Dictionary of Lexicography

Anyone who has ever handled a dictionary will have wondered how it was put together, where the information has come from, and how and why it can benefit so many of its users. The Dictionary of Lexicography addresses all these issues. The Dictionary of Lexicography examines both the theoretical and practical aspects of its subject, and how they are related. In the realm of dictionary research the authors highlight the history, criticism, typology, structures and use of dictionaries. They consider the subjects of data-collection and corpus technology, definition-writing and editing, presentation and publishing in relation to dictionary-making. English lexicography is the main focus of the work, but the wide range of lexicographical compilations in other cultures also features. The Dictionary gives a comprehensive overview of the current state of lexicography and all its possibilities in an interdisciplinary context. The representative literature has been included and an alphabetically arranged appendix lists all bibliographical references given in the more than 2,000 entries, which also provide examples of relevant dictionaries and other reference works. The authors have specialised in various aspects of the field and have contributed significantly to its astonishing development in recent years. Dr R.R.K.Hartmann is Director of the Dictionary Research Centre at the University of Exeter, and has founded the European Association for Lexicography and pioneered postgraduate training in the field. Dr Gregory James is Director of the Language Centre at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, where he has done research into what separates and unites European and Asian lexicography.

Dictionary of Lexicography

R.R.K.Hartmann and Gregory James

London and New York

British Library Cataloguing in Publication First published 1998 Data by Routledge A catalogue record for this book is available 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE from the British Library This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication 2002. Data Hartmann, R.R.K. Simultaneously published in the USA and Dictionary of lexicography/R.R.K. Canada Hartmann and Gregory James, by Routledge p. cm. 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-415-14143-5 (hc).—ISBN © 1998 R.R.K.Hartmann and Gregory James 1. Lexicography-Dictionaries. I. James, Gregory. II. Title. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be P327.H37 1998 97–34079 reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form 413'.028–dc21 CIP or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, ISBN 0-203-01768-4 Master e-book ISBN including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. ISBN 0-203-17357-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-14143-5 (Print Edition)

Acknowledgements

We owe a deep debt of gratitude to the very many We are grateful to colleagues far and wide for their people who have helped us along our way in the willingness to answer our queries: especially A.D.de compilation of this dictionary. V.Cluver on terminology, Edward Gates on the DSNA, The University of Exeter and the Hong Kong Andrew Taylor on textbooks; others commented very University of Science and Technology provided substantially on our text, in particular Adelia Carstens, congenial environments within which we were able Amy Chi Man-lai, Turki Diab, Tom McArthur and Daan to work. We benefited greatly from the study leave Prinsloo. We ought to mention, too, the anonymous granted to RRKH, which allowed him an extended reviewers of our first draft: their constructive observations period in Hong Kong, sponsored by the British on our entries were extremely helpful to us. Council and by the Language Centre at HKUST, We have drawn upon the ideas of many where we were able to work together face to face. colleagues, both from their published work and from We are extremely fortunate to have had excel- informal personal contacts; we should like to thank, lent office back-up both at Exeter and HKUST. We in this regard, Henning Bergenholtz, Rufus Gouws, should like to thank Cathy Pantry for secretarial Colin Yallop and Jacques van Keymeulen, as well assistance at the Dictionary Research Centre at as several Visiting Scholars at Exeter. Exeter; and at the Language Centre, HKUST, Ada We appreciate very much the assistance of Fan Shui-fun for secretarial assistance, Candice Poon Rosalind Fergusson, our perspicacious copy-editor, Wai-yi for executive assistance, and Forward Hui who made significant contributions to the final form Kam-chun and Terence Chow Chi-wai for technical of the text. Our editors at Routledge deserve our assistance. thanks too, for their care and attention to our work. Our professional colleagues have helped us in a We should like to thank the many publishers who variety of ways, and we should like to record our responded to our requests for catalogues and other appreciation especially to: (at Exeter) Steven McGill information; and the colleagues and students who for the database design and transfer, Alan Wakelam answered our initial questionnaire, which persuaded for the initial design of the panels, Trevor Learmouth us to see our proposed project to fruition. for assistance with ‘library’ matters and entries, John We hope that all those who made contributions, Wilkins for references for ‘Classics’; (at HKUST) large and small, to the final product will be for-giving John Milton for assistance with ‘computer’ matters of our sins of commission and omission, for which and entries, and the staff of the University Library we alone remain responsible. for general helpfulness. Finally, we should like to thank our families for We should like to thank the postgraduate students putting up with our prolonged hibernation in our at Exeter, especially the 1994–5 cohort, who helped offices, and general absent-mindedness at home us in our initial item search; in particular Martin Stark while entries were germinating in our heads. made a great contribution to our wordlist by his very thorough sifting of available sources. Li Lan and her R.R.K.Hartmann Gregory James fellow doctoral students helped us greatly in our Exeter Kowloon search for references.

Introduction

Theory and practice Lexicography, est. 1983), AUSTRALEX (the A dictionary of lexicography? A dictionary of Australasian Association for Lexicography, est. dictionary-making? Indeed, ‘lexicography’ is 1990), the Lexicographical Society of China (est. commonly understood in a narrow sense as the 1992), AFRILEX (the African Association for theory and practice, or the ‘art and craft’ (Landau Lexicography, est. 1995), and ASIALEX (the Asian 1984), of dictionary-making, the compilation and Association for Lexicography, est. 1997), have been preparation of reference texts for publication. formed to act as bridges between dictionary makers However, in the latter half of this century, the and academic lexicographers. Professional training, importance of a second strand to the discipline, regular national and international conferences, namely the scholarly field of dictionary research, seminars and workshops, and academic publications has become increasingly recognised. With the very have served to mature lexicography into an rapid advances in the technologies and formats of independent field with its own principles and reference materials, particularly as a result of the practices, purposefully making use of, and development of electronic media, the horizons of qualifying, the findings of other disciplines. lexicography have extended, and we are witnessing the emergence of a more global academic domain Dictionary typology of ‘reference science’ in the modern context of the The core material of lexicography is the ‘dictionary’, widespread availability of, and ever-increasing needs or ‘wordbook’, the commonest variety of reference for rapid access to, all forms of information. work, at once the subject of lexicographical theory Lexicography, often misconceived as a branch of (dictionary research) and the product of linguistics, is sui generis, a field whose endeav-ours lexicographical practice (dictionary-making). The are informed by the theories and practices of dictionary qua dictionary encom-passes many information science, literature, publishing, genres, or types, which can be structurally classified. philosophy, and historical, comparative and applied For example, a phenomenological typology, or linguistics. Sister disciplines, such as terminology, categorisation based on formal features, might take lexicology, encyclopedia work, bibliography, account of such com-positional characteristics as size terminography, indexing, information technology, (‘pocket dictionary’, ‘abridged dictionary’, ‘concise librarianship, media studies, translation and teaching, dictionary’ etc.) or coverage of the content of the as well as the neighbouring disciplines of history, work (‘general dictionary’, ‘specialised dictionary’ education and anthropology, provide the wider etc.). A presentational, or tectonic, typology would setting within which lexicographers have defined and focus on the format (‘alphabetical’, ‘classified’, developed their field. ‘thematic’ etc.) or medium (‘manuscript’, ‘print’, The boundaries between the professional activity ‘electronic’ etc.) of the dictionary. A functional and the academic field of lexicography are fluid, and typology, or categorisation based on the contextual several associations, e.g. the DSNA (the Dictionary uses of the dictionary, would focus on the Society of North America, est. 1975), the information categories provided (‘pronunciation’, Lexicographical Society of India (est. 1975), ‘spelling’, ‘etymological’ etc.), and the ways these EURALEX (the European Association for are presented (‘explanatory’, ‘pedagogical’, vii INTRODUCTION

‘terminological’ etc.) within the perspective of the knowledge, and develop a role as arbiters in matters target user (‘scholarly’, ‘learner’s’, ‘translator’s’ of orthography and other areas of usage. etc.). A linguistic typology would be based on the language(s) of the dictionary (‘monolingual’, From print to computerisation ‘bilingual’, ‘bilingualised’ etc.). The third of McArthur’s ‘communicative shifts’, that These different types of dictionary have from writing to print, permitted the mass production developed over a considerable period, in response of dictionaries, and a change in users’ attitudes to linguistic and cultural demands, and as a result of towards the social and educational purpose of the changes in the use and availability of communicative dictionary, which because of its sta-bility in print media. McArthur (1986a:4ff.) discusses four major format assumed the role of an authority and a judge ‘shifts’ in the process of the development of human in language. All of the major European languages communication: (i) the consolida-tion of speech and can claim their ‘own’ dictionaries, many of them gesture; (ii) the development of writing; (iii) the monumental pioneering scholastic enterprises, either advent of print technology; and (iv) electronic as individual initiatives or under the auspices or computation. In several lexicographical traditions, sponsorship of an academy, and all of which served, e.g. Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, many early in various ways, to codify their respective languages: manifestations of lexical reference works were in such examples are the Vocabolario degli Accademici metrical format. For example, the thematically- della Crusca (Venice, 1612) for Italian, the arranged synonymies of the Sanskrit tradition (called Dictionnaire de l’Académie française (Paris, 1694) nighan. d. us) emerged at the time of advanced for French, the Spanish Academy’s Diccionario de development of pre-literate speech and the beginning la lengua Castellana (Madrid, 1726–39) for Spanish, of the development of writing. These reference tools Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm’s Deutsches Wörterbuch were at first unwrit-ten, and were passed from (Leipzig, 1854–1961) for German, the Tolkovyi generation to generation in oral mode. To facilitate slovar’ zhivago velikorusskogo yazyka (St memorisation, they incorporated mnemonic devices Petersburg, 1863–66) by Vladimir Ivanovich Dal’ such as rhythm, rhyme and perhaps music, and some for Russian, James Murray et al.’s New English were extremely sophisticated in their structure. The Dictionary on Historical Principles, which became later emergence in the same tradition of thesauruses the Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1884–1933) with letter-order arrangement demonstrates the for English, and the Novo Dicionário da Língua second ‘communicative shift’, from total reliance Portuguesa (Lisbon, 1899) by Cândido de on speech to a formalised and exclusive codification Figueiredo for Portuguese. in the written medium, and involving a tacti-cal The widespread use of these and other European reformulation of the dictionary consultation process. languages, and the historical and political This shift of the basis of the process of dictionary circumstances of their dissemination, have meant compilation from spoken medium to script has that the lexicographical traditions of languages in implications for, and implies alterations in, at least other parts of the world have often been somewhat four ‘factors of dictionary use’: (i) information: neglected outside their own spheres. In China, for considerations of the written medium—ordering of example, lexicography has a distinguished pedigree. items, spelling, legibility, development and The first thesaurus made its appearance during the preservation of writing materials—now supersede early Qin dynasty (221–207 BC), and the 49,000- those of sound; (ii) operations: the nature of the entry character dictionary, Kangxi zìdian˘ , consultation of the dictionary, i.e. reading not commissioned by the Qing Emperor Kangxi in the memorising, will be extended as the information is early eighteenth century, eclipses anything produced offered in differently accessible formats and literacy in Europe up to that period. will assume enhanced social and referential The fourth ‘communicative shift’ proposed by functions; (iii) users: the users will be those who McArthur, that of electronic computation, has are functionally literate, and the oral traditions of revolutionised lexicography not only with respect memorisation and recitation will become inadequate; to the stages of the dictionary-making process (e.g. and (iv) purposes: the contexts of dictionary use will the automatic retrieval of lexical evidence from large be extended as their content and format change, for corpora of texts, and on-screen text processing), but example they may serve as repositories of INTRODUCTION viii also in the conception and treatment of reference for example, have adequate reference skills to follow systems (e.g. in the use of multimedia, and the varied the structure of a printed dictionary entry, and may possibilities of search and access methods). From need explicit assistance to locate and extract the the hand-held electronic spelling dictionary to the information they seek. One very common reason for multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM, recourse to a dictionary is for translation from one lexicography is an area of academic and commercial language to another, and this need has spawned an enterprise that has turned computerisation to account abundance of bilingual and multilingual dictionaries in a variety of novel ways. In particular the of all sorts and sizes, over many hundreds of years. development of the relational database as a design A speaker of English and a speaker of French, for feature has served to corrode traditional example, translating a non-specialist English text into organisational access structures, such as French, might use a general English-French alphabetisation. In print format, the structure and dictionary. It is only recently that there has emerged composition of the material collected by the a general recognition of the fact that the needs of lexicographer determined the access path taken by these users will be different, and that a simple the user: alphabetically organised headwords would ‘English—French’ compilation may not respond to be looked up alphabetically, the ordering of senses both equally well. User-oriented research takes determined a sequence of search strategies to locate account of the profiles of dictionary users; the the sense sought, etc. various contexts of dictionary use; the functions of Computerisation has radically transformed these the dictionary in its many situations of use; and the relationships. The output can now be specified by skills necessary for, and brought to bear on, the user in a variety of ways, which are not dictionary use. There now exists a body of necessarily determined by the internal organisation investigatory techniques, which are constantly being of the dictionary or the structure of the input. For improved upon, and a considerable cumulation of example, material may be accessed and retrieved in findings of enquiries carried out in many different alphabetical order, in reverse alphabetical order, by language communities around the world, which chronology, by definition keywords, by grammatical provide valuable information for the incorporation function, or by a wide variety of different of a user perspective into dictionary conception and configurations of information categories, irrespective design. of the way they have been organised as input to the The response to the potential needs of users has database. Thus it is the user who can stipulate the implications for the teaching of dictionary use, an limits of the information sought, and retrieve that area of education that was somehow taken for information according to a designated reference granted, and either neglected or, at best, skimpily scheme, avoiding redundancies. The emphasis is less treated, in the past. Specifically, more attention is on following a predetermined pathway through the now being paid to the abilities needed, and the dictionary structure, more on navigating behaviours associated with those abilities (or lack relationships across and within entries, via a choice of those abilities), on the part of the dictionary user of, often invisible, programmed links. to locate the information being sought. The complex operations involved in the dictionary consultation The user perspective process are being investigated and analysed, and One of the principal advances in lexicography in there is a conscious attempt in many dictionaries to recent years has been the focus on the user relate the conventions of the dictionary text (e.g. perspective, that is the realisation that different users abbreviations, codes, labels) to these operations. One have different reasons for using a dictionary, and example is the increasing use of full-sentence that the dictionary can, and should, respond to these. definitions, pioneered by the COBUILD dictionaries, Whilst dictionaries have usually tried to satisfy the in learners’ dictionaries. Nowadays we are also overall perceived needs of large classes of users, witnessing the growth and extension of explicit there has often been little attention to the specific instruction in dictionary use, in the form of the needs of smaller groups or individuals, or to the fact inclusion of ‘dictionary skills’ in school syllabuses that users differ in their needs depending on the and ‘the teaching of dictionary skills’ in teacher- immediate context of dictionary use. Users may not, training syllabuses, all directly informed by the findings of research. ix INTRODUCTION

The computer provides the latest user-determined English Language adopted a new criterion by type of retrieval system, but even very early explicitly breaking with the authoritarian tradition. dictionaries in different cultures were compiled with In its indications of pronunciations, in its definitions, specific purposes in mind. For example, one of the and in its selection of words, Webster’s Third oldest dictionary traditions in China—where abandoned any claim to be a lexical canon, and dictionaries have been known for over 3,000 years discarded all puristic tendencies (cf. Bolinger —was that of examination preparation. The 1975:585). But in its shattering the image of the development of dictionaries of Chinese was closely dictionary as a linguistic arbiter, this lexicographical tied to the civil service examination system. Indeed, cause célèbre engendered a controversy which lasted most of the dictionaries before the establishment of for several years. The public, even some literary the Republic in 1911 were compiled by members of editors, did not want a dictionary that recorded even the élite scholar-official class associated in one way careless (albeit generalised) pronunciations, or or another with these examinations, which tested meanings felt to be ‘incorrect’. It was not, in the literary erudition and written composition through view of some, the dictionary’s place to describe, but mastery of intricate rhyme patterns and a knowledge to prescribe. However, the replacement in Webster’s of Chinese characters. In India, on the other hand, Third of a normative, attitudinal approach to dictionaries developed within an oral tradition, the dictionary-making by one based on objectively earliest being cumulative synonymies composed in observed facts about language was in tune with the poetical format. The metrical structure of these currents of linguistic thought of the time, and indeed dictionaries facilitated memorisation and oral within a tradition that had begun with Samuel recitation. The dictionaries were composed as aids Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language to oral composition of poetry, and for the teaching (1755). Johnson’s initial aim had been to compile a and understanding of religious texts. The very definitive dictionary for English along the different types of dictionary which developed within prescriptive model of the Academic françhise’s these two traditions—China and India—were a national French dictionary. However, realising that function of the different cultural milieux, and the change was inherent in language, and that ‘fixing’ different purposes for which they were required. But English in this way was an unrealistic proposition, in both traditions, there was an authoritarian he sought to show sufficient grounds for his perspective. The dictionary was a resource of what definitions by supplementing them with illustrative was considered to be the ‘best’ or ‘correct’ language. citations from ‘the best writers’. Thus, he hoped to This perspective has carried on to our own day, and temper the process of what was at the time perceived there is a very deep-seated public attitude, shared as degeneration of the language, rather than attempt among many language communities across the a stabilisation of an unrealisable ‘ideal’. Johnson’s globe, that ‘the dictionary’ is supposed to represent appeal to usage rather than etymology in defining some form of final authority in matters of lexical words was as innovative as it was controversial. His meaning and use. The academy dictionaries typically methodology of using citations to corroborate exert considerable influence—sometimes upheld by definitions, however, has provided the model for the legal sanction—in protecting a language from what dictionaries of our day. Nevertheless, Johnson was are perceived as unacceptable or corrupting not entirely objective, especially in his selection of pressures, for example, excessive borrowing from words to be defined, and he omitted those he other languages. The acceptance of the authority of considered would offend the sensibilities of the polite the dictionary has also often been brought to bear in society of his day. In a similar way, conscious choices litigation, where meanings and judicial are sometimes made in our own time. In the context interpretations of words have been determined or of the new South Africa, for example, a decision was elucidated by reference to ‘standard’ dictionaries. made by the compilers of the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal to omit racial slurs, both as The dictionary and linguistic headwords and in illustrative citations. evidence Whilst the dictionary, therefore, can properly In 1961, the compilers of the third edition of reflect change, it thereby also legitimises it. The Webster’s New International Dictionary of the ready availability of huge banks of electronic data have provided hitherto unobtainable evidence of INTRODUCTION x language use, indicating subtle discriminations only liberality was not exercised with respect to spelling, suspected before. For example, many dictionaries and the Third remains, as does every other dictionary of English have defined (and still define) big in terms of English, as authoritarian as ever in this regard. of large, and vice versa. The evidence from This is a reflection of the mood of the English concordances of occurrences of these adjectives in language communities: speakers of English tolerate extensive modern text archives, however, wide variations in pronunciation, but variations in demonstrates convincingly that although they do spelling are codified (centre and center, for example, overlap in some contexts, they are differentiated are accepted in different contexts, largely determined systematically in many others, and that an important by regional provenance, but accomodation for concomitant of these differentiations lies in their accommodation, or principle in the sense of different collocational patterns, an area of usage that principal, are considered errors despite their is now attracting greater attention of lexicographers widespread ‘careless’ use). A diversification in than has been the case in the past. pronunciation is an indicator of coefficiency of The compilation of large-scale (not big-scale!) individuals’ identities; standardisation in spelling is corpora can enable the recording and documentation what unites the language across the different of language change in progress. For example, the communities of its speakers. language of computing has given us backformations such as input and output as verbs. In the Hong Kong Dictionary compilation University of Science and Technology’s (HKUST) How, then, is the dictionary compiled? Dictionary- 1,000,000-word corpus of English in Computer making per se comprises those operations which Science (James et al. 1994), verbal usage constitutes contribute to the production of dictionaries. In about five per cent of the total occurrences of these addition to preliminary activities such as surveying forms. However, the evidence is that there is the potential market, planning the dictionary, training variability in the formation of the past tenses (input/ and recruiting the staff etc., three principal stages in output or inputted/outputted?). Nevertheless, the the dictionary-making process may be isolated: data derivational influence remains strong, and the weight gathering, editing and publishing. is still towards input/output (the only forms accepted Computerisation has motivated the creation of by, for example, the revised third edition of the dictionary databases by publishers, to assist in Collins Concise Dictionary, which advertises itself dictionary compilation. These databases are of two as ‘the authority on current English’). But the use of kinds: the language resource database (or citation input/output as the past form can cause confusion, database) and the entry database. The former is used as the participular-adjectival usage of input/output as the authority for the dictionary entries, and ideally can thus have two senses, proactive (e.g. input data consists of corpora, text archives, individual citations = ‘data to be input’) and retroactive (‘data which etc. from a very wide range of published and has been input’). This example demonstrates the unpublished (e.g. spoken) sources. Creating such a uncertainty that can occur when a novel creation database was once a very onerous task—the conflicts with the language system. New verbal compilation of the citation files of the Oxford English formations in English characteristically attract the Dictionary, through a reading programme which morphological increments of weak verbs (-ed); in involved many people in all walks of life, took some the case of strong verb compounds, largely confined 22 years—but nowadays computerisation and the to ‘special language’ contexts, the resultant rapid access to electronic texts have meant that very instability of competing forms can create linguistic large resources, extensive in scope, can be insecurity. This can be mitigated by corpus data, established relatively quickly. The British National which can thus be brought to bear on the process as Corpus, for example, consists of some 100,000,000 well as the product of language change, and words, ten per cent of which are transcribed from documented in dictionaries in a way that has hitherto natural spoken language, and the Bank of English, been impossible. which is used for the COBUILD dictionary series, Interestingly, whereas in the name of descriptive comprises in excess of 320,000,000 words, and is lexicography, Webster’s Third reported variant continually being extended. Linguistic archives can pronunciations for words—even some considered also incorporate the findings of fieldwork, that is, ‘unacceptable’ by certain speakers—a similar xi INTRODUCTION the collection and documentation of information The final stage in the dictionary-making process obtained by interviews, and, indeed, this form of is the production, distribution, marketing and sale data-gathering is essential in the compilation of of the dictionary. Intense competition in the dialect, slang and other special-purpose dictionaries. publishing industry, and the almost insatiable public The entry database includes the headwords, demand for reference materials, have led to an definitions and other information categories (e.g. explosion in the number of dictionaries and other pronunciation, syntactic functions, usage labels). reference works on the world market, and sometimes This database also includes formatting codes, page technical quality may give way to commercial layout instructions, cross-references and links across appeal. entries, which enable rapid updating of information, and easy extraction of specific entries or parts of Coverage and quality entries from the database for, for example, the Claims to comprehensiveness of coverage, for production of an abridged or compact edition of a example, are common in dictionary advertising larger dictionary. materials. But ‘comprehensiveness’ itself is a relative The central stage in the dictionary-making term. The real extent of a dictionary’s coverage is process is the writing and editing of the entries in very difficult to determine, especially when claims the entry database. Lexicographers may be assisted of absolute numbers (cf. ‘70,000 words’, ‘40,000 in this task by professional and technical consultants synonyms and antonyms’, ‘85,000 explanatory and groups of advisers (called usage panels) to pronunciations’, ‘125,000 references’, ‘16,000 whom they can turn for recommendations on lexical encyclopedic entries’) are cited, and when compilers meaning and use, particularly in specialised domains. take different attitudes towards the treatment of, for The editing is preceded by a pre-editing phase, when example, homonyms and polysemes, or hyphenated certain decisions as to the structure and format of forms and derivatives: what occurs as a headword the dictionary will have been taken, e.g. whether in one dictionary may be a run-on entry in another. senses are to be listed chronologically, that is with Comparisons of coverage across dictionaries are the earliest known uses and senses given first, as in often unmanageable. Moreover, the depth of the Oxford English Dictionary, or according to penetration of the vocabulary of a language in any frequency (usually based on evidence from a particular dictionary is a matter of subjective decision language resource archive), with the most frequently which may depend as much on commercial as occurring modern senses given first, as in the Collins professional interests. COBUILD English Language Dictionary. Editors General and specialised dictionaries abound: can call upon the resources of large corpora, there are dictionaries for almost every conceivable particularly via concordance programs, to validate lexical requirement, and it is probably impossible their user judgements, both in the area of sense to compile—nor, perhaps would one ever a truly discrimination as well as in syntactic function and accurate, comprehensive descriptive dicneed— use (e.g. collocational features). For example, in the tionary of a language. Nevertheless, it is not HKUST corpus of English in Computer Science, 299 uncommon to find in the preface of a dictionary the of the 307 occurrences of interrupt are, perhaps compiler’s or editor’s justification for the work. (We surprisingly, nominal or adjectival (‘…the interrupt explain our own working methods in the next section arrives while the system is busy …’, ‘…it may be below.) Often this takes the form of a less than necessary to turn off the interrupt feature of the modest claim that previous dictionaries in the field printer…’). An editor would need to make a decision have, in some way, been ‘deficient’. Rarely do the as to whether to include this use in a general writers elaborate on the alleged inadequacies of their dictionary, by comparing and contrasting the predecessors’ works, but the reader is encouraged evidence with data from other sources. (Such in the view that in the new compilation the defects formations, for example, as interrupt enable, compile of its antecedents are, in some measure, remedied. time, document view and instruction fetch are still However, there are no internationally agreed felt to be restricted to the domain of Computer standards as to what constitutes a good dictionary, Science, and as such do not feature in general and, as we have noted, many new types are emerging dictionaries of English.) (cf. Crystal 1986). None-theless, there is a growing INTRODUCTION xii theoretical underpinning for the practice of and lexicographical techniques which this has dictionary criticism, which allows for the systematic afforded, no longer allow us to rely on intuitive analysis of the technical qualities of a dictionary handiwork of the ‘harmless drudge’. rather than judgements on mere commercial Over time, printers, and later publishers, evolved attractiveness. For example, the appropriateness of traditions of dictionary design and format, and the the component structures of dictionaries can be training of editorial staff came to be perceived as analysed from the points of view of the part of the publisher’s task. Some publishing houses macrostructure and microstructure. The former have directly employed and catechised teams of refers to the overall access format of the dictionary. lexicographers, whose products have seen many Historical and socio-political circumstances have led editions, occasionally without even any to the widespread acceptance of alphabetisation as acknowledgement. Conventional wisdom is still that the archetypal dictionary access structure, although good dictionaries can only be produced by teams of there are many other ways of ordering headwords in-house lexicographers, sponsored by publishers, (e.g. by theme or topic, by chronology, by but who, like the copyeditor, often remain the frequency). The macrostructure is supplemented by anonymous back-room boys (or girls). outside matter such as the front matter (e.g. preface, Dictionary compilers have to exercise judgement, user’s guide), middle matter (e.g. panels, plates, and informed subjectivity and a feel for the language illustrations) and back matter (lists of names, weights should allow educated guesses to be made as, for and measures, abbreviations etc.), the totality of example, to the likely permanent or ephemeral status which may be called the megastructure. The of current and contemporary forms. A similar microstructure refers to the format of the entry, how procedure has had to be adopted for orthographical information about the headword is provided and variants, where a primary form may have to be presented, and the appropriateness of the discourse selected as a headword. Explicit preferences offer structure of the entry for the benefit of the anticipated implicit information, and it is only a keen sensitivity user. and a responsiveness to the social, political and Lexicographical research has been pioneered by linguistic forces being exerted on a language that the various Dictionary Research Centres which have enable lexicographers to reconcile the institutional been established in several academic institutions or symbiotic and the communicational aspects of a around the world, sometimes on individual initiative, language in their definitions and classifications. sometimes through the good offices of interested Dictionary compilation is a cultural activity, and a publishers, sometimes in response to governmental sympathetic appreciation not only of the cultural demand. These Centres offer professional environment but also of the impact a dictionary will consultation services, engage in training, and co- have, as well as the information it seeks to impart, is ordinate and manage studies of, and investigations a sine qua non in editorial qualification. into, the many aspects of lexicographic theory and An increasing demand for recognition of the practice. We envisage a day when these Centres will professionalism of the discipline of lexicography has form into a coherent pan-continental research stimulated vocational training within the current association, contributing to the development of a academic framework. More and more, the ‘world lexicography’. universities are responding to the needs of the Until comparatively recently, lexicographical marketplace by offering courses, generally at endeavour was often the domain of the brilliant postgraduate level, in the precepts of lexicography. amateur, the self-deprecating dilettante with a love In Africa, Australasia, China, Europe and India, of words, an eye for detail and a passion for ‘ordered expert programmes are now available in the theory profusion’ (Finkenstaedt & Wolff 1973). Such a and practice of dictionary-making and dictionary person was often schooled in one of the great use. An innovative feature of some of these courses classical traditions of education—occidental or is the provision for students to gain direct experience oriental—and trained in literature, philosophy and of the workplace by spending part of their study rhetoric. Many of the best crafted and best respected period on a ‘placement’, for example as an assistant dictionaries are eloquent testimonies to the virtuosity in the editorial office of a dictionary publisher. Other of the instinctive lexicographer. But the technological courses involve international co-operation, through revolution, and the advances in descriptive linguistic which students can prepare for their qualification xiii INTRODUCTION through studying for different periods in different may be covered include the history and development countries, thus widening their cultural and linguistic of lexicographic traditions, the principles of editing, horizons. The orientations of the various training and creative writing. The human element is not lost. courses on offer around the world differ, but most, Today’s lexicographer still needs a good general we predict, will involve some aspects of linguistics education, an enquiring disposition, an appreciation (including especially semantics, psycholinguistics, of precision and objectivity, and a flair for language. sociolinguistics and corpus linguistics), language in The specialist training serves to capitalise on these education, specific language study (especially attributes to produce an informed and accomplished vocabulary analysis), computer technology and professional who can command respect in today’s social science research methods. Other aspects which competitive world.

Working methods used in this Dictionary

Given that there was little precedent for this work, should be included. We also formulated certain we feel we ought to explain our methodology. After principles for exclusion, omitting very rare or having obtained the publisher’s agreement to our idiosyncratic terms (e.g. glossem, lexicographal), proposal, we conducted a structured user survey common terms with no particular lexicographical amongst academics, professional lexicographers, denotation (e.g. appendix, page), terms with no students and others, both by correspondence and immediate direct relevance to the general theme, for personal contact. The responses informed our initial example from descriptive linguistics (e.g. aphesis, decisions concerning the content and layout of our double-headed nominal group) or printing (e.g. entries and the principles of cross-referencing. bullet, font), or names of languages and regionalisms. Our sources have included glossaries, textbooks We wished to confine our headwords to nominal and and specialist works on lexicography (e.g. Zgusta adjectival forms, illustrating terminology relevant to 1971, Hartmann 1983, Landau 1984, Cluver 1989b, contemporary aspects of the discipline of ISO 1990, Kabdebo 1992, McArthur 1992, Svensén lexicography, and we decided therefore not to 1993, Bergenholtz & Tarp 1995 and Prytherch 1995, include such encyclopedic items as biographies of all of which are cited in the Bibliography); famous lexicographers, descriptions of well-known conference proceedings of associations such as dictionaries or histories and traditions of EURALEX and DSNA; journals (e.g. the lexicography in different cultures. We have, however, International Journal of Lexicography); monographs included the names of the principal professional and edited collections of studies; a vast number of bodies associated with lexicography, as well as dictionaries and other lexicographical works in a perhaps lesser-known items such as prizes and variety of languages; and two recent major reference medals awarded for lexicographical endeavour of publications in lexicography: the comprehensive distinction. three-volume Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/ The list was gradually refined, through various Dictionnaires. An International Encyclopedia of iterations involving many deletions and additions, Lexicography, edited by F.J.Hausmann, to eliminate repetitions and to incorporate O.Reichmann, H.E.Wiegand and L.Zgusta (Berlin, crossreferences. We hope thereby to have achieved 1989–91) and J.M.de Sousa’s Diccionario de a cohesion in presentation which will enhance the lexicografia práctica (Barcelona, 1995). One further utility of the work. relevant work, the Nordisk leksikografisk ordbok We have provided brief definitions for each major edited by H.Bergenholtz, I.Cantell, R.Vatvedt Fjeld, entry, and cross-references where we have felt it D.Gundersen, J.Hilmar Jónsson and B.Svensén appropriate to do so. Inevitably, we have taken a (Oslo, 1997), appeared after we had completed the stand on some theoretically divergent terms (e.g. bulk of our manuscript. lemma), and on terms whose significations differ in Our first list of entries was compiled by extracting the literature (e.g. base, canonical form, entry, topics from the major sources which we consulted, recursive definition). The degree of standardisation supplemented by suggestions from colleagues, and that exists in the vocabulary of ‘terminology’ does items which we felt, from our own experience, not exist in other areas of lexicography. We have aimed for a judicious balance, representative of a xv WORKING METHODS USED IN THIS DICTIONARY consensus of opinion, at the same time attempting consult in our own search for enlightenment, but we to inject a measure of coherence into what is still an wished our references to be an immediately practical unstable terminological area. source of information for as wide a readership as possible. Many references to non-English-language Entry style works can be found in the bibliographies of the We have endeavoured as far as possible to preserve publications we have cited. a formulaic definition style, e.g. ‘A complex of Some of the entries are complemented by  activities concerned with…’, ‘A word or phrase examples of works (indicated by ), which serve which…’. Entries are, in many cases, supplemented to illustrate the application of the headword concept by bibliographical references (indicated by
) to in lexicographical practice. No value judgement works published in English, generally within the last attaches to the selection of these publications: they two decades. We have restricted our bibliography to have merely been selected as exemplars in each case. English-language publications, since we appreciate We have also added, in relevant contexts, cross- that a list of works in a mul-tiplicity of languages references to electronic data or to Internet websites  would not be accessible to most readers. This is not (indicated by ). in any way to denigrate the very significant We have tried to bring lexicography to life by scholarship that has been published in different showing connections, for example between languages around the world, from Afrikaans and dictionary ‘design’ and dictionary ‘use’, and by Chinese to Norwegian and Tamil, some of which illustrating lexicographical theory in our own entries. we were ourselves indeed fortunate to be able to A typical entry is structured in this way:

A

abbreviation ABC order A shortened form of a word, phrase or term which ð ALPHABETICAL ORDER. represents its full form. Abbreviations can be subdivided into ‘clippings’ (vet for veterinary abecedarian surgeon), ‘contractions’ (don’t for do not), An archaic term for one who engages in the study ‘acronyms’ (EURALEX for European Association for or design of ALPHABETS. Lexicography), ‘initialisms’, ‘aerophones’ or ‘alphabetisms’ (DRC for Dictionary Research Centre, abecedary VIP for very important person) and ‘blends’ (brunch An archaic general term for ‘alphabet primer’ or for breakfast/lunch). Reference works vary in their ‘dictionary’. treatment of abbreviations. In general dictionaries, they may be given HEADWORD status, or be covered abridged (dictionary) in separate lists in the front or back matter. A shortened version of a larger dictionary in a Abbreviations are often used in dictionaries to DICTIONARY FAMILY, which is made by omitting indicate a word’s grammatical role (e.g. vt for from the fuller (UNABRIDGED) version items such transitive verb) or morphological features (e.g. m or as older or less frequently used words or phrases, masc for masculine) or to label a particular usage etymologies or examples. (e.g. obs for obsolete). Annotated lists of the ð DERIVATIVE DICTIONARY. abbreviations used are normally given in the USER’S
Burnett 1988. GUIDE or elsewhere.  Shorter Slang Dictionary (E.Partridge/rev. R. ð CODE (2), EXPANSION, TEXT COMPRESSION. Fergusson), London & New York NY, 1993; The New
Landau 1984, Cannon 1990, ISO 1990, Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical McArthur 1992, Svensén 1993. Principles (L.Brown), Oxford, 1993.  Acronyms, Initialisms and Abbreviations Dictionary (J.E.Towell), Detroit MI, 1989; The absolute synonym Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations, Oxford, 1992. ð SYNONYMY (1).  WWW Acronym and Abbreviation Server. www.ucc.ie/info/net/acronyms/index.html absolute synonymy ð SYNONYMY (1). ABC The first three letters of the LATIN ALPHABET, abstracting service often found in the titles of primers or introductory The comprehensive documentation of the published works on any subject, as a synonym of ‘introductory literature in a subject field by means of alphabetically dictionary’. or systematically arranged summaries at regular ð XYZ. intervals, e.g. the Linguistics Abstracts, published  A.B.C. of English Usage (H.A.Treble & G.H. in Oxford five times a year since 1985. Vallins), Oxford, 1936; ABC of Plain Words (E.  Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts Gowers), London, 1951. [annual], Norwood MA, 1993. ABUSAGE 2 abusage 2 Aspects of pronunciation which are The use of a word or phrase deprecated as incorrect. characteristic either intralingually of a speaker’s ð USAGE GUIDE. regional or social DIALECT, or interlingually  Usage and Abusage (E.Partridge), London, 1942. of a speaker’s first or dominant language. 3 A DIACRITIC. abuse 1 With respect to levels of correctness,ð acceptability ABUSAGE. An aspect of USAGE by which members of a given 2 With respect to insults, ð TERM OF ABUSE. speech community characterise a word or phrase as normal and authentic. The suitability of an expression academic dictionary to a particular situational context is sometimes ð SCHOLARLY DICTIONARY. referred to as APPROPRIATENESS, while suitability in a particular verbal context is called academic lexicography GRAMMATICALITY. An approach to LEXICOGRAPHY which is  Greenbaum 1988. concerned with DICTIONARY RESEARCH and the bringing to bear of theory on practice. acceptability rating ð DICTIONARY RESEARCH CENTRE, GENERAL The evaluation of a term within a technical field, on LEXICOGRAPHY, THEORY OF LEXICOGRAPHY, a scale from ‘deprecated’ to ‘admitted’ to ‘preferred’ TRAINING. to ‘standardised’.  Ilson 1986a.  ISO 1990.

Academy acceptance An official body established to promote and The sociolinguistic approval of a word or phrase by maintain the ‘best’ uses of a language and to virtue of its inclusion in an authoritative reference protect it from what are considered unacceptable work such as a USAGE GUIDE or an ACADEMY and unwelcome influences. Academies typically DICTIONARY. Those who do not approve of exert control by sponsoring prescriptive expressions which have not found their way into GRAMMARS and ACADEMY DICTIONARIES, dictionaries can find themselves in a dilemma, through which the rules of the language are because such items will not appear in descriptive authoritatively defined. dictionaries until espoused by general USAGE. ð STANDARD (1). ð DESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY.

Academy dictionary access A type of DICTIONARY created under the The relative ease with which INFORMATION can auspices or sponsorship of an ACADEMY. The be located in a REFERENCE WORK. In a general first such dictionaries in Europe were the dictionary this may be the alphabetical order in Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca which HEADWORDS appear; in a thesaurus it may (Venice, 1612), the Dictionnaire de l’Académie be the arrangement of items in thematic groups; in a française (Paris, 1694) and the Spanish Academy’s DATABASE or retrieval system it may be the route Diccionario de la lengua castellana or Diccionario along which the computer leads the user. de autori-dades (Madrid, 1726–39). For English, ð LEMMA, MACROSTRUCTURE. such an Academy dictionary does not exist, although Samuel Johnson had started his access alphabet Dictionary of the English Language (London, The organisation of a reference work, which allows the 1755) with the idea of ‘fixing’ the language. compiler and user to locate a particular information ð AUTHORITY, NATIONAL DICTIONARY. category under a LEMMA. This may not coincide entirely with the conventional sequence of the script used, accent and may include abbreviations, letters from other scripts, 1 Prominence in the pronunciation of a syllable numbers and ALPHANUMERIC COMBINATIONS, (e.g. stress) achieved by increased loudness or or signs such as apostrophes, hyphens and obliques. duration, or by alteration of pitch.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. 3 ADMITTED TERM

access profile  Gradus ad Parnassum, Paris, 1666; Longman The totality of devices that facilitate ACCESS in a Language Activator (M.Rundell), Harlow, 1993. particular reference work. In addition to the format, such as ALPHABETICAL ORDER in a active vocabulary general dictionary, this may include the TABLE The VOCABULARY available to a native speaker OF CONTENTS and instructions for use or a learner for encoding purposes such as speaking, (USER’S GUIDE) in the front matter, as well as writing, or translating from the native into a foreign special appendices and/or INDEXES in the back language. Estimates suggest that this is considerably matter. smaller than the PASSIVE VOCABULARY ð ORDERING DEVICE. associated with decoding tasks such as listening and  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. reading, hence the need for ACTIVE DICTIONARIES. access structure  Laufer & Nation 1995. Those component parts of the overall design of a REFERENCE WORK which allow the user to addendum search for a particular item of information. The ð SUPPLEMENT. prototypical ‘external’ (or ‘outer’) access structure in the general dictionary is the ALPHABETICAL address ORDER of headwords. Such dictionaries are called 1 The component part of the entry (usually the ‘monoaccessible’ if there is only one access in the HEADWORD) to which various form of the alphabetical WORD-LIST; in INFORMATION CATEGORIES refer. The ‘polyaccessible’ dictionaries there are additional address signals the TOPIC which is elaborated access structures, such as an INDEX. The on (in the form of a COMMENT) by the prototypical ‘internal’ (or ‘inner’) access structure information provided on it, e.g. spelling, is the BASE STRUCTURE. pronunciation, grammar, definition, etymology. ð RADICAL, SEARCH PATH. Because of the high degree of text compression  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. inside dictionary entries it is not always made ACL explicit which item is actually addressed. Thus, Abbreviation for ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTA- in the extract illustrated in the panel TIONAL LINGUISTICS. ‘Microstructure’ on page 94, the etymological information given on the verb energize is acrolect addressed to both of its senses, but the usage ð CREOLE. label (‘arch.’) applies only to its second sense, namely the one marked ‘v.i.’. acronym
Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. ð ABBREVIATION. 2 ð FORM OF ADDRESS.

aerophone adjective ð ABBREVIATION. A PART OF SPEECH which serves primarily to specify an attribute or quality of a noun or a noun active dictionary phrase. A type of DICTIONARY designed to help with ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. encoding tasks, such as the production of a text. In  Cassell Dictionary of Appropriate Adjectives monolingual lexicography, the typical example of (E.H.Mikhail), London, 1994. an active dictionary is the THESAURUS, whose main function is to provide vocabulary choice for admitted term the writer; in bilingual lexicography the function A technical TERM accepted by the practitioners in addressed is translation into the foreign language. a subject field as a suitable synonym for a The PASSIVE DICTIONARY, by contrast, is PREFERRED TERM, e.g. technical dictionary for aimed primarily at decoding tasks such as reading. terminological dictionary. ð ACTIVE VOCABULARY. ð ACCEPTABILITY RATING.  Svensén 1993, Rundell & Ham 1994, Berkov 1996.  ISO 1990. ADVERB 4 adverb AILA A PART OF SPEECH which serves primarily to Acronym for ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE modify a verb, adjective or other adverb. DE LINGUISTIQUE APPLIQUÉE. ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. alignment of texts advisory panel ð PARALLEL TEXTS. A group of consultants whose opinions are sought in the compilation of a REFERENCE WORK. aljamiado principle ð USAGE PANEL. ð DIGRAPHIA. affective meaning allusion ð CONNOTATION. A literary or other cultural reference, typically in the form of an intertextual QUOTATION. It is often affix oblique and not usually assigned to its source. A bound morphological element which may be added  Makkai 1980. to a base or stem of a word. An affix added to the  Brewer’s Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (E.C. beginning of a base or stem is a ‘prefix’; one added Brewer/rev. A.Room), London, 1870/1995; Allusions. to the end of a base or stem is a ‘suffix’; and one added Cultural, Literary, Biblical, and Historical: A Thematic within a base or stem is an ‘infix’. An affix used to Dictionary (L.Urdang), Detroit MI, 1982. form new words is a derivational affix; an inflectional affix, by contrast, is used to indicate different almanac(k) grammatical forms of the same word. Dictionaries A type of REFERENCE WORK published regularly, do not always recognise affixes, particularly usually once a year, which contains historical, inflectional affixes, as HEADWORDS, even in geographical, technical or other encyclopedic languages whose syntactic relationships are expressed information arranged in chronological or thematic primarily by AFFIXATION. format. ð CANONICAL FORM. ð CALENDAR.  ISO 1990, Svensén 1993.  Whitaker’s Almanack 1997 (H.Marsden), London, 1996. affixation The process of morphological modification in which alphabet AFFIXES are added to a base or stem, either for An inventory of graphic symbols (LETTERS) used deriving new words or for forming inflections, or to represent speech. Ideally, each letter stands for both. one speech sound, though in practice there is rarely ð MORPHOLOGY. a total one-to-one correspondence.  Bwenge 1989. ð ALPHABETICAL ORDER, WRITING.  Healey 1990, McArthur 1992. African Association for Lexicography  Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets (G.L. Campbell), A professional society, founded at the University of London, 1996. Stellenbosch in 1995. It holds annual conferences and sponsors the journal LEXIKOS. alphabetarian An archaic term for one who engages in the study AFRILEX or design of ALPHABETS. Acronym for AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LEXICOGRAPHY. alphabetic(al) arrangement ð ALPHABETICAL ORDER. agnonym A word or phrase in the native or second/foreign alphabetic(al) fragmentation language which is not in a given speaker’s ACTIVE The separation of semantically linked words or VOCABULARY or PASSIVE VOCABULARY, but phrases when they are listed in alphabetically may be found in a specialised reference work such ordered reference works. An example would be the as a dictionary of NEOLOGISMS. scattering of various ‘furniture’ lexemes such as  Morkovkina 1996. chair, table and sofa in different sections of the 5 AMELIORATION dictionary WORD-LIST. To counteract this,  Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets (G.L.Campbell), lexicographers treat such items conceptually and London, 1996. provide links, either by cross-references between them or by using alternative formats, such as the alphabetisation thematically arranged THESAURUS, or by using 1 With reference to the ordering principle,ð lists and/or displays. ALPHABETICAL ORGANISATION.  Jackson 1988, Béjoint 1994. 2 With reference to script transfer, ð TRANSCRIPTION. alphabetic(al) index ð INDEX. alphabetism ð ABBREVIATION. alphabetic(al) order The conventional sequence of the letters of an alphabetist ALPHABET. In languages whose script is based on One who engages in the study or design of the LATIN ALPHABET, arrangement of entries by the orthographic form of the HEADWORDS allows ALPHABETS. compilers and users of reference works to locate INFORMATION. alphanumeric combination  ISO 1990, McArthur 1992. A word or phrase consisting of numerals and letters, e.g. 3-D, 4-ply. In reference works, such items may alphabetic(al) organisation be arranged sequentially according to the spelling The principled use of ALPHABETICAL ORDER of the numerals concerned (thus 3-D would be for the placing and retrieval of information in alphabetised where it would be expected to appear REFERENCE WORKS. Even among those if written as three-D) or they may be placed initially languages in which the LATIN ALPHABET is used under each letter (thus 3-D would occur at the to represent speech, there is considerable variation beginning of the entries under the letter T). in the number and sequencing of LETTERS (e.g. with or without DIACRITICS) and in the methods alternative lexicography employed to design the MACROSTRUCTURE of A collective term for those activities concerned with the dictionary. The arrangement of headwords and the compilation of reference works outside the entries can vary according to whether word boundaries are recognised or ignored (WORD-BY- framework of conventional LEXICOGRAPHY. This WORD ALPHABETISATION Versus LETTER- includes dictionaries made by amateurs without BY-LETTER ALPHABETISATION), whether the reference to professional principles, such as informal direction of the script is followed or reversed (‘ab in-house glossaries, computer-generated lists of initio’ versus ‘a tergo’), and whether sub-entries are specialised words or phrases offered on the allocated to single or separate text blocks INTERNET, or even literary texts masquerading (‘clustering’ versus ‘listing’). under the title DICTIONARY. In most alphabetic systems, it took centuries for ð ANTIDICTIONARY, REFERENCE dictionary makers to develop alphabetisation from PROFESSIONAL. ordering by the first letter only, to second-letter  Index. The Catalogue Shop (Littlewoods Mail Order), ordering, third-letter ordering and beyond. 1997. ð ORGANISATION.  The on-line hacker Jargon File, version 2.9.4, 1991.  Osselton 1989a, Zgusta 1989b, Spears 1990, Svensén 1993, van der Meer 1996a. ambiguity A condition in which a word or phrase is capable of alphabetic(al) sequence different interpretations because of insufficient ð ALPHABETICAL ORDER. context, or any instance of this, e.g. We had granny for tea (where had is ambiguous: ‘had as a visitor’ alphabetic(al) writing A WRITING SYSTEM based on the representation or ‘had as a meal’). of speech sounds (PHONEMES) by letters ð IDIOM, METAPHOR, SENSE DISCRIMINATION. (GRAPHEMES). The prototype is the LATIN ALPHABET used for most European and many non- amelioration European languages. ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION 6

