. Садовая т. II прил. тачечный, -ая,-ое.

428. whim BrE / wɪm / NAmE / wɪm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ countable , uncountable ] a sudden wish to do or have sth, especially when it is sth unusual or unnecessary He was forced to pander to her every whim . We bought the house on a whim . My duties seem to change daily at the whim of the boss. the whims of fashion She hires and fires people at whim . ПРИХОТЬ ПРИХОТЬ, -и, ж. Капризное желание, причуда. Исполнять чъи-н. прихоти.

429. whisky ( BrE ) ( US , IrishE whis • key ) BrE / ˈwɪski / NAmE / ˈwɪski / noun WORD ORIGIN CULTURE EXAMPLE BANK ( pl. whis • kies , whis • keys ) 1 [ uncountable , countable ] a strong alcoholic drink made from malted grain. It is sometimes drunk with water and/or ice a bottle of whisky Scotch whisky highland whiskies see also bourbon , Scotch 2 [ countable ] a glass of whisky a whisky and soda Two whiskies, please. 184

see also Scotch ВИСКИ ВИСКИ, нескл., ср. Крепкая английская или американская водка.

430. whop • per BrE / ˈwɒpə(r) / NAmE / ˈwɑːpər / noun ( informal ) 1 something that is very big for its type Pete has caught a whopper (= a large fish) . 2 a lie She's told some whoppers about her past. ГРОМАДИНА ГРОМАДИНА, -ы, ж. (разг.). Огромный предмет, огромное существо.

431. widow noun, verb BrE / ˈwɪdəʊ / NAmE / ˈwɪdoʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN a woman whose husband has died and who has not married again She gets a widow's pension. ВДОВА ВДОВА, -ы, мн. вдовы, вдов, вдовам, ж. Женщина, у к-рой умер муж. IIуменьш,-ласк. вдовушка, -и, ж. II прил. вдовий, -ья, -ье.

432. wil • low BrE / ˈwɪləʊ / NAmE / ˈwɪloʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN 1 [ countable ] a tree with long thin branches and long thin leaves, that often grows near water see also pussy willow 2 [ uncountable ] the wood of the willow tree, used especially for making cricket bats ИВА ИВА, -ы, ж. Кустарник или дерево с гибкими ветвями и узкими листьями.Плакучая и. II прил. ивовый, -ая, -ое. Ивовая корзина (из веток ивы).Семейство ивовых (сущ.).

433. win • dow BrE / ˈwɪndəʊ / NAmE / ˈwɪndoʊ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK 1 an opening in the wall or roof of a building, car, etc, usually covered with glass, that allows light and air to come in and people to see out; the glass in a window She looked out of the window . to open/close the window the bedroom/car/kitchen, etc. window a broken window See picture see also bay window , dormer window , French window , picture window , rose window , sash window 2 = shop window I saw the dress I wanted in the window . a window display 3 an area within a frame on a computer screen, in which a particular program is operating or in which information of a particular type is shown to create/open a window 4 a small area of sth that you can see through, for example to talk to sb or read sth on the other side There was a long line of people at the box-office window. The address must be clearly visible through the window of the envelope. 5 [ singular ] ~ on/into sth a way of seeing and learning about sth Television is a sort of window on the world . It gave me an intriguing window into the way people live. 6 a time when there is an opportunity to do sth, although it may not last long We now have a small window of opportunity in which to make our views known. fly/go out (of) the ˈwindow ( informal ) to stop existing; to disappear completely As soon as the kids arrived, order went out of the window. ОКНО ОКНО, -а, мн. окна, окон, окнам, ср. 1. Отверстие в стене для света ивоздуха, а также рама со стеклом, закрывающая это отверстие. Большое,высокое, узкое о. Комната в два окна. Стоять под окном. Выбросить что-н. зао. или в о. Открыть, закрыть о. Опустить, поднять о. (с движущейся вверх ивниз рамой, напр., в вагоне). Цветы на окне (на подоконнике). Сесть на о.(на подоконник). Замазать, заклеить, утеплить окна (заделать на зиму щелимежду рамами). 2. Отверстие в разделяющей что-н. стенке, перегородке. 6.кассира. О. рецептурного отдела (в аптеке). 3. перен. Просвет, отверстие вчем-н. О. между тучами. О. в болоте (остаток водоема в виде открытогоуглубления). 4. перен. Ничем не занятое время, промежуток в цикле работ, вучебном расписании (разг.). О. между лекциями. * За окном (за окнами) что -на дворе, на улице (о времени года, суток, о погоде). За окнами зима. Заокном темная ночь. Слуховое окно - окно на чердаке в крыше. II уменьш.оконце, -а, род. мн. -цев и -нец, ср. (к 1 знач.). II прил. оконный, -ая,-ое (к 1 знач.). О. проем. Оконное стекло.