American Library Association anecdote A professional society, based in Chicago IL, founded A short, entertaining account of an event. in 1876 to represent LIBRARIANS. One of its eleven  Thesaurus of Anecdotes (E.Fuller), New York NY, divisions is devoted to Reference and Adult Services. 1942; British Literary Anecdotes (R.Hendrickson), New ð DARTMOUTH MEDAL, LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. York NY, 1990.  Website: www.ala.org anisomorphism American Society of Indexers A mismatch between a pair of languages due to their A professional society, based in Seattle WA, founded semantic, grammatical and cultural differences. This in 1968 to represent INDEXERS. leads to a relative absence of direct, one-to-one ð INDEX, SOCIETY OF INDEXERS. translation EQUIVALENTS.  Website: www.well.com/user/asi ð CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS, TRANSLATION.  Sundström 1992. anagogical meaning A secondary SENSE or CONNOTATION of a word annotation or phrase, which is mystical or spiritual. Comments on a portion of a text, e.g. critical remarks  James 1991. on items listed in a BIBLIOGRAPHY. ð REFERENCE (4). anagogy The process of interpretation of the mystical or antedating hidden spiritual senses or connotations of words. Evidence of the occurrence of a word or phrase prior to the date given in a HISTORICAL DICTIONARY. anagram  A word or phrase formed by rearranging the letters Schäfer 1980. of another word or phrase, e.g. emits—times. ‘Palindromes’ are types of anagrams which can be anthroponym ð read in both directions, e.g. Able was I ere I saw PERSONAL NAME. Elba. Anagrams feature commonly in crossword puzzles, for which specialised dictionaries of antidictionary anagrams have been compiled. A REFERENCE WORK which deviates from the ð WORD GAME. expected norm in content (humour), style (satire) or  Towner 1995. format (non-alphabetic arrangement). The  Bloomsbury Anagram Finder (J.Daintith), London, Anticrusca by Paolo Beni (1612) was a critical 1993. analysis of the Italian Academy dictionary, the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca (Venice, analects 1612); R.F.Gillet’s Le Porte-feuille (Madrid, 1762) A type of REFERENCE WORK containing sayings was notorious for its negative evaluation of by famous people. dictionaries and their compilers, and Ambrose  The Analects of Confucius, New York NY, 1997. Bierce’s Devil’s Dictionary (1906) for its sarcastic definitions of controversial issues. Because of its analogical dictionary non-alphabetic arrangement, it is possible to refer A type of DICTIONARY which contains to a thematic THESAURUS as an antidictionary. information such as collocations, synonyms or ð REVERSE DICTIONARY. confusible words.  Béjoint 1994.  Cassell Guide to Related Words (S.I. Hayakawa/rev. E.Ehrlich), London, 1971/94. antiquating dictionary ð ARCHAISING DICTIONARY. analytical definition The classical DEFINITION formula which is used antonym to explain the meaning of a word or phrase by A member of a pair of words or phrases characterised reference to a generic term (GENUS PROXIMUM) by ANTONYMY. and at least one distinguishing feature  The Penguin Dictionary of English Synonyms and (DIFFERENTIA SPECIFICA). Antonyms (R.Fergusson), London, 1992. 7 ARCHIVE antonymy appropriacy The SENSE RELATION obtaining between words ð APPROPRIATENESS. or phrases of opposite meaning. Antonymy can be ‘complementary’, with one member of a pair appropriateness implying the negation of the other: alive = not dead; An aspect of USAGE which stresses the ‘conversive’ or ‘reciprocal’, with the meaning of one communicative suitability of a word or phrase in a member of a pair presupposing that of the other: given context. Like ACCEPTABILITY and buy/sell; or ‘graded’ (‘gradable’), with two concepts GRAMMATICALITY, appropriateness is often the being compared: clean versus dirty, bigger/better subject of prescriptive reference works such as than…. The term can also be used to refer to the USAGE GUIDES. phenomenon of one word having two opposite ð CORRECTNESS. senses, e.g. sanction ‘permit’ or ‘penalise’. ð CONVERSENESS, INCOMPATIBILITY, aptronym OPPOSITION, SYNONYMY (1). A name derived from a person’s characteristics (e.g.  Jackson 1988. Redhead) or occupation (e.g. Baker). ð ONOMASTIC INFORMATION. apostil A note, comment or other annotation made in the archaic margin of a book or manuscript. A USAGE LABEL indicating that a word or phrase ð GLOSS. is felt to be characteristic of an earlier period rather than part of the contemporary modern language. applied linguistics ð DIACHRONIC INFORMATION. An approach to LANGUAGE problems which seeks practical solutions in an interdisciplinary setting. The field of LANGUAGE TEACHING, for example, has archaising dictionary profited from applied linguistic analysis of its basic A dictionary which gives preference in its selection premises (which skills are to be learned and how and treatment to those words and phrases whose use they are best learned) and practices (which is associated with earlier periods of the language, pedagogical approaches and methods work the best e.g. in the works of classical authors. in different contexts). Applied linguists have also ð MODERNISING DICTIONARY. been instrumental in utilising theoretical and  Zgusta 1989a. descriptive work, e.g. from phonetics, grammar, semantics and text linguistics, in addressing specific archaism issues of language acquisition, language planning, A word or phrase (or one of its senses) which is no speech therapy, translation etc. longer in current use except in fixed contexts, such There is some debate as to whether as legal documents, nursery rhymes, poetry or LEXICOGRAPHY should be considered an applied prayers, or for humorous effect. Archaisms are often linguistic discipline; certainly, a range of notions marked by a USAGE LABEL, and included in from LINGUISTICS are relevant to practical DICTIONARY-MAKING, such as semantics in general or specialised dictionaries. definition writing, grammar in part-of-speech  The Archaicon. A Collection of Unusual, Archaic specification, and discourse analysis in the layout English (J.E.Barlough), Metuchen NJ, 1974. of the dictionary text. ð ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE archilexeme LINGUISTIQUE APPLIQUÉE, COMPUTATIONAL A word or phrase which covers the meaning of all LINGUISTICS, LANGUAGE ARTS, LANGUAGE the members in a SEMANTIC FIELD, e.g. cook ENGINEERING, PEDAGOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY. which can act as a substitute for all ‘cooking’ verbs.  Biber et al. 1994, Hartmann 1996a, Mills 1996. archive  Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and 1 An assembly of dictionaries, either in a Applied Linguistics [2nd edition] (J.C.Richards et al.), REFERENCE DEPARTMENT within a Harlow, 1992. library or as a specialised COLLECTION,  Applied Linguistics (journal) website: such as the Cordell Collection at Indiana State www.oup.co.uk./applij/ University. ARCHIVIST 8

 Gates 1994. In particular, SPEECH RECOGNITION, semantic  Catalog of Dictionaries, Word Books, and DISAMBIGUATION and text CORPUS technology Philological Texts, 1440–1900 (D.E.Vancil), are of relevance to lexicography. Westport CT, 1993. ð EXPERT SYSTEM, NATURAL LANGUAGE 2 An unstructured collection of texts. PROCESSING. ð CORPUS, DATA ARCHIVE.  Butler 1990, Winston 1993.  The Artificial Intelligence Dictionary (E.Thro), archivist London, 1990. One who engages in the administration of an ARCHIVE. artificial language The collective term for a number of systems developed argot for international communication or for a specific intellectual A SPECIAL-PURPOSE LANGUAGE used by certain or scientific purpose. Examples are planned AUXILIARY groups of speakers to indicate membership of the group LANGUAGES (such as Esperanto), computer and to disguise the meanings of words and phrases to programming languages, philosophical TAXONOMIES, outsiders. The vocabulary of an argot, or ‘cant’, may SHORTHAND, BRAILLE and SIGN LANGUAGE, include novel terms, or ordinary words of a language each with a range of published dictionaries. in novel senses, and its use is often associated with such  An Esperanto-English-Chinese Dictionary sub-cultures as criminal groups or secret societies. (Z.Z.Wang), Qingdao, 1992. ð SLANG.  Spears 1987, 1989. artwork  A Dictionary of the Underworld. British and ð GRAPHICS. American (E.Partridge), London, 1949; Slang and Euphemism (R.A.Spears), Middle Village NY, 1981. ASIALEX Acronym for ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR arrangement LEXICOGRAPHY. A cover term for the various ways in which the WORD- LIST can be ordered in a reference work, e.g. Asian Association for Lexicography ALPHABETICAL ORGANISATION, A professional society, founded at the Hong Kong CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER, CLASSIFIED University of Science and Technology in 1997. ORDER, RHYME, SYSTEMATIC ORDER,  Website: www.anu.edu.au/linguistics/alex/ THEMATIC ORDER. A ‘mixed’ arrangement is one asialex.html in which two or more of these are combined (HYBRID). ð ORGANISATION. assimilated word A BORROWING which has been integrated into the  Zgusta 1989b, ISO 1990. native word-stock of a language, e.g. coffee, café, Kaffee, koffie etc. < Arabic /qahveh/ via Turkish. article ð 1 The basic REFERENCE UNIT in an LOAN-WORD. encyclopedia or encyclopedic dictionary; in a Association for Computational Linguistics dictionary, this is more often called ENTRY. A professional society, founded in 1962, for natural ð MICROSTRUCTURE. language processing and computing. It publishes a 2 In grammar, a function word, associated in journal, Computational Linguistics, holds regular English with the NOUN, which identifies a conferences, and has a special-interest group for phrase as ‘definite’ (the) or ‘indefinite’ (a, an). lexical resources (SIGLEX). ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION.  SIGLEX website: www.cs.columbia.edu/~radev/  Collins COBUILD English Guides 3: newacl/information.html Articles (R.Berry), London, 1993. Association internationale de artificial intelligence linguistique appliquée An academic field concerned with the study of A professional society, founded in 1964, to represent computers and their use in understanding and simulating APPLIED LINGUISTICS world-wide. processes of human knowledge and communication. LEXICOGRAPHY and LEXICOLOGY form a 9 AUTHOR section in the programme of its triennial international systematically arranged MAPS, tables and text, often congresses. in combination with indexes of place names and/or  Website: ezinfo.ucs.indiana.edu/~emmerson the phenomena illustrated. ð CULTURAL ATLAS, GAZETTEER, HYBRID, associations LINGUISTIC ATLAS. Professional societies representing the interests of  Chayen 1989. lexicographers and other REFERENCE  Atlas sive cosmographicae meditationes de fabrica PROFESSIONALS. mundi (G.Mercator), 1595; The Times Atlas of the World, Applied linguists: New York NY & London, 1992. ð ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE  The Times Electronic World Map and Database [CD- LINGUISTIQUE APPLIQUÉE. ROM], Cheltenham, 1995. Archivists: ð SOCIETY OF AMERICAN ARCHIVISTS, attestation SOCIETY OF ARCHIVISTS. ð AUTHENTICATION. Authors: ð SOCIETY OF AUTHORS. attitudinal information Computational linguists: ð DIAEVALUATIVE INFORMATION. ð ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS. Australasian Association for Lexicography Documentalists: A professional society, founded at Macquarie ð FÉDÉRATION INTERNATIONALE University in 1990. It publishes a newsletter and D’INFORMATION ET DE DOCUMENTATION. holds biennial meetings. Indexers:  Website: www.anu.edu.au/linguistics/alex ð AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INDEXERS, SOCIETY OF INDEXERS. AUSTRALEX Lexicographers: Acronym for AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION ð AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR FOR LEXICOGRAPHY. LEXICOGRAPHY, ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR LEXICOGRAPHY, AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION authentication FOR LEXICOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY SOCIETY OF The collective term for the various means used by NORTH AMERICA, EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION lexicographers to verify and document the words and FOR LEXICOGRAPHY, LEXICOGRAPHICAL phrases treated in the dictionary. These range from the SOCIETY OF CHINA, LEXICOGRAPHICAL careful selection of the WORD-LIST from representative sources (e.g. a text CORPUS) to the inclusion and SOCIETY OF INDIA, NORDISK FORENING FOR labelling of quoted EXAMPLES, felt to be particularly LEKSIKOGRAFI. important in HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES. The Librarians: more authentic the EVIDENCE, the greater the ð AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, LIBRARY AUTHORITY of the reference work. ASSOCIATION. ð ANTEDATING, CITATION. Onomasticians:  Gouws 1987, Osselton 1996. ð INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF ONOMASTIC SCIENCES. author Terminologists: 1 One who engages in the COMPILATION of a ð EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR TERMINOLOGY. reference work. The terminology of REFERENCE PROFESSIONALS is far from agreed, and associative meaning LEXICOGRAPHERS and TERMINOLOGISTS, ð CONNOTATION. for example, do not always have their full AUTHORSHIP rights acknowledged. a tergo dictionary 2 One who engages in the composition of a ð REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. literary work or other text and can be the subject of an AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY or atlas DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS. A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides ð AUTHORS AND DICTIONARIES. geographical and other information in the form of AUTHOR DICTIONARY 10 author dictionary The material is usually based on a text CORPUS of 1 A dictionary of a single author, ð AUTHOR’S one, several or all of the works of the author, and DICTIONARY. often presented in alphabetical order, with examples 2 A dictionary of several authors, ð or contexts (but not definitions) of the words cited. DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS. Author’s dictionaries have a long tradition, from the glossarial CONCORDANCES of classical Greek authority and Roman writers through the philological The respect accorded to the dictionary (and other INDEXES to the works of Dante, Chaucer and REFERENCE WORKS) by its users as an arbiter of Shakespeare to the more contemporary, often linguistic STANDARDS. Public appreciation of such computer-assisted, dictionaries of Goethe, Pushkin dictionaries as ‘the Oxford’, ‘the Webster’ or ‘the and others. Nevertheless, there is still no coherent Duden’ is based on their role as repositories and framework for the principles of a general AUTHOR transmitters of INFORMATION, linguistic as well as LEXICOGRAPHY. encyclopedic, especially by providing DEFINITIONS  Karpova 1992. of ‘hard’ words of the language. This undifferentiated  Complete and Systematic Concordance to the Works positive IMAGE of the dictionary as a linguistic of Shakespeare (M.Spevack), Hildesheim, 1968–75. authority often does not allow for the enormous variety of available reference works, from the GENERAL authors’ dictionary DICTIONARY to the more specialised USAGE 1 A dictionary of several authors, ð GUIDES. Nor does the ordinary dictionary user DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS. recognise that authority must be earned, through the 2 A dictionary for authors, ð STYLE MANUAL. principled selection of source material (AUTHENTICATION), the sifting of EVIDENCE authorship and the presentation of the material in formats The acknowledged right of having produced a appropriate to the REFERENCE NEEDS of users. published document. This is not always fully granted ð CITATION, CRITICISM. to REFERENCE PROFESSIONALS such as  Creswell 1975, Algeo 1989b, Wadsworth 1989, lexicographers, particularly when they work in- Milroy & Milroy 1991, Willinsky 1994. house for a publisher in a team, e.g. on the basis of an inherited text such as a previous edition of a author lexicography dictionary. A complex of activities concerned with the design, ð COPYRIGHT, CRIMINALITY. compilation, use and evaluation of AUTHOR’SDICTIONARIES . author-specific dictionary ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY. authors and dictionaries Some literary authors are known for their fascination author-specific lexicography with dictionaries. The second edition of the Oxford ð AUTHOR LEXICOGRAPHY. English Dictionary [OED] (Oxford, 1989) cites several examples of archaic words last attested automatic dictionary several centuries previously, which had been culled ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. by James Joyce and W.H. Auden from the first edition of the OED. automatic disambiguation DISAMBIGUATION by use of computational ð AUTHOR LEXICOGRAPHY, COMPILER techniques. PERSPECTIVE, DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS, LEXICOGRAPHER, REFERENCE PROFESSIONAL. automatic excerption EXCERPTION by use of computational techniques. author’s concordance ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY. automatic indexing author’s dictionary The production of an INDEX by use of A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides computational techniques. information on the vocabulary of a specific author. 11 A-Z automatic lemmatisation 2 A natural language that serves as a LINGUA LEMMATISATION by use of computational FRANCA, such as Swahili in eastern and techniques. southern Africa. ð EXOGLOSSIC LANGUAGE. automatic lexicography ðCOMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. auxiliary verb A member of a closed set of VERBS used in many automatic parsing languages with a main verb to indicate grammatical PARSING by use of computational techniques. categories such as voice and tense. ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. auxiliary language 1 An ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE created for the A-Z purpose of international communication, such The first and last letters of the LATIN ALPHABET, as Esperanto, Volapük, Ido and Interlingua. For used to mean the whole alphabet. The term is often Esperanto alone, a wide range of monolingual, found in the titles of primers or guides on any subject. bilingual and terminological dictionaries is  An A to Z of British Life (A.Room), Oxford, 1992. available.  Large 1985, Moore 1994.

B

back-derivation different languages, or are ‘unnecessary’, e.g. ð BACK-FORMATION. because they take the place of existing words perceived to be more suitable. back-formation ð CORRECTNESS, FOREIGNISM, PURISM. A WORD-FORMATION process in which an  Ne dites pas…mais dites…barbarismes, solécismes, element, usually an AFFIX, is removed from a word locutions vicieuses (E.Le Gal), Paris, 1966. to create another, e.g. sorption from absorption/ adsorption. base A meaningful morphological element used to form back matter words. Bases, which are common to the members Those component parts of a dictionary’s of a WORD FAMILY, combine with one or more MACROSTRUCTURE which are located between other elements, such as AFFIXES, to form STEMS, the central WORD-LIST section and the end of the e.g. the base hap- as in happy, unhappy, happi-ness, work. Examples of such ‘subsidiaries’ in general hapless or know as in unknown, knowable, dictionaries may include: personal and place names; knowledge, acknowledge, acknowledgement. weights and measures; military ranks; chemical ð MORPHEME, WORD. elements; alphabetic and numerical symbols;  Denning & Leben 1995. musical notation; quotations and proverbs; index.  Collins COBUILD English Guides 2: Word Formation ð OUTSIDE MATTER. (J.Bradbury), London & Glasgow, 1991.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Svensén 1993. base form Bank of English 1 With reference to lemmatisation,ð A large CORPUS of English texts, initiated in 1991 at CANONICAL FORM. the University of Birmingham to support linguistic 2 With reference to morphology, ð BASE. analysis and lexicographical projects, notably the COBUILD series. At over 320,000,000 words, this is the base structure largest electronically accessible text archive of English, In a hierarchical representation of the which has generated useful empirical EVIDENCE on MICROSTRUCTURE of dictionary entries, the grammar, semantics and other aspects of USAGE. branching of INFORMATION into formal details  Krishnamurthy 1996. and semantic explanation. Both may be regarded as  Website: titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/boe_info.html ‘comments’ on the ‘topic’ introduced by the HEADWORD, and depicted as a binary tree barbarism diagram, with further subdivisions: the ‘formal An informal term for a word or phrase deprecated comment’ (as the left-core structure, consisting of because it is felt to deviate from the NORM. information categories such as spelling, grammar Dictionaries and USAGE GUIDES mark such items and pronunciation) and the ‘semantic comment’ (as on the grounds that they are ‘ill-formed’, e.g. because the right-core structure, consisting of information they mix word-formation elements borrowed from categories such as definition, etymology and usage). 13 BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY

ð Panel ‘Microstructure’ (page 94). basic word  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. 1 With reference to lemmatisation,ð CANO- NICAL FORM. base word 2 With reference to vocabulary, ð CORE WORD. ð CANONICAL FORM. basilect basic form ð CREOLE. ð CANONICAL FORM. bias-free vocabulary basic sense Words or phrases which are considered appropriate The essential MEANING of a word or phrase as being non-discriminatory (‘politically correct’) selected for prominent treatment inside a dictionary in relation to such issues as age, gender, race, entry. The issues of whether it is possible to isolate religion, politics or ecology. a basic sense and, if so, how to present it (e.g. in one ð CENSORSHIP, GENDERLECT, RACISM, SEXISM. or more DEFINITIONS) are still unsettled. Various  Dictionary of Bias-Free Usage (R.Maggio), Boston approaches have been tried, by reference to such MA, 1992. notions as ETYMOLOGY and FREQUENCY, but no satisfactory solution has yet emerged. Further bibliographical information complications arise when such semantic phenomena Details needed to describe and locate a published as HOMONYMY and POLYSEMY are considered. text, such as the author’s name and the title, publisher The collection of empirical evidence from CORPUS and date of publication of the work. data, supplemented by native-speaker intuitions, may ð BIBLIOGRAPHY. help to determine PROTOTYPE senses, but this has not yet been attempted on a sufficiently large scale bibliography 1 A list of publications, e.g. at the end of a book or to assist dictionary-makers. dissertation. Some reference works, such as this ð SENSE. Dictionary of Lexicography, have brief  Swanepoel 1994. bibliographical details at the end of some entries basic vocabulary and a comprehensive bibliography at the back. Those words selected by FREQUENCY counts and The systematic management of sources is one of similar means, which are considered essential for the preconditions of reliable DICTIONARY- communication in a language and thus also for MAKING. purposes of learning that language. This selection ð DICTIONARY CATALOGUE, REFERENCE (4).
(variously called ‘core’ or ‘elementary’ or Congleton & Congleton 1984, Sheehy 1986, ‘fundamental’ or ‘minimum’ vocabulary) tends to Wynar 1986, Brewer 1988, Zgusta 1988a, Ryan focus on words which are statistically representative, 1989, Cop 1990, Kabdebo 1992, Kister 1994. stylistically neutral and semantically powerful while 2 A branch of LIBRARY SCIENCE concerned at the same time helping learners to cope in everyday with the history, production, recording and communicative situations. The GENERAL classification of books and other DICTIONARY covers core words (as well as less DOCUMENTS. frequent ‘hard words’), and the LEARNER’S ð WALFORD AWARD.  DICTIONARY concentrates on them; the Harrod’s Librarians’ Glossary (R. FREQUENCY DICTIONARY provides statistical Prytherch), Aldershot, 1995. information. bidirectional dictionary ð CORE WORD, CORPUS, DEFINING A type of BILINGUAL DICTIONARY in which the VOCABULARY, THRESHOLD LEVEL. translation equivalents can be accessed equally from  Pemberton & Tsang 1993. each of the two languages. Thus a two-way English  The General Basic English Dictionary (C.K. Ogden), and French dictionary could be used by both English London, 1940; The Cambridge English Lexicon and French speakers because the equivalents can be (R.X.Hindmarsh), Cambridge, 1980; Webster’s Basic consulted in either side or volume, provided that there English Dictionary, Springfield MA, 1990. is REVERSIBILITY. However, two-way directionality BIFUNCTIONAL DICTIONARY 14 is difficult to achieve in practice, especially when the They also differ in their coverage of the vocabulary, languages and cultures in question are very different and in the extent to which they concentrate on general and the purposes for which users look up words words or specialised terms. Computer technology is (reading or writing) diverge. Thus, the information a likely to improve existing bilingual formats and to speaker of English needs for reading French texts develop new ones in future. (consulting a PASSIVE DICTIONARY) is not the ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY, INTERLINGUAL same as that required by a French speaker writing an DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, English text (using an ACTIVE DICTIONARY), and TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. vice versa. The compiler’s or publisher’s interest in  Zgusta 1984, 1986a, Steiner 1986b, Heid 1992, Neubert producing a single work for both target groups can 1992, Svensén 1993, Piotrowski 1994a, Atkins 1996. therefore be in conflict with the requirements of a  Abecedarium Anglico-Latinum pro tyrunculis MONODIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. (R.Huloet), London, 1552; Collins Pons German-English ð DIRECTIONALITY, FUNCTIONALITY. English-German Dictionary (P.Terrell et al.), Glasgow &  O’Neill & Palmer 1992. Stuttgart, 1980; Collins Robert French-English English- French Dictionary (B.T.Atkins et al.), Glasgow & Paris, 1987. bifunctional dictionary A type of DICTIONARY designed to provide bilingualisation information which may be useful for two different The adaptation of a monolingual REFERENCE purposes. An example would be a bilingual WORK to a bilingual purpose by means of dictionary for both encoding (‘active’) and decoding TRANSLATION. (‘passive’) tasks such as translating into and out of the foreign language. bilingualised dictionary ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, PASSIVE DICTIONARY. A type of dictionary based on a MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY whose entries have been translated in bigraphism full or in part into another language. Such adaptations, ð DIGRAPHIA. motivated by the needs of foreign-language teachers and learners, have a fairly long history, but the most bilingual dictionary widely known are those based on EFL A type of DICTIONARY which relates the DICTIONARIES since A.S.Hornby’s Oxford vocabularies of two languages together by means of Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English translation EQUIVALENTS, in contrast to the (Oxford, 1948), bilingualised for speakers of Chinese MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY, in which and other languages, and the Password series explanations are provided in one language. This is at published by Kernerman in Israel for a wide range of once its greatest advantage and disadvantage. By languages. Other genres such as pictorial dictionaries providing lexical equivalents, the bilingual dictionary and thesauruses have also been bilingualised. The helps language learners and translators to read or resulting HYBRIDS combine features of the create texts in a foreign language. However, finding monolingual dictionary (such as the definitions suitable lexical equivalents is a notoriously difficult formulated in the target language) with those normally task, especially in pairs of languages with different associated with the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY cultures. Nevertheless, in the lexicographic tradition (translation equivalents of headwords and/or of many languages, the production of bilingual examples) for the benefit of learner-users, especially dictionaries started early, e.g. for English and Latin in decoding tasks such as reading. before 1450, English and Welsh in 1547, English and ð BILINGUAL LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, French in 1570, even before the publication of the first INTERLINGUAL DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S monolingual English dictionary in 1604, but it took DICTIONARY, SEMI-BILINGUAL DICTIONARY. some time before they became truly  Hartmann 1994, James 1994a, Laufer & Melamed BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARIES. Bilingual 1994, Osselton 1995. dictionaries can be distinguished as ACTIVE  Le grand dictionaire françois & flamand (P.Richelet/ DICTIONARIES or PASSIVE DICTIONARIES, F.Halma), Amsterdam, 1717; Orthographical Dictionary according to whether their purpose is to help with (N.Bailey), London, 1727; The Password English encoding (writing) or decoding (reading) activities. Dictionary for Speakers of French (C.M.Schwartz & 15 BLENDING

M.A.Seaton/M.Morin & G.J.Forgue), Tel Aviv, 1989; e.g. the botanical name Pinus sylvestris ‘Scotch fir’. Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (English- In English technical taxonomies, the more specific Chinese edition) (T.McArthur/S.W.Chang), Hong Kong, part of the compound term usually precedes the genus 1992; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English word and is cited as the HEADWORD in dictionary (English-Chinese) (D.Summers/Y.Zhu), Hong Kong, 1997. entries, although the morphological composition and semantic connection between the two parts may not bilingualism be obvious to the non-expert reader. ð NATIVE LANGUAGE.  Thomas, P. 1992. bilingual learner’s dictionary binomial idiom A BILINGUAL DICTIONARY aimed at (foreign) A two-part IRREVERSIBLE IDIOM, e.g. bits and language learners. The development of the pieces. monolingual LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, e.g. in the ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Context, biographical dictionary has contributed to a debate between lexicographers A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides and language teachers as to which REFERENCE descriptions of the lives and achievements of famous NEEDS should be met, and by what means. But a people. Some GENERAL DICTIONARIES may similar interaction has not yet affected the bilingual include such details on a limited scale, but there are dictionary, which, in spite of its long tradition and more specialised genres, including the continuing dominance of foreign-language learning, COMPANION and the WHO’S WHO, devoted to has remained basically conservative. However, the BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION. USER PERSPECTIVE has recently come under ð DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS. closer scrutiny, and new formats have been advocated  McCalman 1996. for the benefit of learners, e.g. ACTIVE  The Dictionary of National Biography [Compact DICTIONARIES such as bilingual THESAURUSES Edition] (L.Stephen et al.), Oxford, 1975; The Cambridge to help with encoding tasks such as writing and Biographical Encyclopedia (D.Crystal), Cambridge, 1994; translating into the foreign language. The Wordsworth Dictionary of Biography, Ware, 1994; The ð BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY. Kenkyusha Biographical Dictionary of English Linguistics  Nakao 1989, Zöfgen 1991, Taylor & Poon 1994. and Philology, Tokyo, 1995; Lexicon Grammaticorum.  Merriam-Webster’s Kenkyusha Japanese-English Who’s Who in the History of World Linguistics Learner’s Dictionary (S.Takebayashi), Springfield MA, 1993. (H.Stammer-johann), Tübingen, 1996. bilingual lexicography biographical information A complex of activities concerned with the design, Details on the lives and achievements of famous compilation, use and evaluation of BILINGUAL people as included in BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARIES. Although there is a long tradition DICTIONARIES and ENCYCLOPEDIAS. in the production of such reference works, and in some cultures they are considered the ‘prototypical’ biographical lexicography dictionary, the field has lagged behind that of A complex of activities concerned with the design, MONOLINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY in terms of compilation, use and evaluation of theory formation and professional standards, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARIES. especially where the language pair in question does not include at least one major world language. bi-text ð ð ANISOMORPHISM. PARALLEL TEXTS.  Bartholomew & Schoenhals 1983, Kromann et al. blend 1991, Roberts 1992, Piotrowski 1994a. A word or phrase which is the result of a BLENDING binomial compound process. ð In international scientific classifications, a two-part ABBREVIATION. phrase consisting of a genus word (or GENERIC blending TERM) and a species word (or SPECIFIC TERM), A WORD-FORMATION process in which two BNC 16 words or phrases are fused, or ‘telescoped’, by Braille overlapping their phonic and/or graphic shape, e.g. The collective term for a number of communication systems breakfast + lunch > brunch. based on touch, devised originally by Louis Braille in 1824 to help the blind to read. Braille ‘logograms’ consist of cells BNC with configurations of up to six raised dots to represent Abbreviation for BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS. letters and words, and these are used to transliterate the text of ordinary print dictionaries and to produce new bogey dictionaries of and in Braille. ð GHOST WORD.  Caton 1991.  The Burns Braille Transcription Dictionary (M. book of records F.Burns), New York NY, 1991. A type of REFERENCE WORK with information on ultimate achievements in all fields of activity. bridge dictionary The Guinness Book of Records (N.McWhirter), The collective term for a number of reference works London & New York NY, 1996. intended to mediate between different cultures, or different ethnic groups in one country. In the widest borrowed concept sense this includes dictionaries which are the result A CONCEPT transferred from one subject field to of an adaptation by translation of an existing another, e.g. affixation from linguistics to dictionary for speakers of different languages lexicography and terminology. (BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY). More specifically the term has been used for dictionaries borrowed term aimed at immigrants to help them adapt, e.g. the A technical TERM transferred from one language Lexicon for Invandrare (Lexin) series in Sweden, or or subject field to another, e.g. thesaurus from Latin for dictionaries which are based on lists of words to English, or from lexicography to terminology. produced in the study of ‘indigenous languages’ borrowed word (FIELD DICTIONARY), e.g. aboriginal languages A word or phrase which is the result of in Australia or Bantu languages in South Africa. ð BORROWING. COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY, CULTURE- ð ASSIMILATED WORD. SPECIFIC VOCABULARY.  Baker & Kaplan 1993. borrowing  Collins COBUILD Portuguese Bridge Bilingual A WORD-FORMATION process in which a word Dictionary, London, 1996. or phrase is copied and transferred from one language (or subject field) to another. Borrowing is British National Corpus the natural result of bilingualism, translation and A CORPUS of English texts of some 100,000,000 other forms of LANGUAGE CONTACT, which in words (90 per cent written, 10 per cent transcribed its most intensive form leads to mixed vernaculars natural spoken language), based at Oxford.  such as PIDGINS and CREOLES. Website: info.ox.ac.uk/bnc/ ð BORROWED CONCEPT, BORROWED TERM, broad transcription DIAINTEGRATIVE INFORMATION, FOREIGNISM, ð TRANSCRIPTION. INTERNATIONALISM, JARGON DICTIONARY, LOAN TRANSLATION, LOAN-WORD, NATIVE browsing WORD, NEOLOGISM. Apparently aimless, but potentially pleasurable,  Kirkness 1984, Poirier 1985, Jackson 1988, McArthur casual reading of DICTIONARIES or other 1992. REFERENCE WORKS. Most computer TEXT-  A Lexicon of French Borrowings in the German PROCESSING systems now include a so-called Vocabulary (1575–1648) (W.J.Jones), Berlin & New York ‘browsing function’ for scrolling through texts. NY, 1976. buying guide bound morpheme An annotated list of evaluated and recommended ð MORPHEME. titles of reference works. 17 BUYING GUIDE

 Dictionary Buying Guide. A Consumer Guide to Kister’s Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General English-Language Wordbooks in Print General and Specialized Encyclopedias (K.F. Kister), (K.F.Kister), New York NY, 1977; Which Dictionary? A Phoenix AZ, 1994. Consumer’s Guide (B.Loughridge), London, 1990;

C

caco- dictionary entry. Compilers and users of dictionaries A COMBINING FORM (< Greek ‘bad’) used to follow standard conventions about which affixes may suggest ‘incorrect’ or ‘inappropriate’ usage, e.g. have to be removed from a word stem to determine caconym ‘a taxonomic name that is objectionable the form under which the word can be cited or looked for sociolinguistic reasons’. up. To take an English example, the word arm(s), which occurs in a number of variants such as arm, arms, cacoepy arming and armed, needs to be shorn of its inflectional A pronunciation which is considered incorrect. endings before it can be established as a headword: Dictionaries are often consulted as arbiters in such cases. arm (noun) ‘body part’ or arm (verb) ‘to provide with ð CORRECTNESS, ORTHOEPY. weapons’. Dictionaries differ in their treatment of arms (pl. noun) ‘weapons’, regarding it either as a sub-sense Cahiers de lexicologie of arm (noun) or giving it separate headword status. A periodical, published in France since 1959, In morphologically complex languages, the devoted to topics in LEXICOLOGY and determination of the canonical form has to take LEXICOGRAPHY. account of such phenomena as ‘mutation’ (e.g. calendar syntactically conditioned word-initial or word- A type of REFERENCE WORK which arranges the medial variation) and ‘sandhi’ (phonologically information provided in relation to the days of the year. conditioned orthographic variation). ð In institutions of higher education, the term is often LEMMATISATION.  used for a CATALOGUE of academic programmes. Landau 1984, Särkkä 1984, ISO 1990. ð CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. cant  Academic Calendar (The Hong Kong University of ð ARGOT. Science and Technology), Hong Kong, 1997.

catachresis calepin(e) The improper use of a word or phrase, particularly A term used in the sixteenth and seventeenth through inaccurate or inappropriate denotation. centuries to mean a ‘dictionary’ or ‘note-book’, from Dictionaries are often consulted as arbiters in cases the anglicised form of [Ambrosius] Calepinus (c. of such alleged misuse. 1435-c. 1509), the author of Ambrosii Calepini ð DESIGNATION. Bergomatis Dictionarium (Reggio, 1502). catalogue calque A type of REFERENCE WORK giving, in alphabetic ð LOAN TRANSLATION. or thematic order, a set of items such as lists of objects canonical form with prices or bibliographical references in a library. ð The base form under which several variants of a word BIBLIOGRAPHY, DIRECTORY.  or phrase can be cited as a HEADWORD for a Stanley Gibbons Simplified Catalogue. Stamps of the World, London & Ringwood, 1995. 19 CHARACTERISTIC catalogue raisonné dictionaries altogether, examples being the exclusion An annotated list of artistic creations, often from the GENERAL DICTIONARY of racial, sexual associated with exhibitions or museum collections. or religious vocabulary or the imposition of bias in  Édouard Manet, The Graphic Work: a Catalogue definitions of political terms. Raisonné (J.C.Harris/rev. J.M.Smith), San Francisco CA,  Sands 1980–1, Landau 1984, Wierzbicka 1995. 1990. census catch-phrase A detailed account of the editions of a particular set A memorable expression, especially one used by a of dictionaries from a given period or genre, well-known person or on the radio or television, e.g. sometimes with information on their location in I’m only here for the beer! Catch-phrases often specialised libraries. become CLICHÉS or quickly go out of fashion. ð DICTIONARY HISTORY.  Dictionary of Catch-Phrases (E.Partridge/rev.  Starnes & Noyes 1946/91, Schäfer 1989. P.Beale), London, 1977/91. central meaning catch-word ð BASIC SENSE. 1 In colloquial use, a CATCH-PHRASE. 2 In dictionary layout, a GUIDEWORD. character 3 In library indexing, a KEYWORD. A graphic sign which stands for a sound, word or other category linguistic unit. In alphabetic writing systems, the 1 ð INFORMATION CATEGORY. relationship between a speech sound and a character 2 In the classification of the CONCEPTS of a (LETTER) may or may not be one-to-one, while in subject field or of the DOCUMENTS in a library logographic scripts such as Chinese, or Japanese system, a class or facet which allows the ‘kanji’, the character represents one or more words grouping and subdivision of items, e.g. ‘topic’ which may be pronounced very differently. In Western or ‘country of origin’. dictionary-making, printing and computer-processing, the CHARACTER SET is based on the letters and CD-ROM alphabetical order of the LATIN ALPHABET; in some Acronym for ‘compact disc read-only memory’, a high- non-alphabetic scripts the characters are not only made capacity medium for storing and retrieving both acoustic up of several strokes (sometimes derived from pictorial and graphic (digital) information. The technology has symbols), but often combined with other characters been applied to the production of reference works, such so that the user needs to go through a series of steps as large-scale dictionaries (the whole of the second to find the required headword. edition of the twenty-volume Oxford English Dictionary ð CHARACTER DICTIONARY, RADICAL. fits on a single 12-cm CD), encyclopedias and directories  Zgusta 1989b. as well as library catalogues. ð CORPUS, DATABASE, ELECTRONIC character dictionary DICTIONARY, HYPERTEXT, MULTIMEDIA, A type of REFERENCE WORK based on a REFERENCE SHELF. logographic script, such as Chinese, in which words  Lemmens & Wekker 1990, Duval 1992. and phrases are represented by, and listed in order  CD-ROM Directory [The Multimedia Yearbook 5th of, CHARACTERS. Such dictionaries are based edition], London, 1996. either on single characters (zìdian)˘ or character  The OED on CD-ROM, Oxford, 1987/92. combinations (cídian)˘ .  Xue 1982, Creamer 1991, Halpern 1992, Lai 1992. censorship  NTC’s New Japanese-English Character Dictionary A reduction in the freedom to publish certain (J.Halpern), Lincolnwood IL, 1993. ideologically or politically ‘incorrect’ views. In lexicography, one form of censorship is characteristic PROSCRIPTION, e.g. the labelling of certain words A property which can be used to classify or define or phrases in USAGE GUIDES as ‘wrong’ or an object: for example, with respect to dictionaries, ‘substandard’, or the banning of information from ‘gem’, ‘compact’, ‘concise’, ‘comprehensive’ etc. CHARACTER SET 20

What unites these defining features is the category  The Chronological English Dictionary ‘size’. (T.Finkenstaedt et al.), Heidelberg, 1970; Chronological ð TYPE (3). Dictionary of Quotations (E.Wright), London, 1993.  ISO 1990. chronological order character set The arrangement of material in a REFERENCE An inventory of graphic signs used in typing, printing WORK by historical date rather than by alphabetical and text processing to represent spoken language, or thematic order. Some specialised dictionaries e.g. an ALPHABET or the ASCII code. follow this principle to arrange the whole WORD- LIST in this way. In general and historical children’s dictionary dictionaries, TEMPORAL LABELS are used to A DICTIONARY aimed at children. While the indicate the period with which a particular word or transition between the dictionary for younger phrase is associated. children and the SCHOOL DICTIONARY is fluid, ð CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. the former is less bound by the conventions of the traditional, fully-fledged GENERAL DICTIONARY cídiân than the latter. It is based on a limited BASIC ð CHARACTER DICTIONARY. VOCABULARY and uses pictorial illustrations and ‘stories’—often humorous—rather than formal circular definition definitions, to explain the meanings of the A DEFINITION in which the key term or terms used (predominantly concrete) words. are defined by the words which they serve to explain. ð PICTURE DICTIONARY. Thus, the word able is defined in one general English  Landau 1984, Svensén 1993, Cignoni et al. 1996. dictionary as ‘capable, competent …’, capable as  Richard Scarry’s Best Word Book Ever (R.Scarry), ‘able, competent…’, and competent as ‘capable…’, New York NY, 1980; Picture Dictionary (S.Hewitt), St a practice which supports the case for a limited Albans, 1993. DEFINING VOCABULARY.  Landau 1984, Svensén 1993. Chinese Lexicography Prize A biennial award given by the LEXICOGRAPHICAL circular reference SOCIETY OF CHINA for outstanding compilations ð REFERENCE CIRCULARITY. in the field of Chinese dictionaries, bilingual and multilingual dictionaries, specialised dictionaries and Císhu Yánjiù encyclopedic dictionaries. The title (< Chinese ‘Lexicographical Studies’) of a periodical published in Shanghai since 1979. chrestomathy A CORPUS of selected texts of one or more authors, citation used in language teaching and learning. A source of lexicographical data, verified in the form  Chrestomathy of Arabic Prose Pieces (R.- of an extract from a text, to illustrate a particular E.Brunnow), London, 1895. USAGE of a word or phrase. Such details are stored either in an informal collection (CITATION FILE) Christian name or in database form, particularly when drawn from ð PERSONAL NAME. a CORPUS, and used as evidence or quoted as EXAMPLES inside the dictionary entry. Data based chronolect on spoken language is more difficult to maintain and ð PERIOD. record, especially when it is the result of fieldwork techniques such as ELICITATION. The quality and chronological dictionary AUTHORITY of citations are enhanced if they meet A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the words the criteria of representativeness and prototypicality or phrases are arranged in order of dates of their of use. first occurrence in a language. ð ANTEDATING, AUTHENTICATION, CONC- ð ALMANACK, CALENDAR. ORDANCE, COPYING IN DICTIONARIES.  Landau 1984.  Landau 1984, Rundell & Stock 1992, Béjoint 1994. 21 CLUSTERING citation database classicism ð DATABASE. A word or phrase based on an ancient classical language such as Greek or Latin, e.g. lexicography citation file or Ides of March. A collection of words and phrases, with their verbal contexts, used as raw material for classification DICTIONARY-MAKING. Depending on the type 1 In encyclopedic, terminological and other of dictionary, citation files can range from a thematic systems, the network of relationships simple list of references to sources in which the between CONCEPTS. Such relationships have word or phrase occurs, to a collection of file- also been used in LIBRARIES for the cards with full quotations and a systematic cataloguing and shelving of documents, e.g. the CORPUS of texts in the form of printed or on- Dewey Decimal Classification of subjects. screen concordances. ð NOMENCLATURE, TAXONOMY. ð CITATION, DATABASE, EXCERPTION.
Bowker 1996.  Landau 1984, Sinclair 1987. 2 ð TYPOLOGY (1). citation form classified order ð CANONICAL FORM. An arrangement of items by classes, e.g. words or terms in a thematic THESAURUS or documents in citation index a systematic library CATALOGUE. A list of REFERENCES to published academic papers, used as an indicator of their significance or cliché popularity. A word or phrase which has become weakened in ð INDEX. meaning through overuse, e.g. desirable residence  Social Sciences Citation Index (The Institute for in an estate agent’s brochure. Scientific Information), Philadelphia PA, 1966–.  A Dictionary of Clichés (E.Partridge), London, 1940; Bloomsbury Dictionary of Clichés (E.M.Kirkpatrick), class London, 1996. The sum total of entities to which a CONCEPT refers. In a hierarchy of related concepts, the clipping higher-ranking or ‘generic’ concepts refer to a ðABBREVIATION. larger class than the lower-ranking or ‘specific’ concepts. closed-class word ð CLASSIFICATION (1). ð FUNCTION WORD.  ISO 1990. clustering classical compound The gathering together of several DERIVATIVES A WORD-FORMATION pattern in which both parts inside one entry in order to save space, in contrast to of a COMPOUND are based on classical Greek or ‘listing’, where these items are given separate Latin, sometimes in combination, e.g. synonym HEADWORD status. Thus in the Chambers dictionary. Twentieth Century Dictionary (Edinburgh, 1983) the  McArthur 1992, van Niekerk 1992, Kirkness 1994. bold-faced diathermal, diathermanous and diathermous are included inside the entry classical definition diathermic, following the definition ‘permeable by ð ANALYTICAL DEFINITION. radiant heat’ and introduced by the word also. By contrast, the New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary classical dictionary (Oxford, 1993) lists them in separate entries, with A type of REFERENCE WORK with encyclopedic cross-references from diathermal, diathermic and information on people, events and institutions of the diathermous to diathermanous, which is defined ancient world, usually Greece and Rome. as ‘transparent to infrared radiation’.  The Oxford Classical Dictionary (S.Horn-blower & ð NESTING, NICHING. A.Spawforth), Oxford, 1949/96.  Landau 1984, Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. COBUILD 22

COBUILD cognitive meaning Acronym for Collins Birmingham University ð DENOTATION. International Language Database. A DICTIONARY FAMILY based on the Collins COBUILD English co-hyponym Language Dictionary (London & Glasgow, 1987) Two or more words or phrases sharing the same published as a result of the collaboration of a dictionary HYPERONYM, e.g. arm and leg in relation to limb. publisher with the Department of English at the University of Birmingham. coinage ð ð BANK OF ENGLISH, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. ROOT-CREATION.  Sinclair 1987. collateral term  Website: titania.cobuild.collins.co.uk/ ð COMPOUND TERM. code collection 1 A system of communication such as natural or 1 The acquisition and archiving of artificial LANGUAGE, or language variety such DICTIONARIES and other reference works. as DIALECT or SOCIOLECT. ð ARCHIVE (1). 2 An abbreviated term or symbol used in 2 The gathering of source material for the purpose REFERENCE WORKS as a LABEL to mark the of compiling REFERENCE WORKS. provenance of a word or phrase. In terminological ð CITATION, CORPUS, ELICITATION. dictionaries, for example, the LANGUAGE  Svensén 1993. CODE marks the language, the COUNTRY CODE the country, and the SOURCE CODE the college dictionary texts with which a particular term is associated. A type of DICTIONARY aimed at upper-secondary  ISO 1990. school and undergraduate students. College dictionaries are of intermediate (‘desk’) size and codification contain most of the information categories provided The presentation of linguistic information about by the GENERAL DICTIONARY of which they are USAGE in textbooks and reference works. There is often ABRIDGED versions. In the USA, in contrast no unified framework for this process, but the activity to Britain, the ‘collegiate’ dictionary is also used as has a long tradition in the fields of pronunciation a LEARNER’S DICTIONARY by students and (ORTHOEPY), spelling (ORTHOGRAPHY), teachers of English as a foreign language. vocabulary (LEXICOGRAPHY) and technical ð SCHOOL DICTIONARY, STANDARD DICTIONARY. terminology (TERMINOGRAPHY). Other fields  Landau 1984, 1994, Algeo 1990, Béjoint 1994. potentially open to this approach include grammar  The American College Dictionary (C.L.Barnhart), (‘grammatography’), idiomatic expressions and New York NY, 1947; Webster’s New World Dictionary collocations (‘phraseography’) and style and discourse (College Edition), New York NY & Cleveland OH, 1953; (‘textography’). GENERAL DICTIONARIES and The Random House College Dictionary (L.Urdang), New USAGE GUIDES fulfil an important role in codifying York NY, 1975; Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary linguistic facts, but in the absence of EVIDENCE, [10th edition] (F.C.Mish), Springfield MA, 1996. prescription and PURISM often cloud the issue of AUTHORITY. Specialised dictionaries, e.g. for collegiate dictionary spelling, pronunciation and terminology, have ð COLLEGE DICTIONARY. contributed to the establishment of linguistic NORMS. ð STANDARDISATION. collocation  Hartmann 1996b. The semantic compatibility of grammatically adjacent words. Whether these patterns of cooccurrence between cognate such words as adjective-noun nice surprise, noun-verb A member of a pair or group of words or phrases panic broke out, or verb-preposition lecture on are characterised by intralingual or interlingual genetic approached positively as ‘solidarity relations’ or relationship. negatively as ‘selection restrictions’ (*good surprise, ð DOUBLET, FALSE FRIEND. *passion broke out, *lecture over), the resulting 23 COMMUNICATIVE SHIFT collocations are more fixed than free combinations and avenue’, tells the user of this bilingual dictionary

less fixed than idioms. Since collocability is difficult the orthography, the pronunciation (explicit only for for foreign-language learners, dictionaries need to the plural form), stress (italicised second syllable),e specify such patterns, especially where translation gender (feminine) and endings (genitive and plural). equivalence is unpredictable. The double issue of which The comment on meaning is minimal here, part of the collocation is more ‘basic’ than the other and consisting only of one translation equivalent, under which the collocation should be entered in the ‘avenue’. dictionary has not been settled satisfactorily. ð CORE STRUCTURE. ð CONSTRUCTION, FIXED EXPRESSION, VALENCY.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989.  Benson 1989, Cop 1991, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994, Heid 1994, Bragina 1996, Fontenelle 1996, Grefenstette commercial dictionary et al. 1996. A type of REFERENCE WORK produced primarily  BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English (2nd edition) for financial gain, sometimes contrasted with (M.Benson et al.), Amsterdam, 1997. SCHOLARLY DICTIONARY.  COBUILD English Collocations on CD-ROM, London, 1995. common core vocabulary ð BASIC VOCABULARY. colloquialism A word or phrase normally used in the spoken language communication and considered more informal than written discourse. Interaction for the exchange of INFORMATION. Dictionaries and USAGE GUIDES have had problems The most basic means for human communication is defining and labelling such items because of their verbal LANGUAGE, studied as a symbolic code in inability to decide on which of several scales to place LINGUISTICS; the wider context of communication them: formality (‘informal’ in opposition to ‘formal’), is the province of SEMIOTICS. Both are relevant to medium (‘speech‘ in opposition to ‘writing’), or social lexicography, as DICTIONARIES and other status (‘slang‘ rather than ‘genteel’). REFERENCE WORKS make use of various forms  Lovatt 1984. of communication through phonic, graphic and other  NTC’s Dictionary of American Slang and Colloquial means. The medium of the written TEXT imposes Expressions (R.A.Spears), Lincolnwood IL, 1989. limits on what must and can be conveyed, however. Readability may be affected by layout and the use combining form of genre-specific conventions. The semiotic A WORD-FORMATION element with lexical perspective can not only extend linguistic awareness content, which helps to create a new word but cannot to a fuller understanding of the processes of usually stand alone, e.g. lexico- or -graphy versus REFERENCE (who looks for what information the full compound lexicography. under what conditions) but adds the use of ð BASE. supplementary codes such as pictures, film and  McArthur 1992, Kirkness 1994. sound to provide a more satisfactory reference experience. comment ð ACCESS, COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, In a diagrammatic model of the BASE CONSULTATION, DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, STRUCTURE of the dictionary entry, the INTERACTIVE DICTIONARY, USER PERSPECTIVE. INFORMATION supplied, in relation to the HEADWORD (‘topic’). The new information on the communicative shift topic can be subdivided into the ‘formal’ comment Any of the four major stages in the development of (spelling, grammar, pronunciation) and the human COMMUNICATION, namely from ‘semantic’ comment (definition, etymology, usage). noncommunication to speech (c. 50,000 years ago), Often much of the comment on form is included in expanded by writing (c. 5,000 years ago), printing the typographical representation of the headword (c. 500 years ago) and computing and other media itself. Thus, the following entry from Collins Pons (contemporary). Each of these stages has associated German-English English-German Dictionary with it a new reference technology, e.g. oral (Glasgow & Stuttgart, 1980), ‘Allee f-, -n [-e: n] METRICAL DICTIONARIES, script-based COMPACT DICTIONARY 24

GLOSSARIES, the DICTIONARY as a book, and 2 A complex of activities concerned with the the ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. design, compilation, use and evaluation of  McArthur 1986a, 1992. COMPARATIVE DICTIONARIES.  Naden 1993. compact dictionary A reference work which is reduced either in physical comparative linguistics size, e.g. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English ð PHILOLOGY. Dictionary (Oxford, 1971), or in content, e.g. Webster’s Compact Dictionary (Springfield MA, 1987). comparison of dictionaries The contrastive EVALUATION of two or more compact disc dictionaries or other reference works, e.g. for the purpose of dictionary CRITICISM or the study of ð CD-ROM. DICTIONARY HISTORY. ð COVERAGE. companion  A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides Hüllen 1990, Butler 1992, Thelen 1992, Laufer & information in easily digestible form on a specific Melamed 1994, Dickens & Salkie 1996, Herbst 1996. subject, in alphabetical, thematic or other order.  compendium McArthur 1989a. 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK which seeks  The Oxford Companion to the English Language to summarise knowledge of a subject in an easily (T.McArthur), Oxford, 1992. accessible form; often used as a synonym of COMPANION or VADE-MECUM. comparable text  Compendium of the World’s Languages ð PARALLEL TEXTS. (G.L.Campbell), London, 1991. 2 ð REFERENCE SHELF. comparative dictionary A type of DICTIONARY which is compiled, sometimes competence example on the basis of informal glossaries collected during ð EDITORIAL EXAMPLE. linguistic fieldwork, for the purpose of contrastively evaluating the shared vocabulary of several languages. compilation  Key 1991, Naden 1993. The collective term for the process or result of  Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal producing a REFERENCE WORK. Indo-European Languages (C.D.Buck), Chicago IL, 1949; ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, DESIGN, Dictionary of Turkic Languages (K.Öztopçu et al.), DICTIONARY-MAKING. London, 1996. compiler comparative lexicography One who engages in the COMPILATION of a 1 A branch of GENERAL LEXICOGRAPHY REFERENCE WORK. which contrasts the dictionary traditions of ð REFERENCE PROFESSIONAL. various cultures, languages and countries with a view to distilling from them common compiler perspective principles, by considering the external factors An approach that considers lexicography from the that have led to divergent practices. Examples point of view of DICTIONARY-MAKING. Issues include issues such as how different scripts treated include the status, training and career influence the format of reference works, which structure of the compiler, the techniques and tools different genres predominate, and what available for the production of REFERENCE constitutes good practice in DICTIONARY- WORKS, and the theoretical and practical MAKING and dictionary use. limitations of their design, use and evaluation. ð CHARACTER DICTIONARY, ð PROFESSIONAL RESOURCES, REFERENCE COMPARISON OF DICTIONARIES, PROFESSIONAL, USER PERSPECTIVE, Panel TYPOLOGY (1). ‘Compiler and User Perspectives’ (page 25).
Stein 1979, Zgusta 1980, Huang 1994,  McGregor 1985, Ilson 1986a, Krishnamurthy 1987, Kachru & Kahane 1995. James 1989, Whitcut 1989, Svensén 1993. 25 COMPOUNDING

complementarity ð ANTONYMY.

complete synonym ð SYNONYMY (1).

complete synonymy ð SYNONYMY (1).

complex term A term formed from a SIMPLE TERM by the addition of one or more DERIVATIVES, e.g. dictionary-making. ð COMPOUND TERM.  ISO 1990.

complex word A word formed from a SIMPLE WORD by the addition of one or more derivational AFFIXES, e.g. facelessness. ð COMPOUND WORD.

component 1 In the design of REFERENCE WORKS, one of the constituent functional elements of the MACROSTRUCTURE or MICROSTRUCTURE. 2 In COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS, the smallest distinctive feature of meaning.

componential analysis An approach in SEMANTICS in which meanings are discussed in terms of sets of components. By extending the technique of analysing phonemes in terms of ‘distinctive features’ (such as voice, labi-ality or constriction) to the level of meaning, linguists have attempted to decompose LEXEMES into ‘contrastive’ semantic features or components, e.g. man into - FEMALE and +ADULT, woman into +FEMALE and +ADULT, boy into -FEMALE and -ADULT, and girl into +FEMALE and -ADULT. This method has been claimed to be useful in definition writing. However, it is debat-able whether componential analysis can be applied to more than a few tightly structured SEMANTIC FIELDS such as kinship terms.  Ayto 1983, Jackson 1988.

composition ð COMPOUNDING.

compounding Compiler and User Perspectives A WORD-FORMATION process in which two or COMPOUND TERM 26 more SIMPLE WORDS are joined to form a new processing) to the design of entirely new reference word with a single meaning, e.g. airport, dryclean. systems (CD-ROM, multimedia encyclopedias and ð BINOMIAL COMPOUND, CLASSICAL multilingual terminological databases). COMPOUND. ð WORK-STATION.  Ten Hacken 1992.  DANLEX Group 1987, Urdang 1988, Dodd 1989. Knowles 1990, Neff & Cantor 1990, Kiefer et al. 1992, compound term Meijs 1992, Byrd 1995, Sinclair 1996. A term formed by joining two or more SIMPLE TERMS, e.g. dictionary reference skills. computational lexicology ð BINOMIAL COMPOUND, COMPLEX TERM. The application of computer techniques to  ISO 1990, Minaeva 1996. LEMMATISATION, DISAMBIGUATION, CORPUS design, TERMINOLOGY processing and compound word similar topics. A word formed by joining two or more SIMPLE  Atkins & Zampolli 1994, Walker et al. 1995. WORDS, e.g. airport. ð COMPLEX WORD. computational linguistics  Zgusta 1989b, McArthur 1992, Thompson 1992a, A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the Raadik 1996. application of computers to language research. ð ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTATIONAL comprehensive concept LINGUISTICS. Also called ‘integrative concept’, a  McNaught 1988, Butler 1990, McEnery 1992. SUPERORDINATE CONCEPT in a PARTITIVE  Elsevier’s Dictionary of Mathematical and RELATION, e.g. ‘house’ in relation to ‘gable’, or Computational Linguistics (Y.Venev), Amsterdam, 1990. ‘reference work’ in relation to ‘microstructure’.  ISO 1990. computer-aided dictionary ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. comprehensive dictionary A large, all-inclusive DICTIONARY. computer-assisted dictionary ð DICTIONARY FAMILY. ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY.  A Comprehensive Dictionary of Measurement and Control [3rd edition] (The Instrument Society of America), computer-assisted lexicography Research Triangle Park NC, 1995. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. compression computer-based dictionary 1 The condensation or contraction of WORDS for ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. ease of computer processing, e.g. by stripping DIACRITICS and eliminating blanks. computer-based lexicography ð  ISO 1990. COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. 2 The condensation or contraction of TEXTS, e.g. computer dictionary to save space on the page of a reference work. ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. ð DICTIONARESE, TEXT COMPRESSION. computer-enhanced lexicography computational lexicography ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of ELECTRONIC computerised dictionary DICTIONARIES. This ranges from the mechanisation ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. of the main stages of the dictionary-making process (e.g. data-capture from a text CORPUS, computer- computerised lexicography assisted DISAMBIGUATION, on-screen text ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. processing and the use of printing technology) through the use of MACHINE-READABLE DICTIONARIES computer lexicography (e.g. in machine translation and natural language ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. 27 CONDENSATION computing conceptual system A result of the fourth major COMMUNICATIVE An ordered arrangement, usually in hierarchical SHIFT, from printing to information technology. sequence, of CONCEPTS, WORDS or TERMS. Together with other telecommunications media, the Examples are the linguistic analysis of words in electronic computer has revolutionised the storage, SEMANTIC FIELDS, the thematic classification of presentation and transmission of INFORMATION, vocabulary in a THESAURUS, or the logical (e.g. part- and thus contributed significantly to the generation whole or generic-specific) networks within the technical of new types of reference works. TERMINOLOGY of particular subject fields. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY, CORPUS. ð Cluver 1989a, ISO 1990, Sager 1990. concept concise dictionary The basic notion which a TERM is designed to In a DICTIONARY FAMILY, a reduced version of express. Within the systematic framework of a a larger reference work. particular subject field, the unity between term and ð ABRIDGED DICTIONARY. concept is considered an essential requirement of  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English unambiguous communication, strengthened by (R.E.Allen), Oxford, 1990. definitions agreed by expert practitioners and the avoidance of synonyms. The term is occasionally concordance used in semantics as an alternative for the A systematic list of the VOCABULARY which MEANING (and in lexicography as an alternative occurs in a text or an author’s work, with a minimal for the SENSE) of a LEXEME. verbal context provided for each word. Traditionally, ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. concordances were associated with the Bible and  ISO 1990, Svensén 1993, Meyer & Mackintosh 1994. other canonical texts, such as the works of classical and established authors. Since the concordance concept correspondence provides formal details about the words (spelling, The overlap in INTENSION or semantic content of grammar and citations, rather than meaning and two CONCEPTS in different theories, fields or definitions), it is sometimes called INDEX, languages. Concepts may be identical, similar or especially when line positions rather than textual different according to how many characteristic contexts are given. Advances in information features they share (ANTONYMY, HYPONYMY, technology and CORPUS design have given a new PARTITIVE RELATION, SYNONYMY etc.). In impetus to AUTHOR LEXICOGRAPHY (and TERMINOLOGY the aim is to delimit and define dictionary-making in general) by allowing the rapid concepts so that unambiguous terms can be allocated processing of large-scale text archives. Today’s to them. computer-generated KEYWORD-IN-CONTEXT  ISO 1990. concordances can display the words preceding (left of) or following (right of) the keyword in either concept field frequency or alphabetical order, producing A thematically related set of CONCEPTS within a EVIDENCE on such aspects of USAGE as technical subject, e.g. classes of ‘drinking vessels’ collocation, compounding and lemmatisation. in catering, or types of ‘dictionaries’ in ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY. lexicography.  Knowles 1990, Tribble & Jones 1990, Sinclair 1991, ð SEMANTIC FIELD, SUBJECT FIELD. 1997, Mills 1996.  ISO 1990.  A Concordance to the Poems of Samuel Johnson (H.H.Naugle & P.B.Sherry), Ithaca NY, 1973; Collins conceptual dictionary COBUILD Concordance Samplers 1: Prepositions ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. (A.Capel), London, 1993; 2: Phrasal Verbs (M.Goodale), London, 1995; 3: Reporting (G.Thompson), London, 1995; conceptual index 4: Tenses (M.Goodale), London, 1995. ð THESAURUS (2). condensation conceptual relation ð COMPRESSION. ð SENSE RELATION. CONFUSABLE WORDS 28 confusable words do play an important part in communication, and ð CONFUSIBLE WORDS. lexicographers attempt to mark them (not always consistently) by USAGE LABELS such as confusible words ‘informal’, ‘derogatory’, ‘offensive’ and ‘ironic’. An informal term for pairs or groups of words which  Landau 1984, Opitz 1992, Svensén 1993, Gouws may cause confusion in reception or production. This 1996. can refer to words similar in sound, written form, meaning or etymology. connotative meaning ð DOUBLET, FALSE FRIEND, HOMONYM, ð CONNOTATION. PARONYM, SYNONYM (1).  Dictionary of Contrasting Pairs (A.Room), London, construction 1988; Collins COBUILD English Guides 4: Confusable The grammatical relationships of words in the Words (E.Carpenter), London, 1993; Dictionary of context of phrases, and phrases in the context of Differences (L.Urdang), London, 1993; NTC’s Dictionary sentences. The traditional GENERAL of Easily Confused Words (D.K.Williams), Lincolnwood DICTIONARY for native speakers limited IL, 1995. specification of syntactic constructions to PART-OF- SPEECH marking and verb sub-classification (e.g. confusing words ‘transitive’ versus ‘intransitive’), supported by ð CONFUSIBLE WORDS. illustrative examples of subject-verb-object patterns. ð COLLOCATION, EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY, conjugation GRAMMAR, VALENCY. The PARADIGM of a VERB, giving all its forms.  Cowie 1989a, Kromann et al. 1991, McCorduck 1993, In dictionaries of Ancient Greek and Latin, whose Heid 1994, Macleod et al. 1996. verbs are classified according to their morphological regularities, the CANONICAL FORM is consultant traditionally the first person singular of the present One engaged in a dictionary project as an expert in tense, which does not necessarily give a clue as to an aspect of linguistic and/or technical knowledge. the conjugation pattern. This is usually supplemented ð ADVISORY PANEL, USAGE PANEL. by an indication of the PRINCIPAL PARTS as a synopsis of the whole. In Romance language consultation dictionaries, the citation form of a verb is usually The act of using a REFERENCE WORK to look up that form which will indicate its conjugation pattern (i.e. seek, find and retrieve) required information. (e.g. the infinitive), and from which other forms can Knowledge about the user’s needs and skills (the be predicted. In ambiguous instances, the word may USER PERSPECTIVE) is an important be accompanied by a conventional label or number, consideration in how to improve DICTIONARY- or by an alternative form, as an indicator of the MAKING, but empirical research in this area has appropriate paradigm to which it belongs. only begun relatively recently. ð DECLENSION. ð ACCESS, INFORMATION CATEGORY, SEARCH PATH, USER EDUCATION, WORKBOOK. conjunction  Hartmann 1989. A PART OF SPEECH which links words, phrases and more complex syntactic structures. contact language ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. ðCONTACT VERNACULAR. connotation contact variety An aspect of MEANING of a word or phrase ð CONTACT VERNACULAR. associated with the subjective emotive overtones it evokes. Also called ‘affective’ or ‘emotive’ meaning, contact vernacular connotative associations are difficult to capture in The result of LANGUAGE CONTACT in the form dictionary DEFINITIONS, which therefore tend to of mixed and simplified vocabulary and grammar concentrate on the more objective referential aspects structures. Examples are ‘foreigner talk’, ‘pidgin’, (DENOTATION). However, connotative meanings 29 CONVERSION

‘creole’ and learners’ ‘interlanguage’, some of which contrastive linguistics are documented in specialised dictionaries. A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the ð CREOLE, FALSE FRIEND, INTERFERENCE. parallel description of two (usually contemporary)  Romaine 1988, Görlach 1990. languages or language varieties for a practical  Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Colloquial Indian Words purpose, such as foreign-language teaching or and Phrases (H.Yule & A.C.Burnell), Calcutta, 1886. translation. Such studies, which can be carried out at every level (PHONOLOGY, GRAPHEMICS, contemporary usage LEXICOLOGY and DISCOURSE) can throw light The current language, in contrast to earlier periods. on interlingual differences in the material to be In dictionaries, this is the neutral variety, while included in BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES. ARCHAISMS and some NEOLOGISMS are ð PARALLEL TEXTS. marked with special labels.  Heltai 1988, Hartmann 1991. ð DIACHRONIC INFORMATION. controlled defining vocabulary content word ð DEFINING VOCABULARY. A word with predominantly lexical significance, such as a noun, a verb or an adjective, rather than grammatical convergence value, such as a conjunction or a preposition. In cases of partial TRANSLATION equivalence, the ð FUNCTION WORD. rendering of two or more words in one language by a single word in the other language. Thus the context meanings of the two English words slug and snail 1 The part of a text where a particular WORD, are covered by the single Dutch word slak. (The PHRASE or TERM occurs (also called ‘verbal opposite direction is called DIVERGENCE.) The context’ or ‘co-text’). BILINGUAL DICTIONARY must allow for such ð CONCORDANCE. asymmetrical relations, in conjunction with the 2 The setting or circumstances with which a problem of the user orientation. WORD, PHRASE or TERM is associated (also ð ANISOMORPHISM, BIDIRECTIONAL called ‘situational context’, ‘context of use’ or DICTIONARY. ‘environment’).  Kromann et al. 1991. ð DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. converseness context of use A bilateral SENSE RELATION between a pair of ð CONTEXT (2). words involving symmetrical opposition in which the one implies the existence of the other, e.g. give contextual definition versus take, husband versus wife, over versus under. A DEFINITION which explains a word, phrase or ð ANTONYMY. term by means of an EXAMPLE in context. conversion context word 1 A WORD-FORMATION pattern in which a A LABEL used to mark the context with which a word’s function is changed through a shift in word or phrase is usually associated. word-class or part of speech, e.g. tape (noun) ‘recording’ to to tape (denominal verb) ‘to make contraction a recording’; to interrupt (verb) to interrupt The process or result of shortening a word, phrase or (deverbal noun) ‘break in a computer program’. text. ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. ð ABBREVIATION, COMPRESSION. 2 The adaptation of one dictionary or dictionary type to create another, e.g. from a dictionary to contrasting pairs a thesaurus, or from a Dutch—Russian ð CONFUSIBLE WORDS. dictionary to a Russian-Dutch one. ð contrastive feature BILINGUALISATION, REVERSIBILITY.  ð COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS. Heid 1992, Honselaar & Elstrodt 1992. CONVERSIVE ANTONYMY 30 conversive antonymy core meaning ð CONVERSENESS. ð BASIC SENSE. co-occurrence core structure ð COLLOCATION. One of the two subdivisions in a diagrammatic model of the BASE STRUCTURE of dictionary entries. co-ordinate concept The left-core structure contains the ‘comment on A CONCEPT which shares with another concept the form’ (spelling, pronunciation, grammar), same rank of a hierarchical sense relation with iconid=pbook iconid=pfile iconid=pcomp the right- respect to a superordinate concept, e.g. ‘dictionary’ core structure contains the ‘comment on meaning’ and ‘thesaurus’ in relation to ‘reference work’. (definition, etymology, usage information).  ISO 1990. ð COMMENT.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. co-ordination The SENSE RELATION between two CONCEPTS core vocabulary at the same rank of a hierarchy. Such concepts are ð CORE WORD, VOCABULARY. said to be CO-ORDINATE CONCEPTS with respect to a superordinate concept, similar to two or more core word CO-HYPONYMS in relation to a hyperonym. A word forming part of the common core of the BASIC  ISO 1990. VOCABULARY. Such words are the unmarked, most frequent items of the language shared by speech and copying in dictionaries writing, but not differentiated along such dimensions as The reproduction or imitation of text from one existing technical usage, dialect and slang. In dictionaries, core dictionary to compile a new one. Lexicographers have words are usually not labelled as they are not restricted made use of dictionaries as source material for centuries, in USAGE, e.g. hand ‘part of the human anatomy…’, in the belief that there is no COPYRIGHT on the words as opposed to such non-core words as handbill (theatre), of the language. The increased availability of computer handicap (golf) or handsel (dial. ‘gift’). It has been argued technology has made copying easier than ever. that only core words should be used in the DEFINING ð AUTHORSHIP, CRIMINALITY, DERIVATIVE VOCABULARY to make the explanation of meanings DICTIONARY. easier, but it is an awkward fact that such common words  Burchfield 1984, Dolezal 1986, Spears 1987, Zgusta are also the most polysemous, e.g. hand has several 1988b, Hausmann 1989, Williams 1992. SENSES: ‘part of the human anatomy…’, ‘set of cards‘, ‘clock pointer’, ‘worker’, etc. copyright ð CORPUS, FREQUENCY. The legal right to use a TEXT for publication or storage. Copyright may be passed to a third party corpora by agreement, often on payment of a ROYALTY. In The Latin plural form of CORPUS, interchangeable reference works, the formulation of DEFINITIONS in English with corpuses. and TRADE NAMES (but not words, phrases and terms) are protected by copyright. corpus ð COPYING IN DICTIONARIES, DEPOSITORY A systematic collection of TEXTS which documents LIBRARY. the USAGE features of a language or language variety.  Landau 1984, Read 1984, Svensén 1993. The practical uses of computers for data-processing and the theoretical advances of CORPUS copyright infringement LINGUISTICS have given lexicographers powerful The publication or storage of a TEXT without legal tools for the storage and retrieval of (written and permission. spoken) data to describe all aspects of language, ð AUTHORSHIP, CRIMINALITY. especially VOCABULARY, and to present the results  Landau 1984, Williams 1992. in dictionaries. For English, the BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS, the BANK OF ENGLISH and a number copyright library of specialised corpora are now available, as are the ð DEPOSITORY LIBRARY. facilities of the INTERNET, for collecting project- 31 CRIMINALITY specific archives of discourse, even of PARALLEL counterfeiting TEXTS, multilingual material and author The fraudulent reproduction of a text for commercial CONCORDANCES. gain. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY, ð COPYING IN DICTIONARIES, CRIMINALITY. FREQUENCY, INTERNATIONAL COMPUTER ARCHIVE OF MODERN ENGLISH, MONITOR country code CORPUS, PARSING, SPOKEN CORPUS, TAGGING. An abbreviation or symbol used to LABEL the country  Renouf 1987, Paikeday 1992, Rundell & Stock 1992, associated with a particular word, phrase or term.  Svartvik 1992b, Flowerdew & Tong 1994, James et al. ISO 1990. 1994, Calzolari 1996, Meijs 1996, Stubbs 1996. country label  Corpus of Formal British English Speech (G.Knowles ð COUNTRY CODE. et al.), Harlow, 1996.  The ICAME Collection of English Language Corpora country symbol [CD-ROM], Oslo. ð COUNTRY CODE. corpus information coverage ð DIAFREQUENTIAL INFORMATION. The amount of material included in a REFERENCE WORK, usually in comparison with others. Claims corpus linguistics in publishers’ advertising literature are notoriously A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the difficult to verify, e.g. when absolute numbers (of application of computational CORPUS techniques to ‘words’, ‘headwords’, ‘references’, ‘entries’, the solution of problems of large-scale description. ‘definitions’ etc.) are quoted. However, dictionary Particularly relevant to lexicography are CRITICISM has failed so far to set reliable standards CONCORDANCES and other presentation devices, for the EVALUATION of the relative coverage of techniques for LEMMATISATION and different publications. DISAMBIGUATION, and various forms of ð COMPARISON OF DICTIONARIES, grammatical, phonetic and semantic annotation in texts. CRIMINALITY, SCOPE, SIZE. ð FREQUENCY DICTIONARY, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CORPUS LINGUISTICS, cover term PARALLELTEXTS . ð GENERIC TERM.  Aijmer & Altenberg 1991, Svartvik 1992a, James et al. 1994, Kirk 1994, McEnery & Wilson 1996, Meijs 1996, credit Kennedy 1997. A line acknowledging COPYRIGHT in a publication, e.g. to an artist who owns the rights to corpus-oriented lexicography an illustration. An approach to DICTIONARY-MAKING based on the tools and techniques of CORPUS creole LINGUISTICS. A CONTACT VERNACULAR based on a ‘pidgin’ ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. which has become the mother tongue of a speech  Svensén 1993, Krishnamurthy 1996. community. Linguists recognise a continuum from the variety nearest the standard language (‘acrolect’) to that correctness most different (‘basilect’), with an intermediate variety An aspect of USAGE which stresses adherence to (‘mesolect’) which varies from speaker to speaker. linguistic NORMS.  Romaine 1988, Görlach 1990. ð ACCEPTABILITY, APPROPRIATENESS, ERROR  Haitian Creole-English, English-Haitian Creole ANALYSIS, GRAMMATICALITY, ORTHO-, PURISM, Dictionary (T.Charmant), New York NY, 1995. STANDARD (1), USAGE GUIDE.  Landau 1984, Algeo 1989a. criminality Any form of fraud, including PLAGIARISM, co-text perpetrated by an author, compiler, editor or ð CONTEXT (1). publisher of a dictionary or similar reference work. CRITICISM 32

ð COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT. ð TEXT COMPRESSION.  Hausmann 1989, Béjoint 1994.  Wiegand 1996. criticism crossword A branch of DICTIONARY RESEARCH concerned A puzzle consisting of a number of clues the with the description and evaluation of solutions to which are words or phrases to be written, DICTIONARIES and other reference works. This horizontally or vertically, letter by letter, in squares may involve studies of the historical background of on a given grid. A variation is the WORD GAME the work and/or its compiler(s), detailed comparisons Scrabble® in which players compete to form words of its contents with other products of its type (with from individually lettered tiles, placing them or without an assessment of its value to its potential advantageously on a board designed akin to a or actual users), and result in a REVIEW in a crossword grid, to maximise their scores. periodical publication.  The Official Scrabble® Players Dictionary [2nd ð ANTIDICTIONARY, AUTHORITY, edition], Springfield MA, 1990; Bloomsbury Crossword CRIMINALITY, DICTIONARY ARCHAEOLOGY, Solver, London, 1997. EVALUATION, IMAGE OF THE DICTIONARY.  Sledd & Ebbitt 1962, Tomaszczyk 1988, Osselton cultural atlas 1989b, Hartmann 1990, Steiner 1993, Allen 1996. A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides CULTURAL INFORMATION in the form of cross-classification MAPS, illustrations and similar material about a The treatment of a word or phrase in more than one country, region, or group of people. SEMANTIC FIELD or technical subject, e.g. the  The Cultural Map of Wisconsin (R.Ostergren et al.), different uses of the term level (with the sense ‘layer Madison WI, 1996. in a hierarchical structure’) in geology, sociology or linguistics. cultural dictionary The collective term for a range of REFERENCE cross-reference WORKS which are both the result of cultural practice A word or symbol in a REFERENCE WORK to and agents of its promotion. During the early stages of facilitate access to related information. In this a language community, NATIONAL DICTIONARIES Dictionary of Lexicography, four such devices are used can contribute to the development of a cultural identity, for this purpose: the right-pointing arrow (ð) to refer while DIALECT DICTIONARIES can document the reader to relevant information covered in other internal regional and social variety. General monolingual entries; small capitals in the running text to highlight USAGE dictionaries can help to support a common terms explained elsewhere; bibliographical references linguistic STANDARD, thus benefiting education. (
) to cite published sources listed at the end of the ENCYCLOPEDIAS and similar reference works can book; and references to Panels where information is help to raise the level of factual knowledge, and summarised in diagrammatic or tabular form. BILINGUAL DICTIONARIES can improve individual ð CIRCULAR REFERENCE, CROSS-REFERENCE and public awareness of intercultural contact and STRUCTURE. contrast. ð ALLUSION, BRIDGE DICTIONARY, cross-reference structure DICTIONARY CULTURE. The network of CROSS-REFERENCES which  Collison 1982, Lara 1995, Steiner 1995. allows compilers and users of a reference work to  Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Encyclopedic locate material spread over different component Edition), Oxford, 1992; Longman Dictionary of English parts. There are many different types of cross- Language and Culture (D.Summers), Harlow, 1992; Oxford references and typographical devices to support them Illustrated Encyclopedia of Peoples and Cultures (between or inside ENTRIES, within or outside the (R.Hoggart), Oxford, 1992; The Dictionary of Cultural WORD-LIST, alphabetical or numerical, by lettering Literacy [2nd edition] (E.D.Hirsch et al.), Boston MA, 1993. or punctuation etc.), and a framework for their systematic study (‘mediostructure’) is still to be cultural information developed. Knowledge about the social, intellectual and artistic 33 CYCLOPEDIA achievements of a particular group or civilisation as cumulated index presented in REFERENCE WORKS. Such An INDEX in a periodical publication which information is usually associated with includes references to earlier issues or volumes. ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARIES, but other  Who’s Who 1997 [with cumulated index], London, types also often contain cultural details. 1996. ð CULTURAL ATLAS, CULTURAL DICTIONARY, CULTURE-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY. cumulative synonymy  Nguyen 1980–81, Stock 1992, Williams 1996. A SYNONYM DICTIONARY or thesaurus in which expressions of similar meaning are listed and cultural lexicography classified into semantic groups without definitions A complex of activities concerned with the design, or SENSE DISCRIMINATION. compilation, use and evaluation of CULTURAL ð DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY, SYNONYMY (1), DICTIONARIES. There is no unified framework for SYNONYMY (2). this field, which can include national, dialect and  Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases historical dictionaries as well as encyclopedic (P.M.Roget), London, 1852. reference works, but since they are all products and instruments of cultural development they share cumulative thesaurus ð certain features worth studying in an interdisciplinary CUMULATIVE SYNONYMY. perspective. currency ð DICTIONARY CULTURE, TYPOLOGY (1). ð CONTEMPORARY USAGE.  Burchfield 1987b, Kachru & Kahane 1995. currency label culture-bound lexical items ð TEMPORAL LABEL. ð CULTURE-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY. cut-down culture-specific vocabulary An informal term for ABRIDGED DICTIONARY. The words and phrases associated with the ‘way of life’ of a language community. In translation and cybarian the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, these lexical items One who engages in the operation of an electronic cause particular problems of EQUIVALENCE. (‘cyberspace’) LIBRARY system. ð EXPLANATORY EQUIVALENT.  Bartholomew & Schoenhals 1983, Schnorr 1986, cyclical incompatibility Bool & Carter 1989, Benson 1990, Leemets 1992. ð INCOMPATIBILITY.  The Friendly German-English Dictionary (A Guide to German Language, Culture and Society through Faux cyclopedia Amis, Literary Illustration and other Diversions) ð ENCYCLOPEDIA. (F.Bridgham), London, 1996.