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434. wing noun, verb BrE / wɪŋ / NAmE / wɪŋ / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK OF BIRD/INSECT 1 [ countable ] one of the parts of the body of a bird, insect or bat that it uses for flying The swan flapped its wings noisily. wing feathers OF PLANE 2 [ countable ] one of the large flat parts that stick out from the side of a plane and help to keep it in the air when it is flying See picture OF BUILDING 3 [ countable ] one of the parts of a large building that sticks out from the main part the east wing the new wing of the hospital OF CAR 4 ( BrE ) ( NAmE fend • er ) [ countable ] a part of a car that is above a wheel There was a dent in the nearside wing. OF ORGANIZATION 5 [ countable ] one section of an organization that has a particular function or whose members share the same opinions arm the radical wing of the party the political wing of the National Resistance Army see also left wing , right wing IN FOOTBALL/HOCKEY 6 [ countable ] = winger see also left wing , right wing 7 [ countable ] the far left or right side of the sports field He plays on the wing. IN THEATRE 8 the wings [ plural ] the area at either side of the stage that cannot be seen by the audience She watched every performance from the wings. get your ˈwings to pass the exams that mean you are allowed to fly a plane (waiting) in the ˈwings ready to take over a particular job or be used in a particular situation when needed She was aware of a whole host of ambitious young managers waiting in the wings. on a ˌwing and a ˈprayer with only a very slight chance of success on the ˈwing ( literary ) ( of a bird, insect, etc. ) flying take sb under your ˈwing to take care of and help sb who has less experience of sth than you take ˈwing ( literary ) ( of a bird, insect, etc. ) to fly away : ( figurative ) Her imagination took wing. more at clip sb's wings at clip v. , spread your wings at spread v. КРЫЛО КРЫЛО, -а, мн. крылья, -ьев и (высок.) крыла, крыл, -ам, ср. 1. Орган летания у птиц, насекомых, а также нек-рых млекопитающих. К. летучей мыши.Птенцы поднялись (встали) на к. (начали летать). Подрезать крылья кому-н.(также перен.: лишить возможности энергично, самостоятельно действовать).Опустить крылья (также перен.: утратить энергию, волю к действию). Крыльявыросли за спиной у ко-го-м. (перен.: воодушевлен, обрел уверенность). 2.Аэродинамическая поверхность летательного аппарата, создающая его подъемнуюсилу, а также несущая плоскость какого-н. движущегося аппарата. Конструкциякрыла. Подъемная сила крыла. Судно на подводных крыльях.3. Вращающаясялопасть колеса ветряного двигателя. 4. Ограждающее покрытие над колесомэкипажа, автомобиля или другого транспортного средства. 5. Боковаяпристройка, флигель. Левое к. дома. 6. Крайняя (правая или левая) частьбоевого построения. 7. Крайняя (правая или левая) группировка какой-н.организации. * Крылья носа - тонкие боковые части носа над ноздрями. IIуменьш. крылышко, -а, мн. -шки, -шек, -шкам, ср. (к 1 знач.). * Подкрылышком кого или чьим (ирон.) - под покровительством, на полном попечении.II прил. крыльевой, -ая, -ое (к 1, 2, 3 и 4 знач.).

435. wis • dom BrE / ˈwɪzdəm / NAmE / ˈwɪzdəm / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable ] 1 the ability to make sensible decisions and give good advice because of the experience and knowledge that you have a woman of great wisdom words of wisdom 2 ~ of sth/of doing sth how sensible sth is I question the wisdom of giving a child so much money. 3 the knowledge that a society or culture has gained over a long period of time the collective wisdom of the Native American people conventional/received ˈwisdom the view or belief that most people hold Conventional wisdom has it that riots only ever happen in cities. in his/her/its, etc. (infinite) ˈwisdom 186

used when you are saying that you do not understand why sb has done sth The government in its wisdom has decided to support the ban. more at pearl of wisdom at pearl МУДРОСТЬ МУДРОСТЬ, -и, ж. 1. см. мудрый. 2. Глубокий ум, опирающийся нажизненный опыт. М. провидца. Народная м. (также о сложившихся в народеизречениях, отражающих его жизненный опыт, знания).* Зуб мудрости - третийкоренной зуб, появляющийся после 20 лет.

436. xeno • pho • bia BrE / ˌzenəˈfəʊbiə / NAmE / ˌzenəˈfoʊbiə / noun [ uncountable ] ( disapproving ) a strong feeling of dislike or fear of people from other countries a campaign against racism and xenophobia xeno • pho • bic / BrE ˌzenəˈfəʊbɪk ; NAmE ˌzenəˈfoʊbɪk / adjective КСЕНОФОБИЯ КСЕНОФОБИЯ, -и, ж. (спец.). 1. Болезненный, навязчивый страх переднезнакомыми лицами. 2. Ненависть, нетерпимость к чему-н. чужому,незнакомому, иностранному.

437. yacht BrE / jɒt / NAmE / jɑːt / ( NAmE also sail • boat ) noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK a large sailing boat, often also with an engine and a place to sleep on board, used for pleasure trips and racing a yacht club/race a motor yacht a luxury yacht compare dinghy ЯХТА ЯХТА, -ы, ж. 1. Большая и легкая спортивная парусная лодка. Олимпийскиеяхты (нек-рые типы шверботов, килевых яхт, катамаранов). 2. Небольшое суднодля прогулок, спорта. Моторная я. Я прил. яхтенный, -ая, -ое и яхтовый, oая,-ое. Яхтенный киль. Яхтовый клуб (яхт-клуб).

438. zeal BrE / ziːl / NAmE / ziːl / noun WORD ORIGIN EXAMPLE BANK [ uncountable , countable ] ~ (for/in sth) ( formal ) great energy or enthusiasm connected with sth that you feel strongly about her missionary/reforming/religious/political zeal РВЕНИЕ РВЕНИЕ, -я, ср. Крайнее усердие в чем-н. Работать с большим рвением.

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