D

Dartmouth Medal tracing and use of complex relationships between An annual award by the AMERICAN different fields, such as the conceptual hierarchies LIBRARYASSOCIATION for the most outstanding between different terms. In DICTIONARY-MAKING, REFERENCE WORK published during the a ‘language resource database’, or ‘citation database’, preceding year. comprises the corpora, text archives and individual citations from a range of published and unpublished data sources, which constitute the EVIDENCE for The raw material collected for the purpose of compiling dictionary entries. An ‘entry database’ includes the a REFERENCE WORK. The type of data required is headwords, definitions and other INFORMATION determined by the nature and scope of the work; thus CATEGORIES, as well as formatting codes, cross- the compilers of a new, large-scale dictionary may draw references etc. of the dictionary entries. on a CORPUS of texts, supplemented by means of ð CITATION FILE, CORPUS, TERMINOLOGICAL FIELDWORK interviews, while a smaller version is DATABASE, FIELD (2). usually based on secondary SOURCES.  DANLEX Group 1987, Miller 1990, Boguraev et al. ð CITATION FILE, DATABASE, INFORMATION. 1992, Svensén 1993, Martin & Tamm 1996.  DANLEX Group 1987, Thompson 1992b.  MLA International Bibliography [annual], Norwood MA, 1988–. data archive A specialised collection of research materials, e.g. data-capture that of computer-readable social-science census and A cover term for those strategies, often computerbased, survey data of the Economic and Social Science which are aimed at collecting data for the compilation Research Council, based at the University of Essex. of REFERENCE WORKS. These include techniques for gathering primary data (CITATION FILE, CORPUS, databank FIELDWORK) as well as reliance on secondary sources  DATABASE. (e.g. copying from other dictionaries). ð database DATA-PROCESSING.  A facility for the electronic storing and manipulation Knowles 1990. of linguistic and other DATA. The text of this data collection Dictionary of Lexicography was compiled on ð DATA-CAPTURE. ClarisWorks 4.0 (Macintosh) using a predetermined number of fields for the component parts of ENTRIES, data gathering including ‘headword’, ‘sense number’, ‘definition’, ð DATA-CAPTURE. ‘elaboration’, ‘examples’, ‘cross-references’ and ‘bibliographical references’. Data-bases may contain data-processing lexical, terminological or encyclopedic The electronic collection, manipulation and INFORMATION which can be adapted to bilingual presentation of DATA. or multilingual uses. ‘Relational databases’ allow the  DANLEX Group 1987, Lemmens & Wekker 1990. 35 Definition data retrieval definiens ð INFORMATION RETRIEVAL. The DEFINITION which explains the meaning of a word or phrase. date The year of publication of a book or other text. Modern defining dictionary publications allow, and COPYRIGHT law requires, A type of REFERENCE WORK which explains the accurate dating, but for earlier periods it is sometimes meaning of the words and phrases by difficult to determine the origin of source material. DEFINITIONS. The prototype of this dictionary is ð ANTEDATING, EDITION, ETYMOLOGY. the monolingual alphabetical GENERAL  Barnhart 1989, Berg 1993. DICTIONARY. ð ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, TERMINOL- dead example OGICAL DICTIONARY. An EDITORIAL EXAMPLE not based on citation but invented to illustrate a particular construction type. defining feature  Svensén 1993. ð CHARACTERISTIC. dead reference defining style A cross-reference to a HEADWORD which does ð DEFINITION STYLE. not occur in the dictionary in question. ð CHARACTER REFERENCE. defining thesaurus ð DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY. deaf language ð SIGN LANGUAGE. defining vocabulary The controlled use of VOCABULARY in declension DEFINITIONS. Restricting the number of words to The paradigm of an ADJECTIVE, NOUN or those most frequent has become common practice in PRONOUN, giving all its forms. In dictionaries of the compilation of the CHILDREN’S DICTIONARY Ancient Greek and Latin, whose nouns are classified and the LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, e.g. the 2,000- according to the regularities of their paradigms, the word Longman Defining Vocabulary, as listed in the CANONICAL FORM is traditionally the nominative Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [3rd singular. In ambiguous instances, the word may be edition] (Harlow, 1995). The assumption is that accompanied by a conventional label or number, or explanations are easier to grasp when couched in by an alternative form, as an indicator of the ‘simple language’. However, information on the appropriate paradigm to which it belongs. FREQUENCY of words and phrases is not available ð CONJUGATION. even for all the major world languages, and the most common CORE WORDS are not necessarily the decoding easiest to learn, since they tend to be polysemous. A linguistic activity involving receptive skills such Thus, head and run each have many different SENSES as reading, listening or translating from a foreign in addition to being used as either nouns or verbs. language into a NATIVE LANGUAGE. The Which of these senses is coming into play if manager dictionary most suitable for this function is the or manage is defined in terms of head and run? PASSIVE DICTIONARY. ð VOCABULARY CONTROL.  Landau 1984, Fox 1989, Neubauer 1989. decoding dictionary  An International Reader’s Dictionary, Explaining the ð PASSIVE DICTIONARY. Meaning of over 24,000 Items within a Vocabulary of 1,490 Words (M.West), London, 1965. definer One who engages in the writing of DEFINITIONS. definition A component part in the MICROSTRUCTURE of a definiendum REFERENCE WORK which gives an explanation of the A word or phrase the meaning of which is to be meaning of a word, phrase or term. The definition provides explained in a DEFINITION. an essential function: it is the place where compilers locate DEFINITIONAL DICTIONARY 36 and users find semantic information. The monolingual ð CONTEXTUAL DEFINITION, ENCYCLOPEDIC general dictionary provides definitions in a prominent DEFINITION, EXPLANATION, EXTENSIONAL position at the beginning of entries (it is therefore also DEFINITION, FOLK DEFINITION, FORMULAIC often called DEFINING DICTIONARY or DEFINITION, HUMOROUS DEFINITION, IMPLICIT EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY), usually in the form DEFINITION, INTENSIONAL DEFINITION, of a ‘comment’ on the ‘topic’ introduced by the OSTENSIVE DEFINITION, SEMANTICS. HEADWORD. The relationship between the word to be  Frawley 1982, Landau 1984, Wierzbicka 1985, Ilson explained (‘definiendum’) and the explanation 1986a, Hanks 1987, Markowitz & Franz 1988, Stock 1992, (‘definiens’) is complex and depends on the purpose of Walter 1992, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. the definition and the DEFINITION STYLE used. A distinction can be made between the degrees in lexicography lexicographic definition as formulated in general ð TRAINING. dictionaries and the ENCYCLOPEDIC DEFINITION, which explains by providing factual demotic language information about the item in question within a specific Words and phrases associated with the ‘low’ rather subject-matter context. The traditional (‘analytical’, than the ‘high’ variety of a language. In dictionary- ‘classical’, ‘formal’ or ‘logical’) definition formula making, DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING Can be ‘X is a member of the class Y distinguished from other used to classify demotic usage as ‘slang’ (in opposition members by the feature(s) N’ works well for nouns to ‘genteel’), as ‘speech’ (in opposition to ‘writing’), which are core items of the vocabulary in restricted or as ‘vernacular’ (in opposition to ‘learned’). ð lexical domains, but is less suitable for defining verbs DIGLOSSIA. and adjectives or more specialised CONCEPTS. denotation ð CIRCULAR DEFINITION, DEFINING An aspect of MEANING that relates a word or phrase VOCABULARY, RECURSIVE DEFINITION. to the objective REFERENT it expresses. Also called  Landau 1984, Hanks 1987, Jackson 1988, Stock 1988, ‘referential’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning, this is the usual ISO 1990, Dolezal 1992, Wiegand 1992, Svensén 1993. topic of the explanation of words (DEFINITION), definitional dictionary while the more subjective or emotive aspects ð DEFINING DICTIONARY. (CONNOTATION) are difficult to agree upon and capture in the dictionary. definition style  Landau 1984, Jackson 1988, Svensén 1993, Gouws The approach taken and the type of language chosen 1996. to provide a DEFINITION. Depending on the nature and scope of the REFERENCE WORK and its denotative meaning ð intended users, compilers can select (or combine) one DENOTATION. or more defining styles which may also be influenced denotatum by the theoretical model of ‘meaning’ they are The meaning distilled from a REFERENT by a committed to. Thus the traditional definition formula process of perception. ‘X is a type of Y which…’ presupposes a knowledge ð DENOTATION. of the SENSE RELATIONS between words, e.g. as members of HYPERONYM or HYPONYM chains. depository library Such definitions specify conceptual links between A LIBRARY of central or national importance where lexical items, while ‘encyclopedic’ definitions tend all books published in a country must be deposited to describe objects in physical or pictorial terms. Some by law. words or phrases are easier to define by a GLOSS or SYNONYM, particularly when they form sets in deprecated term SEMANTIC FIELDS; others, especially verbs, are A technical TERM rejected by the practitioners in a more amenable to a ‘whole-sentence’ approach, e.g. subject field as a less suitable synonym for from Collins COBUILD English Dictionary (London, designating a particular CONCEPT. 1995): ‘If you define a word or expression, you explain ð ACCEPTABILITY RATING. its meaning, for example in a dictionary.’  ISO 1990. 37 DETERMINER derivation language variety rather than attitudes on how it 1 The origin and early history of a word or phrase. should be used (PRESCRIPTIVE ð ETYMOLOGY. LEXICOGRAPHY). Nowadays, with the 2 The creation of a new word, typically by adding availability of CORPUS evidence, the collection of an AFFIX to a BASE or STEM. DATA on actual USAGE is no longer so difficult, ð WORD FORMATION. expensive and time-consuming as in the past. Even if it were possible to produce a truly comprehensive derivational morpheme and accurate ‘descriptive dictionary’, it would, in A MORPHEME added to a BASE or STEM to form turn, be regarded by its users as an AUTHORITY a new word. on ‘correctness’. ð INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME. ð MONITOR CORPUS, NORM, STANDARD (1).  Zgusta 1989a, Svensen 1993, Bejoint 1994. derivational morphology ð MORPHOLOGY. design The overall principles that govern the production of derivative efficient REFERENCE WORKS, taking into account A word which is the result of DERIVATION, e.g. not only features of content (INFORMATION lexical, lexically, lexicalise, lexicalisation, delexicalise CATEGORIES) and presentation < lex-. Such words form paradigms (WORD (ARRANGEMENT), but also the reference needs FAMILIES). In GENERAL DICTIONARIES, they and skills of the USER. are not always given headword status in separate ð ACCESS STRUCTURE, LAYOUT, STRUCTURE. entries, but added as RUN-ON ENTRIES or subentries  Mufwene 1984, Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Stark under the HEADWORD from which they are assumed 1996. to be derived (e.g. lexis or lexical). ð CLUSTERING. designation  Berg 1993. The expression of a meaning or CONCEPT by a  The Latin Elements in English Words. A Handook of word or TERM. Derivation (L.Lee), New York NY, 1959.  ISO 1990. derivative dictionary designatum A DICTIONARY closely based on another, of which The aspect of meaning identified for expression by it may be an abridged version or a copy. a word or phrase. ð BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY, COPYING IN ð DESIGNATION. DICTIONARIES, DICTIONARY FAMILY.  Webster’s New Young American Dictionary [based on desk dictionary Merriam-Webster’s Elementary Dictionary], New York NY, 1995. A general-purpose dictionary similar in scope and size to the COLLEGE DICTIONARY and the derogatory STANDARD DICTIONARY. In the North American A USAGE LABEL in a dictionary to mark a word tradition, it usually contains ENCYCLOPEDIC or phrase as ‘offensive’ or ‘disparaging’, one extreme INFORMATION. example being the racial slur.  Landau 1984, Algeo 1990, Svensén 1993. ð BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY, RACISM.  Merriam Webster’s Medical Desk Dictionary, Springfield MA, 1986. descriptive dictionary ð DESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY. desktop publishing ð PUBLISHING. descriptive grammar ð GRAMMAR. determiner A FUNCTION WORD associated with a noun, to descriptive lexicography express quantity, possession etc. An approach to DICTIONARY-MAKING which is  Collins COBUILD English Guides 10: Determiners based on the observed facts about a language or (R.Berry), London, 1997. DIACHRONIC DICTIONARY 38 diachronic dictionary particular FREQUENCY of occurrence. Such information A dictionary which traces the origins and can be marked in dictionaries by USAGE LABELS ranging developments of words through one or more periods from ‘very frequent’ to frequent (the unmarked neutral in the history of the language, in contrast to a zone) to ‘becoming rare’ and ‘very rare’. SYNCHRONIC DICTIONARY, which concentrates ð BASIC VOCABULARY, CORPUS, FREQUENCY on the contemporary language. DICTIONARY. ð ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, HISTORICAL DICTIONARY, PERIOD DICTIONARY. diafrequential markedness  Landau 1984, Svensén 1993. Labelled DIAFREQUENTIAL INFORMATION in a dictionary. diachronic information A usage feature which associates a word or phrase diaintegrative information with a particular PERIOD in the history of a A usage feature which associates a word or phrase language. Such information can be marked in with a particular degree of integration into the native dictionaries by temporal USAGE LABELS on a word-stock of the language. Such information can chronological scale from ‘archaic’ through be marked in dictionaries by USAGE LABELS on a ‘obsolescent’ to contemporary (the unmarked scale of indigenisation ranging from ‘foreign’ and neutral, synchronic zone) and ‘new’. ‘borrowed’ through ‘assimilated’ to native (the ð ARCHAISM, HISTORICAL DICTIONARY, unmarked neutral zone). NEOLOGISM. ð CREOLE, FOREIGNISM. diachronic markedness diaintegrative markedness Labelled DIACHRONIC INFORMATION in a Labelled DIAINTEGRATIVE INFORMATION in dictionary. a dictionary. diaconnotative information dialect ð DIAEVALUATIVE INFORMATION. A variety of a language, sometimes contrasted with STANDARD, and often with a negative connotation. diaconnotative markedness The term has had wide application, ranging from ð DIAEVALUATIVE MARKEDNESS. very localised forms (e.g. in a village) to extensive language communities (e.g. the varieties of Chinese). diacritic (mark) ‘Prestige dialects’ are those which have gained status A graphic sign placed above, below, beside or through through social or political developments. Linguists a LETTER or CHARACTER, often to indicate a prefer to use specific terms to refer to specialised particular phonological exponent (e.g. nasalisation, aspects of language variety, e.g. SOCIOLECT, palatalisation, lengthening, liprounding, stress or tone). GENDERLECT, IDIOLECT, and TECHNOLECT. ð TRANSCRIPTION. ð DIALECT DICTIONARY, DIALECTOLOGY, LANGUAGE VARIETY, REGIONALISM. diaevaluative information  Wakelin 1987, McArthur 1992. A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with a particular attitude or evaluation. Such dialect atlas information can be marked in dictionaries by ð LINGUISTIC ATLAS (1). USAGE LABELS on a scale of emotiveness from ‘appreciative’ through neutral (the unmarked zone) dialect dictionary to ‘derogatory’ and ‘offensive’. A type of REFERENCE WORK containing information about one or more DIALECTS of a language. There diaevaluative markedness is a very long tradition of specialised glossaries listing Labelled DIAEVALUATIVE INFORMATION in a the vocabulary of local dialects, and many general dictionary. dictionaries include a selection of REGIONALISMS. However, it was not until nineteenth-century historical- diafrequential information comparative linguists and folklorists carried out A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with a systematic fieldwork that DIALECTOLOGY became 39 DIARY established in many countries, leading to the emphasis is on social varieties (also called development of a special dictionary genre. Since J. SOCIOLECTS), dialectology shades into Wright’s English Dialect Dictionary (Oxford, 1898– SOCIOLINGUISTICS. 1905), many of the local (or ‘provincial’) dialects of ð DIALECT DICTIONARY, REGIONAL Britain and the USA and the national (or ‘metropolitan’) DICTIONARY. varieties of English have been codified in dictionaries. However, their coverage is uneven, and there are diamedial information considerable differences in methodology from one A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with country and language to another. In recent years there a particular channel of communication. Such has been a marked shift from geographical to social information can be marked in some dictionaries by dialects, producing new dictionary types, e.g. for USAGE LABELS for the ‘written’ or ‘spoken’ media, SLANG and CREOLE. while items shared by both are usually left unmarked. ð LINGUISTIC ATLAS (1), REGIONAL DICTIONARY. diamedial markedness  Wakelin 1987, Kuhn 1988, Görlach 1990, McArthur Labelled DIAMEDIAL INFORMATION in a 1992, Svensén 1993. dictionary.  Survey of English Dialects. The Dictionary and dianormative information Grammar (C.Upton et al.), London, 1994. A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with dialect geography a particular degree of deviation from a cultural A branch of DIALECTOLOGY concerned with STANDARD. Such information can be marked in regional (rather than social) dialects. dictionaries by USAGE LABELS on a scale from correct ð LINGUISTIC ATLAS (1). (the unmarked neutral zone) to ‘substandard’ or ‘illiterate’. ð CORRECTNESS, HYPERCORRECTION. dialect label ð REGIONAL LABEL. dianormative markedness Labelled DIANORMATIVE INFORMATION in a dialect lexicography dictionary. A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of DIALECT diaphasic information DICTIONARIES. General dictionaries mark A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with language variation (and other features such as style, a particular REGISTER of a language. Such formality and technicality) by means of USAGE information can be marked in dictionaries by USAGE LABELS, but these do not systematically describe LABELS on a scale of formality from ‘elevated’ and any particular regional or social DIALECTS. On the ‘formal’ through neutral (the unmarked zone) to basis of fieldwork techniques, traditional ‘informal’ and ‘intimate’. There is often an overlap dialectology plotted differences in vocabulary, with DIASTRATIC INFORMATION. pronunciation and grammar on maps (LINGUISTIC diaphasic markedness ATLAS (1)), and it is information of this kind which Labelled DIAPHASIC INFORMATION in a is presented in specialised dictionaries. There is still dictionary. no unified framework, and dialect dictionaries can range from the popular-amateurish to the diary philological-scholarly, with considerable differences 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK using the style between various linguistic and cultural traditions. of a periodicised record.  Fischer & Ammann 1991. ð ALMANACK, CALENDAR. 2 In research on dictionary use, a user’s personal dialectology record of his/her experience in consulting An academic discipline concerned with the study of various reference works during or after specific DIALECTS. When the emphasis is on local or activities such as writing or translating. regional varieties of a language, the term DIALECT ð USER PERSPECTIVE, USER RESEARCH. GEOGRAPHY may be appropriate; when the  Nuccorini 1992. DIASTRATIC INFORMATION 40 diastratic information diatopic(al) information A usage feature which associates a word or phrase A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with a particular social group. Such information can with a particular DIALECT or regional language be marked in dictionaries by USAGE LABELS on a variety. Such features can be marked in scale from neutral (the unmarked zone) to ‘demotic’ dictionaries by USAGE LABELS on a continuum or ‘slang’. In some cultures, such as the Indian caste of regionality from ‘local’ or ‘provincial’ dialects system, there may be an extension of the scale to ‘metropolitan’ and even ‘international’ towards the ‘high’ varieties. There is often an overlap varieties. The neutral zone of the ‘home’ variety with DIAPHASIC INFORMATION. (e.g. British English in a British dictionary or ð SLANG DICTIONARY, SOCIOLECT. American English in an American dictionary) may be left unmarked. diastratic markedness ð DIALECT DICTIONARY, REGIONAL Labelled DIASTRATIC INFORMATION in a DICTIONARY, REGIONAL LABEL. dictionary. diatopic(al) markedness diasystematic labelling Labelled DIATOPICAL INFORMATION in a A unified way of specifying the restrictions on the dictionary. USAGE of the word or phrase being explained, through a range of interrelated USAGE LABELS. dictionarese ð Panel ‘Usage Labels’ (page 151). The language and other conventions in reference  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Ilson 1990, Thomsen 1994. works, which often puzzle users, e.g. ABBREVIATIONS and symbols, USAGE diatechnical information LABELS, CROSS-REFERENCES, DEFINITION A usage feature which associates a word or phrase with formulae and GRAMMAR codes. a particular SUBJECT FIELD. Such information can ð DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE. be marked in dictionaries by USAGE LABELS for a range of technical specialities, e.g. ‘Law’, ‘Music’, dictionarian ‘Chemistry’. The CORE WORDS common to non- An archaic term for one (usually an amateur) who technical language varieties are usually left unmarked, engages in the compilation of dictionaries. as is non-specific, ‘vague’ vocabulary. ð LEXICOGRAPHER. ð SUBJECT-FIELD DICTIONARY, TERMINOLOG- ICAL DICTIONARY. Dictionaries The title of the journal of the DICTIONARY diatechnical markedness SOCIETY OF NORTH AMERICA, published Labelled DIATECHNICAL INFORMATION in a annually since 1979. dictionary. dictionaries as discourse diatextual information The textual features of dictionaries and other A usage feature which associates a word or phrase reference works and their relative user- with a particular discourse type or GENRE. Such friendliness, which have rarely been the subject of information can be marked in dictionaries by systematic critical evaluation. The requirements of USAGE LABELS on a scale of textuality from the genre, i.e. maximum information in minimum ‘poetic’ to ‘conversational’, with the shared neutral space, often lead to a degree of TEXT items remaining unmarked. There is often an overlap COMPRESSION which may conflict with those or combination with DIAPHASIC and of clarity and transparency. DIASTRATIC INFORMATION. ð CRITICISM, DESIGN, EVALUATION. ð COLLOQUIALISM, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS,  DeMaria 1986, Dolezal 1989, Wiegand 1990. TEXT LINGUISTICS. dictionarist diatextual markedness An archaic term for one who engages in the Labelled DIATEXTUAL INFORMATION in a compilation of dictionaries. dictionary. ð LEXICOGRAPHER. 41 DICTIONARY-CUM-ENCYCLOPEDIA dictionary dictionary buying guide The most common type of REFERENCE WORK, ð BUYING GUIDE. first used as a TITLE in the Latin-English Dictionary of Syr Thomas Elyot knyght (London, 1538), and dictionary catalogue the monolingual English Dictionarie: or, An 1 A list of dictionaries and other reference works Interpreter of Hard English Words by Henry forming part of a REFERENCE DEPARTMENT Cockeram (London, 1623). in a library, or a separate publication providing Since the sixteenth century the title dictionary has bibliographical details. As the AUTHORSHIP of been used for an increasingly wider range of alphabetic such works is often difficult to determine, the (but also thematic), general (but also specialised), items may be entered in a single INDEX of both monolingual (but also bilingual and multilingual) authors’/compilers’ names and titles, with reference works, from the polyglot to the historical subdivisions by subject, country or language. and the pedagogical dictionary. At the same time there ð BIBLIOGRAPHY (1). has been a tendency for other terms to be used as  Dictionary of Dictionaries (T.Kabdebo), designations for more specialised dictionary genres, London, 1992; The Encyclopedia of e.g. THESAURUS, ENCYCLOPEDIA and Dictionaries Published in Japan (T.Okimori et TERMINOLOGY. To describe and evaluate the al.), Tokyo, 1996. structural components of dictionaries, terms like 2 A CATALOGUE published in A-Z format. MACROSTRUCTURE (the overall WORD-LIST and its organisation) and MICROSTRUCTURE (the dictionary category ð information categories presented inside entries) have TYPE (1). been developed in the literature. dictionary collection ð BIBLIOGRAPHY (1), BUYING GUIDE, ð COLLECTION (1). COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, LEXICOGRAPHY, TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, USER dictionary compiler PERSPECTIVE, WORDBOOK. ð COMPILER.  Landau 1984, Stein 1985, Bailey 1987, Jackson 1988, Zgusta 1988a, Hausmann et al. 1989–91, James 1989, dictionary component Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994, Osselton 1995, Green 1996. ð COMPONENT (1).  Dictionary of Dictionaries (T.Kabdebo), London, 1992. dictionary criminality dictionary archaeology ð CRIMINALITY. The uncovering of links between different dictionaries by studying their contents, history and dictionary criticism genetic affiliations. ð CRITICISM. ð CRITICISM, DICTIONARY HISTORY.  Dolezal 1986, Ilson 1986b. dictionary culture The critical awareness of the value and limitations of dictionary archive DICTIONARIES and other reference works in a ð ARCHIVE (1). particular community. This can vary according to the status of the language used, the availability of dictionary article dictionaries and the standards of DICTIONARY- ð ENTRY. MAKING, dictionary CRITICISM and dictionary use. ð CULTURAL LEXICOGRAPHY, EVALUATION, dictionary automation IMAGE OF THE DICTIONARY, TRAINING. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. dictionary-cum-atlas dictionary awareness ð HYBRID. ð DICTIONARY CULTURE. dictionary-cum-encyclopedia dictionary bibliography ð HYBRID. ð BIBLIOGRAPHY (1). DICTIONARY-CUM-GRAMMAR 42 dictionary-cum-grammar dictionaries and their compilers within a ð HYBRID. sociocultural context.  Starnes & Noyes 1946/91, Friend 1967, Collison dictionary-cum-thesaurus 1982, Dolezal 1985, Stein 1985, Hartmann 1986, Ilson ð HYBRID. 1986b, McArthur 1986a, Steiner 1986a, Osselton 1990, Zgusta 1992, Green 1996. dictionary-cum-usage guide ð HYBRID. dictionary index 1 An INDEX provided in addition to the dictionary definition alphabetically arranged central WORD-LIST of ð DEFINITION. a dictionary, usually as part of the BACK dictionary entry MATTER, to help the user find supplementary ð ENTRY. INFORMATION such as illustrations, names, events, defining vocabulary, archaisms or dictionary family neologisms. The range of dictionaries from ‘unabridged’ through 2 An INDEX published in A-Z format. ‘concise’ to ‘pocket’ and ‘gem’ (or a related set of  Indexionary. A Dictionary-index in which reference works, including encyclopedic and Words are Grouped Alphabetically According technical) produced under the same publisher’s to their Functional Elements (B.Kasravi), Santa IMPRINT. Barbara CA, 1990. ð HYBRID.  Ilson 1986b, Burnett 1988. dictionary information  The Oxford English Dictionary [2nd edition] The INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented by (J.A.Simpson & E.S.C.Weiner), Oxford, 1989; The New the compiler and consulted by the user of a dictionary Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles or other reference work. The information can be [4th edition] (L.Brown), Oxford, 1993; The Concise Oxford linguistic (e.g. spelling, meaning, pronunciation) or Dictionary of Current English [8th edition] (R.E.Allen), encyclopedic (facts and figures). Oxford, 1990; The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current dictionary journal English [8th edition] (D.Thompson), Oxford, 1992. A periodical publication containing information of dictionary for foreign-language learners relevance to DICTIONARY-MAKING, e.g. The ð LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. Barnhart Dictionary Companion (established 1991), which lists English NEOLOGISMS from various dictionary function fields of activity. ð FUNCTION. dictionary look-up form dictionary genre ð CANONICAL FORM. ð TYPE (1). dictionary maker dictionary grammar ð REFERENCE PROFESSIONAL. The GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION in the dictionary included as a separate component dictionary-making arranged in systematic or alphabetical order, usually The practical aspects of LEXICOGRAPHY, in the FRONT MATTER rather than integrated into concerned with the professional activity of compiling the entries in abbreviated form. REFERENCE WORKS. Depending upon the ð GRAMMAR DICTIONARY. complexity and scale of a dictionary project and the  Haraldsson 1996. historical, organisational and technical context in which it is implemented, a number of stages or phases dictionary history may be distinguished, from planning and staff training A branch of DICTIONARY RESEARCH to printing and marketing. Most projects involve three concerned with the chronological development of basic operations: FIELDWORK, or gathering and recording of raw DATA; description, or EDITING the 43 DICTIONARY USE text; and presentation, or PUBLISHING the final (Canada) and elsewhere. In addition to research, product. The old debate as to whether practical these centres are active in documentation as well as lexicography is a science or an art is now being resolved TRAINING and organising conferences in by an increased emphasis on professional TRAINING LEXICOGRAPHY. and computerisation, supported by complementary  Australian National University website: DICTIONARY RESEARCH. www.anu.edu.au/andc; Exeter website: ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, COMPUTATIONAL www.ex.ac.uk/coverpage/lex; Macquarie website: LEXICOGRAPHY, DATABASE, Panel ‘Lexicography: www.macnet.mq.edu.au Theory and Practice’ (page 86).  Landau 1984, Burchfield 1987a, Krishnamurthy 1987, dictionary review Jackson 1988, Algeo 1990, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. ð REVIEW. dictionary manual dictionary skills ð WORKBOOK. ð REFERENCE SKILLS. dictionary of authors Dictionary Society of North America A type of REFERENCE WORK providing literary, A professional society established at Indiana State biographical and sometimes encyclopedic University in 1975. It holds meetings every two years information about a selection of authors from a and publishes a newsletter and the journal country, language, period or genre. DICTIONARIES. Together with the EUROPEAN ð BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. ASSOCIATION FOR LEXICOGRAPHY, the  The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English Dictionary Society of North America co-sponsors (I.Ousby), Cambridge, 1988; The Oxford Companion to the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF Twentieth-Century Literature in English (J.Stringer), LEXICOGRAPHY and the double series Oxford, 1996. LEXICOGRAPHICA (Series Maior and International Annual). dictionary order  Website: www.csuohio.edu/dsna/ ð ARRANGEMENT. dictionary software dictionary range ð SOFTWARE. ð DICTIONARY FAMILY. dictionary structure dictionary research ð STRUCTURE. The theoretical aspects of LEXICOGRAPHY, concerned with the academic study of such topics dictionary style as the nature, history, criticism, typology and use of The content and form of a dictionary that are DICTIONARIES and other REFERENCE WORKS. appropriate to the reference needs and skills of the ð METALEXICOGRAPHY, REFERENCE SCIENCE, user. Panel ‘Lexicography: Theory and Practice’ (page 86). ð DICTIONARESE, TYPOLOGY (1).  Bailey 1987, Hausmann et al. 1989–91, Hartmann  Zgusta 1991. 1996a. dictionary title Dictionary Research Centre ð TITLE. An academic institute concerned with the investigation of such topics as the nature, history, dictionary type ð criticism, typology and use of DICTIONARIES and TYPE (1). other reference works. Such centres exist at the dictionary typology University of Exeter (UK), the University of ð TYPOLOGY (1). Erlangen-Nürnberg (Germany), the Australian National University, Macquarie University dictionary use (Australia), Nanjing University (China), Yonsei ð USE OF REFERENCE WORKS. University (Korea), the University of Montreal DICTIONARY USER 44 dictionary user  Zgusta 1989b. ð USER.  Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets (G.L.Campbell), London, 1996. dictionary-using skills ð REFERENCE SKILLS. digraphia The co-existence in one language of two writing dictionary war systems (‘bigraphism’) for the representation of Acrimonious rivalry between competing dictionary speech, e.g. kana and kanji in Japanese. A special case compilers, publishers or critics. Examples include of digraphia, known as the ‘aljamiado principle’ is the the original ‘war of the dictionaries’ between Noah use by Muslims of the Perso-Arabic script for a number Webster and Joseph Worcester in the 1830s about of languages normally written in different scripts. how to represent pronunciation in the American ð ROMANISATION. dictionary; the critical reception of Webster’s Third  Hegyi 1979. New International Dictionary in the early 1960s; and the recent competition among British publishers in diplomas in lexicography the LEARNER’S DICTIONARY market. ð TRAINING.  Read 1986, Haebler 1989, Algeo 1990, Béjoint 1994, Morton 1994, Allen 1996. direct entry The listing of a MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION dictionary workbook under its first (rather than last) constituent. ð WORKBOOK. ð INVERTED ENTRY. didactic dictionary directionality ð PEDAGOGICAL DICTIONARY. The user orientation of the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY according to the direction of the differentia specifica look-up operation. In the classical DEFINITION formula, the second part, ð BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY, or one or more of the characteristic features which MONODIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY, SOURCE distinguish the word to be explained from the generic LANGUAGE, TARGET LANGUAGE. term of which it is considered a specific instance. Thus,  Steiner 1986b, Kernerman 1994. the English word fir can be defined as ‘a kind of tree with evergreen needles’. The phrase with evergreen directory needles is the differentia specifica which sets fir off A type of REFERENCE WORK which gives from tree, the GENUS PROXIMUM. information, usually in alphabetical order of names,  Svensén 1993. on contact addresses and specialisations of the people, organisations or products listed. diglossia ð TELEPHONE DIRECTORY, YELLOW PAGES. The presence in a language of two competing  The CHEST Directory 1996/97 [of IT products for the STANDARDS, such as the katharevusa (‘high’ or education and research communities] (T.Jones), Bath, 1996; archaising) and dhimotiki (‘low’ or popular) varieties Who’s Who in Lexicography. An International Directory of of Modern Greek. EURALEX Members (S.McGill), Exeter, 1996.  Britto 1986. disambiguation digraph The (typically electronic) recognition and separation 1 In alphabetic writing systems, the combined use of words similar in form either by their grammatical of two letters to represent a single speech sound, shapes or by their meanings. q e.g. English th for / /. When they are conjoined, ð LEMMATISATION, SENSE DISCRIMINATION. as in œ, they are known as ‘ligatures’. ð ALPHABETICAL ORGANISATION. discography 2 In syllabic writing systems such as that used A CATALOGUE of music and other sound for Tamil, two conjoined characters which recordings in alphabetical and/or thematic order, represent a syllable, e.g. . giving details on titles, composers, performers etc. 45 DOUBLESPEAK

 Music Master CD Catalogue (G.Rankin), London,  Hausmann 1990. 1991.  The British Synonymy (H.T.Piozzi), London, 1794; The Oxford Thesaurus. An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms discourse analysis (L.Urdang), Oxford, 1991. A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with language not as words or sentences, but as (spoken distinctive thesaurus as well as written) text in context. Discourse analysis ð DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY. focuses on conversational and other face-to-face interaction (and is thus close to divergence SOCIOLINGUISTICS), while TEXT In cases of partial TRANSLATION equivalence, the LINGUISTICS is more associated with the study of rendering of a word in one language by two or more written and printed text and the factors that contribute words in the other language. Thus the meaning of the to its structural cohesion. Both approaches profit English word aunt is expressed in Danish by two words, from the evidence provided by CORPUS moster ‘maternal aunt’ and faster ‘paternal aunt’. (The LINGUISTICS, and both have potential application opposite direction is called CONVERGENCE.) The to lexicography, e.g. in the analysis of the complexity BILINGUAL DICTIONARY must allow for such and transparency of dictionary entries. asymmetrical relations, in conjunction with the problem ð DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, TEXT of the user orientation. COMPRESSION. ð ANISOMORPHISM, BIDIRECTIONAL  Dolezal 1989, Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Stubbs DICTIONARY. 1996. divided indexing discourse information ð SINGLE INDEXING. ð DIATEXTUAL INFORMATION. document discriminating synonymy A TEXT (such as a book, map, sound recording or ð DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY. electronic disk) which is the object of treatment (e.g. in TEXT PROCESSING or a CORPUS) or collection discrimination of meaning (e.g. in a LIBRARY or BIBLIOGRAPHY). ð SENSE DISCRIMINATION. ð STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP LANGUAGE. discussion A device used to explain the meaning of words or documentalist phrases, such as the formula ‘is used for…’ in One who engages in the collection, processing and defining FUNCTION WORDS in general or distribution of DOCUMENTS and the information learners’ dictionaries. contained in them. ð DEFINITION STYLE. ð FÉDÉRATION INTERNATIONALE D’INFORMATION  Ilson 1990. ET DE DOCUMENTATION, REFERENCE PROFESSIONAL. distinctive feature documentation A CHARACTERISTIC which can be used to explain The totality of activities concerned with the collection, the meaning, or define the concept, of a word or term. maintenance and exploitation of SOURCES in the ð ANALYTICAL DEFINITION, COMPONENTIAL compilation of REFERENCE WORKS. ANALYSIS. ð CITATION, DATA.  Schäfer 1980. distinctive synonymy A SYNONYM DICTIONARY or THESAURUS in domain which expressions of similar meaning are not only Alternative term for FIELD. listed and grouped into semantic sets, but also defined and set apart by SENSE DISCRIMINATION. doublespeak ð CUMULATIVE SYNONYMY, SYNONYMY (1), A euphemistic word, phrase or style of discourse SYNONYMY (2). used to disguise the true meaning of a TEXT. DOUBLETALK 46

ð EUPHEMISM. DSNA  A Dictionary of Euphemisms and other Doubletalk Abbreviation for DICTIONARY SOCIETY OF (H.Rawson), New York NY, 1981. NORTH AMERICA. doubletalk dual-language dictionary ð DOUBLESPEAK. ð BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. doublet Duke of Edinburgh English Language One of a pair of words or phrases similar in form Competition Award and/or meaning and sharing a common origin, such A set of prizes, including a section for dictionaries, as the English words regal and royal, which are both awarded annually by the English Speaking Union derived from Latin (via French) regalis. (London) for the most outstanding English teaching ð COGNATE, CONFUSIBLE WORDS. materials. downward reference dysphemism A CROSS-REFERENCE from a general to a more A word or phrase used disparagingly. ð specific (less comprehensive) heading in a EUPHEMISM. CATALOGUE.

E

EAFT EFL Abbreviation for EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR Abbreviation for ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN TERMINOLOGY. LANGUAGE.

ECHO EFL dictionary The European Commission Host Organisation A LEARNER’S DICTIONARY designed for which provides access to European Union students of ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN information, such as the terminological database LANGUAGE or ENGLISH AS A SECOND EURODICAUTOM, by computer link. LANGUAGE.  Website: www2.echo.lu/ ð COLLEGE DICTIONARY.  McArthur 1989b, Stein 1989, Herbst 1990, editing McCorduck 1993, Béjoint 1994, Allen 1996. The central stage in the DICTIONARY-MAKING  Cambridge International Dictionary of English process. (P.Procter), Cambridge, 1995; Collins COBUILD English  Landau 1984, Reddick 1990. Dictionary (J.Sinclair), London, 1995; Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [3rd edition] edition (D.Summers), Harlow, 1995; Oxford Advanced Learner’s The particular version of a DOCUMENT such as a book Dictionary [5th edition] (J.Crowther), Oxford, 1995. or dictionary at the DATE of its publication. Depending on the frequency of its reissue and the nature of the EFL lexicography changes made to the original text, it may be an identical A complex of activities concerned with the design, ‘impression’ (REPRINT) or a substantially revised compilation, use and evaluation of EFL (‘new’ or ‘second’, ‘third’ etc.) or abridged edition. DICTIONARIES. ð FACSIMILE EDITION, RECENSION, REVISION.  Ravin et al. 1990, Snell-Hornby 1990. ELC Abbreviation for the EUROPEAN LANGUAGE editor COUNCIL. One who engages in the preparation of TEXT for publication, one of several titles available for electronic bilingual dictionary REFERENCE PROFESSIONALS, especially those A BILINGUAL DICTIONARY in electronic form. in positions of authority and responsibility in a  Atkins 1996. SCHOLARLY DICTIONARY.  McGregor 1985, Berg 1993. electronic dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which utilises editorial example computers and associated technology to present An EXAMPLE used in a dictionary or other information on-screen. Examples include spelling reference work, based on the introspective judgement checkers and thesauruses built into word processors, (or ‘competence’) of a compiler rather than on a multi-volume dictionaries and encyclopedias on CD- CORPUS or FIELDWORK evidence. ROM, multilingual terminological databanks and  Fox 1987, Svensén 1993. ELECTRONIC LEXICOGRAPHY 48 translation systems (e.g. EURODICAUTOM), LANGUAGE into a foreign language. The dictionary research corpora, hypertext and the INTERNET. most suitable for this function is the ACTIVE Further progress will depend on the price, DICTIONARY. compatibility and user-friendliness of products and the ability of compilers and publishers to satisfy the encoding dictionary reference needs of specific users. ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY, INTERACTIVE DICTIONARY, MACHINE-READABLE encyclopedia DICTIONARY, POCKET ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents  DANLEX Group 1987, Sinclair 1987, Meijs 1992, factual information in a wide range of subject Calzolari 1996. disciplines. This information is collected from expert  The OED on CD-ROM [2nd edition], Oxford, 1992. consultants and arranged in a combination of www.bucknell.edu/~rbeard/diction.html systematic and alphabetical order for the benefit of the general educated reader. ENCYCLOPEDIC electronic lexicography DEFINITIONS are more detailed and less vague than ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. the meaning explanations offered in GENERAL DICTIONARIES. However, because of their price electronic publishing and bulk, encyclopedias can be less user-friendly. ð PUBLISHING. HYPERTEXT and CD-ROM technology is likely to bring new multimedia encyclopedic works that elementary dictionary can be more easily produced and used via computer. An informal term for a dictionary aimed at relative Many different approaches have been used even beginners. within the Western tradition, from Denis Diderot and  Merriam Webster’s Elementary Dictionary, Jean d’Alembert’s French Encyclopédie (Paris, Springfield MA, 1986. 1751–80) and Friedrich Brockhaus’ German Konversations-Lexikon (Wiesbaden, 1809–11) to the elicitation Encyclopaedia Britannica (first published in A method of collecting linguistic DATA by FIELDWORK. Scotland 1768–71, and now edited and regularly ð CITATION. updated from Chicago [15th edition, 32 volumes,  Béjoint 1983. 1974/85]). ð BUYING GUIDE. ELT  Collison & Preece 1974, Haiman 1980, Landau 1984, Abbreviation for English Language Teaching. Ryan 1989, McArthur 1992, Kister 1994.  ELT dictionary Encyclopaedia cursus philosophici (J.H.Alsted), ð EFL DICTIONARY. Herborn, 1608; The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language [2nd edition] (D.Crystal), Cambridge, ELT lexicography 1997. ð EFL LEXICOGRAPHY.  Microsoft Encarta Multimedia Encyclopedia, Redmont WA, 1993; Hutchinson Multimedia -eme Encyclopedia, Oxford 1997. A COMBINING FORM used in LINGUISTICS to refer to a number of distinct units at the level of speech encyclopedic content (PHONEME), writing (GRAPHEME), morphology ð ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION. (MORPHEME) and vocabulary (LEXEME). encyclopedic database emotive meaning ð DATABASE. ð CONNOTATION. encyclopedic definition encoding A DEFINITION which reflects encyclopedic A linguistic activity involving productive skills such knowledge (about facts) rather than linguistic as writing, speaking or translating from the NATIVE knowledge (about words). Usually these two aspects 49 ENCYCLOPEDIC LEXICOGRAPHY overlap—ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION often of a reference work, based on factual knowledge. In being difficult to distinguish from LINGUISTIC contrast with LINGUISTIC INFORMATION, INFORMATION —and dictionaries attempt to encyclopedic material is more concerned with the capture both in the explanation of meaning: a tabla description of objective realities than the words or is an ‘Indian drum played in pairs by hand at variable phrases that refer to them. In practice, however, there pitch’, but only a fully encyclopedic (and perhaps is no hard and fast boundary between factual and illustrated) description can demonstrate what it looks lexical knowledge. Many GENERAL and sounds like, and how the effect is achieved. DICTIONARIES contain encyclopedic items either  Wiegand 1992. in the entries (usually as part of a so-called ENCYCLOPEDIC DEFINITION) or outside the encyclopedic dictionary word-list (as part of the FRONT MATTER or BACK A type of REFERENCE WORK which shares features MATTER). SPECIALISED DICTIONARIES of the GENERAL DICTIONARY and the typically have more encyclopedic content. ENCYCLOPEDIA. There is a tension between The ENCYCLOPEDIA is the general-knowledge LINGUISTIC INFORMATION (e.g. on the work of reference par excellence, usually published etymology, spelling, pronunciation, grammar and in multi-volume systematic formats with one or more meaning of the lexical items treated) and alphabetical INDEXES, and involving consultants ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION (e.g. facts and from a number of broadly based disciplines figures on the technical terms and names included, supplying facts and figures. often with pictorial illustrations), which explains the ð ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, HYBRID or compromise status of this dictionary type. ENCYCLOPEDIC LEXICOGRAPHY.  Landau 1984, Stark 1996.  Roe 1978, Landau 1984, Svensén 1993.  The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (W.D.Whitney), New York NY, 1889–91; Cambridge Encyclopedia encyclopedic lexicography (D.Crystal), Cambridge, 1992; Longman Dictionary of English A complex of activities concerned with the design, Language and Culture (D.Summers), Harlow, 1992. compilation, use and evaluation of ENCYLOPE- DIAS and ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARIES and encyclopedic information similar reference works. There is no unified One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES framework, as such works vary considerably in presented by the compiler and consulted by the user scope,

Encyclopedic versus General Lexicography ENCYCLOPEDIC MATERIAL 50 content and presentation, and there are very different range of formats (MICROSTRUCTURE) is possible. encyclopedic traditions. In the DICTIONARY, depending on its content and  Panel ‘Encyclopedic versus General Lexicography’ purpose, these component parts are common: the (page 49). LEMMA (which allows the compiler to locate and the  Haiman 1980, Stark 1996. user to find the entry within the overall word-list); the formal COMMENT on the ‘topic’ introduced by the encyclopedic material lemma (spelling, pronunciation, grammar); and the ð ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION. semantic ‘comment’ (definition, usage, etymology). In case of multiple meanings of the lemma, the entry encyclopedist is subdivided into (usually numbered or otherwise One who engages in the compilation of an marked) sections called ‘sub-entries’ or ‘subsenses’, ENCYCLOPEDIA. each of which provides the same basic information categories. ending  Landau 1984, Steele 1986, Atkins et al. 1988, A word-final AFFIX. Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Roberts 1992, Svensén 1993. end matter entry database ð BACK MATTER. ð DATABASE. end-of-entry note entry-form A paragraph at the end of a dictionary entry, for ð CANONICAL FORM. example with ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION or details on USAGE, SYNONYMS or ETYMOLOGY. entry format ð USAGE NOTE. ð FORMAT. endoglossic language entry-line A language spoken as a NATIVE LANGUAGE by The initial line of an ENTRY in a dictionary or other the majority of people in a given geographic region, reference work, highlighted by INDENTATION or e.g. French in France. protrusion (‘hanging indentation’) and containing ð EXOGLOSSIC LANGUAGE. the headword (usually in bold) and sometimes information on pronunciation and grammar. English as a foreign language Those varieties of English which are used by learners entry-term for whom it is not the NATIVE LANGUAGE, The form of a word or phrase which serves as the usually outside a country where it is the dominant ‘main entry’, or HEADWORD, for a RECORD in a language. terminological dictionary, in contrast to a ‘secondary ð EFL DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. entry’ which lists alternative terms.  ISO 1990. English as a second language Those varieties of English which are used by entry-term list speakers for whom it is not the NATIVE ð TERM LIST. LANGUAGE, usually in a country where it is the endoglossic, or dominant language, or in countries entry-word where it has an acknowledged function. ð HEADWORD. ð EFL DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. environment English for specific purposes ð CONTEXT (2). ð LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. epithet entry A word or phrase used as a comment on, or brief The basic REFERENCE UNIT in a dictionary or other description of, a person or object of attention, e.g. reference system such as a library catalogue. A wide E.K. ‘Duke’ Ellington. 51 ÉTAT DE LANGUE

 A Dictionary of Epithets and Terms of Address error analysis (L.Dunkling), London, 1990. A practical field concerned with the study of language learners’ errors. A strong case has been eponym made for the use of error CORPORA to modify the A word or phrase formed from a PERSONAL NAME, contents and presentation of the LEARNER’S e.g. a Roget (i.e. a kind of thesaurus) < Peter M.Roget DICTIONARY, monolingual as well as bilingual. (1779–1869), the compiler of the Thesaurus of English ð INTERLANGUAGE. Words and Phrases (London, 1852).  Granger et al. 1994, Milton & Chowdhury 1994, Tono  Human Words; The Compleat Uncomputerized Human 1996. Wordbook (R.Hendrickson), Philadelphia PA, 1972; A Dictionary of Eponyms (C.Beeching), London, 1988. -ese A COMBINING FORM used in USAGE GUIDES equipollent opposition and similar genres to label particular text types as ð OPPOSITION. ‘jargon’, e.g. commercialese, dictionarese, journalese. equivalence The relationship between words or phrases, from two ESL or more languages, which share the same MEANING. Abbreviation for ENGLISH AS A SECOND Because of the problem of ANISOMORPHISM, LANGUAGE. equivalence is ‘partial’ or ‘relative’ rather than ‘full’ or ‘exact’ for most contexts. Compilers of bilingual ESL dictionary dictionaries often struggle to find and codify such ð EFL DICTIONARY. translation EQUIVALENTS, taking into account the directionality of the operation. In bilingual or ESP multilingual TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES, Abbreviation for English for Specific Purposes. ð equivalence implies interlingual correspondence of ESP DICTIONARY, LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC DESIGNATIONS for identical CONCEPTS. PURPOSES. ð CONVERGENCE, DIVERGENCE, TRANSLATION. ESP dictionary  Zgusta 1984, ISO 1990, Kromann et al. 1991. A type of DICTIONARY intended to describe a equivalence discrimination variety of English used by experts in a particular SENSE DISCRIMINATION in the bilingual subject field. Dictionaries of this kind are conceived dictionary. Words with multiple meaning as aids for users who are already specialists in the (‘polyequivalence’) need to have translation field, but want to practise or study it further through EQUIVALENTS specified for each of these meanings. the medium of English, e.g. for preparing an  Schnorr 1986, Kromann et al. 1991. academic paper at an international conference. ð LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. equivalent  Minaeva 1996. A word or phrase in one language which corresponds  Longman English-Chinese Dictionary of Business in MEANING to a word or phrase in another English (J.H.Adam), Hong Kong, 1995; Oxford Dictionary language, e.g. English mystery tour and German of Computing for Learners of English (S.Pyne & A.Tuck), Fahrt ins Blaue. Because of linguistic and cultural Oxford, 1996. ANISOMORPHISM, translation equivalents are typically partial, approximative, non-literal and ESP lexicography asymmetrical (rather than full, direct, word-for-word A complex of activities concerned with the design, and bidirectional). Their specification in the compilation, use and evaluation of ESP BILINGUAL DICTIONARY is therefore fraught DICTIONARIES.  with difficulties, and recourse must be had to Diab 1989. surrogate EXPLANATORY EQUIVALENTS. état de langue ð CONVERGENCE, DIVERGENCE, TRANSLATION. ð PERIOD.  Iannucci 1985. ETHNIC NAME 52 ethnic name provided about COGNATES and even hypothetical, ð ETHNONYM. reconstructed ‘proto forms’. Etymological information may be located at the beginning or end of entries, in ethnonym full or abbreviated form, and is often omitted from A word or phrase used to refer to a particular derivatives (such as adjectives and participles) which community. Ethnonyms range from affectionate are treated as RUN-ON ENTRIES. NICKNAMES to racial slurs. ð BASIC SENSE, ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, ð BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY, RACISM. ETYMOLOGY.  Winer 1991, McArthur 1992.  Drysdale 1989, Svensén 1993, Considine 1996. ethnophaulism etymological lexicography An international slur, e.g. Dutch courage ‘bravery A complex of activities concerned with the design, under the influence of alcohol’. compilation, use and evaluation of  A Dictionary of International Slurs (Ethnophaulisms) ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. (A.A.Roback), Waukesha WI, 1979. etymology etymological dictionary The origin and history of the elements in the A type of DICTIONARY in which words are traced back VOCABULARY of a language. Etymological studies to their earliest appropriate forms and meanings. Some have a long tradition (Isidore of Seville’s seventh- etymological information is contained in many general century treatise, Etymologiae, contained a one-volume monolingual dictionaries, but more detail can be found alphabetical dictionary of Latin etymology), but there in specialised HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES. The are inherent limitations to factual evidence when there emphasis in such dictionaries is on the original form are no texts available for ancient periods of the language. of the word (also called its ROOT or ETYMON), but It is therefore very difficult, and sometimes impossible, often its whole history or ‘curriculum vitae’ is to determine the precise ETYMON of a particular word, documented, supported by evidence from COGNATES. and modern lexicographers often use vague labels such ð DIACHRONIC DICTIONARY, ETYMOLOGICAL as ‘of uncertain origin’ rather than definite but INFORMATION. unverifiable dates. For example, the English word  Collison 1982, Drysdale 1989, Hartmann 1990. lexicography derives from Greek lexis ‘word’ < legein  American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European ‘gather, speak’ and graphia ‘writing’ (via Latin and Roots (C.Watkins), Boston MA, 1985; Dictionary of Word French). The origin of the Greek words in turn, however, Origins (J.T.Shipley), Totowa NJ, 1985; Concise Oxford can be determined only by speculation or linguistic Dictionary of English Etymology (T.F.Hoad), Oxford, reconstruction using COGNATES, e.g. the hypothesised 1986; Merriam Webster’s Word Histories (F.C.Mish), Indo-European ‘proto form’ *bhrater is the Springfield MA, 1989; The Henry Holt Encyclopedia of reconstructed ROOT of Latin frater, Greek phrater and Word and Phrase Origins (R.Hendrickson), New York NY, Sanskrit bhrata as well as of English brother. 1990. ð ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, FOLK ETYMOLOGY.  Bivens 1982, Malkiel 1987, Jackson 1988, Drysdale etymological information 1989, McArthur 1992. One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented by the compiler and consulted by the user of a etymon dictionary, based on ETYMOLOGY. Dictionaries The form from which a word in a subsequent period differ according to how much material they offer and of the language is derived. Thus, the etymon of the how they present it: both decisions are influenced by English word glossary is Latin glossa ‘word assumptions about the needs of the user. Although there (requiring explanation)’ which in turn can be traced is some doubt about how much a knowledge of the back to Greek glossa ‘tongue, language’. early origins of words can help elucidate their ð ETYMOLOGY, ROOT (1). meanings, many general dictionaries and all HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES make an effort to euphemism trace the forms and meanings of vocabulary items as A word or phrase used as a substitute for a vulgar, far back as possible. Sometimes information is profane, blasphemous or otherwise disturbing 53 EXCLUSION LIST expression.The label ‘euphem(istic)’ is sometimes evaluation used in general dictionaries to mark such substitutes, The process or result of assessing a dictionary or especially for TABOO WORDS. other reference work, often in comparison with ð DOUBLESPEAK, DYSPHEMISM. others. A systematic framework for formulating  A Dictionary of American and British Euphemisms criteria with respect to COVERAGE, FORMAT, (R.W.Holder), Bath, 1987; Kind Words. A Thesaurus of SCOPE, SIZE, TITLE etc. has yet to be developed. Euphemisms (J.S.Neaman & C.G.Silver), New York NY ð ACCEPTABILITY RATING, BUYING GUIDE, & Oxford, 1990. COMPARISON OF DICTIONARIES, CRITICISM, STANDARD (2). EURALEX Acronym for EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR evidence LEXICOGRAPHY. The DATA used to prove the authenticity of a particular USAGE or its description in the compilation of a EURODICAUTOM reference work. Techniques for gathering evidence The multilingual and interdisciplinary computerised range from personal introspection by the compiler via TERMINOLOGICAL DATABASE operated online FIELDWORK to the collection of CORPORA of texts. (last updated in 1995) by the language and computer Even evidence in the form of ERROR ANALYSIS can services of the European Union in Brussels, produce valuable source material for the reference Luxembourg and Strasbourg. professional.  Website: www2.echo.lu/echo/databases/eurodictum/ ð AUTHENTICATION, CITATION FILE, en/eu92home.html DATABASES, EDITORIAL EXAMPLE.  Sinclair 1987, Rundell & Stock 1992, Schmid 1996, European Association for Lexicography Tono 1996. A professional society, founded at the University of Exeter in 1983. It holds international congresses exact equivalence every two years (with published proceedings), ð EQUIVALENCE. publishes a newsletter and co-sponsors, with the DICTIONARY SOCIETY OF NORTH AMERICA, example the INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF A word or phrase used in a REFERENCE WORK LEXICOGRAPHY and the double series to illustrate a particular form or meaning in a wider LEXICOGRAPHICA (Series Maior and context, such as a sentence. Examples can either be International Annual). based on objective evidence (e.g. from a CITATION  Website: www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/euralex FILE or CORPUS) or be invented by the compiler (EDITORIAL EXAMPLE). European Association for Terminology  Landau 1984, Fox 1987, Cowie 1989b, Rosenkilde A professional society, founded in 1996 in Kolding Jacobsen et al. 1991, Ahmad et al. 1992, Laufer 1992, (Denmark) to represent TERMINOLOGISTS. Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994.

Europeanism excerption ð INTERNATIONALISM. The selection of suitable material from a set of DATA, for the purpose of compiling a REFERENCE European Language Council WORK. An association concerned with the state of language ð CITATION FILE, EXAMPLE, READING and culture in Europe. Supported by a European PROGRAMME. Union grant, it has initiated a Thematic Network  Schafer 1980, Landau 1984, Warburton 1986, ISO Project in the Area of Languages, for investigating 1990, Svensén 1993. and improving language teaching in higher education. One of the ten policy groups is surveying exclusion list DICTIONARY CULTURE in various European A list of TERMS not (to be) processed in a countries. TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY.  Website: userpage.fu-berlin.de/~elc ð INCLUSION LIST, SELECTION.  ISO 1990. EXEGESIS 54 exegesis marking, phonetic symbols (‘pronunciation key’) The interpretation of texts, especially as part of a and grammatical codes, cross-references and canon. examples. ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY.  Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament explanatory dictionary (G.J.Butterweck & H.Ringgren), Grand Rapids MI, 1974– A type of REFERENCE WORK which gives [incomplete]. detailed explanations of the meanings of the vocabulary covered. The prototype of this dictionary exemplification is the monolingual GENERAL DICTIONARY, but The use of EXAMPLES to explain and/or illustrate the term has also been applied to a BILINGUAL the USAGE of a word or phrase in a reference work. DICTIONARY which is intended to help with  Ilson 1990, Williams 1996. decoding (but not necessarily translating) foreign- language texts. exoglossic language ð COLLOCATION, MEANING, TEXT. A language spoken as a NATIVE LANGUAGE by  Steele 1986, 1990, Mel’cuk 1988, Apresjan 1992, the minority of people, but sometimes used as an Mel’cuk & Wanner 1994. AUXILIARY LANGUAGE, in a given geographic  Tolkavo-kombinatornyj slovar’…[Explanatory- region, e.g. English in India. Combinatorial Dictionary of Modern Russian] (I.Mel’cuk ð BRIDGE DICTIONARY, ENDOGLOSSIC & A.K.Zholkovskij), Vienna, 1984. LANGUAGE. explanatory equivalent expansion In the translation of CULTURE-SPECIFIC A technique by which the meaning of an VOCABULARY, the explanation of a word or phrase ABBREVIATION can be explained, e.g. AA ‘abbrev. by means of a surrogate PARAPHRASE in the target 1 Automobile Association, 2 Alcoholics Anonymous, language rather than a one-to-one EQUIVALENT, 3 anti-aircraft…’. e.g. German Dolchstoßlegende—English ‘myth of the “stab in the back” (betrayal of Germany after expert system the First World War by its own politicians)’. A knowledge-based electronic system used to study  Zgusta 1984, Schnorr 1986. and automate DATA-PROCESSING in specific fields. Experts in a technical subject are observed in action explanatory word so that their decision routines can be copied and, if A word or phrase which clarifies the meaning of a possible, improved upon. The application of this term, e.g. ulna (‘a bone in the arm’). technique to the design of integrated WORK- STATIONS may bring advances to DICTIONARY- expletive MAKING in terms of the transparency of the process. A mild SWEAR WORD.  Knowles 1990, Picchi et al. 1992. expression explanation ð FIXED EXPRESSION. The totality of techniques available to the compiler to clarify the MEANING of a word or phrase to be extension included in a REFERENCE WORK. The type of 1 The totality of all objects (or specific concepts) explanation most widely known, because of its long covered by a word or phrase (or generic tradition, is the DEFINITION, but there are several concept). others, from the use of verbal EXEMPLIFICATION ð EXTENSIONAL DEFINITION, and pictorial ILLUSTRATION to DISCUSSION, HYPERONYMY, INTENSION. PARAPHRASE and TRANSLATION. 2 A widening in the semantic scope of a word or  Hanks 1987, Ilson 1990. phrase to cover more CONCEPTS, e.g. head ‘top of human anatomy’, ‘leader of a group’, explanatory chart ‘highest part of an elevation’, ‘froth at the top A diagram in a USER’S GUIDE to explain the layout of a glass of beer’ etc. of, and conventions in, ENTRIES, e.g. for headword ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. 55 EXTRA-LINGUISTIC INFORMATION

extensional definition extra column A DEFINITION which explains a concept by An additional column of text by the side of the one reference to its HYPONYMS, e.g. academic staff containing the ENTRY proper, in which member: ‘professor, lecturer, instructor, supplementary information is provided. In the demonstrator…’. Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary ð INTENSIONAL DEFINITION. (London & Glasgow, 1987) the extra column gives  ISO 1990, Svensén 1993. grammatical and semantic details, reducing the usual degree of TEXT COMPRESSION inside the entry external access structure and making it more transparent. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. extra-linguistic information external search path ð ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION. ð SEARCH PATH.

F

facet family A feature of the subdivisions in the 1 With reference to dictionary typology, ð CLASSIFICATION of a technical subject, such as DICTIONARY FAMILY. ‘personality’, ‘matter’, ‘energy’, ‘space’ or ‘time’. 2 With reference to morphology, ð WORD ð CATEGORY (2), CLASS. FAMILY. facsimile edition family name The identical reproduction of a DOCUMENT, with ð PERSONAL NAME. or without ANNOTATIONS. Facsimile editions of early dictionaries in manuscript or printed form allow family of dictionaries their comparative-historical study. ð DICTIONARY FAMILY. ð COPYING IN DICTIONARIES, REPRINT. fascicle factual information One of several instalments of a REFERENCE ð ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION. WORK published at more or less regular intervals. Many large-scale HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES false cognate have been issued in sections over a long period, ð FALSE FRIEND. making consultation difficult, particularly when they have to be (re-)bound in the libraries where they are false friend held. One of two or more words or phrases from different languages, which are similar in form but not in faux ami meaning, e.g. English sympathetic ‘understanding’ ð FALSE FRIEND. and French sympathique ‘pleasant’. A distinction can be made between ‘interlingual homographs’, e.g. Fédération Internationale d’information et de English gift ‘present’ and German Gift ‘poison’, and documentation ‘interlingual homophones’, e.g. English man ‘male’ A professional society, based in the Hague, founded in and Persian /mæn/ ‘I’. Such pairs may confuse 1895 to represent information professionals and users. foreign-language learners, and they are often It publishes a News Bulletin, the FID Directory as well collected in special dictionaries of false friends. as the journal International Forum on Information and  van Roey 1988, Gorbahn-Orme & Hausmann 1991, Documentation, and holds biennial conferences. There Veisbergs 1996. are a number of special committees, e.g. on classification  Faux Amis and Key Words: A Dictionary-Guide to research, and special interest groups, e.g. on archives French Language, Culture and Society through Lookalikes and records management.  and Confusables (P.Thody & H.Evans), London, 1985; fid.conicyt.cl.8000 NTC’s Dictionary of Spanish False Cognates (M.Prado), FID Lincolnwood IL, 1993. Abbreviation for FÉDÉRATION INTERNATIONALE D’INFORMATION ET DE DOCUMENTATION. 57 FOLK CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM field file 1 In lexicology and semantics, a SEMANTIC A system for classifying records, such as the data FIELD. collected for a DICTIONARY or entries in a library 2 In database design, one of several slots in which CATALOGUE. Formats (alphabetic or thematic) and INFORMATION CATEGORIES are presented, house rules may vary from one organisation to e.g. headword, definition, example. another. 3 In the marking of SENSES in the dictionary, ð CITATION FILE, DIRECT ENTRY. the FIELD LABEL. 4 In the specification of disciplines, a SUBJECT film FIELD. Motion pictures to display information visually, which have become a powerful aid to education, field dictionary science and the media. The storage, transmission A type of DICTIONARY which is the result of and presentation of film by electronic means have FIELDWORK. Because of the limited ranges of the opened up new possibilities for MULTIMEDIA languages investigated and the informal nature of reference works, which have not yet been fully such compilations, they do not always get published. exploited. ð ROOT DICTIONARY (1). ð CD-ROM.  Bartholomew & Schoenhals 1983.  International Dictionary of Film and Filmmakers (N.Thomas), London, 1984–91; International Dictionary field label of Broadcasting and Film (D.K.Bognar), Boston MA, The SUBJECT LABEL used to indicate the 1995. technical discipline with which a word or phrase is associated. first language ð DIATECHNICAL INFORMATION. ð NATIVE LANGUAGE. fieldwork first name The collection of DATA by interview with speakers ð PERSONAL NAME. of a language or language variety. The gathering and documentation of such material, although fixed expression difficult and labour-intensive, is a defining feature A phrase whose constituent elements cannot be of many dictionaries, particularly FIELD moved randomly or substituted without distorting DICTIONARIES of previously unrecorded the overall meaning or allowing a literal languages and dictionaries of dialect, slang and interpretation. Fixed (or set) phrases range from other special-purpose languages. COMPOUNDS (e.g. adjective-noun phrases used as ð ELICITATION, TRANSCRIPTION (1). technical terms, as in etymological dictionary)  Bartholomew & Schoenhals 1983, Béjoint 1983. through COLLOCATIONS (nice surprise versus *good surprise) to IDIOMS (red herring). Their fifteener treatment and labelling in general and specialised ð INCUNABULA. dictionaries varies considerably. ð COMBINING FORM, MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION. figurative meaning  Jackson 1988, Alexander 1992, Botha 1992, Moon A non-literal sense of a word or phrase which is the 1992. result of metaphorical EXTENSION, e.g. head ‘top of human anatomy’ > ‘top of elevation’, ‘leader of flyleaf organisation’ etc., or a transfer of sense, e.g. pig A (double) page bound in with the book cover of a ‘porcine animal’ > ‘dirty person’. In dictionaries, REFERENCE WORK containing additional such meanings are sometimes marked with special information, e.g. an EXPLANATORY CHART, table USAGE LABELS ironically termed ‘fig. leaves’ by of phonetic symbols or summary of grammatical critics, because they can be said to hide the codes. underlying BASIC SENSE.  Ayto 1988, McArthur 1992, Osselton 1995, van der folk classification system Meer 1996b. ð FOLK TAXONOMY. FOLK DEFINITION 58 folk definition forename A popular, non-scholarly explanation of the meaning ð PERSONAL NAME. of a word or phrase, e.g. ‘inherit is when you get some money after somebody has died’. form ð DEFINITION. 1 The phonic or graphic shape in which words  Stock 1988. appear in spoken or written discourse, in contrast to their content or meaning. This is the folk etymology basis for a distinction, inside dictionary entries, A popular, non-scholarly or hypothetical between two types of COMMENT on the topic interpretation of the origin of a word or phrase by introduced by the HEADWORD: the ‘formal’ morphological and/or phonological adaptation, e.g. comment (with information on spelling, bankrupt < ‘*bank-robbed’. pronunciation and grammar) and the ‘semantic’ ð ETYMOLOGY. comment (with information on meaning, usage  Svensén 1993. and etymology). ð BASE STRUCTURE. folk taxonomy 2 The STRUCTURE of a published text such as A popular, non-scholarly classification system applied a REFERENCE WORK, which may be a to words or phrases, e.g. animal and plant names. criterion for its classification into one of several ð PROTOTYPE, TAXONOMY. types or genres.  Wierzbicka 1985, Bartholomew 1991, Rajendran 1995. formal ð STYLE LABEL. foreignism A word or phrase which has been copied and formal comment transferred from one language to another, but is not ð COMMENT. yet fully ‘assimilated’, and is often presented (in English texts) in italics. Sometimes purists deprecate formal definition foreignisms as unhealthy contamination, e.g. ð DEFINITION. franglais expressions in French or Fremdwörter ‘foreign words’ in German. Dictionaries record and formality label ð LABEL foreignisms in a number of ways. STYLE LABEL. ð BORROWING, DIAINTEGRATIVE format INFORMATION, FALSE FRIEND, LOAN-WORD, A general term for the arrangement of the contents NATIVE VOCABULARY, REGIONALISM. in a particular REFERENCE WORK.  Filipovic 1984, Berg 1993. ð DESIGN, ORGANISATION, TYPOLOGY (1).  Loanwords Dictionary (L.Urdang & F.Abate), Detroit MI, 1988. form of address A word or phrase used to designate a person in foreign language formal or informal interaction. This includes a range The language used by learners for whom it is not of devices from pronouns and personal NAMES to the NATIVE LANGUAGE, usually outside a country professional, honorific and social titles as well as where it is the dominant language. NICKNAMES, all of which may be codified in ð SECOND LANGUAGE. general or specialised dictionaries. ð foreign learner’s dictionary APTRONYM, EPITHET.  ð EFL DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. McArthur 1992. foreign word formulaic definition ð FOREIGNISM. A DEFINITION STYLE which relies on a standardised, often truncated explanation. An fore-matter example from this Dictionary of Lexicography is the ð FRONT MATTER. routine formula for defining X (e.g. bilingual) 59 FREQUENCY LABEL lexicography as ‘a complex of activities concerned  Sinclair 1987, Bogaards 1992, McArthur 1992, James with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of et al. 1994, 1996, 1997. x (e.g. Bilingual) Dictionaries’. frequency count form word The process or result of establishing the FREQUENCY of ð FUNCTION WORD. words or other linguistic units in a TEXT or text CORPUS. ð FREQUENCY DICTIONARY, TOKEN, TYPE. four-letter word An OBSCENITY, so called because in English some frequency dictionary of the words considered most taboo happen to consist A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides of four letters. Those GENERAL DICTIONARIES information about the FREQUENCY of linguistic that include four-letter words tend to mark them with units, especially of the BASIC VOCABULARY. Work appropriate labels and paraphrase them with more on frequency dictionaries has been motivated by, and or less euphemistic synonyms. beneficial to, various fields such as the design of ð EUPHEMISM, PROSCRIPTION, TABOO WORD. shorthand systems (e.g. J.W.Kaeding’s  Gates 1992. Häufigkeitswörterbuch der deutschen Sprache  The Fucktionary/Slownik wyrazen z Fuck [Steglitz, 1897–8]), the teaching of reading to children (M.Widawski), Gdansk, 1994. (e.g. E.L.Thorndike’s Teacher’s Word Book [New York NY, 1921]), the selection of basic vocabularies for frame theory foreign-language teaching (e.g. M.West’s General An approach to DEFINITION which uses Service List of English Words [London, 1953]). One ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE techniques to elicit particularly fruitful application of the frequency and simulate semantic knowledge in terms of approach is the design and improvement of the situational scenes. Thus a characteristic frame such LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. as ‘eating in a restaurant’ which determines the ð BASIC VOCABULARY, COBUILD, typical actions and relationships of the persons and CONCORDANCE, DEFINING VOCABULARY. objects involved is claimed to be a more realistic  Martin 1990. basis for explaining the various meanings than  The Cambridge English Lexicon (R.X.Hindmarsh), abstract appeal to formal properties such as semantic Cambridge, 1980. features in hierarchical trees or grid-like fields. ð SEMANTICS. frequency information  Makkai 1980, Fillmore & Atkins 1992. One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented by the compiler and consulted by the user of a free morpheme REFERENCE WORK, based on FREQUENCY. In ð MORPHEME. general dictionaries frequency may be indicated by USAGE LABELS such as ‘mostly’, ‘occasionally’ or free translation ‘rarely’, but this approach has been criticised as too vague, ð TRANSLATION. especially since the availability of usage data from large- scale corpora. In specialised dictionaries, such as the frequency LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, frequency can be indicated The number of occurrences of a word or other linguistic by various means such as numbers and other symbols, or unit in a (written or spoken) TEXT or collection of even specific figures and tables indicating absolute and texts. Word frequencies are established by means of relative occurrences, distribution, dispersion and the like. FREQUENCY COUNTS, often by reference to a ð DIAFREQUENTIAL INFORMATION. CORPUS, using computational and statistical techniques. In lexicography, evidence of this kind can frequency label help in the selection of the WORD-LIST, in decisions Traditionally, an indication in a dictionary of the on the ordering of senses within dictionary entries, and relative rarity of a word or phrase. The modern in controlling the DEFINING VOCABULARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, by contrast, often particularly in the LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. marks the relative commonness of occurrence. ð CORE WORD, FREQUENCY DICTIONARY, ð FREQUENCY INFORMATION. LEMMATISATION, TOKEN. FREQUENCY LEXICOGRAPHY 60 frequency lexicography fulfil one of several functions: to help with this A complex of activities concerned with the design, concept, to illustrate usage, to clarify a distinction compilation, use and evaluation of FREQUENCY or to assist in a writing task. It may be advisable, DICTIONARIES. As the contexts which lead to (and therefore, to distinguish between ‘macro-functions’ apply the results of) such work are very diverse and (such as ‘general dictionary for laymen’, ‘special the methodology is interdisciplinary, requiring dictionary for linguists’, ‘bilingual dictionary for elements of statistics, computing, education, language learners’, ‘technical dictionary for linguistics and LSP terminology, there is as yet no translators’) and ‘micro-functions’ related to a user’s coherent framework. REFERENCE NEEDS in a particular context. Examples of such micro-functions would be frequency list checking the spelling of a word to solve a crossword ð 1 With reference to basic vocabulary, clue, checking the pronunciation of a word for FREQUENCY COUNT. preparing a speech, selecting a synonym for writing ð 2 With reference to dictionary typology, an essay, finding a foreign-language equivalent in a FREQUENCY DICTIONARY. translation exercise or verifying a fact for settling an argument. front matter ð FUNCTIONALITY, LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC Those component parts of a dictionary’s PURPOSES, TYPOLOGY (1). MACROSTRUCTURE which precede the central  Mufwene 1984, Hartmann 1989, Tono 1989, Béjoint WORD-LIST section. Examples of such 1994. ‘preliminaries’ in general dictionaries may include: title page, copyright page and imprint, functionality acknowledgements and dedication, foreword or The USER PERSPECTIVE of a dictionary preface, table of contents, list of contributors, list of according to the purpose of the look-up operation. abbreviations and/or illustrations used, Most general monolingual dictionaries fulfil several pronunciation key, USER’S GUIDE, notes on the different functions, such as providing information nature, history and structure of the language, on spelling to assist the writing task. In the bilingual dictionary grammar. dictionary, DIRECTIONALITY is an additional ð OUTSIDE MATTER factor.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Svensen 1993. ð BIFUNCTIONAL DICTIONARY, CONSULTATION, MULTIFUNCTIONAL DICTIONARY. full equivalence ð EQUIVALENCE. functional shift ð CONVERSION (1). function The purpose(s) for which a REFERENCE WORK functional typology is designed or used. Research into dictionary use ð TYPOLOGY (1). has revealed that there can be a discrepancy between the functions intended by the compiler and the actual function word look-up practices in specific situations of use, or A word that plays a grammatical role in the sentence, indeed the IMAGE users have of the dictionary. such as an article, a conjunction or a preposition, in Thus, this Dictionary of Lexicography may have contrast with a CONTENT WORD which has been designed to explain the terminology of the field semantic value (meaning or sense), such as a noun, to students, but at the very moment of you (the a verb or an adjective. reader) consulting it (in this particular entry), it may G

gazetteer a comprehensive description of the whole language, A type of REFERENCE WORK with descriptions with special attention to VOCABULARY. The of geographical locations and other ONOMASTIC general (or ‘general-purpose’) dictionary fulfils a and ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION, number of different FUNCTIONS (information on sometimes with maps and other illustrations. meaning, spelling, idiomatic use etc.) and thus  A Gazetteer of the World: or, dictionary of satisfies various reference needs of the user, or many geographical knowledge (Royal Geographical Society), diverse needs of different user groups. It is typically Edinburgh, 1850–6; World Gazetteer of Tram, Trolleybus, MONOLINGUAL, although it shares many features and Rapid Transit Systems (R.Peschkes), Exeter, 1986. with the BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, where translation EQUIVALENTS replace definitions. gem dictionary ð CULTURAL DICTIONARY, DEFINING A relatively small-format reference work. DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, ð DICTIONARY FAMILY. EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY, LANGUAGE  Collins Gem English-Hindi Dictionary (D.P.Pandey DICTIONARY, SPECIALISED DICTIONARY, & V.P.Sharma), New Delhi, 1993. SYNCHRONIC DICTIONARY, USAGE DICTIONARY.  Landau 1984, Jackson 1988, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. gender bias  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English ð GENDERLECT. (R.E.Allen), Oxford, 1990; The American Heritage Dictionary genderlect of the English Language [3rd edition] (A.H.Soukhanov), The varieties of a language associated with maleness Boston MA, 1992; Collins English Dictionary [3rd edition] or femaleness. The extent of this difference varies (M.Makins), London & Glasgow, 1991. considerably from culture to culture, and in some generalized mark-up language societies is highly codified. In modern industrial ð STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP LANGUAGE. societies, the argument as to how far biological and social differentiation is reflected in language (‘gender general lexicography bias’) has affected DICTIONARY-MAKING in at least 1 The discipline concerned with the theoretical two ways: there is now a more conscious attempt to foundations and principles of LEXICOGRAPHY, make definitions and examples gender-neutral, and independent of language or dictionary type. there are specialised dictionaries documenting aspects ð COMPARATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, of ‘female’ rather than ‘male’ language. GENERAL THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY, ð DIALECT, BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY. REFERENCE SCIENCE, SPECIAL  McArthur 1992. LEXICOGRAPHY.  The Nonsexist Word Finder: A Dictionary of Gender-
Hartmann 1993. Free Usage (R.Maggio), Phoenix AZ, 1987. 2 The complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionary GENERAL DICTIONARIES. A type of REFERENCE WORK intended to provide ð SPECIALISED LEXICOGRAPHY. GENERAL LINGUISTICS 62 general linguistics genre ð LINGUISTICS. The prototypical TEXT format associated with a particular field or context of human activity, e.g. general-purpose dictionary novel, letter, report, or telephone conversation. In ð GENERAL DICTIONARY. lexicography, the term ‘dictionary genre’ is used as a synonym of ‘dictionary type’. general terminology ð DIATEXTUAL INFORMATION, HYBRID, TYPE (1). ð GENERAL THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY.  Swales 1990, Bhatia 1993. general theory of terminology genteelism The discipline concerned with the theoretical A word or phrase associated with the USAGE of foundations and principles of TERMINOLOGY, polite society, often contrasted with SLANG. independent of language or technical subject field. ð EUPHEMISM. ð GENERAL LEXICOGRAPHY (1), REFERENCE SCIENCE, SPECIAL THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY. genus  ISO 1990. 1 In the classical definition formula, ð GENUS PROXIMUM. generic concept 2 In a hierarchical sense relation, ð GENERIC A superordinate concept in a hierarchical generic TERM. relationship, e.g. ‘reference work’ in respect of the subordinates ‘dictionary’, ‘thesaurus’ and ‘atlas’. genus proximum ð GENERIC TERM. In the classical DEFINITION, the first part, of which  ISO 1990. the word to be explained is considered to be a specific instance. Semantically, the genus proximum is a generic relation superordinate word (HYPERONYM) to which the ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. word to be defined is subordinate (HYPONYM). For example, the word fir can be defined as ‘a kind of generic term tree [genus proximum] with evergreen needles In a hierarchy of sense-related words, the one which [DIFFERENTIA SPECIFICA]’. covers a greater conceptual space than the SPECIFIC ð GENERIC TERM. TERM. The relationship between ‘genus’ and  Svensén 1993. ‘species’ can be explained in a number of ways. Taxonomically, the genus term is superordinate to the genus term species term; semantically, it covers a wider area (the ð GENERIC TERM. genus is a HYPERONYM, the species is a HYPONYM); logically, the genus is equivalent to a geographical filing class of which the species is a member. The debate as to The arrangement of material within an INDEX or whether the generic term ‘includes’ or ‘is included in’ CATALOGUE by place or country. the species term can only be settled by reference to particular examples: linguistically, the word tree is less geographical information precise than fir, therefore its general meaning is One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented included in the more specialised word fir. by the compiler and consulted by the user of a reference Terminologically, on the other hand, tree can be applied work, based on geography. Material of this kind is to more concepts than fir, which is therefore one of provided in encyclopedic or specialised dictionaries several included in tree. In lexicography, the traditional (such as ATLASES and GAZETTEERS) rather than ANALYTICAL DEFINITION formula ‘X is a kind of general dictionaries, although the latter occasionally Y which…’ makes use of these sense relations: ‘a fir is a provide such detail in the BACK MATTER. kind of tree which has evergreen needles’, the first part  Webster’s New Geographical Dictionary, Springfield being the GENUS PROXIMUM, the second the MA, 1988. DIFFERENTIA SPECIFICA. ð BINOMIAL COMPOUND, GENERIC CONCEPT. geographical register label  ISO 1990. ð REGIONAL LABEL. 63 GRADED ANTONYMY geonym glossarist ð TOPONYM. One who engages in the compilation of a GLOSS or GLOSSARY. gesture Hand, facial and other body movements which glossary accompany and sometimes replace verbal A type of REFERENCE WORK which lists a communication. selection of words or phrases, or the terms in a ð SIGN LANGUAGE. specialised field, usually in alphabetical order,  A Dictionary of Gestures (B.J.Bäuml & F.H.Bäuml), together with minimal definitions or translation Metuchen NJ, 1975. equivalents. Glossaries, which range widely in scope, ghost word technicality and treatment, derive from the medieval A word or phrase which has been included in a vocabulary lists of students of Latin, informal dictionary, by error or design, although there is no manuscript compilations of regionalisms, and EVIDENCE for its existence. collections of the vocabulary used in specific books  Landau 1984, Iannucci 1986, Svensén 1993. and workshops. Some developed into bilingual and multilingual specialised dictionaries given name (TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY), but most ð PERSONAL NAME. have remained limited in size, sometimes forming part of another publication, e.g. as an appendix or gloss INDEX in a book. 1 In the early history of European lexicography,  Stein 1985. a marginal or interlinear note inserted in the text  Civil Service. An English-Chinese Glossary of Terms of a medieval manuscript to explain a (Latin) Commonly Used in Government Departments (Chinese Language word or phrase. These glosses were then Division, Hong Kong Government), Hong Kong, 1995. gathered together to create vocabulary lists, or GLOSSARIES, with paraphrases or translation glossator (also glosser, glossist) equivalents, arranged in thematic or alphabetic One who engages in the compilation of GLOSSES order. or GLOSSARIES. ð GLOSSOGRAPHY.
Hüllen 1989. glossographer 2 A PARAPHRASE or SYNONYM used within One who engages in the compilation of GLOSSES a dictionary entry to provide an explanation of or GLOSSARIES. the sense of a word or phrase related to the ð GLOSSOGRAPHY. HEADWORD. In the monolingual dictionary, this can happen when a brief DEFINITION of glossography a word is given within an example or an idiom A complex of activities concerned with the within a sub-entry (producing a HIDDEN compilation of GLOSSARIES from the Middle Ages ENTRY). In the bilingual dictionary, glossing to the Renaissance. Starting with GLOSSES or notes is used as a means of discriminating the various on hard words in Latin texts, VOCABULARY lists senses of a headword which may have different gradually developed into context-independent translation equivalents. While glosses are part compilations, laying the foundations for of the definition, they must be distinguished LEXICOGRAPHY, monolingual as well as bilingual from LABELS which are used to mark the and multilingual, alphabetic as well as thematic, headword as belonging to a particular context lexical as well as encyclopedic. or language variety.  Hüllen 1989.
Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. gradable antonymy glossarian ð ANTONYMY. One who engages in the compilation of a GLOSS or GLOSSARY. graded antonymy ð ANTONYMY. GRADED VOCABULARY 64 graded vocabulary grammatical category A list of words and phrases correlated with school- ð WORD CLASS. grade levels, and based on assumptions of simplicity or notions of frequency. grammatical code ð SCHOOL DICTIONARY. The system of (usually abbreviated) terms and symbols used to designate various types of syntactic gradus information, e.g. vt for ‘transitive verb’. The short form of Gradus ad Parnassum (Paris, ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, GRAMMATICAL 1666), formerly used as a general term for ‘primer’ LABEL. or ‘dictionary’. grammatical construction grammar ð CONSTRUCTION. A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the structure of words and their constituents grammatical content (MORPHOLOGY) and their compatibility within ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. sentences and texts (SYNTAX). Sometimes the term ‘grammar’ is used to refer to the overall system of a grammatical dictionary ð language or language variety, including GRAMMAR DICTIONARY. PHONOLOGY and SEMANTICS, which the linguist grammatical information is charged to describe and which may or may not reflect One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES the native speaker’s intuition. Such ‘descriptive’ presented by the compiler and consulted by the grammar, based on evidence of observed USAGE, is user of a DICTIONARY, based on GRAMMAR. often contrasted with ‘prescriptive’ grammar, based Material codified in dictionaries may consist of on rules of CORRECTNESS, which is the word-class indication (PART OF SPEECH) and conventional notion of grammar that underlies much some word-formation, collocation and clause of traditional DICTIONARY-MAKING. patterns. Regrettably, this is often incomplete and ð DICTIONARY GRAMMAR, GRAMMAR lagging behind the reported results of grammatical DICTIONARY, GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, research, such as the refinement of the simplistic NORM, USAGE GUIDE. distinction between ‘transitive’ and ‘intransitive’  Lemmens & Wekker 1986, Sinclair 1987, Greenbaum verbs to recognise various kinds of relations 1988, Herbst 1989, Sherwood 1990, Milroy & Milroy between verbs and their objects, goals, 1991, Svensén 1993. complements etc. In the GENERAL  NTC’s Dictionary of Grammar Terminology DICTIONARY such information tends to be (R.A.Spears), Lincolnwood IL, 1991; Introducing English limited to (abbreviated) inflectional details and Grammar (G.Leech), London, 1992. part-of-speech labelling placed between the  Grammar checker: Microsoft Word 6 [Office 4], headword and the definition, occasionally Redmond WA, 1994. amplified by illustrative sentences inside entries, grammar dictionary essays in the FRONT MATTER, or lists of A type of REFERENCE WORK containing irregularities in the BACK MATTER. Specialised GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, such as PARTS dictionaries such as USAGE GUIDES, OF SPEECH, in alphabetical or thematic order. GRAMMAR DICTIONARIES and LEARNER’S ð DICTIONARY GRAMMAR, MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES provide more detail, e.g. on DICTIONARY, USAGE GUIDE, VALENCY DICTIONARY. phraseological combinations, word-formation  Noël et al. 1996. patterns and complementation patterns, based on  Dictionary of English Grammar Based on Common observed encoding difficulties. ð Errors (W.J.Ball & F.T.Wood), London, 1987; The BBI LEXICAL INFORMATION, MORPHOLOGICAL Combinatory Dictionary of English (M.Benson et al.), INFORMATION.  Amsterdam, 1986; Bloomsbury Grammar Guide Jackson 1985, Lemmens & Wekker 1986, Sinclair (G.Jarvie), London, 1993; The Oxford Dictionary of 1987, Cowie 1989a, Kromann et al. 1991, McCorduck English Grammar (S.Chalker & E.Weiner), Oxford, 1994. 1993, Svensén 1993, Mitchell 1994, Wachal 1994. 65 GROUPING grammatical item GRAPHETICS, the study of individual handwritten ð FUNCTION WORD. or printed shapes. ð ALPHABET, ORTHOGRAPHIC INFORMATION. grammaticality An aspect of USAGE by which members of a given graphetics speech community characterise a word or phrase as A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the conforming to the rules of GRAMMAR. A contrast study of the WRITING process. Graphetics is often made between grammaticality and concentrates on the shapes of the graphic signs used, APPROPRIATENESS, the suitability of an e.g. in handwriting or printing, rather than their expression in a particular context. Individual systematic relations within a script speakers do not always agree on issues of (GRAPHEMICS). grammaticality, and in contentious cases may consult ð GRAPHOLOGY. dictionaries, such as USAGE GUIDES, for authoritative judgements. graphics ð ACCEPTABILITY, CORRECTNESS, STANDARD (1). Non-verbal artwork such as drawings, graphs, maps  Greenbaum 1988. and photographs used to illustrate TEXT. ð DESIGN, ILLUSTRATION (1), PICTURE grammatical label DICTIONARY. A symbol, code or abbreviated term used to mark GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION on a particular graphology word or phrase in a dictionary. Many lexicographers The study of handwriting. reserve the term ‘label’ for the marking of USAGE ð GRAPHEMICS, GRAPHETICS. features rather than for part-of-speech indication.  Encyclopedia of the Written Word. A Lexicon for ð GRAMMATICAL CODE, TAG. Graphology and Other Aspects of Writing (K.G.Roman/  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Berg 1993. R.Wolfson & M.Edwards), New York NY, 1968. grammatical supplement -graphy A DICTIONARY GRAMMAR included in the ð -OGRAPHY. BACK MATTER of a dictionary or other reference work. grouping The arrangement of SUB-ENTRIES within entries, grammatical word either on subsequent new lines (‘listing’) or in run- ð FUNCTION WORD. on form (CLUSTERING). ð NESTING, NICHING. grammatography  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. ð CODIFICATION. guide graph A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents An illustration of numerical data in pictorial form, information on a place (such as country, city, library, e.g. in a table or pie chart. museum or gallery) or on a subject field for beginners in relatively easy-to-follow steps, usually supported grapheme by diagrams and illustrations. Users of reference The minimal distinct unit in the WRITING SYSTEM works are given help in this way either inside the of a language. same publication (e.g. in the form of a dictionary ð CHARACTER, GRAPHEMICS, LETTER. USER’S GUIDE) or in a separate text (WORKBOOK). graphemics ð COMPANION, TYPOLOGY (1), PHRASEBOOK, A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the USAGE GUIDE, VADE-MECUM. study of WRITING SYSTEMS. Graphemics deals  A Reference Guide for English Studies (M.J.Marcusi), with the graphic units (GRAPHEMES) within a Berkeley CA, 1990; APA Guide Deutschland written code (SCRIPT) and their relations with (B.Schümann), Munich, 1996; Cambridge Paperback speech sounds (PHONEMES), in contrast to Guide to Literature in English (I.Ousby), Cambridge 1996. GUIDEBOOK 66 guidebook (‘running foot’) of a dictionary column or page to ð GUIDE. assist recognition of the alphabetical order of entries, or the indicators used to separate senses of guideword polysemous headwords in such dictionaries as the A word or part of a word which helps the user of a Cambridge International Dictionary of English reference work to find required INFORMATION (Cambridge, 1995). easily and quickly, e.g. the catchwords printed at ð ORDERING DEVICE, SENSE DISCRIMINATION. the top (running title or running head) and/or bottom

H

half-title attempts to cover the bulk of the vocabulary, but there The page preceding the TITLE PAGE, usually are also specialised dictionaries of difficulties. containing only the title of the publication.  Starnes & Noyes 1946/91, Whitcut 1989, Brown 1996.  An English Expositor (J.Bullokar), London, 1616; handbook Glossographia; or a Dictionary, Interpreting all such Hard A type of REFERENCE WORK which is intended Words…as are now Used in our Refined English Tongue as a professional-standard text for a technical skill (T.Blount), London, 1656; The Everyday Dictionary of or field. Misunderstood, Misused, Mispronounced Words (L.Urdang), ð TYPOLOGY (1). London, 1972.  The Seaspeak Reference Manual (F.Weeks et al.), Oxford, 1984; Merriam Webster’s Secretarial Handbook head form [3rd edition] (M.A.Stevens), Springfield MA, 1993; The ð CANONICAL FORM. Writer’s Handbook 1997 (B.Turner), London, 1996. headword hanging indentation The form of a word or phrase which is chosen for ð INDENTATION. the LEMMA, the position in the dictionary structure where the ENTRY starts. Practices vary as to how hànyu pinyin headwords are marked typographically (e.g. by bold ð ROMANISATION. letters on indented or protruding lines), or how multiple and variant forms are distinguished (e.g. hapax legomenon subscripts/superscripts for homonymous words or A word or phrase (< Greek ‘said once’) which occurs sub-entries for words with multiple senses), but most only once in a CORPUS and which may therefore recognise a CANONICAL FORM. The headword not be included in a dictionary. constitutes an important link between the ð NONCE WORD. MACROSTRUCTURE and MICROSTRUCTURE.  hard copy Jackson 1988, Zgusta 1989b, Svensén 1993. The printed version of a machine-readable TEXT, in contrast to the version stored electronically (‘soft hidden entry A GLOSS for a word or phrase which is contained copy’). inside the entry for a related word or phrase rather than hard word marked by a separate headword. Thus common gnat A word associated with the formal style of written does not have an entry in the Collins English text, and which is therefore relatively unfamiliar. Dictionary [2nd edition] (London & Glasgow, 1986), Hard words are the ones that prompt users to consult, but appears in the entry gnat as part of the definition: and compilers to supply, dictionaries. It was the hard- ‘any of various small fragile biting dipterous insects of word tradition which motivated the first English the suborder Nematocera, esp. Culex pipiens dictionaries. Today’s GENERAL DICTIONARY (common gnat), which abounds near stagnant water.’  Landau 1984. HIDDEN GLOSSARY 68 hidden glossary scale multi-volume projects or by means of more A list of words or phrases or technical terms, usually specialised CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES in alphabetical order, published not as a separate or PERIOD DICTIONARIES. REFERENCE WORK, but as part of another, ð HISTORICAL LEXICOGRAPHY. relatively inaccessible text, such as book or journal  Murray 1977, Bailey 1987, Zgusta 1992, Berg 1993. article.  Deutsches Wörterbuch (J.Grimm & W.Grimm), ð DICTIONARY JOURNAL. Leipzig, 1854–1961; A Chronological English Dictionary  Robinson 1984. (T.Finkenstaedt et al.), Heidelberg, 1970; Concise Oxford  ‘A glossary of contemporary English lexicographic Dictionary of English Etymology (T.F.Hoad), Oxford, terminology’, in Dictionaries 5 (1983): 76–114. 1986; The Oxford English Dictionary (J.Murray et al.), Oxford, 1928/89; A Dictionary of South African English hierarchical classification on Historical Principles (P.Silva), Oxford, 1996. ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. historical information hierarchical concept system One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. presented by the compiler and consulted by the user of a reference work, based on history. General hierarchical relation dictionaries contain material on the derivation of An ordered system of conceptual links in a technical words (ETYMOLOGICAL INFORMATION), subject field, which can be either ‘generic’ (based HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES trace the formal on the dependent relationship between SPECIFIC and semantic changes in the vocabulary of a CONCEPTS and GENERIC CONCEPTS) or a language throughout its history or in a particular PARTITIVE RELATION (based on a part-whole period. Factual information about historical events hierarchy). By contrast, non-hierarchical relations is codified in encyclopedias or specialised reference include those which are ‘sequential’ (based on linear works such as ALMANACKS or BIOGRAPHICAL progression in space or time) or ‘pragmatic’ (based DICTIONARIES. on thematic connections). ð PHILOLOGY. ð CO-ORDINATION.  Bailey 1990, Zgusta 1992.  ISO 1990. historical lexicography hierarchical structure A complex of activities concerned with the design, The ranking of the component parts of a dictionary compilation, use and evaluation of HISTORICAL or other reference work in hierarchical order, e.g. DICTIONARIES. the information categories in relation to the  Merkin 1986, Zgusta 1986b, Burchfield 1987b. headword inside entries (BASE STRUCTURE) or the entries in relation to the overall word-list historical linguistics (MACROSTRUCTURE). ð PHILOLOGY. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. historic dictionary high variety An early DICTIONARY or other reference work ð DIGLOSSIA. which has significance within a lexicographic tradition, e.g. INCUNABULA. Such works, because historical dictionary of their relative rarity or value, often become part of A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the specialised COLLECTIONS. Occasionally vocabulary of a language is traced through time. FACSIMILE EDITIONS are published as reprints. General dictionaries provide information on the  Learmouth & Macwilliam 1986, Vancil 1993. derivation of words (ETYMOLOGY), but under the influence of the historical-comparative perspective historiolect in LINGUISTICS, dictionaries ‘on historical ð PERIOD. principles’ have developed which document the changes in form and meaning of words (the homograph ‘curriculum vitae of vocabulary’), often in large- ð HOMONYMY. 69 HYPERCORRECTION homologue ð STYLE MANUAL. ð HOMONYMY.  McArthur 1992.  Hart’s Rules [39th edition] (H.Hart), Oxford, 1989. homonym A member of a set of words or phrases characterised HTML by HOMONYMY. ð HYPERTEXT homonymy humorous definition The relationship between two or more words which A DEFINITION presented in a light-hearted or are identical in form but not in meaning. The entertaining style, often appropriate to particular types identity may be in pronunciation (‘homophones’, of REFERENCE WORK, such as e.g. fair and fare), in spelling (‘homographs’, e.g. CHILDREN’SDICTIONARIES or dictionaries of minute ‘division of time’ and minute ‘tiny’) or both ‘levities’. (‘homologues’, e.g. band ‘ribbon’ and band ‘group ð ALTERNATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, ANTIDICTIONARY. of musicians’). Dictionaries tend to treat homonyms  Another Almanac of Words at Play (W.R.Espy), in separate entries on the grounds that native London, 1981; The Official Liar’s Handbook (D.Dale), speakers regard them as different words, but the North Ryde NSW, 1986. decision as to whether two words are homonymous or different senses of the same word (POLYSEMY) hybrid may not be easy to make. Criteria include, in The combination of one or more types of addition to spelling, pronunciation and meaning, REFERENCE WORK in a single product. Often the etymology of the word(s), their grammatical there are no distinct designations for these status, and the scope and user convenience compromise genres, which include ‘dictionary-cum- intended. Sometimes homonyms and other atlas’, ‘dictionary-cum-encyclopedia’, ‘dictionary- ‘confusible’ pairs (PARONYMS) are listed cum-grammar’, ‘dictionary-cum-thesaurus’, separately in the BACK MATTER of the dictionary. ‘dictionary-cum-usage guide’, and ‘monolingual- ð SYNONYMY (1). cum-bilingual dictionary’. It is also possible to  Malakhovski 1987, Ilson 1988, Svensén 1993, Gouws combine different formats, e.g. a mixture of 1996. alphabetical and thematic ARRANGEMENT in a  A Dictionary of Homonyms’. New Word Patterns thesaurus or terminological dictionary, or a Chinese (L.Ellyson), Sherman Oaks CA, 1977; The Dictionary of dictionary with a sequence of entries by characters British and American Homophones (S.N.Williams), and romanised transcrip-tions. London, 1987; Homophones and Homo-graphs: An ð BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPEDIC American Dictionary (J.R.Hobbs), Jefferson NC, 1993; DICTIONARY, REFERENCE SET, REFERENCE SHELF. Collins COBUILD English Guides 6: Homophones  Mair 1991. (H.Bruce & M.Stocks), London, 1995.  Collins Dictionary and Thesaurus in One Volume (W.T.McLeod), London & Glasgow, 1987; New Webster’s homophone Dictionary and Roget’s Thesaurus [with world atlas and ð HOMONYMY. medical dictionary], New York NY, 1992.  The American Heritage Electronic Dictionary [with] honorific Roget’s II: Electronic Thesaurus, Boston MA & Monterey ð FORM OF ADDRESS. CA, 1991; Diciopedia. Grande dicionário enciclopédico multimédia, Oporto, 1996. host A central computer system through which a number hydronym of terminals are linked in a network, providing access The name of a river, waterway, lake, bay etc. to a range of databases, data files and facilities for  Hydronymia Europaea (W.P.Schmid), Stuttgart 1985– on-line processing. [incomplete]. house style hypercorrection Typesetting and other conventions used by a The process or result of overgeneralising a particular publisher. HYPERMEDIA 70

STANDARD form (or what is considered standard) ð HYPERMEDIA, KNOWLEDGE BASE, by a DIALECT speaker, or a target form (or what is STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP LANGUAGE. assumed to be the target form) by a learner. USAGE GUIDES may be consulted in such situations of hyphenation linguistic insecurity. The indication in a dictionary of the conventional points at which words may be divided when they hypermedia occur at the ends of lines. Many languages have strict The technology which provides on-screen conventions governing hyphenation, based on INFORMATION with multiple links to other syllable structure or morphology, but for English documents, even material using pictures and sound. there is no universal agreement, and the major ð ILLUSTRATION (1), WORLD WIDE WEB. publishing houses and the quality press have evolved their own standards (e.g. ex-amin-ation versus ex- hyperonym amina-tion). A member of a set of words or phrases characterised  Oxford Spelling Dictionary (R.E.Allen), Oxford, by HYPERONYMY. 1986. hyperonymy hyponym The SENSE RELATION obtaining between the A member of a set of words or phrases characterised members of a set of words or phrases, one of whose by HYPONYMY. meaning is more general than, or superordinate to, that of its hyponyms. The sense of the hyperonym hyponymy or GENERIC TERM can be said to ‘include’ that of The SENSE RELATION obtaining between the the hyponyms or SPECIFIC TERMS, e.g. plant members of a set of words or phrases and their covers flower, vegetable etc. As the hyponym is more hyperonym. The sense of the hyponym or SPECIFIC specific than the hyperonym, it can be said to have TERM can be said to be ‘included’ in that of the more defining features. This relationship is exploited hyperonym or GENERIC TERM, e.g. flower or in DEFINITIONS and in TERMINOLOGY where vegetable covered by plant. This relationship is technical terms can be ranked in conceptual exploited in DEFINITIONS (e.g. ‘a flower is a plant hierarchies. which…’ or ‘a vegetable is a plant which…’) and in ð HYPONYMY, WORDNET. TERMINOLOGY where technical terms can be arranged in conceptual chains or hierarchies, e.g. hypertext etymological dictionary/(kind of) historical The combination of TEXT material from different dictionary/(kind of) dictionary/(kind of) reference sources, using specially formatted ‘mark-up work. languages’ for transmission. ð CO-HYPONYM, HYPERONYMY.  Davis 1993.  Lyons 1968, Jackson 1988.

I

ICAME idiotography Acronym for INTERNATIONAL COMPUTER An archaic term for DIALECT LEXICOGRAPHY. ARCHIVE OF MODERN AND MEDIEVAL ENGLISH. illustrated dictionary -icon A DICTIONARY which contains some A COMBINING FORM used in lexicography for ILLUSTRATIONS for selected words or phrases, in dictionary titles, e.g. R.-H.Zuidinga’s Eroticon (The contrast to a PICTURE DICTIONARY which depicts Hague, 1990). all objects treated systematically. Although the use of illustrations, especially in pedagogically oriented ideological dictionary dictionaries, dates back to the fifteenth century, printed ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. reference works did not generally contain many illustrations until the nineteenth century. Today, the idiolect ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY can offer the The language of a single speaker. Such personal possibility of film and sound recordings as well. dialects are not normally investigated to any degree ð VISUAL DICTIONARY. except in the study of famous individuals such as  Orbis sensualium pictus (J.A.Komenský), Nürnberg, politicians or literary authors, in which case their 1658; Reader’s Digest Great Illustrated Dictionary vocabulary may be collected and codified in (R.Ilson), London, 1984. specialised dictionaries. ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY, LANGUAGE VARIETY. illustration 1 A drawing, diagram or photograph which is idiom intended to clarify the DEFINITION of a concept. A FIXED EXPRESSION whose overall meaning is not Illustrations may take the form of representations always transparent from the combination of the of single items or groups of related items in meanings of its constituent words, e.g. go to the country diagrams, tables, charts or maps. The relationship ‘announce a general election’ versus its literal between a labelled part of an illustration and the counterpart go to the country ‘travel to the countryside’. corresponding part of an entry in a reference work ð COLLOCATION, MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION, is not always clearly established. PHRASEOLOGY. ð ATLAS, CHILDREN’S DICTIONARY,  Fernando 1996, Moon 1996. FILM, ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY,  Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms (A.P.Cowie et PICTURE DICTIONARY. al.), Oxford, 1983/93; A Chinese-English Dictionary of
Hancher 1988, Nesi 1989, Ilson 1990, ISO Idioms and Proverbs (X.J.Heng & X.Z.Zhang), Tübingen, 1990, Stein 1991, Svensén 1993. 1988; NTC’s American Idioms Dictionary [2nd edition] 2 A verbal EXAMPLE. (R.A.Spears), Lincolnwood IL, 1994. image of the dictionary idioticography The public perception of DICTIONARIES and other An archaic term for DIALECT LEXICOGRAPHY. reference works. Very little is known about this IMPLICIT DEFINITION 72 subject except that they evoke mixed feelings, from indentation an appreciation of their value as cultural tools, which A shortening of one or more lines of text from the is associated with their AUTHORITY on etymology, margin to highlight a section, e.g. the start of a spelling, pronunciation and definition, to a complete paragraph. In dictionaries and other reference works, ignorance of their benefits and limitations. reverse (or ‘hanging’) indentation is used to mark ð DICTIONARY CULTURE, STANDARD (2), USER the text of an entry following the ENTRY-LINE. PERSPECTIVE. Progressive indentation is sometimes used to indicate  Greenbaum et al. 1984, Algeo 1989a, 1989b. SUBORDINATION of concepts in an index of hierarchically related words in a thesaurus. implicit definition A contextual EXAMPLE used to elaborate on a index DEFINITION. A systematic LIST, usually of words or symbols occurring in a TEXT. In contrast with the impression CONCORDANCE which provides information on ð EDITION. the context of each of the cited words, the index usually gives only references to their positions, e.g. imprint line numbers. In practice, indexes can range from An indication, usually on the TITLE PAGE of a book simple lists of selected terms contained in a textbook or other published document, of the name of the or reference work, allowing the user access to each printer and/or publisher. by means of page numbers, to complex AUTHOR’S DICTIONARIES providing full information on the incipit vocabulary of a writer by location numbers in the ð STRUCTURAL INDICATOR. works documented. Some reference works have in addition to the main (alphabetically or thematically inclusion arranged) WORD-LIST one or more separate ð SENSE RELATION. indexes for access to particular information inclusion list categories such as personal or place names. An index A list of items (to be) included, e.g. TERMS in a to all variant forms of a lemmatised word is called TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. an ‘inverted index’; an alphabetic index in which ð COVERAGE, EXCLUSION LIST, SELECTION. items are arranged in reverse order of their  ISO 1990. constituent letters is called a ‘reverse index’, ‘index a tergo’ or REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. incompatibility ð CATALOGUE. A SENSE RELATION between two or more  Index to Science Fiction Anthologies and Collections HYPONYMS in relation to their HYPERONYM, (W.Contento), Boston MA, 1984; An Index of Icons in either serially (e.g. word, phrase, clause, sentence Emblem Books 1500–1700 (H.Diehl), Norman OK, 1986; in relation to syntax) or cyclically (e.g. poodle, The Omnicon Index of Standards for Distributed dachshund and spaniel in relation to dog). Information and Telecommunication Systems, Vienna & ð ANTONYMY. New York NY, 1989. incunable dictionaries index a tergo ð INCUNABULA. ð REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. incunabula indexer Books published before 1501. Early ‘incunable One who engages in the compilation of an INDEX. dictionaries’ and other reference works, also known ð AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INDEXERS, SOCIETY as ‘fifteeners’, can be very valuable and are the OF INDEXERS. subject of specialised collections. ð COLLECTION (1), DICTIONARY HISTORY, Panel indices ‘A Selection of European Dictionary Titles’ (page 144). The Latin plural form of INDEX, interchangeable  Vancil 1994. in English with indexes. 73 INFORMATION CATEGORY indigenous language information A local language, usually contrasted with a colonial ‘world Knowledge acquired or required. The DICTIONARY language’, e.g. the ‘vernacular’ languages in medieval and other REFERENCE WORKS attempt to satisfy the Europe in relation to Latin, or the South American Indian need for information, and INFORMATION languages in relation to Spanish or Portuguese. TECHNOLOGY is used to develop or find ways and ð FIELD DICTIONARY. means of storing, presenting and interpreting the data of  Bartholomew & Schoenhals 1983. interest to various users. Two classes of INFORMATION CATEGORY can be sought or infix provided: (a) linguistic information about ð AFFIX. ORTHOGRAPHY, PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, ETYMOLOGY, inflection idiomatic and stylistic and other aspects of USAGE; (b) The marking of grammatical function by means of encyclopedic information about TERMINOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, e.g. to show case or number. personal and other NAMES, geographical and historical ð DERIVATION, INFLECTIONAL INFORMATION. and other facts, items of cultural-artistic and scientific knowledge. The trend recently has been to present more inflectional information and more of these kinds of information in various types One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES of reference works, and computers have improved presented by the compiler and consulted by the user ACCESS by making formats more flexible. of a reference work, based on INFLECTION. ð DATA. LEMMATISATION is the process by which  McArthur 1992, Svensén 1993. compilers of dictionaries establish the canonical forms of headwords either by removing or retaining information category inflections. In the GENERAL DICTIONARY, One of several types of INFORMATION presented by inflectional information is usually limited to an the compiler and consulted by the user of a indication of part-of-speech information. There also REFERENCE WORK. Examples of such information may be cross-references to forms that deviate from provided in general dictionaries include the spoken and a paradigm, such as irregular past tenses of English written form of words and phrases (PRONUNCIATION verbs. But, in general, only skilled users may be able and SPELLING), their MEANINGS as explained in to predict the appropriate inflected forms. DEFINITIONS, and their structural, historical and ð AFFIXATION, CONJUGATION, DECLENSION. stylistic properties (GRAMMAR, ETYMOLOGY,  Mugdan 1989. USAGE). In encyclopedically oriented reference works, knowledge from specialised fields may also be made inflectional morpheme available in the form of technical terms, biographical and A MORPHEME added to a BASE or STEM to geographical facts, historical data, artistic and scientific indicate grammatical function. information, often put in a systematic context and ð DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME. pictorially illustrated. inflectional morphology The selection, treatment and utility of these ð MORPHOLOGY. information types depend on the dictionary in question and the FUNCTIONS which it is intended to fulfil. Thus informal the text layout and access FORMAT can vary ð STYLE LABEL. considerably, e.g. between a general monolingual defining dictionary for lay users and a bilingual informant terminological database for experts. There is also a wide 1 In FIELDWORK, one who provides linguistic range of lexicographic styles and conventions used in or other DATA. different cultures. In all these respects, changes are ð EVIDENCE. frequent, e.g. through recent forms of computerisation. 2 In USER RESEARCH, one who provides ð DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, DICTIONARY, information on the suitability or otherwise of ENCYCLOPEDIA, ILLUSTRATION (1), dictionaries and other reference works in LEXICOGRAPHY, MICROSTRUCTURE, Panel relation to certain needs or skills. ‘Information Categories’ (page 74). INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 74

Information Categories

 Collison 1982, Benson et al. 1986, Jackson 1988, INFORMATION. In the widest sense, this includes Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Svensen 1993, Béjoint 1994. writing (which enables the transmission of messages and its systematic storage on the basis of the script information retrieval used), but more specifically it refers to the machin- The successful conclusion of a SEARCH for relevant ery (typing, printing, broadcasting etc.) that aids the information. spreading of knowledge of all kinds. In the ð CONSULTATION, DATA, INFORMATION production of REFERENCE WORKS, computers CATEGORY. are used to collect data (FIELDWORK), process text (EDITING) and present the information for the information technology benefit of users (PUBLISHING). The use of various tools and systems, especially  Concise Dictionary of Computing and Information computerisation, for the presentation of Technology (D.B.Lynch), Bromley, 1991; Encyclopedic 75 INTERNAL ACCESS STRUCTURE

Dictionary of Information Technology and Systems individual USER, in terms of frequently performed (A.E.Cawkell), London, 1993. lexical, grammatical and textual SEARCHES. Only a small proportion of currently available software information type offers such facilities. ð INFORMATION CATEGORY. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY, HYPERTEXT, MULTIMEDIA, WORDNET. initialism ð ABBREVIATION. interference The process or result of interlingual transfer resulting inkhorn term in, for example, error in the target language. A word or phrase coined to splendificate the writer’s ð BORROWING, ERROR ANALYSIS, FALSE FRIEND, ‘learnedness’. INTERLANGUAGE, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. ð HARD WORD. interlanguage inner access structure A learner’s unique approximations of a target ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. language, on a dynamic continuum. The study of INTERFERENCE shows the relative influence of inner search path the NATIVE LANGUAGE, while ERROR ð SEARCH PATH. ANALYSIS measures the relative distance from the insert NORMS of the target language. ð 1 With reference to dictionary structure, ð FALSE FRIEND, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY.  MIDDLE MATTER. Davies et al. 1984, Tarone 1988, Granger et al. 1994. 2 A loose-leaf panel, e.g. of the grammar codes interlinear gloss used in a dictionary. ð GLOSS. insult interlingual dictionary ð TERM OF ABUSE. A type of REFERENCE WORK with information on integrative concept more than one language. The term is used either when ð COMPREHENSIVE CONCEPT. the contrast with MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY is stressed or when the distinction between BILINGUAL intension DICTIONARY and MULTILINGUAL The set of attributes which characterise a specific DICTIONARY is considered irrelevant. Other concept in relation to a superordinate generic interlingual sub-types include the QUASI- concept. BILINGUAL DICTIONARY in which a more ð EXTENSION, HYPONYMY, INTENSIONAL accessible language (e.g. English) is used for DEFINITION. describing the words of a less accessible language (e.g. archaic Akkadian) and the BILINGUALISED intensional definition DICTIONARY which is based on a monolingual A DEFINITION which specifies the attributes of a (learner’s) dictionary whose entries are translated specific concept in relation to its HYPERONYM, wholly or in part. In spite of their long tradition and e.g. tulip ‘a kind of flower which…’. usefulness, interlingual dictionaries have not received a ð EXTENSIONAL DEFINITION. great deal of attention in DICTIONARY RESEARCH.  ISO 1990. interlingual homograph interactive dictionary ð FALSE FRIEND. An ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY which is not only capable of being integrated into a personal computer interlingual homophone (e.g. text processing) system, but also allows the ð FALSE FRIEND. potential combination with other media, such as the INTERNET, film and sound, and—most cru-cially— internal access structure ð an adaptation to the needs and preferences of the ACCESS STRUCTURE. INTERNAL SEARCH PATH 76 internal search path international language ð SEARCH PATH. ð AUXILIARY LANGUAGE.

International Association of Applied Linguistics International Organization for Standardization ð ASSOCIATION INTERNATIONALE DE A world-wide federation of national standards LINGUISTIQUE APPLIQUÉE. institutions, founded in 1947, and based in Geneva. It has over 200 Technical Committees, one of which International Computer Archive of Modern and is concerned with the principles and standardisation Medieval English of TERMINOLOGY. An academic organisation, based at the Norwegian  Website: www.iso.ch Computing Centre for the Humanities in Bergen, and concerned with CORPORA of English. It hosts International Phonetic Alphabet annual conferences, and publishes the ICAME An internationally agreed PHONETIC ALPHABET, Journal. based on the Latin alphabet, developed by the  Website: www.hd.uib.no/icame.html International Phonetic Association in the late nineteenth century. International Council of Onomastic Sciences  Introducing Phonetics (P.Roach), London, 1992. A academic organisation, based in Louvain (Belgium), which holds triennial conferences and Internet published the journal ONOMA. A system of interconnected computer networks allowing access to global INFORMATION, e.g. by International Federation for Information and electronic mail. Documentation ð WORLD WIDE WEB. ð FÉDÉRATION INTERNATIONALE D’INFORMATION  LaQuey 1993, Gumming 1995, Biagini & Picchi ET DE DOCUMENTATION. 1996, Carr 1997.  International Forum on Information and The Whole Internet: User’s Guide and Catalog Documentation (E.Krol), Sebastopol CA, 1992. ð FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE D’INFORMATION ET DE DOCUMENTATION. intertextuality The similarities and cross-references among different internationalism texts. In METALEXICOGRAPHY, shared text A word or phrase shared across several languages, features allow the classification of reference works. e.g. combining forms such as CACO-, -ISM, LEXI- In DICTIONARY HISTORY, they permit the tracing and ORTHO-. Scientific internationalisms can be of links amongst dictionaries over time. marked in dictionaries by labels, e.g. ISV for ð COMPARISON OF DICTIONARIES, DICTIONARY ‘international scientific vocabulary’ in Webster’s ARCHAEOLOGY, GENRE, PARALLEL TEXTS. Third New International Dictionary (Springfield MA, 1961). intonation ð  Kirkness 1984. PROSODIC FEATURE.

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics introspection ð The title of a journal established in 1996, and EVIDENCE. published in Amsterdam. inventory International Journal of Lexicography A structured LIST of items or sets of items, e.g. of The title of a journal established in 1988, and property or stock. ð published in Oxford in association with the CATALOGUE. DICTIONARY SOCIETY OF NORTH AMERICA inverted entry and the EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR The listing of a MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION LEXICOGRAPHY. under its last (rather than first) constituent.  Website: www.oup.co.uk/jnls/list/lexico/ ð DIRECT ENTRY. 77 ISOGLOSS inverted index -ism ð INDEX. A COMBINING FORM used to refer to language styles (ARCHAISM, COLLOQUIALISM, -(io)nary NEOLOGISM etc.) or varieties (Americanism, A COMBINING FORM used in lexicography for Anglicism, Briticism etc.), or to sets of prejudices dictionary titles, e.g. E.Naha’s The Science (SEXISM, RACISM etc.) Fictionary (New York NY, 1980), B.Kasravi’s  Filipovic 1984, Görlach 1994. Indexionary (Santa Barbara CA, 1990) and  Dictionary of Americanisms (J.R.Bartlett), Boston MA, 1848. M.McCutcheon’s Descriptionary (New York NY, 1992). ISO A COMBINING FORM (< Greek ‘equal’) used IPA alone to designate the INTERNATIONAL Abbreviation for INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. ALPHABET.  International Standard ISO 1087 Terminology— Vocabulary, Geneva, 1990. irreversible idiom A multi-word expression whose order cannot be isogloss changed, e.g. through thick and thin. ð LINGUISTIC ATLAS (1).

J

jargon  McArthur 1992. A word or phrase associated with a subject field  Newspeak: A Dictionary of Jargon (J.Green), London, which is clear to the experts using it, but not to 1984. outsiders. Jargon shares with other special-language varieties like SLANG an in-group orientation which journals in lexicography outsiders often criticise. Jargon dictionaries attempt Regular publications devoted to lexicography and to explain specialised usage for the benefit of the related fields. non-initiated, sometimes in pseudo-humorous and/ ð CAHIERS DE LEXICOLOGIE, CÍSHU YÁNJIÙ, or critical fashion, while technical or DICTIONARIES, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES have less of CORPUS LINGUISTICS, INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF a bridge-building function. LEXICOGRAPHY, LEXICOGRAPHICA INTERNATIONAL ð HARD WORD, LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC ANNUAL, LEXICON, LEXICONORDICA, LEXIKOS, PURPOSES, TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. LEXIQUE, ONOMA, TERMINOLOGY.

K

kanji keyword out of context ð CHARACTER. A word or phrase extracted from a text and listed with references to the sources in which it occurs. keyword ð INDEX. 1 A word or phrase which has become representative of a field, movement or lifestyle, knowledge base e.g. communicative, green, postmodern. A computer-based system where information is  Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and linked by methods such as HYPERTEXT rather than Society (R.Williams), New York NY, 1985; in structured fields as in conventional DATABASES. Keywords in Language and Literacy (R.Carter), ð EXPERT SYSTEM. London & New York NY, 1995.  Vossen 1992. 2 A word or phrase used to index or catalogue a document. kosa 3 ð KEYWORD IN CONTEXT. ð METRICAL DICTIONARY. keyword in context KWIC concordance A word or phrase extracted from a text and listed in ð KEYWORD IN CONTEXT. alphabetical, frequency or other order, together with the words occurring in its immediate environment. KWOC index ð ð CONCORDANCE. KEYWORD OUT OF CONTEXT.

L

label TYPOLOGY). Knowledge about various aspects of A special symbol or abbreviated term used in language (LINGUISTIC INFORMATION) is codified REFERENCE WORKS to mark a word or phrase as in general and specialised dictionaries which also being associated with a particular USAGE or perform an important function in language learning LANGUAGE VARIETY. Dictionaries differ widely in and TRANSLATION. the way they do this. As the INFORMATION ð ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE, SEMIOTICS, USAGE. necessary to support a particular decision is not always  Benson et al. 1986. available and boundary lines between different usage  The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (D.Crystal), features are fluid, consistency is rarely achieved. Cambridge, 1987; An Encyclopedia of Language There are several potential scales along which a (N.E.Collinge), London & New York NY, 1990; Compendium of word such as cuss can be placed, and each of these can the World’s Languages (G.L.Campbell), London & New York be subdivided in different ways. Thus, on a scale of NY, 1991; Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics regionality, it could be labelled ‘Am(erican) E(nglish)’. (H.Bussmann et al), London & New York NY, 1996. On a scale of formality, it may need the label ‘inf(ormal)’ or ‘fam(iliar)’, at least for one or two of its language acquisition senses. But does it also have to be labelled, on a scale of ð LANGUAGE LEARNING. chronology, as ‘old-f(ashioned)’, or even ‘arch(aic)’? If attitude is considered relevant, what about language arts ‘derog(atory)’? And in a bilingual dictionary, do the A collective term for a number of disciplines linked translation equivalents for each sense of the word need to the teaching of languages, particularly that of the to be separately marked with corresponding labels? NATIVE LANGUAGE.  ð DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING, FIELD LABEL, Handbook of Research on Teaching the English FREQUENCY LABEL, GLOSS (2), LANGUAGE CODE, Language Arts [International Reading Association/National Council for the Teaching of English] (J.Flood et al.), New REGIONAL LABEL, STYLE LABEL, SUBJECT LABEL, York NY & Toronto, 1991. TEMPORAL LABEL, Panel ‘Usage Labels’ (page 151).  Landau 1984, Ilson 1990, Berg 1993, Svensén 1993, language change Thomsen 1994. The process and result of variation in pronunciation, structure and vocabulary over time. Specialised ladder DIACHRONIC DICTIONARIES make a feature of An informal term for DICTIONARY FAMILY. tracing chronological changes where evidence is available. The GENERAL DICTIONARY has never language attempted to chronicle all such developments, but The most basic means of COMMUNICATION marks the poles of ARCHAISM and NEOLOGISM by between human beings, studied in a number of means of labels. Modern technology allows the disciplines, notably LINGUISTICS. Languages are observation of change in the making through never static (LANGUAGE CHANGE) nor uniform MONITOR CORPORA, so that the ELECTRONIC internally (LANGUAGE VARIETY) or in comparison DICTIONARY of the future will be kept up to date. or contrast with each other (LANGUAGE  Bauer 1994, Labov 1994, Trask 1994. 81 LANGUAGE RESOURCE DATABASE language code bilingual, alphabetical versus thematic, general An abbreviation or symbol used to LABEL the language versus specialised. associated with a particular word, phrase or term. ð INTERLANGUAGE, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY,  ISO 1990. PEDAGOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY.  Nation 1989, Johnson 1995. language dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides language maintenance linguistic information about the total vocabulary covered. The totality of activities aimed at preserving a The prototype of this dictionary is the monolingual minority language, e.g. an INDIGENOUS GENERAL DICTIONARY, which may be viewed in LANGUAGE vis-à-vis a colonial language. contrast with the ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY or Dictionaries, monolingual or bilingual, may have a the TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. role to play in codifying the minority language and giving it cultural status. language engineering ð CULTURAL DICTIONARY, EXOGLOSSIC The harnessing of technology to the development LANGUAGE. of language-related activities, products and services.  The Language Engineering Directory (P.M.Hearn), language planning Madrid, 1996; Language Engineering: Progress and The totality of activities aimed at regulating the use of a Prospects (C.Watson, LINGLINK), Luxembourg, 1997. language, often linked to national policies. Such control is usually imposed centrally by governmental or quasi- language for special purposes governmental agencies, such as ACADEMIES or ð LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. language policy bureaux. Measures may include banning FOREIGNISMS, coining NEOLOGISMS and language for specific purposes technical TERMINOLOGY, controlling the media and In language teaching and LSP LEXICOGRAPHY, the redirecting education policies. variety of the language (‘special language’) used by ð CENSORSHIP, CULTURAL DICTIONARY, experts in a particular subject field. Textbooks for LANGUAGE RIGHTS, STANDARDISATION. teaching and reference books for explaining the  Kurtböke 1996, Raadik 1996, Kaplan & Baldauf 1997. ‘registers’ of such TECHNICAL LANGUAGES or ‘sub-languages’ take into account the specialist language policy knowledge (e.g. active and passive VOCABULARY) A set of governmental decisions on the relative of the target learner-user and make a deliberate effort to priorities of the use of languages in a state, for the select the HEADWORDS and couch the definitions purposes of employment, education etc., which can according to the criteria of familiarity and frequency. influence the number and types of REFERENCE ð CORPUS LINGUISTICS, ESP DICTIONARY, LSP WORKS produced and used. DICTIONARY. ð LANGUAGE RIGHTS.  Robinson 1980, Sager et al. 1980, Diab 1989, ISO 1990, James et al. 1994, 1997, James & Purchase 1996, Minaeva language purification 1996. The deliberate attempt to achieve PURISM in a language. language information ð LINGUISTIC INFORMATION. language purism ð PURISM. language learning The process of mastering a language, either the language reform mother tongue or a second/foreign language. A The totality of activities aimed at improving the distinction can be made between ‘learning’ (in a conditions in which a language can develop and be formal environment, e.g. a school) and ‘acquisition’ taught, e.g. through SPELLING REFORM. (in an informal setting). There is a lack of awareness ð STANDARDISATION. of the needs of different learners for different types of reference works, e.g. monolingual versus language resource database ð DATABASE. LANGUAGE RIGHTS 82 language rights retained, with some modifications through the The exercise and protection of the fundamental right centuries, for writing, and subsequently printing, the to use the language of one’s choice. languages of western Europe (with the exception of ð LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE, LANGUAGE Greek). Through colonisation, missionary activities POLICY. and other historical events, the Latin alphabet has  Tollefson 1991, Phillipson & Skutnabb-Kangas 1995. now been adopted as the writing system of many of the world’s languages. language standardisation ð ALPHABET. ð STANDARDISATION. layout language teaching The way the page of a reference work is displayed. The practice of creating an environment conducive Recently more attention has been paid to the user- to LANGUAGE LEARNING by the use of friendliness of the presentation, taking into appropriate instructional methodologies. consideration such criteria as the legibility and ð APPLIED LINGUISTICS, INTERLANGUAGE, effectiveness of variable typography, the use of LANGUAGE ARTS, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, ILLUSTRATIONS, the limitation of TEXT PEDAGOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY. COMPRESSION and other graphic support.  Hartmann 1992a, Johnson 1995. ð DESIGN, EXTRA COLUMN, GUIDEWORD.  Simpson 1989. language typology A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the LDC classification of languages, based on structural Abbreviation for LINGUISTIC DATA similarities rather than genetic affiliation. The nature CONSORTIUM. and types of reference works reflect the diversity of language types, e.g. by taking morphology into learner corpus account in determining CANONICAL FORMS. ð ERROR ANALYSIS.  Zgusta 1989b.  The Atlas of Languages (B.Comrie et al.), New York learner language NY, 1996. ð INTERLANGUAGE. language variety learner lexicography The presence in a language of several distinctive ð PEDAGOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY. systems, conditioned by such factors as regionality (DIALECT), personality (IDIOLECT), gender learner’s dictionary (GENDERLECT), social class (SOCIOLECT), subject A PEDAGOGICAL DICTIONARY aimed primarily field (TECHNOLECT) or historical stage (PERIOD). at non-native learners of a language. The degree to ð REGISTER (1), SOCIOLINGUISTICS, STYLE. which dictionaries have been integrated into the  Jackson 1988, Chambers 1994. learning process varies from culture to culture. The true dictionary as a learning tool (‘learning last name dictionary’) is still in its infancy. ð PERSONAL NAME. ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, BILINGUAL LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. latent word  Strevens 1978, 1987, Cowie 1987a, Jackson 1988, A word which according to the rules of phonology and Rundell 1988, Tickoo 1989, Battenburg 1991, Zöfgen 1991, morphology is possible, but whose use has not been Hartmann 1992a, Allen 1996, Kernerman 1996, Stark 1996. documented in a TEXT, e.g. a DERIVATIVE  Cambridge International Dictionary of English generated as a RUN-ON ENTRY in a dictionary entry. (P.Procter), Cambridge, 1995; Longman Dictionary of  Landau 1984, Svensén 1993. Contemporary English [3rd edition] (D.Summers), Harlow, 1995; Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary [5th edition] Latin alphabet (J.Crowther), Oxford, 1995; Collins COBUILD Learner’s The conventional set of graphic symbols used for Dictionary (J.Sinclair), London, 1996; Random House the representation of the sounds of Latin, and Webster’s Dictionary of American English (G.M.Dalgish), 83 LEXEME

New York, 1997; Australian Learners Dictionary (D.Blair lemmatic form & C.N.Candlin), Sydney NSW, 1997. ð LEMMATISATION. learning dictionary lemmatisation ð LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. The reduction of a paradigm of variant word forms to a CANONICAL FORM, e.g. the inflected forms -lect (-s, -ed, -ing etc.) of English verbs to the infinitive. A COMBINING FORM used in LINGUISTICS to refer Lemmatisation is a problem awaiting a to a number of distinct language varieties, e.g. DIALECT, comprehensive solution (attempted by GENDERLECT, IDIOLECT, SOCIOLECT, computational approaches) in connection with wider TECHNOLECT. tasks such as how to choose a suitable HEADWORD ð CREOLE. from the constituents of a FIXED EXPRESSION, and how to list BINOMIAL COMPOUNDS (under left-core structure the last or first constituent). ð CORE STRUCTURE. ð DIRECT ENTRY, TAGGING.  ISO 1990, Schnorr 1991, Botha 1992, Lorentzen legal lexicography 1996, Mills 1996. A complex of activities concerned with the design,  LEXICO (R.Venezky), 1969; LEXA (R.Mickey), 1993. compilation, use and evaluation of reference works in the field of law. lemmatised word index  Šarcevic 1988, 1989. An ordered list of CANONICAL FORMS.  Campus florum (T.Wallensis), c. 1335; The ð LEMMATISATION. International Law Dictionary (R.L.Bledsoe & B.A.Boczek), Santa Barbara CA, 1987. letter A graphic symbol used in an alphabetic writing lemma system to represent one or more speech sounds. The position at which an entry can be located and found ð GRAPHEME, SPELLING, WRITING. in the structure of a REFERENCE WORK. The relationships of the lemma in the reference work are letter-by-letter alphabetisation two-way: within the overall (e.g. alphabetical) A principle of ALPHABETICAL ORGANISATION MACROSTRUCTURE it constitutes the point of in which words or phrases are listed in order of their ACCESS where the compiler can place and the user letters, ignoring word boundaries. Thus in this can find the information listed; within the Dictionary of Lexicography, lexicalisation comes MICROSTRUCTURE it establishes the ‘topic’ on between lexical information and lexical item. which the rest of the entry is a ‘comment’, e.g. the ð WORD-BY-WORD ALPHABETISATION. definition of the HEADWORD.  Svensén 1993. Some authorities favour including all information preceding the definition within the notion of the lemma, lexeme i.e. all ‘formal’ items such as spelling, pronunciation and A basic unit in the linguistic study of grammar, while others use the term as a synonym for VOCABULARY. Lexemes are usually interpreted ‘headword’ or even the whole ENTRY. as a combination of a FORM (graphic/phonic ð SUB-LEMMA. substance) with a MEANING (semantic value) in a  Ilson 1988, Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Osselton 1995. particular grammatical context. As such they occur lemma clustering as simple words (e.g. face), complex words (preface), ð CLUSTERING. phrasal and compound words (face up to, face-lift), ‘multi-word expressions’ (fly-by-night, face the lemma sign music), and shortened forms which can stand by ð SIGN. themselves (prefab). Lexemes are studied paradigmatically in SEMANTIC FIELDS, and lemmata syntagmatically in COLLOCATIONS. The Greek plural form of LEMMA, interchangeable When lexemes are used in dictionaries as in English with lemmas. HEADWORDS, they are cited in their CANONICAL LEX(I)- 84

FORMS (e.g. in English, verbs in the bare infinitive GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION or [face] shorn of all grammatical inflections [face\d, ENCYCLOPEDIC INFORMATION, may contain face\s, fac\ing]). The meanings of lexemes are e.g. word origins (ETYMOLOGY), forms explained in the general dictionary by DEFINITIONS (MORPHOLOGY) or meanings (SEMANTICS). or in specialised reference works such as  Thelen 1992. THESAURUSES or SYNONYM DICTIONARIES (in thematically grouped conceptual lists). lexicalisation ð AFFIX, HOMONYMY, LEMMATISATION, The process or result of assigning to a word or phrase LEXICOLOGY, POLYSEMY, WORD FORMATION. the status of a LEXEME.  Jackson 1988, Sinclair 1991, Svensén 1993, Gouws 1996. ð WORD FORMATION. lex(i)- lexical item A COMBINING FORM used to coin terms ð WORD. associated with ‘words’ and ‘lexicography’, e.g. lexicomputing. lexical knowledge base ð KNOWLEDGE BASE. lexica The Greek plural form of LEXICON, lexical meaning ð interchangeable in English with lexicons. MEANING. lexical ambiguity lexical relation ð ð AMBIGUITY. SENSE RELATION. lexical collocation lexical resources ð COLLOCATION. A collective term for language DATA available primarily by electronic means. lexical database  Vossen 1996. ð DATABASE. lexical semantics lexical definition ð SEMANTICS. ð DEFINITION. lexical set lexical domain ð SEMANTIC FIELD. ð SEMANTIC FIELD. lexical unit lexical equivalent ð WORD. ð EQUIVALENT. lexical word lexical field ð CONTENT WORD. ð SEMANTIC FIELD. lexicographer lexical gap One who engages in LEXICOGRAPHY, either as a The absence of a word to express a particular COMPILER or as a METALEXICOGRAPHER. meaning, e.g. lack of translation equivalents for ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, REFERENCE CULTURE-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY terms PROFESSIONAL, WHO’S WHO. across languages.  Kipfer 1985, Lombard 1994, Zgusta 1996. lexical information lexicographese One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES ð DICTIONARESE. presented by the compiler and consulted by the user of the dictionary, based on VOCABULARY. Lexical Lexicographica information, sometimes contrasted either with A double series of publications co-sponsored by the EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR 85 LEXICOGRAPHY

LEXICOGRAPHY and the DICTIONARY lexicographist SOCIETY OF NORTH AMERICA, consisting of a An archaic term for one who engages in monograph series (Lexicographica Series Maior) LEXICOGRAPHY. established in 1984, and a yearbook (Lexicographica. International Annual for lexicography Lexicography) established in 1985. The professional activity and academic field concerned with DICTIONARIES and other Lexicographical Society of China REFERENCE WORKS. It has two basic divisions: A professional society established in Beijing in 1992. lexicographic practice, or DICTIONARY-MAKING, It holds biennial conferences, and awards the and lexicographic theory, or DICTIONARY CHINESE LEXICOGRAPHY PRIZE. RESEARCH. The former is often associated with ð CÍSHU YÁNJIÙ. commercial book publishing, the latter with scholarly studies in such disciplines as LINGUISTICS Lexicographical Society of India (especially LEXICOLOGY), but strict boundaries A professional society established in Hyderabad in are difficult to maintain and, in any case, are being 1975. It issues a newsletter, the LxSI News Bulletin. bridged by such means as professional training, societies, conferences and publications. There are lexicographic(al) archaeology as yet no internationally agreed standards of what ð DICTIONARY ARCHAEOLOGY. constitutes a good dictionary, but human ingenuity (and computer technology) produces new types lexicographic(al) archive every day against the background of various ð ARCHIVE (1). historical traditions, to meet people’s insatiable need for rapid access to INFORMATION, linguistic as lexicographic(al) computing well as encyclopedic. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. Depending on the orientation and purpose of such lexicographic(al) corpus reference works, several branches of lexicography can ð CORPUS. be distinguished, each with its own practices and theories: lexicographic(al) coverage ð COVERAGE. AUTHOR LEXICOGRAPHY BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY lexicographic(al) definition BIOGRAPHICAL LEXICOGRAPHY ð DEFINITION. COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY CULTURAL LEXICOGRAPHY lexicographic(al) evidence DIALECT LEXICOGRAPHY ENCYCLOPEDIC LEXICOGRAPHY ð EVIDENCE. ETYMOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY FREQUENCY LEXICOGRAPHY lexicographic(al) information HISTORICAL LEXICOGRAPHY 1 With reference to information presented in a ð LEGAL LEXICOGRAPHY dictionary, DICTIONARY INFORMATION. LSP LEXICOGRAPHY 2 With reference to information on vocabulary, MEDICAL LEXICOGRAPHY ð LEXICAL INFORMATION. MONOLINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY MULTILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY lexicographic(al) label MUSICAL LEXICOGRAPHY ð LABEL. ONOMASIOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY ONOMASTIC LEXICOGRAPHY Lexicographic Research Centre PEDAGOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY ð DICTIONARY RESEARCH CENTRE. PERIOD LEXICOGRAPHY REGIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY lexicographic(al) style RHYME LEXICOGRAPHY ð DICTIONARY STYLE. SLANG LEXICOGRAPHY SPECIALISED LEXICOGRAPHY LEXICOLOGIST 86

Lexicography: Theory and Practice

TECHNICAL LEXICOGRAPHY field with its own premises (DICTIONARY TERMINOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY RESEARCH), utilising and adapting the findings of TEXT-SPECIFIC LEXICOGRAPHY other disciplines to its own ends. Conversely, THESAURUS LEXICOGRAPHY lexicology has incorporated many of the facts USAGE LEXICOGRAPHY. accumulated in dictionaries throughout their history, such as ‘common core words’ and ‘hard words’, ð COMPARATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, GENERAL ‘colloquialisms’ and ‘technical terms’, ‘simple LEXICOGRAPHY, METALEXICOGRAPHY, words’ and ‘multi-word expressions’, ‘archaic PRESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, PROFESSIONAL words’ and ‘neologisms’, ‘regionalisms’ and RESOURCES, REFERENCE SCIENCE, THEORY OF ‘internationalisms’. LEXICOGRAPHY, TRAINING, TYPOLOGY (1), Panel ð ETYMOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, SEMANTICS, ‘Lexicography: Theory and Practice’ (above). TERMINOLOGY.  Zgusta 1971, 1991, Hartmann 1983, 1993, Landau  Jackson 1988. 1984, Ilson 1986a, 1990, Jackson 1988, Geeraerts 1989, Cowie 1990, Frawley 1992–3, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. lexicomputing  Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. (F.J.Hausmann et al.), Berlin, 1989–91; Císhuxué cídian˘ (Z.X.Yang & Q.K.Xu), Shanghai, 1992; Diccionario de lexicon lexicografia práctica (J.M.de Sousa), Barcelona, 1995; 1 The totality of a language’s VOCABULARY, Nordisk leksikografisk ordbok (H.Bergenholtz et al.), Oslo, seen either as a list or as a structured whole. 1997. The view of vocabulary as a LIST of words has led to the development of glossaries, dictionaries lexicologist and other works of reference, while the One who engages in LEXICOLOGY. structural view has encouraged such linguistic disciplines as GRAMMAR, LEXICOLOGY lexicology and SEMANTICS. A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the
Jackson 1988, Svartvik 1992b, Pemberton study of the basic units of vocabulary (LEXEMES), & Tsang 1993. their formation, structure and meaning. Lexicology 2 A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the is relevant to DICTIONARY-MAKING in a number words of a language, language variety, speaker of respects as it can clarify how words and phrases or text are listed and explained, either in are created, combined, modified and defined, and alphabetical or in thematic order. In English, how USAGE varies within a language according to this term is associated not with the GENERAL such parameters as dialect, formality and DICTIONARY, but with more specialised works technicality. However, the relationship between of a classical, literary or technical orientation. lexicology and LEXICOGRAPHY cannot be In the Renaissance, lexicon was one of several reduced to theory versus practice: lexicography is competing titles for (often multilingual) not merely ‘applied lexicology’, but an autonomous specialised dictionaries. 87 LINGUIST

ð GLOSSARY. indexing and cataloguing of REFERENCE WORKS,
Stein 1985, Green 1996. and advice to users on their content and consultation.  Lexicon [Latin-Spanish] (E.A.de Nebrija), ð LIBRARY SCIENCE. Salamanca, 1492; Lexicon tetraglotton [English-French-Italian-Spanish] (J.Howell), librarianship 1660; Lexicon technicum (J.Harris), 1704; ð LIBRARY SCIENCE. Lexicon Grammaticorum (H.Stammerjohann), Tübingen, 1996. Library Association 3 The mental vocabulary stored in the (native) A professional society, based in London, founded in speaker’s mind. Some issues studied (in 1877 to represent LIBRARIANS. There are 23 subject PSYCHOLINGUISTICS and related disciplines groups, including one for (Reference and) Information such as ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) include: Services and one for Information Technology. ð how and where words are stored, in what order AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, they are learned and remembered, whether McCOLVIN MEDAL, WALFORD AWARD, bilinguals have separate or joint lexicons, etc. WHEATLEY MEDAL.  ð ACTIVE VOCABULARY, PASSIVE World Guide to Libraries, Archives and Information VOCABULARY. Science Associations (J.R.Fang & A.H.Songe), London, 1990. 
Aitchison 1987. www.la-hq.org.uk

Lexicon library of deposit ð The title of the journal of the Iwasaki Linguistic DEPOSITORY LIBRARY. Circle (Tokyo), published since 1972. library science LexicoNordica A field with close ties to LEXICOGRAPHY, The title of the journal of the NORDISK FORENING concerned with the organisation of libraries as FOR LEKSIKOGRAFI, established in 1994. systematic collections of books and other DOCUMENTS. This involves archiving and lexicophile classification of manuscripts and printed materials, A lover or collector of DICTIONARIES and other including REFERENCE WORKS of all kinds, and works of reference. providing access to them, e.g. by means of CATALOGUES, BIBLIOGRAPHIES, INDEXES lexicostatistics and INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. ð FREQUENCY.  Harrod’s Librarians’ Glossary (R.Prytherch), Aldershot, 1995. lexigraphy The art of constructing and expressing library union database DEFINITIONS of words. An electronic UNION LIST.  Worldcat [incorporating 15,000 library catalogues] Lexikos website: bart.prod.oclc.org:3050 The title of a journal published annually by the Buro van die Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal in Stellenbosch, ligature South Africa since 1991, now also the journal of the ð DIGRAPH. AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LEXICOGRAPHY. lingua franca Lexique A link language used by speakers of different The title of a journal published annually since 1982 by the languages as a common medium of communication. Presses universitaires de Lille, Villeneuve d’Ascq, France. ð AUXILIARY LANGUAGE, CONTACT lexis VERNACULAR. ð LEXICON (1). linguist librarian One who engages in activities involving (foreign) One who engages in library work. This may include the languages and/or LINGUISTICS. LINGUISTIC ATLAS 88 linguistic atlas linguistic information 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK consisting of A collective term for the INFORMATION maps illustrating the features of one of more CATEGORIES presented by the compiler and regional varieties of a language. The maps which consulted by the user of a dictionary, based on plot, by the use of ‘isoglosses’, the regional LANGUAGE. Information types in entries may be distribution of aspects of pronunciation, diachronic, e.g. etymology; orthographic, e.g. spelling; grammar and vocabulary are based on phonological, e.g. pronunciation; grammatical, e.g. FIELDWORK surveys by means of personal part of speech; semantic, e.g. definitions or translation interviews. This technique was pioneered by equivalents; and pragmatic, e.g. usage labels. These can Jules Gilliéron in France at the beginning of the be supplemented and complemented by other means, twentieth century and has since been refined by e.g. pictorial, onomastic and encyclopedic, either dialectologists in other parts of the world. For within the entry or in the OUTSIDE MATTER. There English, several linguistic atlases are available are also SPECIALISED DICTIONARIES available for areas of Britain and the USA. Linguistic for each of these information categories, e.g. information of this kind has also been published GRAMMAR DICTIONARIES, PRONOUNCING in the form of DIALECT DICTIONARIES and DICTIONARIES, SPELLING DICTIONARIES and REGIONAL DICTIONARIES. SYNONYM DICTIONARIES. ð DIALECT. There are numerous formats and conventions for
McArthur 1992. presenting these details on the dictionary page. The  The Linguistic Atlas of England (H.Orton distribution, range, status and quality of linguistic et al.), London, 1978; The Linguistic Atlas of information included in reference works vary widely Scotland (J.Y.Mather & H.H.Speitel), London, across different speech communities and cultures. 1975–86; The Linguistic Atlas of New England ð LEXICAL INFORMATION, STRUCTURE. (H.Kurath), Providence RI, 1939–43; An Atlas  Landau 1984, Ilson 1985, Swanepoel 1992, Svensén of English Dialects (C.Upton & 1993. J.D.A.Widdowson), Oxford, 1996. 2 A type of reference work with information on linguistic insecurity the distribution of the world’s languages. The feeling of inadequacy that a language user may  Atlas of the World’s Languages (C.Moseley experience in the choice of a linguistic form & R.E.Asher), London & New York, 1993; The appropriate to a specific situation, e.g. meaning, Atlas of Languages (B.Comrie et al), New York spelling, pronunciation, usage. One solution to the NY, 1996. problem may be to consult a reference work. ð FUNCTION. linguistic change ð LANGUAGE CHANGE. linguistic mark-up ð TAGGING. linguistic content ð LINGUISTIC INFORMATION. linguistic norm ð NORM. Linguistic Data Consortium A research-based organisation specialising in linguistic purism projects on text CORPORA and similar fields. ð PURISM.  Website: www.ldc.upenn.edu/ linguistics linguistic dictionary An academic discipline concerned with the study of ð LANGUAGE DICTIONARY. LANGUAGE in all its manifestations. LINGUISTIC INFORMATION, the result of research in several linguistic geography branches of linguistics, is codified in general ð DIALECT GEOGRAPHY. dictionaries (e.g. PRONUNCIATION, GRAMMAR, MEANING) or in specialised dictionaries, e.g. in linguistician ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES or USAGE An informal term for LINGUIST. GUIDES. Progress in LEXICOGRAPHY often 89 LOGICAL DEFINITION depends on the findings of linguistic analysis, but DIRECTORY, ENCYCLOPEDIA, THESAURUS, DICTIONARY-MAKING is an autonomous etc.). professional field. ð EXCLUSION LIST. ð APPLIED LINGUISTICS, CORPUS  Hüllen 1994. LINGUISTICS, LEXICOLOGY, PHILOLOGY, SEMIOTICS, SOCIOLINGUISTICS. listing  Béjoint 1994, Lombard 1994, Hudson 1995, ð CLUSTERING, GROUPING. Hartmann 1996a, O’Grady et al. 1997.  The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics literacy (R.E.Asher & J.M.Y.Simpson), Oxford, 1994; Routledge The skill of reading and writing. It is often assumed Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (H.Bussmann et that literacy is a basic REFERENCE SKILL, but al.), London & New York NY, 1996. there are many examples from oral cultures, e.g. in ancient India, of the compilation and use of linguistic science(s) memorised reference works. ð LINGUISTICS. ð ORACY, READING, WRITING.  James 1991, 1995a, Barton 1994. linguistic sign  Keywords in Language and Literacy (R.Carter), ð SIGN. London & New York NY, 1995. linguistic standard literal meaning ð STANDARD. A basic non-metaphorical meaning of a word or phrase. link word ð BASIC SENSE, FIGURATIVE MEANING. A word or phrase used to connect sentences or parts of sentences, e.g. but, however. literal translation  Dictionary of Link Words in English Discourse ð TRANSLATION. (W.J.Ball), London, 1986; Collins COBUILD English Guides 9: Linking Words (S.Chalker), London, 1996. loan translation The process of BORROWING a word or phrase from list another language, retaining the meaning but A basic tool for structuring INFORMATION. In replacing the constituents by native morphological REFERENCE WORKS such as dictionaries, lists are elements, resulting in a ‘calque’, e.g. Cantonese yiht fundamental tools in the organisation of information ‘hot’ gáu ‘dog’ = ‘hot dog’. and in the way this is structured so it can be presented, searched and found. Much of the loan-word terminology of lexicography is an elaboration of the A word or phrase which is the result of list-of-words metaphor, from the traditional card- BORROWING, and which has not been fully box to the computerised database, from the assimilated into the NATIVE VOCABULARY, e.g. MICROSTRUCTURE (e.g. the ordering of the cídian˘ ‘Chinese character dictionary’. senses of the HEADWORD) of the entry and its ð FOREIGNISM, LOAN TRANSLATION. subdivisions to the MACROSTRUCTURE (e.g. the  Pratt 1992. alphabetical arrangement of the WORD-LIST) of  German Loanwords in English: An Historical the whole reference work. Dictionary (J.A.Pfeffer & G.Cannon), Cambridge, 1994. Lists of items, such as words or phrases, normally follow the top-to-bottom order of writing (left-to- local ordering right in scripts based on the Latin alphabet), but more The listing of items in the order in which they occur complex groupings (NICHING, NESTING) may in a text, e.g. new words occurring in chapters of a make access more difficult for users. The information textbook. ð items listed can range from letters (ALPHABET) ORGANISATION. and words (INDEX, CONCORDANCE) to complex logical definition structures (BIBLIOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY, ð DEFINITION. LOGICAL SENSE ORDERING 90 logical sense ordering low variety ð SENSE ORDERING. ð DIGLOSSIA.

-logy LSP ð -(O)LOGY. Abbreviation for LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. lookalike An informal term for PARONYM. LSP dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK intended to describe look up a variety of a language used by experts in a particular ð CONSULTATION. subject field. Dictionaries of this kind are conceived as aids for users who are already specialists in the look-up form field, but want to practise or further study it through ð CANONICAL FORM. the medium of the target LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES, e.g. for preparing an look-up strategies academic paper for delivery at a conference. ð USER STRATEGIES.  Oxford Dictionary of Computing for Learners of loose synonym English (S.Pyne & A.Tuck), Oxford, 1996. ð SYNONYMY (1). LSP lexicography loose synonymy A complex of activities concerned with the design, ð SYNONYMY (1). compilation, use and evaluation of LSP DICTIONARIES.

M

machine-aided lexicography macrothesaurus ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. ð THESAURUS (2). machine indexing main-entry The compilation of an INDEX by computer. ð ENTRY TERM. main source machine lexicography ð SOURCE. ð COMPUTATIONAL LEXICOGRAPHY. manual machine-readable dictionary ð HANDBOOK. A version of a dictionary which can be processed by or in a computer. Such dictionaries are used, e.g. manual language in natural language processing, for purposes of ð SIGN LANGUAGE. semantic analysis and disambiguation, machine manuscript dictionary translation or the representation of knowledge. A DICTIONARY copied in handwriting. Before the ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. advent of printing, manuscript dictionaries were the  Boguraev 1991, Ide et al. 1992, Fontenelle 1996, norm. Many of the early dictionaries of European Sobkowiak 1996. languages and the languages of e.g. China and India, some very extensive, produced by the first European machine translation missionaries to those lands, have never been published. ð TRANSLATION. ð COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY, OLA DICTIONARY. macrofunction map ð FUNCTION. The presentation of geographical and cultural information in cartographic form. macrostructure ð ATLAS, CULTURAL ATLAS. The overall LIST structure which allows the compiler and the user to locate information in a REFERENCE marginal gloss WORK. The most common format in Western ð GLOSS (1). dictionaries is the alphabetical WORD-LIST (although there are other ways of ordering the markedness HEADWORDS, e.g. thematically, chronologically The feature that distinguishes a ‘marked’ from an or by frequency), which constitutes the central ‘unmarked’ member of a pair or set of linguistic items, component. This can be supplemented by OUTSIDE e.g. dog (unmarked) versus bitch (marked). In MATTER in the front, middle or back of the work. lexicography marking is used in systems of USAGE ð MEGASTRUCTURE, MICROSTRUCTURE, Panel LABELS which classify words or phrases in particular ‘Megastructure’ (page 92). language contexts, e.g. dialect, register, technicality,  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, ISO 1990, Svensén genre and attitude. 1993. ð DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING. MARK-UP LANGUAGE 92

Megastructure (Macrostructure and outside matter)

referent(s) in the extralinguistic world; this can be mark-up language objective (DENOTATION) or subjective ð STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP (CONNOTATION), but rarely is it one-to-one LANGUAGE. because of SENSE RELATIONS of polysemy, mass media synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and hyperonomy. ð MEDIA STUDIES. SEMANTIC INFORMATION of various kinds is covered in the general dictionary by means of McColvin Medal DEFINITION and EXAMPLE, and specialised An annual award by the LIBRARY ASSOCIATION reference works (such as THESAURUSES, WORD- for the most outstanding reference work published. FINDING DICTIONARIES and SYNONYM DICTIONARIES) address particular aspects of meanalike meaning. An informal term for PARONYM. ð CONCEPT, ETYMOLOGY, ONOMASIOLOGY, SENSE. meaning  Wierzbicka 1985, Allen 1986, Cruse 1986, Moon The relationship between words or phrases and the 1987, Jackson 1988, Swanepoel 1994, Considine 1996, objects or ideas which they designate. Several Gouws 1996. different aspects of this complex relationship have been studied in SEMANTICS, producing a range of meaning discrimination theories and models according to how they approach ð SENSE DISCRIMINATION. the connection either between ‘words and things’ or between ‘words and words’. REFERENCE is the meaning distinction meaning relation between a linguistic unit and its ð SENSE DISCRIMINATION. 93 METATEXT meaning shift works, e.g. in the form of a table of contents at the ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. head of an entry, referring to numbered sections. meaning specialisation meronymy ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. ð PARTITIVE RELATION. mechanical dictionary mesolect ð ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. ð CREOLE. media studies metalanguage A field concerned with the nature and social impact The language used to present and comment on a of newspapers, radio and television, often together subject field. In linguistics, metalanguage is the with the technologies on which these ‘mass media’ terminology used to describe the ‘object language’ are based, such as the motion picture, (human language). In lexicography, metalanguage telecommunications and computing. includes such conventions as grammatical codes, ð FILM, INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, labelling of usage and the formulation of definitions. MULTIMEDIA, TELEMATICS. In this Dictionary of Lexicography, an attempt is  The Complete A-Z Media & Communication Studies made to use a neutral metalanguage to describe the Handbook (S.Price), London, 1997. metalanguage of lexicography. ð METALEXICOGRAPHY. medical lexicography  Svensén 1993. A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of reference works metalexicographer in the field of medicine. One who engages in the THEORY OF  Manuila 1981, McConchie 1983, Landau 1984, Jost LEXICOGRAPHY. & Crocker 1987, Mackenzie & Mel’cuk 1988. metalexicography  Aggregator Paduanus de medicinis simplicibus (J.Dondi A complex of activities concerned with the status of dall’Orologia), c. 1470; Dictionary of Pharmaceutical the field of LEXICOGRAPHY. Medicine (G.Nahler), Vienna & New York NY, 1994; The  Huang 1994. Merck Index. An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals [12th edition] (S.Budavari), Whitehouse Station metaphor NJ, 1996; Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology and Molecular The use of a word or phrase usually designating a Medicine (R.A.Myers), Weinheim NY, 1996. concept of one domain or semantic field (the source domain) used to designate an aspect of another mediostructure domain or semantic field (the target domain). ð CROSS-REFERENCE STRUCTURE. Metaphors are usually established on the basis of perceived similarity between the two concepts, e.g. megastructure virus ‘destructive computer code’ from virus The totality of the component parts of a reference ‘microscopic agent causing infection’. This process work, including the MACROSTRUCTURE and the has often been used to designate TITLES of OUTSIDE MATTER. reference books, e.g. THESAURUS (‘treasure ð Panel ‘Megastructure’, page 92 chest’), ENCYCLOPEDIA (‘circle of knowledge’).  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989.  Frawley 1982, Regan 1989, McArthur 1992, Svensén 1993. melioration  Collins COBUILD English Guide 7: Metaphor ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. (A.Deignan), London, 1995. mental lexicon metatext ð LEXICON (3). A section of a dictionary used to present and menu comment on the body of the work, e.g. an A metaphor adopted in computing and further explanatory chart in the FRONT MATTER which adapted to the construction of ENTRIES in reference illustrates the structure of entries. METONYMY 94 metonymy ð ADDRESS, BASE STRUCTURE, USER’S GUIDE, A word or phrase designating a concept of a specific Panel ‘Microstructure’ (below). domain or semantic field used to designate another  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, ISO 1990, Svensén aspect of the same domain on the basis of contiguity. 1993. Metonomy is based on a semantic link established by association, e.g. Fleet Street for ‘the British press’ microthesaurus (the place, for the institution located there). ð THESAURUS (2). metrical dictionary middle matter A DICTIONARY compiled according to a Those components of a dictionary’s conventional rhyme scheme, often for the purpose MACROSTRUCTURE which may be inserted into of ease of memorisation. Such a format is typical of the central WORD-LIST section without forming a classical Sanskrit ‘kosa’ or ‘nighan.tu’. dictionaries constituent part of it. Examples from general of sacred texts. dictionaries include plates of illustrations, maps or  Vogel 1979, James 1991. diagrams, lists of grammatical terms or semantic fields, encyclopedic information; in two-way micro-function bilingual dictionaries examples include lists of ð FUNCTION phrases or idiomatic expressions inserted between the two parts. microstructure ð OUTSIDE MATTER. The internal design of a REFERENCE UNIT. In  Cop 1989. contrast to the overall word-list (MACROSTRUCTURE), the microstructure minimum vocabulary provides detailed information about the ð BASIC VOCABULARY. HEADWORD, with comments on its formal and semantic properties (spelling, pronunciation, minority language grammar, definition, usage, etymology). If the ð EXOGLOSSIC LANGUAGE. headword has more than one SENSE, the information is given for each of these (SUB- mixed arrangement LEMMA). Dictionaries vary according to the ð ARRANGEMENT. amount of information they provide, and how they present it in the text of the ENTRY. Users may not modernising dictionary have sufficient reference skills to follow the A dictionary which makes a feature of the selection intricacies of the microstructure, and may need and treatment of CONTEMPORARY USAGE. ð explicit guidance and/or instruction to find and ARCHAISING DICTIONARY.  extract the details required. Zgusta 1989a.

Microstructure 95 MORPHEME monitor corpus commercial or scholarly, comprehensive or concise, A CORPUS of texts which is open-ended, allowing general or specialised, etc.) have been recognised. for the addition and subtraction of material, to take One relatively recent sub-type is the LEARNER’S account of the progress of language change. DICTIONARY for foreign-language users, another is ð NEOLOGISM. the ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. The wider  Clear 1988. availability of text corpora and computer technology is likely to lead to new and better versions of all of these monoaccessible dictionary monolingual dictionaries. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. ð METALANGUAGE, TYPOLOGY (1).  Landau 1984, Bailey 1987, Rundell 1988, Béjoint monodirectional dictionary 1994. A type of BILINGUAL DICTIONARY in which the  Collins English Dictionary and Thesaurus in One translation equivalents can be accessed only from Volume (W.T.McLeod), London & Glasgow, 1987; The one of the two languages. Thus if a French-English Random House Dictionary of the English Language dictionary had only this one side, it could only be (S.B.Flexner), New York NY, 1987; The Concise Oxford consulted by an English-speaking user for decoding, Dictionary of Current English (R.E.Allen), Oxford, 1990; i.e. reading a French text, rather than for encoding, Collins COBUILD English Dictionary (J.Sinclair) London, i.e. translating an English text into French. A French 1995. speaker, on the other hand, could not easily use such a monodirectional dictionary for understanding monolingual lexicography English texts. Compilers and publishers therefore A complex of activities concerned with the design, strive to satisfy these two-way needs by providing compilation, use and evaluation of BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARIES, to suit MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARIES. speakers of both languages, ideally for both encoding ð BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY and decoding functions. RESEARCH.  Geeraerts 1989, Svensén 1993. monofunctional dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK designed to help a monolingual thesaurus user perform one particular task. Thus a bilingual ð THESAURUS (2). dictionary for translating from the foreign into the native language (decoding function only) contrasts smononymy with a BIFUNCTIONAL DICTIONARY which is A SENSE RELATION in which a concept is aimed at aiding translation from and into the foreign designated by only one term. language (both decoding and encoding functions). ð MONOSEMY.  ISO 1990. monoglot dictionary ð MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY. monosemy The SENSE RELATION that obtains when a word monolingual-cum-bilingual dictionary or phrase has a single meaning. This is rather rare ð HYBRID. for ordinary general vocabulary items, but in technical TERMINOLOGY it is desirable that a term monolingual dictionary should designate only one concept. A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the words ð MONONYMY, POLYSEMY. of a language are explained by means of that same  Béjoint 1990, ISO 1990. language, in contrast to INTERLINGUAL DICTIONARIES. For most practical purposes and morpheme for most languages, the monolingual dictionary (also A grammatical unit which is used to constitute called ‘general’, ‘explanatory’ or ‘usage’ dictionary) WORDS. Some can stand by themselves or form is the prototypical work of reference for native STEMS (‘free morphemes’, e.g. black, bird as well as speakers. For the same reason, it has also been the blackbird—a lexicalised compound), whereas some most popular and best studied dictionary genre. Even can only combine with others (‘bound morphemes’, so, many variants (alphabetic or thematic, e.g. con-stit-ution). The totality of morphemes in a MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARY 96 language and their word-formation potential are multifunctional dictionary studied in MORPHOLOGY. The result of such studies A type of REFERENCE WORK designed to meet (MORPHOLOGICAL INFORMATION) is codified several needs of the user simultaneously. in specialised reference works such as ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY systems allow the MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. combination of information types so that several ð AFFIX, BASE, LEXEME. functions can be fulfilled, e.g. looking up definitions for decoding activities (reading), synonyms for morphological dictionary encoding activities (writing), and factual knowledge A type of REFERENCE WORK providing information for study and practice. on the structure and composition of WORDS. Such ð FUNCTION. specialised dictionaries may contain details on usage and  Zimmermann 1983. grammatical information (e.g. a GRAMMAR DICTIONARY or USAGE GUIDE), derivational multi-language dictionary ð morphology (e.g. a REVERSE-ORDER MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY. DICTIONARY or ROOT DICTIONARY), inflectional multilingual dictionary morphology and PART-OF-SPEECH specifics. A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the ð STEM DICTIONARY, WORD-CLASS DICTIONARY. vocabularies of several languages are related to each  Bloomsbury Grammar Guide (G.Jarvie), London, other, usually by means of translation equivalents. (The 1993; Grammar Patterns 1: Verbs (G.Francis), London & special case of two-language dictionaries is treated Glasgow, 1996. under BILINGUAL DICTIONARY.) In the history of Western lexicography, two prototypes can be morphological information highlighted: the sixteenth-century ‘polyglot’ tradition One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented based on such models as Ambrosius Calepinus’s by the compiler and consulted by the user of the Dictionarium (1502 Latin and some Greek, 1545 five dictionary, based on MORPHOLOGY. Material on the languages, gradually increasing to ten languages by structure (INFLECTION) and formation 1585), and the modern development of the (DERIVATION) of words is provided in general and TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY of the specialised dictionaries in a number of ways, e.g. as part technical vocabulary of various disciplines across of a DICTIONARY GRAMMAR in the front matter, a languages, usually the result of some international list of irregular forms in the back matter, or as part of the standardisation of the terms and definitions covered. grammatical information given inside entries. PART- Numerous sub-types exist, from the polyglot travel OF-SPEECH indication also supplements phrasebook to the electronic terminological database morphological details in the form of abbreviated word- such as EURODICAUTOM. class labels. Less information is given in general ð INTERLINGUAL DICTIONARY. dictionaries about derivational AFFIXES and WORD-  Rosenstein 1985, Kabdebo 1992. FORMATION elements. For these, specialised  Wörterbuch der Landwirtschaft/Dictionary of MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES exist in some Agriculture [German/English/French/Spanish/Russian, 6th languages. edition] (G.Haensch/rev. I.Alsing et al.), Munich, 1996; ð LEMMATISATION. Nordisk leksikografisk ordbok [Norwegian (Bokmål and  Mugdan 1989, Zgusta 1989b. Nynorsk)/Danish/Finnish/Icelandic/Swedish/English/ morphology French/German] (H.Bergenholtz et al.), Oslo, 1997. A branch of GRAMMAR concerned with the structure multilingual lexicography and formation of WORDS. A distinction can be made A complex of activities concerned with the design, between ‘inflectional morphology’ (the use of compilation, use and evaluation of MULTILINGUAL MORPHEMES as grammatical elements) and DICTIONARIES. As the numbers and types of such ‘derivational morphology’ (the use of morphemes as dictionaries are infinitely variable, owing to the many word-formation elements). potential combinations of languages and information ð MORPHOLOGICAL INFORMATION. categories covered, generalisations are difficult to  Katamba 1994. make. No overall framework has yet been developed mother tongue for this field which nowadays tends to focus on ð NATIVE LANGUAGE. specialised TERMINOLOGY. 97 MUTATION multilingual thesaurus or other than the sum of the parts, e.g. fly-by-night, ð THESAURUS (2). face the music. ð DIRECT ENTRY, INVERTED ENTRY, multimedia PERMUTATION. A combination of TEXT with (moving) pictures and/  Gates 1988, Jackson 1988, Bogaards 1992. or sound by computer to form an (interactive) learning environment. multi-word lexical unit ð CD-ROM, FILM, HYBRID, HYPERMEDIA. ð MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION.  Davis 1993.  The Multimedia CD-ROM Dictionary on CD-ROM mumpsimus [15th edition], London & Washington DC, 1996. An orthographically or phonologically incorrect word that, by dint of usage, has become accepted in multiple meaning a language, e.g. Mount Kosciuszko. An informal term for POLYSEMY. musical lexicography multi-word combination A complex of activities concerned with the design, ð MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION. compilation, use and evaluation of reference works in the field of music. multi-word expression  The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians A phrase consisting of two or more words (S.Sadie), London & Washington DC, 1995. functioning as a single LEXEME. The constituents are relatively stable (FIXED EXPRESSION) and, if mutation used idiomatically, their combined meaning is more ð CANONICAL FORM.

N

name national dictionary A word or phrase used to designate a specific person, A cultural or historical dictionary of significance to place, organisation, artistic creation or object. In the official language of a country, often financed by English and in many other languages this is done by central government or an ACADEMY and compiled using capitalised words (e.g. Abraham Lincoln, Hong by a team of scholarly lexicographers. Kong, British Broadcasting Corporation [the BBC], ð ACADEMY DICTIONARY. Gone with the Wind, Mazda). Names (often called ‘proper nouns’ or ‘proper names’) are part of a national language language’s cultural vocabulary, but many A language used de facto for everyday purposes in dictionaries do not provide this ONOMASTIC a country or territory, e.g. English in Ireland. INFORMATION. ð OFFICIAL LANGUAGE. ð APTRONYM, EPONYM, ETHNONYM, FORM OFADDRESS , NICKNAME, ONOMASTICS, national library PERSONAL NAME, PSEUDONYM, TOPONYM, A library of major significance to a country, often TRADE NAME. centrally funded and located in the capital city, such  Mufwene 1988, Rader 1989, ISO 1990, McArthur as the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris, or the Library 1992, Svensén 1993, Urdang 1996. of Congress in Washington DC. ð  A Collector’s Compendium of Rare and Unusual, DEPOSITORY LIBRARY. Bold and Beautiful, Odd and Whimsical Names native language (P.Dickson), New York NY, 1986. A language acquired in early childhood, often called name dictionary ‘first language’ or ‘mother tongue’, in contrast to a ð ONOMASTIC DICTIONARY. language learned later, either as a SECOND LANGUAGE or as a FOREIGN LANGUAGE. name lexicography Throughout the world, in situations of intensive ð ONOMASTIC LEXICOGRAPHY. language contact, the co-existence of two native languages (‘bilingualism’) is common, but in practice naming principle in individual cases one language is usually dominant in A set of standards for the creation and standardisation specific functional contexts. Different dictionary types of names in the terminologies of technical fields. have been developed to cater for the needs of these ð NOMENCLATURE. different speakers, but their nature and coverage vary from one language and culture to another. narrow transcription ð BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, ENDOGLOSSIC ð TRANSCRIPTION. LANGUAGE, GENERAL DICTIONARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY. national archive A public collection of records and government native vocabulary documents. The word-stock of a language which is felt by native 99 NOMINATIVE speakers to be preserved from influences from other nested together at the end of the entry informal. By languages. The degree of assimilation of vocabulary contrast, in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s varies over time, and FOREIGNISMS, while possibly Dictionary [5th edition] (Oxford, 1995), informality at first resisted, can become integrated into the and informally are niched alphabetically at the end of indigenous lexicon. the entry informal. ð BORROWING, DIAINTEGRATIVE  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Svensén 1993, Béjoint INFORMATION, ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, 1994. ROOT.  Berg 1993. new edition ð EDITION. nativisation The assimilation of FOREIGNISMS. new word ð NATIVE VOCABULARY. ð NEOLOGISM. natural language processing niching The application of computer techniques to linguistic The CLUSTERING of several related words and analysis, including DISAMBIGUATION, phrases alphabetically inside one entry, in contrast to LEMMATISATION, parsing, machine ‘nesting’, where such items are given non-alphabetical TRANSLATION and speech synthesis. order.  Boguraev & Briscoe 1989, Butler 1990, Macleod et ð NESTING. al. 1996. nickname needs analysis A word or phrase used informally to designate a The investigation and assessment of the REFERENCE person, place or object. NEEDS of different groups of USERS. ð APTRONYM, EPITHET, EPONYM, ONOMASTIC ð USER PERSPECTIVE, USER RESEARCH. INFORMATION.  The Dictionary of Historic Nicknames (C.Sifakis), neoclassical compound Oxford, 1984; Names & Nicknames of Places & Things ð CLASSICAL COMPOUND. (L.Urdang), Boston MA, 1987; Harrap’s Book of Nicknames and their Origins (B.Freestone), London, 1990. neologism A word or phrase which has entered the language (as a nighan. tu. BORROWING or a COINAGE or through ð METRICAL DICTIONARY. SEMANTIC CHANGE) relatively recently, often commented on and collected in specialised dictionaries. NLP  Cannon 1982, Bradley & McTernan 1988, Simpson Abbreviation for NATURAL LANGUAGE 1988, Barnhart & Barnhart 1990, ISO 1990, Thelen & PROCESSING. Starren 1992, Svensén 1993, Algeo 1995.  The Longman Register of New Words (J.Ayto), nomenclature Harlow, 1990; The Macquarie Dictionary of New Words 1 The systematic TERMINOLOGY of a (S.Butler), Sydney NSW, 1990. specialised technical field, e.g. plant and animal names in biology, often lexicalised in the form nested entry of BINOMIAL COMPOUNDS. A dictionary entry which is the result of NESTING.
ISO 1990.  South African Code of Stratigraphic nesting Terminology and Nomenclature [4th edition] The CLUSTERING of several related words and (The South African Committee for phrases inside one entry in non-alphabetical order, in Stratigraphy), Pretoria, 1996. contrast to ‘niching’, where such items are given 2 An alternative term for WORD-LIST. alphabetically. Thus in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English [3rd edition] (Harlow, 1995), nominative the bold sub-entries informally and informality are ð DECLENSION. NON-ALPHABETIC ARRANGEMENT 100 non-alphabetic arrangement (Bokmål) and equivalents in Danish, Finnish, A system of sequencing entries which does not Icelandic, Nynorsk, Swedish, English, French and follow an alphabet, either because a different script German. is used, or because a different ORGANISATION principle is chosen, e.g. thematic. norm A general term for the regular USAGE of a language nonce word or language variety. Depending on the context, it is A word or phrase coined for a particular occasion, possible to recognise observed, actual norms and deliberately or accidentally, and often not recorded. posited, authoritative norms. The former are ð HAPAX LEGOMENON, INKHORN TERM. ‘descriptive’ (derived from e.g. linguistic FIELDWORK and CORPUS analysis), the latter are non-discriminatory vocabulary ‘prescriptive’ (e.g. recommended by language ð BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY. teachers and compilers of USAGE GUIDES). Both may, in the long run, contribute to the establishment non-hierarchical relation of a STANDARD. ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. ð AUTHORITY, BARBARISM, CODIFICATION, non-lemmatic address CORRECTNESS, DESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, A component part of an entry which does not refer PRESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, PURISM.  directly to the LEMMA or the HEADWORD. Non- Zgusta 1989a, Milroy & Milroy 1991, Svensén 1993. lemmatic addressing is common with idiomatic normative dictionary phrases inserted at the end of the entry and given a ð PRESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY. sub-sense, but whose link with the headword is not always transparent, e.g. in the Longman Dictionary normative lexicography of Contemporary English [3rd edition] (Harlow, ð PRESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY. 1995) the multi-word expression leave feet first is sub-entry 23 under the headword foot, and defined notation as ‘to die before you leave a place or job’. ð TRANSCRIPTION.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. note non-standard ð USAGE NOTE. ð STANDARD (1). notion Nordisk Forening for Leksikografi ð CONCEPT. The Nordic Association for Lexicography, a professional society established at the University of noun Oslo in 1991. It holds biennial conferences and A PART OF SPEECH which serves to name or publishes proceedings and a journal, designate entities. LEXICONORDICA. It has sponsored the ð DECLENSION, GRAMMATICAL INFORM- multilingual NORDISK LEKSIKOGRAFISK ATION. ORDBOK. numerical information Nordisk Leksikografisk Ordbok An INFORMATION CATEGORY based on figures The Nordic Dictionary of Lexicography, compiled and statistics. and edited by Henning Bergenholtz, Ilse Cantell, Ruth Vatvedt Fjeld, Dag Gundersen, Jón Hilmar -nym Jónsson and Bo Svensén, and published in 1997, ð -(O)NYM. with headwords and definitions in Norwegian O

object language creation of general monolingual and bilingual ð METALANGUAGE. dictionaries as well as multilingual terminological reference works. obscenity A word or phrase which is felt to be indecent because -(o)graphy of its explicit reference to bodily functions, and A COMBINING FORM used to designate a therefore often taboo. descriptive activity, as in lexicography, sometimes ð FOUR-LETTER WORD. in contrast with a theoretical discipline, as in terminography versus terminology. obsolescent ð CODIFICATION. ð DIACHRONIC INFORMATION. ola dictionary obsolete A dictionary written on palm leaves, a medium ð ARCHAIC. common in south and south-east Asia before the widespread availability of paper and printing. obsolete term A TERM no longer used. -(o)logy  ISO 1990. A COMBINING FORM used to designate a discipline, as in lexicology, sometimes in contrast obsolete word with a descriptive activity, as in terminology versus ð ARCHAISM. terminography. offensive word on-line dictionary ð TERM OF ABUSE. A dictionary or other reference work available via a official language computer network, such as the INTERNET. ð A language legally sanctioned for use in a particular ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY. country or organisation. Some countries have a Onoma LANGUAGE POLICY which prescribes one or The title of the journal published by the International more official languages, sometimes in Council of Onomastic Sciences at the International contradistinction to the de facto NATIONAL Centre of Onomastics, Louvain (Belgium). LANGUAGE, for official government business or education, whereas others (such as Britain and the onomasiological dictionary USA) have no official language. In organisations A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents words such as the European Union or the United Nations, or phrases as expressions of semantically linked certain languages are designated as official ‘working’ CONCEPTS, which may be meanings, ideas, notions, languages. word families and similar relationships. These can be The establishment of, or change in, the status of designated in a number of different ways: by pictures, official languages can promote the need for the words, terms, definitions, synonyms or translation ONOMASIOLOGICAL INFORMATION 102 equivalents. The important criterion is the direction explanations about personal or other NAMES. from concept to word, rather than from word to Specialised dictionaries containing such explanation (as in the traditional SEMASIOLOGICAL ONOMASTIC INFORMATION include dictionaries DICTIONARY). Typical examples of onomasiological of sur-names, pseudonyms and place-names, some dictionaries are the THESAURUS, the SYNONYM with pronunciations and biographical and other details. DICTIONARY and the WORD-FINDING ð GAZETTEER, WHO’S WHO. DICTIONARY. Because of this conceptual, systematic  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names or ideological approach, THEMATIC ORDER is (E.Ekwall), Oxford, 1936; A Collec-tor’s Compendium of sometimes preferred to ALPHABETICAL ORDER. Rare and Unusual, Bold and Beautiful, Odd and Whimsical ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, PARADIGMATIC Names (P.Dickson), New York NY, 1986. RELATION, REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. onomastic information  Šarcevic 1989, van Sterkenburg 1992, Svensén 1993, One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented Hüllen 1994. by the compiler and consulted by the user of a reference  Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases work, based on NAMES. Names can refer to persons (P.M.Roget), London, 1852; A Dictionary of Selected (PERSONAL NAMES and their derivatives, Synonyms in the Principal European Languages APTRONYMS, EPONYMS and PSEUDONYMS), (C.D.Buck), Chicago IL, 1949; The Oxford Thesaurus. An places (TOPONYMS, specifically of settlements, A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms (L.Urdang), Oxford, 1991. mountains, rivers etc.), institutions, events and works of onomasiological information art. Some general dictionaries, especially those One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES influenced by the American encyclopedic tradition, presented by the compiler and consulted by the user contain (some of) this information in entries or as of a reference work, based on SENSE RELATIONS, appendices, but there are also many specialised or paradigmatic choices between semantically linked ONOMASTIC DICTIONARIES such as words or phrases. GAZETTEERS and BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARIES. onomasiological lexicography onomastic lexicography A complex of activities concerned with the design, A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of compilation, use and evaluation of ONOMASTIC ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. DICTIONARIES. onomasiology onomastics An approach in SEMANTICS which is concerned An academic discipline concerned with the study of with the matching of the most appropriate word or NAMES. This includes proper nouns used as names phrase to a given CONCEPT. When its principles are for persons (PERSONAL NAMES), domesti-cated applied to the ‘tip-of-the-tongue’ phenomenon, the animals, places (TOPONYMS), institutions, events, result can be a reference work (an works of art (including fictional characters) and ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY) which commercial products. guides the user from relatively well-known concepts to ð ONOMASTIC INFORMATION. relatively less familiar words, in contrast to the traditional SEMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY in onomatopoeic expression which relatively unknown words are explained in A word or phrase that seeks to suggest or imitate the terms of familiar ones. The onomasiological approach sound of the designated object or action. is associated with the solution of word-finding  Veldi 1994. problems and the creation of TERMINOLOGY. ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, WORD-FINDING -(o)nym DICTIONARY. A COMBINING FORM used to designate a term  Kipfer 1986. for a type of word (e.g. antonym) or name (e.g. anthroponym). onomastic dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides open-class word ð CONTENT WORD. 103 ORTHOGRAPHIC INFORMATION open corpus organisation ð MONITOR CORPUS. The principle which governs the arrangement of HEADWORDS in the WORD-LIST of a reference operational definition work. Three main types can be distinguished: LOCAL A DEFINITION that specifies the conditions under ORDERING (in order of occurrence of words in which a TERM is used. source texts); thematic or conceptual ordering (association, as in ONOMASIOLOGICAL opposition DICTIONARIES); or ordering by phonic and/or A term for a number of SENSE RELATIONS graphic forms (e.g. ALPHABETICAL indicating degrees of ANTONYMY, e.g. ‘equipollent ORGANISATION, RHYME). opposition’ with both members of a pair being ð ARRANGEMENT, CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER, positive: male—female; ‘privative opposition’ with HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE, PHONETICAL- one member of the pair being the negative of the ANAGRAMMATICAL ARRANGEMENT, other: rational—irrational. SYSTEMATIC ORDER.  Zgusta 1989b, Béjoint 1994. oracy The skill of speaking. orismology ð ORALITY, LITERACY. An archaic term for TERMINOLOGY. orality ortho- The ability to communicate through the medium of A COMBINING FORM (< Greek ‘correct’) used in speech. This allows traditions to be passed on from terms such as orthography, to suggest correct or generation to generation through the spoken word. appropriate usage. Easily memorised, METRICAL DICTIONARIES evolved within oral cultures to codify and transmit orthoepic dictionary knowledge. ð PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY.  Ong 1982. orthoepy order A collective term for a number of approaches to ð ARRANGEMENT. develop a standard PRONUNCIATION. For English, these are associated with several PRONOUNCING ordering DICTIONARIES published since the eighteenth ð ORGANISATION. century and parallel similar efforts to regularise spelling (ORTHOGRAPHY). ordering device ð STANDARD One of several different ways of making dictionary text transparent and accessible, thus increasing the orthographic dictionary ð SPELLING DICTIONARY. efficiency of CONSULTATION. Such devices, which may be included either inside the entry or across entries, orthographic information include EXTRA COLUMNS, GUIDEWORDS, One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented PICTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS, SECTION MARKS, by the compiler and consulted by the user of the SENSE NUMBERS, STRUCTURAL INDICATORS, dictionary, based on SPELLING. This includes the THUMB INDEXES. principles on which the writing system is based (e.g. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE, LAYOUT, SEARCH LETTERS or CHARACTERS) and how it is used to PATH, TEXT COMPRESSION. organise the macrostructure of the reference work. Although the relation between speech and writing ordo mnemonicus (phoneme-grapheme correspondence) is rarely one-to- A phrase (< Latin ‘mnemonic order’) used in the one, lexicographers make an effort to document such seventeenth and eighteenth centuries to refer to regularities, e.g. in the RESPELLING or CLUSTERING of derivatives and compounds in one TRANSCRIPTION systems used to represent features entry, as opposed their LISTING in alphabetical of PRONUNCIATION, PROSODIC FEATURES, order as separate HEADWORDS. PUNCTUATION, HYPHENATION etc. ORTHOGRAPHY 104

ð SPELLING DICTIONARY. outer access structure  Zgusta 1989b. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. orthography outer search path The set of norms that regulate SPELLING ð SEARCH PATH. conventions in a particular language, and the basis for codifying linguistic units at the level of outside matter WRITING. Languages differ as to the extent to A cover term for all those components of the which a writing system has been developed for MACROSTRUCTURE of a reference work which representing speech. do not form part of the central WORD-LIST. Outside ð SPELLING DICTIONARY, STANDARD (1). matter is usually subdivided into FRONT MATTER  Ayto 1992, Murphy 1996. (such as preface and user’s guide), MIDDLE MATTER (such as panels and plates of illustrations) ostensive definition and BACK MATTER (such as lists of names and A definition in which a word or phrase is explained weights and measures). either by pointing directly at an object, or indirectly ð MEGASTRUCTURE, Panel ‘Megastructure’ (page by association with an object (e.g. ‘blue: the colour 92). of the sky’). In dictionaries, the limits of this  Cop 1989. DEFINITION STYLE can be overcome by the use of pictorial illustrations, film, hypertext, sound cards Oxford Studies in Lexicography and Lexicology etc. A specialist monograph series established in 1994.  Landau 1984.

P

palindrome accompanies speech, e.g. PROSODIC FEATURES ð ANAGRAM. or GESTURE. panel of advisers parallel edition ð ADVISORY PANEL. A version of a published work using PARALLEL paper dictionary TEXTS in columns or on facing pages, e.g. a The traditional printed dictionary, in contrast with polyglot Bible. the ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY or MACHINE- READABLE DICTIONARY. parallel publishing ð MANUSCRIPT DICTIONARY, OLA DICTIONARY. The simultaneous publication of a DOCUMENT in print and electronic format. paradigm A representation of the set of variant inflectional forms parallel texts of a LEXEME, one of which is conventionalised as a Two or more TEXTS in different languages which CANONICAL FORM for HEADWORD status in a convey the same message either because they are the dictionary. Sometimes a defective paradigm is result of a translation from one language to another completed by ‘suppletive’ forms from another, e.g. (‘bi-texts’) or because they are independently went, in the paradigm of go. formulated in a similar context (‘comparable texts’). ð CONJUGATION, DECLENSION. Some recognise intralingual parallel texts, which may  Zgusta 1989b. be the result of paraphrase, parody etc. Parallel text paradigmatic dictionary CORPORA are a useful aid in bilingual lexicography, ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. especially for identifying translation EQUIVALENTS. In the electronic processing of such corpora, the paradigmatic information matching and extraction of corresponding words and ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL INFORMATION. phrases is termed ‘alignment’. ð paradigmatic relation INTERTEXTUALITY.  The relationship between words or phrases which is Hartmann 1991, Dickens & Salkie 1996, Peters & based on substitution rather than grammatical Picchi 1996, Roberts & Montgomery 1996, Teubert 1996. sequencing, e.g. sense relations such as ANTONYMY, paraphrase HYPONYMY, SYNONYMY. This relationship is one The process or result of reformulating a phrase or of three dimensions in SEMIOTICS. text to explain or translate its meaning. ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, PRAGMATIC ð GLOSS (2). RELATION (2), SYNTAGMATIC RELATION.  Svensén 1993. paradigmatics ð PARADIGMATIC RELATION. parasynthesis A word-formation process resulting in a COMPLEX paralinguistics TERM or COMPLEX WORD. The study of non-verbal communication which PAROEMIOGRAPHY 106 paroemiography concepts, linking one or more (subordinate) parts to A complex of activities concerned with the design, a (superordinate) whole, e.g. Scandinavia: compilation, use and evaluation of dictionaries of ‘Denmark, Norway, Sweden’. PROVERBS. ð COMPREHENSIVE CONCEPT.  ISO 1990, Svensén 1993. paroemiology The study of PROVERBS. part of speech A traditional term for ‘word class’, or the paronym grammatical role words or phrases play in sentences. A member of a pair of words or phrases characterised Minimal part-of-speech information is given in the by PARONYMY. GENERAL DICTIONARY, usually in abbreviated or coded form. More detail is provided in specialised paronymy dictionaries such as GRAMMAR DICTIONARIES The relationship between two or more words partly and USAGE GUIDES. identical in form and/or meaning, which may cause ð GRAMMATICAL CODE, GRAMMATICAL confusion in reception or production. In the narrow INFORMATION, GRAMMATICAL LABEL, SYNTAX. sense the term paronymy refers to ‘soundalikes’  Svensén 1993, Wachal 1994. (cognate near-HOMOPHONES such as affect/effect or feminine/feminist), but in the wider sense it covers part-of-speech dictionary any ‘lookalike’ or ‘meanalike’ CONFUSIBLE ð GRAMMAR DICTIONARY. WORDS. ð DERIVATIVE. partonymy ð PARTITIVE RELATION. parser A computer program for automatic PARSING. passive dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK designed to help parsing with decoding tasks, such as the comprehension of 1 The structural analysis of sentences in terms of a text. In monolingual lexicography, most their grammatical categories and functions. dictionaries fulfil this function as their aim is to Parsing constitutes an important stage in the explain the meaning of words or phrases the user preparation of a text CORPUS for linguistic may have come across in reading. In bilingual processing. lexicography, passive dictionaries are those that ð TAGGING. address the needs of receptive tasks such as reading
Martin 1992. a foreign-language text or translating it into the native 2 In TERMINOLOGY, the scanning of texts to language. The ACTIVE DICTIONARY, by contrast, determine terms for the INCLUSION LIST. is aimed primarily at encoding tasks such as writing.
ISO 1990. ð PASSIVE VOCABULARY.  Kromann et al. 1991, Svensén 1993, Berkov 1996. partial equivalence ð EQUIVALENCE. passive vocabulary The VOCABULARY available to a native speaker partial synonym or a learner for decoding purposes such as listening, ð SYNONYMY (1). reading or translating from a foreign language into partial synonymy the native language. Estimates suggest that this is ð SYNONYMY (1). considerably greater than the ACTIVE VOCABULARY associated with encoding tasks partitive concept such as speaking and writing. ð PARTITIVE RELATION. ð PASSIVE DICTIONARY.  Goulden et al. 1990. partitive relation A hierarchical SENSE RELATION between pattern code ð GRAMMATICAL CODE. 107 PHONEME pedagogical dictionary period lexicography A REFERENCE WORK specifically designed for A branch of HISTORICAL LEXICOGRAPHY the practical didactic needs of teachers and learners concerned with the design, compilation, use and of a language. The distinction usually made between evaluation of PERIOD DICTIONARIES. The a dictionary for native speakers (SCHOOL historical development of languages can be divided DICTIONARY) and one for non-native learners into more or less distinct stages (PERIODS) (LEARNER’S DICTIONARY) is not helpful. correlated with cultural and political events, e.g. ð BILINGUAL LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, Middle English (1150–1500) and Early Modern COLLEGE DICTIONARY. English (1500–1700); linguists and lexicographers study and document the features, especially of pedagogical lexicography vocabulary, that characterise and differentiate them. A complex of activities concerned with the design,  Goebel 1990. compilation, use and evaluation of PEDAGOGICAL DICTIONARIES. periodicals in lexicography ð  Ilson 1985, Cowie 1987a, Diab 1990, Zöfgen 1991. JOURNALS IN LEXICOGRAPHY. permutation pejoration The rearrangement of a multi-word expression in order ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. to list each of its main constituents in their alphabetical sequence, either as cross-references or as separate pen name entries. ð PSEUDONYM. ð BINOMIAL COMPOUND, DIRECT ENTRY, period INVERTED ENTRY.  A distinct stage in the historical development of a ISO 1990. language. The variety thus isolated may also be personal name called ‘chronolect’, ‘historiolect’ or ‘état de langue’. The NAME given to an individual, often a Because of the difficulties in dividing the diachronic combination of one or more ‘forenames’ (‘Christian continuum of a language, there is a tension between names’ or ‘given names’) and a ‘surname’ (or those who favour the holistic approach to ‘family name’). Naming conventions, including the HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES and those who ordering of first and last names, differ from one stress the value of separate PERIOD language or culture to another. DICTIONARIES.  Mufwene 1988, Urdang 1996.  Bailey 1990.  A Dictionary of Surnames (P.Hanks & F.Hodges), Oxford, 1988. period dictionary A type of REFERENCE WORK which documents phantonym a particular PERIOD of a language. Period ð GHOST WORD. dictionaries are sub-types of the HISTORICAL phenomenological typology DICTIONARY in which the formal and semantic ð TYPOLOGY (1). changes of the vocabulary are illustrated in terms of word formation, etymology and other information philology categories. Such dictionaries are usually compiled A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the by scholars trained in historical-comparative comparative-historical perspective in language study. The principles of philology have led to the LINGUISTICS. ð development of HISTORICAL LEXICOGRAPHY REGIONAL DICTIONARY. and COMPARATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY.  Aitken 1987, Bailey 1990, McArthur 1992. ð LANGUAGE CHANGE.  Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue (W.A.Craigie  Collison 1982. et al.), Chicago IL/Oxford/Aberdeen, 1925– [incomplete]; The Middle English Dictionary (H.Kurath et al.), London/ phoneme Oxford, 1952– [incomplete]; A Comprehensive Old English The minimal distinct unit in the sound system of a Dictionary (A.R.Borden), Washington DC, 1992. language. ð PHONOLOGY. PHONEMICS 108 phonemics specialised PRONOUNCING DICTIONARIES and ð PHONOLOGY. some USAGE GUIDES additional information may be provided about alternative pronunciations and phonemic transcription PROSODIC FEATURES such as stress and intonation. ð TRANSCRIPTION (1). Modern multimedia technology allows the inclusion of the reproduction of sound in electronic dictionaries. phonetical-anagrammatical arrangement  Abercrombie 1978, Read 1982, Bronstein 1994. An ORGANISATION principle in which the  English Pronouncing Dictionary (D.Jones/rev. HEADWORDS of a dictionary are arranged according P.Roach & J.Hartmann), London, 1917/Cambridge, 1996; to the articulatory characteristics of their initial Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (J.C.Wells), Harlow, consonants, e.g. in Arabic from guttural to labial. 1990.  Haywood 1991. phonology phonetic alphabet A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the A notation system used for the TRANSCRIPTION study of SPEECH as a system of sounds. Phonology of speech and the representation of (or ‘phonemics’) deals with the units of sound PRONUNCIATION in dictionaries. The most widely (PHONEMES) within the whole language and their used system is that of the INTERNATIONAL relations with units at other levels (GRAPHEMES, PHONETIC ALPHABET. SYLLABLES, MORPHEMES, LEXEMES etc.) phonetic dictionary rather than the conditions of their production ð PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. (PHONETICS). The totality of phonological units and PROSODIC FEATURES (such as stress and phonetic information intonation) constitutes PHONOLOGICAL ð PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION. INFORMATION which is included in various forms in general and specialised dictionaries, usually under phonetic transcription the heading of PRONUNCIATION. ð TRANSCRIPTION (1).  Clark & Yallop 1995, Spencer 1996.  Introducing Phonetics (P.Roach), London, 1992. phonetics A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the photo dictionary study of SPEECH as transmitted sound. Phonetics A PEDAGOGICAL DICTIONARY which includes concentrates on the production and nature of the illustrations in the form of photographs. sounds, e.g. in articulatory-biological or  Longman English-Chinese-Japanese Photo acousticphysical terms, rather than their relationships Dictionary (M.S.Rosenthal & D.B.Freeman), Hong Kong, with units at other linguistic levels such as syllables 1987; Oxford Photo Dictionary (J.Taylor), Oxford, 1991. and words (PHONOLOGY). ð phrasal dictionary PRONUNCIATION.  Clark & Yallop 1995, Hardcastle & Laver 1996. ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY.  Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology (R.L.Trask), London & New York NY, 1995. phrasal entry A MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION appearing as a phonological information HEADWORD or as a SUB-LEMMA. One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES presented  Landau 1984. by the compiler and consulted by the user of the dictionary, based on PRONUNCIATION. Sometimes phrasal verb erroneously called ‘phonetic information’, this is the A MULTI-WORD EXPRESSION comprising a verb result of studies in PHONETICS and PHONOLOGY and one or more particles, e.g. put up with ‘tolerate’.  as interpreted by lexicographers and displayed in Svensén 1993, Pye 1996.  general dictionaries in the form of phonetic Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (R.Courtney), TRANSCRIPTION or RESPELLING of the Harlow, 1983; Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal headword, usually at the beginning of entries. In Verbs (J.Sinclair & R.Moon), London & Glasgow, 1989. 109 PLANNED LANGUAGE phrase LEXICOGRAPHY (‘phraseography’) deals with Two or more words combined into a unit which their codification in dictionaries. performs a syntactic function. ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY.  Meyer & Mackintosh 1994, Howarth 1996. phrasebook pictographic symbol A type of reference work containing useful A graphic mark used as an ORDERING DEVICE or as phrases and sentences for practical a label (e.g. ð for cross-references,  for phrasal communication in foreign-language settings such verbs). In this Dictionary of Lexicography, three such as polite conversation, travel, commercial symbols are used for bibliographical references:
for correspondence etc. related literature,  for selected relevant reference ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY. works, and for electronic information.  Irish-English/English-Irish Dictionary and Phrasebook, New York NY, 1992. pictorial dictionary ð PICTURE DICTIONARY. phraseography ð PHRASEOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY. pictorial illustration ð ILLUSTRATION (1). phraseological dictionary picture dictionary A type of reference work which lists FIXED A type of reference work in which the information EXPRESSIONS, PHRASES or SENTENCES. treated is exclusively depicted by ð IDIOM. ILLUSTRATIONS, in contrast to an  Spears 1990. ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY where pictorial  NTC’s Dictionary of American English Phrases material is only supplementary. The (R.A.Spears), Lincolnwood IL, 1995; Phrases and Sayings ARRANGEMENT in picture dictionaries is typically (N.Rees), London, 1997. onomasiological or thematic. Illustrations can be in phraseological information the form of line drawings, pictures, photographs etc. One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES and, in electronic dictionaries, also FILM. ð presented by the compiler and consulted by the ATLAS, CHILDREN’S DICTIONARY, PHOTO user of a dictionary, based on PHRASEOLOGY, or DICTIONARY, VISUAL DICTIONARY.  words and phrases in syntactic context. Oxford Duden Pictorial English-Japanese Dictionary Dictionaries differ as to how much material they (J.Pheby & A.Miyamoto), Oxford, 1983. offer and how they present it. Because of their pidgin complexity, PHRASES and IDIOMS are often A CONTACT VERNACULAR which, in contrast dealt with together in the GENERAL to a CREOLE, is not the native language of those DICTIONARY towards the end of the entry, or in who use it, typically in informal, limited contexts. separate paragraphs.  McArthur 1992. phraseological lexicography pinyin A complex of activities concerned with the design, ð ROMANISATION. compilation, use and evaluation of PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. place-name An informal term for TOPONYM. ð CODIFICATION. plagiarism phraseological unit The illegal COPYING IN DICTIONARIES from ð PHRASE. other sources. ð CRIMINALITY. phraseology  Burchfield 1984, Williams 1992. The study of PHRASES, IDIOMS and MULTI- WORD EXPRESSIONS. PHRASEOLOGICAL planned language ð AUXILIARY LANGUAGE (1). PLURILINGUAL DICTIONARY 110 plurilingual dictionary polysemous word ð MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY. ð POLYSEME. pocket dictionary polysemy An easily portable small-sized dictionary. The relation obtaining between the different  The Reticule and Pocket Companion (L.Cobb), New SENSES of a word or phrase. Most items of the York NY, 1834; Dicionário de algibeira português-chinês, vocabulary are polysemous, and it is one of the Macao, 1969. chief functions of the GENERAL DICTIONARY to distinguish between them, by means of pocket electronic dictionary definitions, synonyms or examples. A distinction A small hand-held calculator-type reference work, can be made between multiple meaning of one and containing basic vocabulary in one or more the same word (POLYSEME) and words which languages. may accidentally have the same graphic or phonic  Taylor & Chan 1994. form (HOMONYM). Polysemous items are assigned distinct (and often numbered) senses politically correct vocabulary within an entry, while homonyms are treated in ð BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY. different entries, but sometimes the boundary between polysemy and homonymy is not clearly political vocabulary drawn, with grammatical status, etymology and ð VOCABULARY (1). native speakers’ semantic judgements being used polyaccessible dictionary as criteria. ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. In TERMINOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY both polysemy and homonymy are deliberately polyequivalence minimised in the interest of creating unambiguous ð EQUIVALENCE DISCRIMINATION. TERMS in one-to-one relation with the CONCEPTS they designate. polyfunctional dictionary ð MONOSEMY, SENSE ORDERING. ð MULTIFUNCTIONAL DICTIONARY.  Robins 1987, ISO 1990, Sager 1990, Nunberg & Zaenen 1992, Svensén 1993, Gouws 1996. polyglot dictionary ð MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY. polysyllabic word A word comprising two or more syllables. polyinformative dictionary ð HYPHENATION. A dictionary which provides multiple INFORMATION CATEGORIES, to meet the polytechnic dictionary reference needs of different users. An ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY which covers ð GENERAL DICTIONARY. information from a wide range of technical SUBJECT FIELDS. polylingual dictionary  Academic Press Dictionary of Science and ð MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY. Technology, New York NY, 1991. polyseme portmanteau word A word or phrase with more than one related ð BLEND. MEANING. Multiple meaning (POLYSEMY) is one of the most central problems in and justification for possible word dictionaries, since most common-core items in the ð LATENT WORD. basic vocabulary of any language have several senses which need to be distinguished, e.g. band ‘ribbon’, postposition ‘belt’, ‘(radio) wavelength’, ‘(disk) track’ etc. Is band A PART OF SPEECH typically governing a in the sense of ‘group of musicians’ another instance preceding word or phrase, and expressing of the same word or an accidentally similar but relationships of time, place, cause, modality etc. different word (HOMONYM)? ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, PREPOSITION. 111 PRIVATIVE OPPOSITION pragmatic information preposition Information on the sociocultural rules of speaking. A PART OF SPEECH typically governing a Exponents include paralinguistic features such as following word or phrase, and expressing tone and intonation, gesture, pitch etc., as well as relationships of time, place, cause, modality etc. choice of vocabulary in terms of politeness and ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, formality conventions, which can reinforce or POSTPOSITION. contradict the speaker’s intended meaning. In the  Collins COBUILD English Guides 1: Prepositions past, dictionary compilers have paid little attention (E.Manning), London, 1991. to this aspect of communication, merely giving unsystematic indications via USAGE LABELS such prescriptive dictionary as ‘informal’, ‘derogatory’, ‘sarcastic’. ð PRESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY. ð APPROPRIATENESS, DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, PRAGMATICS, prescriptive grammar ð SEMIOTICS, SOCIOLINGUISTICS. GRAMMAR.  Sharpe 1989, Hurley 1992. prescriptive lexicography  Common Social English Errors in Hong Kong An approach to DICTIONARY-MAKING which is (D.Bunton), Hong Kong, 1994. based on normative attitudes as to how a language pragmatic relation or language variety should be used rather than the 1 In TERMINOLOGY, a type of HIERARCHICAL facts observed about its USAGE. ð RELATION between concepts. DESCRIPTIVE LEXICOGRAPHY.  2 In PRAGMATICS, the relationship between the Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. participants in an interaction. presentation ð PARADIGMATIC RELATION, A stage in the DICTIONARY-MAKING process SEMIOTICS, SYNTAGMATIC RELATION. concerned with the publication of the work in a format pragmatics appropriate to the needs and skills of the USER. ð One of the semiotic dimensions of communication, DESIGN, LAYOUT. related to a setting. presentation language ð PRAGMATIC INFORMATION. ð METALANGUAGE.  Thomas 1995. prestige dialect preface ð DIALECT. The place in the FRONT MATTER of a reference work where publishers and/or editors state their aims primary source and the intended functions of the work. ð SOURCE. preferred term principal parts A technical TERM selected by the practitioners in a The traditional citation of regular and irregular forms as subject field as the most suitable of several synonyms exemplars of the CONJUGATION pattern of a verb, for designating a particular CONCEPT. e.g. in Latin, the first person singular present and ð ACCEPTABILITY RATING. perfect indicative active, the infinitive, and the supine.  ISO 1990. print dictionary prefix ð PAPER DICTIONARY. ð AFFIX. preliminaries printing ð FRONT MATTER. The result of the third major COMMUNICATIVE SHIFT. prelims Abbreviation for ‘preliminaries’. privative opposition ð FRONT MATTER. ð OPPOSITION. PROCEDURAL MARK-UP 112 procedural mark-up P.Roach & J.Hartmann), London, 1917/Cambridge, 1996; ð STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English LANGUAGE. (J.S.Kenyon & T.A.Knott), Springfield MA, 1944; BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (E.Miller/rev. production G.Pointon), London & Oxford, 1971/90; Longman ACTIVE DICTIONARY. Pronunciation Dictionary (J.C.Wells), Harlow, 1990. productive dictionary pronunciation ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY. The form, production and representation of speech. The phenomenon is studied in PHONETICS and productive morpheme PHONOLOGY, and the results are codified in A derivational affix which contributes to the general dictionaries or specialised PRONOUNCING formation of new words, e.g. un-, -ness. DICTIONARIES by means of one of two basic productive vocabulary systems of graphic notation: phonetic ð ACTIVE VOCABULARY. TRANSCRIPTION or RESPELLING, the former by special symbols (e.g. those of the professional resources INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET), the The totality of aids and services that contribute to latter by conventional letters or characters. the training of lexicographers and other reference PROSODIC FEATURES such as stress are also professionals. marked, but (sentence) intonation less often. ð ASSOCIATIONS, BIBLIOGRAPHY (1),  Wells 1985, Bronstein 1986, 1994, Benson et al. 1986, DIRECTORY, JOURNALS IN LEXICOGRAPHY, Brazil 1987, Lee 1989, Svensén 1993. LEXICOGRAPHY, TEXTBOOKS, TRAINING.  Ilson 1986a. pronunciation dictionary ð  Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. (F.J.Hausmann et al.), Berlin, 1989–91. pronunciation information ð pronoun PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION. A PART OF SPEECH which can stand for a noun or pronunciation key noun phrase. ð EXPLANATORY CHART. ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. proper name pronouncing dictionary ð NAME. A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents information on the PRONUNCIATION of words, proper noun phrases or names, usually in alphabetical order of ð NAME. their orthographic forms. Because of the complex and sometimes arbitrary relationship between speech proprietary name and writing in many languages, the SPELLING of a ð TRADE NAME. word does not always allow the reader to deduce its phonology (compare the final syllables in bayonet proscription and beret, or the initial syllables in exact and Exeter). The banning of words, phrases, styles or even This is why general and specialised dictionaries have languages. In dictionaries and USAGE GUIDES, given guidance on the standard—and sometimes words or phrases may be branded as incorrect or dialect variant—pronunciations at least since the inappropriate by labels, or excluded altogether. eighteenth-century ‘orthoepic’ English dictionaries, ð FOUR-LETTER WORD, TABOO WORD. a development which parallels that of orthography. ð RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION. prosodic feature  Bronstein 1984, Pointon 1989. An aspect of PRONUNCIATION, such as ‘accent’,  Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (J.Walker), London, ‘stress’, ‘tone’ and ‘rhythm’, which tends to be 1791; English Pronouncing Dictionary (D.Jones/rev. associated with the flow of syllables, words and 113 PURISM phrases rather than individual segmental phonemes.  Pseudonyms and Nicknames Dictionary Some prosodic features, notably wordstress or tone, (J.Mossman), Detroit MI, 1980. may be indicated in the pronunciations given in dictionaries. pseudo-synonym ð PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION, PRONOUN- ð SYNONYMY (1). CING DICTIONARY, TRANSCRIPTION (1). pseudo-synonymy prosody ð SYNONYMY (1). ð PROSODIC FEATURE. publication date proto form ð DATE. ð ETYMOLOGY. publisher prototype One who engages in the production, distribution and An exemplar felt to exhibit the essential sale of books and other materials and assumes the MEANING of a word, which ignores all non- legal responsibility and commercial risk for any such salient features. Thus, the prototypical dictionary is undertaking. more likely to be regarded as a monolingual, lexical defining book in printed form than as a publishing multilingual, encyclopedic thesaurus in electronic The complex of activities concerned with the form. commissioning, design, production, editing, ð BASIC SENSE, FOLK TAXONOMY. distribution and marketing of books and related  Geeraerts 1989, Barsalou 1992. products. Computer technology has revolutionised the publishing industry, and has encouraged prototype semantics ‘alternative’ (or ‘desktop’) book production. An approach to the study of MEANING which seeks ð AUTHORSHIP, COPYRIGHT, DICTIONARY- to determine what speakers regard as inherently MAKING, HOUSE STYLE, REFERENCE WORK. typical or essential qualities of REFERENTS of ð Whitcut 1989. words. ð A Pocket Dictionary of Publishing Terms (H.Jacob), ð Ungerer & Schmid 1996. London, 1976. proverb punctuation A culturally significant pithy saying with a moral or A system of graphic marks used to link or separate practical message. words and phrases in writing. Dictionaries use ð PAROEMIOGRAPHY, PAROEMIOLOGY. conventional punctuation marks in a variety of ways,  Grauberg 1989, Svensén 1993. e.g. as STRUCTURAL INDICATORS or LABELS  The Prentice-Hall Encyclopedia of World Proverbs or for CROSS-REFERENCES. (W.Mieder), Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1986; A Chinese- ð DIACRITIC, HYPHENATION. English Dictionary of Idioms and Proverbs (X.J.Heng & X.Z.Zhang), Tübingen, 1988. purism A prescriptive approach to language which favours provincialism native over foreign words, standard over non- ð REGIONALISM. standard forms, literary over colloquial USAGE, and traditional dictionary definitions over popular pseudonym meanings. A made-up name (‘pen name’) used by an author to ð CORRECTNESS. disguise his or her true identity.  Thomas, G. 1992. Q

quasi-bilingual dictionary quasi-synonymy A type of REFERENCE WORK in which the words ð SYNONYMY (1). of a less accessible language (such as archaic Akkadian) are explained by means of a more quick reference accessible language (such as English). Its structure ð READY REFERENCE. follows that of the MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY, the headwords being vocabulary quotation items from the language which is the object of the 1 In a dictionary entry or citation file, a description, but the language used for providing the CITATION. lexicographic information in the entries is a language 2 A saying from a literary or other text and familiar to the scholar-user. recorded for posterity because of its content and/  Zgusta 1989b. or style.
Jackson 1988, Al-Kasimi 1992. quasi-synonym  The Oxford Dictionary of Modern ð SYNONYMY (1). Quotations (T.Augarde), Oxford, 1991.

R

racism ready reckoner The disparaging use of a word or phrase referring to A type of reference work with information on the ethnic origins of groups or individuals. weights, measures etc. in the form of tables. ð ETHNOPHAULISM, TERM OF ABUSE, USAGE  The Carpenter’s Metric Roofing Ready Reckoner LABEL. (W.E.Gray), London, 1972.  Murphy 1991, Hauptfleisch 1993. ready reference radical The process or result of rapid CONSULTATION of A semantic part of a Chinese CHARACTER, which a reference work. is used by the compiler to locate and the user to find  The Chemist’s Ready Reference Handbook the entry within the overall word-list, which itself (G.J.Shugar), New York NY, 1990. may be arranged in a variety of ways. received pronunciation rare A relatively region-free British English accent, ð DIAFREQUENTIAL INFORMATION. originally based on a southern standard usually associated with the usage of middle- and upperclass readability speakers. This is often used as the norm for indicating The degree to which a text of a reference or other work PRONUNCIATION in British dictionaries. is comprehensible to the USER. Means to enhance ð PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY. readability in a reference work include control of the DEFINING VOCABULARY, the use of ORDERING recension DEVICES and the LAYOUT of the page. The process or result of continuous revision of a published work. reader  Steiner 1986a. One engaged in reading, e.g. of a literary or reference work. reception ð USER. ð PASSIVE DICTIONARY. reading receptive dictionary 1 The act of decoding a TEXT. ð PASSIVE DICTIONARY. ð READABILITY.
Neubach & Cohen 1988, Tono 1989. receptive vocabulary 2 ð READING PROGRAMME. ð PASSIVE VOCABULARY. reading programme reciprocal word The systematic EXCERPTION process in a ð ANTONYMY. dictionary-making project.  Jost 1985. record The basic REFERENCE UNIT in a terminological RECTO 116 dictionary, catalogue or database. The typical ð DENOTATION, DESIGNATION, MICROSTRUCTURE of such reference works may REFERENT, SENSE RELATION. include: the ENTRY-TERM; the CONCEPT designated by the term, and its first documented use, reference act usually with a definition; relations of concept and term ð CONSULTATION. with others in the hierarchical system of the subject field; translation equivalent(s) in other languages; reference book bibliographical details. ð REFERENCE WORK.  ISO 1990, Sager 1990. reference circularity recto ð CIRCULAR REFERENCE. ð TITLE PAGE. recursive definition reference department A definition which is dependent on one or more other A section in a library, bookshop or publishing house, definitions of related concepts, either within or concerned with REFERENCE WORKS. between entries, e.g. in E.L.Thorndike & C.L.Barnhart’s Primary Dictionary of the English reference dictionary ð Language with Chinese Translation (Tienjin, 1992): ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. ‘roof […] 1 the top covering of a building. 2 something like it: the roof of a cave…’ reference division ð REFERENCE DEPARTMENT. reduction ð TRANSCRIPTION (1). reference mark A graphic symbol, such as an asterisk (*), used to redundancy refer from a portion of a text to e.g. a footnote or ð TEXT COMPRESSION. other associated text. reference 1 The process by which INFORMATION is reference material classified, stored and retrieved. It is the basic A collective term for all types of REFERENCE human need for all kinds of information, linguistic WORKS and similar systems. as well as encyclopedic, that motivates writers, librarians and lexicographers to provide it, e.g. in reference needs the form of REFERENCE WORKS, which are The circumstances that drive individuals to seek structured in such a way that they can be consulted INFORMATION in REFERENCE WORKS Such as easily. There have been great advances in the DICTIONARIES, e.g. a scholar looking up the understanding of various ACCESS systems and ETYMOLOGY of a word, an editor checking a spelling, how their efficiency can be increased, e.g. by or a foreign-language learner searching for a TRANSLATION EQUIVALENT. The detailed study of improving the transparency of the text structure of entries in reference works, and computers now dictionary use can provide useful information not only allow greater flexibility in presenting and locating about REFERENCE SKILLS of users, but also about the information for the benefit of users. nature and qualities of the dictionary consulted. ð ð REFERENCE SCIENCE. FUNCTION, USER PERSPECTIVE. 
McArthur 1986a, Hausmann & Wiegand Mufwene 1984, Hartmann 1989. 1989, Zgusta 1989b. reference professional 2 In dictionaries and other reference works, a One who engages in the design, compilation, use CROSS-REFERENCE. and evaluation of all types of REFERENCE 3 In dictionary typology, a REFERENCE WORK. WORKS. If LEXICOGRAPHY is viewed within the 4 In academic textbooks and papers, the wider perspective of a REFERENCE SCIENCE, its bibliographical details of a cited publication. practitioner, the LEXICOGRAPHER, may be ð BIBLIOGRAPHY. considered to be a reference professional, i.e. a 5 In semantics, the relationship between words person who knows why and how users consult and the objects which they denote. reference works and how these should be designed. 117 REFERENCE WORK

The terminology is still unsettled, with terms such Columbia Dictionary of Quotations, The Concise as AUTHOR, EDITOR, COMPILER, Columbia Encyclopedia, The Hammond Atlas], Redmont TERMINOGRAPHER, TERMINOLOGIST, WA, 1993; Oxford Reference Shelf on CD-ROM [The lexicographer etc. often being used indiscriminately. Oxford Writer’s Shelf, The Oxford Business Shelf, The ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, COMPUTATIONAL Oxford Language Shelf, The Oxford Science Shelf], Oxford, LEXICOGRAPHY, DICTIONARY-MAKING, 1994; Oxford Compendium [The Concise Oxford PROFESSIONAL RESOURCES, TRAINING. Dictionary, The Oxford Thesaurus, The Oxford Dictionary  Kipfer 1985, Ilson 1986a, James 1989, Osselton 1995, of Quotations and Modern Quotations], Oxford, 1996. Green 1996. reference skills reference science The abilities required on the part of the dictionary A cover term for the complex of activities concerned user to find the INFORMATION being sought. Very with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of all little is known about the behaviour and preferences types of REFERENCE WORKS. There is as yet no of dictionary users, except that a knowledge of the unified framework for such an interdisciplinary field, ACCESS STRUCTURE employed in the but a strong case can be made for broadening the REFERENCE WORK, e.g. ALPHABETICAL perspectives of LEXICOGRAPHY and ORDER, is essential for locating the particular entry TERMINOLOGY, and considering works other than in which the information is likely to be found. Not dictionaries (such as ATLASES, CATALOGUES, until relatively recently has there been any systematic DIRECTORIES, ENCYCLOPEDIAS and attempt to relate such notational conventions as TERMINOLOGICAL DATABASES) together. What abbreviations, codes, labels etc. in dictionary entries unites them is the basic human reference need for to the complex operations involved in dictionary INFORMATION, linguistic as well as factual, and the consultation, but more attention is now being paid possibilities of INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, to deliberate instruction, with or without the use of above all the computer, which are likely to produce such teaching aids as WORKBOOKS. new MULTIMEDIA reference formats in future. ð CONSULTATION. ð INTERNET.  O’Brien & Jordan 1985, Béjoint 1989, Hartmann  McArthur 1986a, Calzolari 1996. 1989, Stark 1990.  The Language Engineering Directory (P.M.Hearn), Madrid, 1996. reference technology The use of electronic and other media to compile, reference section produce and use REFERENCE WORKS. ð REFERENCE DEPARTMENT. ð COMMUNICATIVE SHIFT. reference set reference unit A collection of related reference works in book or The basic device for storing information in a electronic format, usually issued by the same reference work. In the dictionary, this is usually publisher, packaged and sold as one unit. called the ENTRY, in the encyclopedia the ð COMPENDIUM. ARTICLE, and in terminological and computer-  The Merriam-Webster Compact Reference Set based dictionaries, the RECORD. The head of the [Webster’s Compact Dictionary, Webster’s Compact reference unit is the LEMMA. Dictionary of Synonyms, Webster’s Compact Writer’s ð ADDRESS, BASE STRUCTURE, MICROSTRUCTURE. Guide, Webster’s Compact Dictionary of Quotations], Springfield MA, [various dates]. reference work Any product, such as a published book or a computer reference shelf software, that allows humans to store and retrieve A collection of related reference works in electronic INFORMATION relatively easily and rapidly. The format, packaged and sold as one unit. DICTIONARY is the prototypical ‘reference book’,  Microsoft Bookshelf [American Heritage Dictionary, as it provides structural linguistic and/or Roget’s II Electronic Thesaurus, World Almanac and Book encyclopedic information by means of a generally of Facts, Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations, The Concise known access system (such as an ALPHABET). REFERENT 118

ð TYPOLOGY (1). Briticisms. Such regionalisms may be marked in  Calzolari 1996, Hartmann 1996a. general dictionaries by USAGE LABELS or become  Walford’s Guide to Reference Material, London, the subject of specialised REGIONAL 1989; Dictionary of Dictionaries (T.Kabdebo), London, DICTIONARIES. 1992. regionality label referent ð REGIONAL LABEL. The object referred to by a word or phrase. Since the relationship is not direct or one-to-one, e.g. one regional label object can be denoted by several words A LABEL used to mark the dialect or regional variety (SYNONYMY), or one word can denote several with which a word or phrase is associated. Dictionaries objects (POLYSEMY), it is necessary to call upon record such features in different and sometimes the notion of the mental images we have of the inconsistent ways, e.g. by associating dialect referent (MEANING). One variant of this is the vocabulary with ‘sub-standard’ usage, and have been terminological approach which concentrates on the criticised for relying on incomplete and out-of-date relations between TERMS as words of designation, EVIDENCE. General dictionaries of English today and CONCEPTS as representations of meaning. tend to concentrate on ‘metropolitan’ regional varieties ð DENOTATUM, DESIGNATUM, SEMANTICS, rather than ‘provincial’ local dialects, e.g. Am(erican) SENSE RELATION. or U.S., Br(itish) and Austral(ian) English.  Jackson 1988, Svensén 1993. ð DIALECT DICTIONARY, DIATOPICAL INFORMATION, REGIONAL DICTIONARY, referential meaning REGIONALISM, STANDARD (1). ð DENOTATION.  Landau 1984, Berg 1993, Norri 1996. regional dictionary regional lexicography A type of REFERENCE WORK which describes a A complex of activities concerned with the design, particular (provincial or metropolitan) variety of a compilation, use and evaluation of REGIONAL language. Such dictionaries vary greatly according DICTIONARIES. to when and where they have been compiled, from early lists of words and phrases used in different register localities through the late nineteenth-century 1 A variety of language associated with a glossaries of colonial vocabulary, to the particular situational context, such as an contemporary ‘national’ dictionaries codifying usage occupation or social activity. Such DIAPHASIC separately for each regional variant of the language. INFORMATION is indicated in dictionaries by Since historical considerations play a part, overlaps formality or style LABELS. with HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES, PERIOD
Jackson 1988. DICTIONARIES and ETYMOLOGICAL 2 An official list or INDEX. DICTIONARIES are sometimes unavoidable. ð DIALECT DICTIONARY. register label  McArthur 1992, Pakir 1992. A general term for a LABEL used to mark a feature  Dictionary of American Regional English of usage such as formality, style or variation in place (F.G.Cassidy), Cambridge MA, 1985– [incomplete]; A and time. ð Dictionary of South African English on Historical STYLE LABEL, TEMPORAL LABEL.  Principles (P.Silva), Oxford, 1996. Svensén 1993. regionalism register marking ð A word or phrase associated with a particular locality DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING. where a language is used. The term may refer to register range features typical of a geographical DIALECT or The extent of varieties within a language available TOPOLECT, e.g. the French of Paris or Québec, or for different communicative contexts. of a national variety, e.g. Americanisms or ð LANGUAGE VARIETY, REPERTOIRE. 119 REVERSIBILITY rejected term restricted dictionary ð DEPRECATED TERM. ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. relational database restriction of meaning ð DATABASE. ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. relative equivalence retrograde dictionary ð EQUIVALENCE. ð REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. relative synonym retronym ð SYNONYMY (1). A modification of an existing term to distinguish it from a NEOLOGISM denoting a recent innova-tion, relative synonymy e.g. white pages ‘residential telephone directory’ in ð SYNONYMY (1). contrast with yellow pages ‘classified telephone directory’. religious vocabulary  Ahmad & Collingham 1996. ð VOCABULARY (1). reverse alphabetisation repertoire The alphabetical sorting of words by last-to-first The range of varieties of a language that an individual rather than first-to-last letter order. speaker has available for different communicative ð REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. contexts.  Svensén 1993. ð IDIOLECT, LANGUAGE VARIETY, REGISTER RANGE. reverse dictionary 1 With reference to format, ð REVERSE- repertory ORDER DICTIONARY. An alternative term for REPERTOIRE. 2 With reference to function, ð WORD- FINDING DICTIONARY. repetition symbol A graphic mark, such as the tilde (~) or hyphen (-), reverse index used in place of a HEADWORD within an entry, ð REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. e.g. ‘give […] 6 ~ sth to sb/sth to devote time…’. reverse-order dictionary reprint A type of REFERENCE WORK which lists the A reissue of a book or other document, sometimes vocabulary alphabetically by last-to-first rather than with minor modifications to the title page and/or first-to-last letter order. Because of the back-to-front corrections. arrangement of items, it may also be called ‘a tergo’ ð FACSIMILE EDITION. dictionary or ‘reverse index’. ð MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, RHYMING research DICTIONARY. ð DICTIONARY RESEARCH.  ISO 1990.  respelling Rückläufiges Wörterbuch der englischen Gegen- A method of representing PRONUNCIATION by wartssprache/Reverse Dictionary of Present-day English using a combination of traditional alphabetic letters (M.Lehnert), Leipzig, 1971; Back-Words for Crosswords. and diacritic marks. A Reverse-sorted Word List (J.C.P.Schwarz), Edinburgh, ð TRANSCRIPTION (1). 1995. restricted collocation reversibility ð COLLOCATION. The capability of using a reference work or database bidirectionally or multidirectionally. restricted defining vocabulary ð CONVERSION, DIRECTIONALITY. ð DEFINING VOCABULARY.  Martin & Tamm 1996. REVIEW 120 review Roman alphabet A critique of one or more reference or other works, ð LATIN ALPHABET. usually published in a periodical.  Steiner 1984, 1993, Tomaszczyk 1988. romanisation The representation of words written in a non-Latin revision script by means of the LATIN ALPHABET, either ð EDITION. through TRANSLITERATION, e.g. from Cyrillic, rhyme or TRANSCRIPTION, e.g. from Chinese (‘(hànyu) The use of parallel graphic or phonic forms for special pinin’) or Japanese (‘romaji’). ð effect. Rhyming has a long history as one of the HYBRID, SCRIPT REFORM.  principles of ARRANGEMENT in reference works. ISO 1990. ð RHYMING DICTIONARY. root 1 In ETYMOLOGY, the part of the word which is rhyme dictionary common to a WORD FAMILY and may have ð RHYMING DICTIONARY. COGNATES in genetically related languages. The rhyme lexicography historical derivation may not always be obvious even A complex of activities concerned with the design, to native speakers, e.g. sal- in salary < Latin solarium compilation, use and evaluation of RHYMING ‘salt allowance’ < the ETYMON sal ‘salt’. DICTIONARIES. It is often held that a knowledge of roots can help in understanding meaning relations and rhyming dictionary word-formation processes, which are especially 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK which contains relevant to the creation of technical TERMS. information on RHYMES in alphabetical order of However, such knowledge can also be (mis-) their orthographic forms. English used by protagonists of PURISM to make claims RHYMELEXICOGRAPHY has a relatively long for ‘true meanings’ and ‘correct forms’. tradition, going back to the English-Latin ð ROOT-CREATION, ROOT DICTIONARY (1). Manipulus vocabulorum by Peter Levins
ISO 1990. (London, 1570) which predates the publication of  Roots. Family Histories of Familiar Words the first monolingual general English dictionary. ð (P.Davies), New York NY, 1981; The American REVERSE-ORDER DICTIONARY. Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots  The Penguin Rhyming Dictionary (C.Watkins), Boston MA, 1985; A First (R.Fergusson), Harmondsworth, 1985; Words to Handbook of the Roots of English (N.Bird), St Rhyme with: A Rhyming Dictionary (W.Espy), Helier, 1990; Grow Your Vocabulary by London, 1986. Learning the Roots of English Words 2 A reference work which uses rhyme as a (R.Schleifer), New York NY, 1995. principle of ORGANISATION. In oral cultures, 2 In MORPHOLOGY, the BASE of a word. rhyme is a powerful memory aid, and was used in e.g. early Arabic and Indian dictionaries. root-creation ð METRICAL DICTIONARY. A WORD-FORMATION process in which a word or phrase is deliberately coined according to the rhyming slang phonotactic rules of the language, but not on the basis An informal ARGOT based on rhyme. of any other morphological constituents, e.g. the  A Dictionary of Rhyming Slang (J.Franklyn), London, trade name Kodak or the number googol. 1975. root dictionary rhythm 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK developed ð PROSODIC FEATURE. during FIELDWORK, e.g. on indigenous American Indian languages, which uses BASES right-core structure rather than full words to list the morphological ð CORE STRUCTURE. elements of the vocabulary. romaji ð STEM DICTIONARY. ð ROMANISATION.
Bartholomew 1991. 121 RUN-ON ENTRY

2 A dictionary or database which serves as a to be formulated prescriptively. Information of this source for the compilation of other reference type is presented in general dictionaries by works, e.g. for bilingual versions of a GRAMMATICAL CODES or USAGE LABELS. monolingual THESAURUS, or for Specialised reference works such as USAGE terminological dictionaries based on a common GUIDES, in addition, seek to offer guidance, which conceptual index. can include PROSCRIPTION. ð CONVERSION, DERIVATIVE DICTIONARY. ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, LEXICAL  Root Thesaurus (British Standards INFORMATION, PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION, Institution), Milton Keynes, 1988; Cambridge PRAGMATIC INFORMATION. Word Routes Anglais-Français (M.McCarthy), Cambridge, 1994. running foot ð GUIDEWORD. routing ð SEARCH PATH. running head ð GUIDEWORD. royalty The fee paid to a COPYRIGHT holder for running title permission to reproduce all or part of a given text. ð GUIDEWORD.

RP run-on entry Abbreviation for RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION. A word or phrase which is not given separate HEADWORD status but is cited as a sub-entry under rule a related word or phrase. The typical example is the A statement of observed regularity in language use, treatment of DERIVATIVES, whose selection is e.g. grammar, style, vocabulary, pronunciation. often arbitrary, thus making CONSULTATION of Descriptive rules are based on linguistic run-on entries difficult. EVIDENCE, but in pedagogical contexts they tend  Landau 1984.

S

sacred vocabulary CHILDREN’S DICTIONARIES, COLLEGE ð VOCABULARY (1). DICTIONARIES and DESK DICTIONARIES on the other, are not clearly demarcated. sampling ð GRADED VOCABULARY, LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. Statistical and other techniques to ensure that the  Algeo 1990, Svensén 1993. words or phrases selected for inclusion in a reference  The School Etymological Dictionary and Workbook work are representative of the language documented. (J.Stormonth), Edinburgh & London, 1876; Macmillan School Dictionary (W.D.Halsey), New York NY, 1981. sandhi ð CANONICAL FORM. scientific and technical vocabulary ð VOCABULARY (1). saying A short phrase or sentence, reflecting folk wisdom, scientific dictionary passed on through the generations. A type of reference work with information on one ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. or more disciplines of science. ð LSP DICTIONARY, POLYTECHNIC DICTIONARY. scanning  Longman Illustrated Science Dictionary 1 The act of reading a text quickly in order to (A.Goodman), London, 1981; Chambers Science and locate a piece of required information. Technology Dictionary (P.M.B.Walker), Cambridge, 1988; ð CONSULTATION. Longman English-Chinese Science & Technology 2 The electronic recognition and processing of Dictionary, Hong Kong, 1994. text and graphics. ð DATA-CAPTURE. scope The relative specialisation of a reference work, e.g. scholarly dictionary the range of topics treated, the technicality of details A type of REFERENCE WORK compiled by a team included and the time-scale covered. of academics as part of a (usually long-term) research ð COVERAGE, SIZE. project, e.g. linguists working on a HISTORICAL DICTIONARY or DIALECT DICTIONARY. Scrabble® ð ACADEMY DICTIONARY, CULTURAL DICTIONARY. ð CROSSWORD.  Algeo 1990. script school dictionary ð WRITING. A dictionary written for school-children, common scriptorium features of which are a controlled DEFINING A room for preparing manuscripts. VOCABULARY, a clear design and the incorporation of illustrations. The boundaries script reform between the school dictionary on the one hand, and The process or result of change in the WRITING SYSTEM of a particular language, e.g. the change 123 SEMANTIC EXTENSION from the Perso-Arabic script to the Latin alphabet labels (e.g. id(iom), hum(orous)) and symbols (, for Turkish in 1928, or the introduction of simplified , ð etc.). characters in Chinese from 1955.  Svensén 1993.  James 1985. segmental dictionary search ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. The process of seeking INFORMATION in response to a reference need. The choice of reference source select(ed) bibliography precedes the act of CONSULTATION which leads A list of references of the essential literature on a the user along a SEARCH PATH. topic or subject. ð ACCESS, INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, ð BIBLIOGRAPHY (1). LEMMATISATION, REFERENCE SKILLS. selection search area The EXCERPTION and subsequent sifting of DATA The notional subdivision of a dictionary entry, often for treatment in entries in a reference work. indicated by SECTION MARKS, where particular ð INCLUSION LIST, WORD-LIST. types of information (e.g. idioms, compounds,  Svensén 1993. derivatives) are located. selection restriction search engine ð Software for locating sites on the World Wide Web. COLLOCATION.  Altavista Search: altavista.digital.com semantic change search path The loss or acquisition of meanings in words or The route along which a user is led in a REFERENCE phrases, motivated by a number of factors. A variety of WORK in order to retrieve information, via the ‘outer’ processes may be at work, e.g. the narrowing of senses or ‘external’ search path (e.g. the information on the (‘reduction’ or ‘specialisation’), the widening of senses spine), GUIDEWORDS, and the ‘inner’ or ‘internal’ (‘generalisation’), the shift to a positive search path (e.g. SEARCH AREAS indicated by (‘(a)melioration’) or negative (‘pejoration’) SECTION MARKS). connotation. Semantic extension is a powerful way of ð ACCESS STRUCTURE. increasing the scope and function of the vocabulary of a  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Spears 1990. language, but dictionaries do not always reflect this either in their sense-discrimination techniques or in search strategy their ability to document lexical innovations. ð USER STRATEGIES. ð ARCHAISM, DIACHRONIC INFORMATION, secondary entry HISTORICAL DICTIONARY, MEANING, ð ENTRY-TERM. NEOLOGISM, SENSE DISCRIMINATION, WORD FORMATION. secondary source  Béjoint 1990. ð SOURCE.  NTC’s Dictionary of Changes in Meaning (A.Room), Lincolnwood IL, 1991. second language A language used by speakers for whom it is not the semantic comment NATIVE LANGUAGE, usually in a country where ð COMMENT. it is endoglossic or dominant, or in countries where it has an acknowledged function. semantic dictionary ð LEARNER’S DICTIONARY. ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. secret language semantic domain ð ARGOT. ð SEMANTIC FIELD. section mark An ORDERING DEVICE which delimits the semantic extension ð SEARCH AREA. Examples include sense numbers, SEMANTIC CHANGE. SEMANTIC FIELD 124 semantic field structure, such as sentences (SYNTAX) and texts A lexical set with related meanings, which form a (DISCOURSEANALYSIS ). A range of approaches conceptual network or mosaic, e.g. in the domain of and models is available, from SEMANTIC FIELD kinship vocabulary or colour terminology, which can theory to COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS and be analysed in terms of COMPONENTIAL PROTOTYPE SEMANTICS, to throw light on ANALYSIS into distinctive features. SENSE RELATIONS between LEXEMES.  Walter 1992, Wierzbicka 1992. SEMANTIC INFORMATION of this kind is codified in general and specialised dictionaries, typically in the semantic information form of meaning explanations (DEFINITIONS). One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES ð FRAME THEORY, ONOMASIOLOGY, REFERENT, presented by the compiler and consulted by the user SEMASIOLOGY, SYNONYMY (1), THESAURUS. of the dictionary, based on SEMANTICS. Material  Wierzbicka 1985, Allen 1986, Cruse 1986, Jackson of this kind can be in many different forms, e.g. 1988, Lehrer & Kittay 1992, Swanepoel 1994, Gouws 1996. words or phrases with similar meaning (SYNONYMS), explanations of one or more senses semantic set of a word or phrase in the form of DEFINITIONS, ð SEMANTIC FIELD. commentaries on the semantic extension of a word or phrase (a GLOSS on a ‘figurative’ use), semantic specialisation TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS in a bilingual ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. dictionary, or EXAMPLES. In THESAURUSES and conceptually organised TERMINOLOGICAL semantic sub-comment DICTIONARIES, words and phrases are related to ð COMMENT. each other within SEMANTIC FIELDS.  Ayto 1983, Svensén 1993. semantic subdivision ð SUB-SENSE. semantic label A symbol or abbreviated term used to mark the semasiological dictionary semantic role that a word or phrase plays to achieve A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents and a particular effect. Many lexicographers reserve the explains the meanings of a given word or phrase, in term LABEL for the marking of USAGE features, contrast to the ONOMASIOLOGICAL and consider ‘figurative’, ‘transferred’ and other DICTIONARY which shows the various words that metaphorical uses as part of the explanation of can be used to express a given meaning.  meaning. Svensén 1993. ð GLOSS (2), DEFINITION. semasiology  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Berg 1993, Osselton An approach in SEMANTICS concerned with the 1996. explanation of the meaning of given words or phrases. semantic prototype Traditional monolingual and bilingual dictionaries ð PROTOTYPE. supply such semasiological information (e.g. in terms of DEFINITIONS and TRANSLATION semantic reduction EQUIVALENTS), while thesauruses, synonym ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. dictionaries and specialist terminologies follow the opposite route (ONOMASIOLOGY) and guide the semantic relation user to a choice of words appropriate for the expression ð SENSE RELATION. of particular meanings or concepts.  Svensén 1993. semantics A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the study semi-bilingual dictionary of MEANING. Traditionally, the focus of attention was A BILINGUAL DICTIONARY which contains the WORD (‘lexical semantics’), and this is still its headwords and definitions in one language and main relevance to lexicography. Increasingly, however, translation equivalents in the other language. semantic studies have turned to other levels of linguistic ð BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY. 125 SENSE ORDERING semiology marked not only with a SENSE NUMBER, but by The linguistic study of SIGNS. additional means. Thus, the lexeme band may be treated in two different entries separated by the criteria semiotics of homonymy and etymology: band 1 ‘ribbon’ and A general theory of communication in terms of what band 2 ‘group’. Each of these may be subdivided into (INFORMATION) is transmitted by whom and to sub-senses marked not only with a sense number and/ whom and by what channels (visual, verbal, graphic or punctuation marks, but by a range of additional etc.). Three dimensions are usually distinguished: devices (‘sense discriminators’) such as GLOSSES the semantic or paradigmatic (MEANING), the (band ‘strip (of material)’), DEFINITIONS (band syntagmatic (GRAMMAR) and the pragmatic ‘strip of material used as a distinguishing mark on (CONTEXT). Semiotics is relevant to lexicography clothes’), LABELS (band (Radio) ‘range for since the dictionary is a communicative tool which broadcasting’) or grammatical codes (band vb. ‘to relies on the highly developed code of human verbal fasten’). In the bilingual dictionary, each of these senses language to transmit information to the user, but may have a different translation EQUIVALENT, so efficiency is sometimes compromised through a lack clear meaning distinction is essential. of transparency in one or more dimensions. ð SENSE ORDERING, SUB-LEMMA. ð DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, SEMIOLOGY,  Iannucci 1985, Foxley & Gwei 1989, Kromann et al. SIGN, TEXT. 1991, Svensén 1993, Montemagni et al. 1996. sense sense distinction One of several MEANINGS that can be established for ð SENSE DISCRIMINATION. a word or phrase and covered by a DEFINITION in a reference work. Because of the multiple meanings of sense discriminator words, particularly core items in the basic vocabulary, ð SENSE DISCRIMINATION. compilers of dictionaries have for centuries tried to rationalise, discriminate and display these senses for sense history the benefit of users, but there has not always been The SEMANTIC CHANGE a word or phrase has consistency even within one dictionary. The problem of undergone throughout the history of the language. SENSE DISCRIMINATION which is difficult enough HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES display this in monolingual general dictionaries (how many information from the earliest documented occurrence meanings are there in band?) is compounded in of the item to the present, and some GENERAL bilingual dictionaries by that of uneven translation DICTIONARIES use this principle for ordering the equivalents (each of the separate senses of band may be distinct senses of the headword within entries. expressed by a different word in the other language). ð ETYMOLOGY, SENSE DISCRIMINATION. The number and nature of variable senses of a word may be due to POLYSEMY (related by extension from sense number an ‘original’ meaning or BASIC SENSE: band An ORDERING DEVICE used to divide dictionary ‘ribbon’ > ‘belt’ > ‘range’ > ‘track’) or HOMONYMY entries into sections according to the different senses (accidental similarity: band 1 ‘ribbon’ (etc.) versus of the HEADWORD. band 2 ‘group of musicians’), but these sometimes sense ordering shade into one another. Distinct senses are used to The principles by which the SENSES of a word or subdivide dictionary entries into sections (SUB- phrase are arranged within a dictionary entry. The order LEMMA), but the ordering of these sub-senses (by may be historical (according to the semantic changes etymology? by semantic ‘logic’? by frequency?) is not the word has undergone since its first occurrence in the always clear. language), logical (according to the perceived ‘core’ ð SEMANTICS, SENSE RELATION. meaning from which others have developed, e.g. by  Landau 1984, Moon 1987, McArthur 1992, Svensén metaphorical extension), or by frequency (according to 1993, Considine 1996. how often it occurs in a text CORPUS). In practice sense discrimination these different principles are not always made explicit, The division inside a dictionary entry of distinct or are used in unexplained combinations. SENSES of a word or phrase. Each sub-sense may be  Kipfer 1984. SENSE RELATION 126 sense relation sexual vocabulary The semantic link between two or more words. Two ð VOCABULARY (1). basic types of semantic relation can be distinguished: those between word shapes and the meanings of their SGML extralinguistic referents (‘conceptual’ or ‘reference’ Abbreviation for STANDARD GENERALIZED relations) and those between different words and the MARK-UP LANGUAGE. meanings they share (semantic ‘inclusion’ and ‘opposition’). Among the former the most important shift are HOMONYMY (words with the same form but 1 With reference to communication technology, ð different meanings) and POLYSEMY (one word with COMMUNICATIVE SHIFT. ð at least two different meanings). Among the latter 2 With reference to meaning, SEMANTIC sense relations are the inclusive ones of SYNONYMY CHANGE. and HYPONYMY and various kinds of opposition shorter dictionary (ANTONYMY). Such sense relations are specified in ð ABRIDGED (DICTIONARY). ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES such as the synonym dictionary and the thesaurus. In the shorthand general dictionary the hyponymy relation in particular A system of recording speech in writing without is exploited in one type of DEFINITION which transcribing the words in full. There are many varieties of explains words as a specific instance of something shorthand writing, from conventionalised abbreviations more generic (‘X is a kind of Y which…’). to phonetic and orthographic adaptations. ð INCOMPATIBILITY, PARTITIVE RELATION.  The Pitman Dictionary of English and Shorthand,  Cruse 1986, Jackson 1988, Swanepoel 1994, Gouws London, 1988. 1996. SIGLEX sentence ð ASSOCIATION FOR COMPUTATIONAL A basic unit of SYNTAX. Sentences occur in the LINGUISTICS. raw material for dictionary compilation (e.g. CITATIONS, QUOTATIONS). In the dictionary sign itself, they are used as verbal EXAMPLES, or in The basic unit of communication, usually interpreted full-sentence definitions as in e.g. the COBUILD as a symbolic combination of meaning (‘signifié’) dictionaries. and its formal realisation in phonic or graphic ð GRAMMAR. substance (‘signifiant’). At the word level, this is the  Sinclair 1987, McArthur 1992. linguistic notion of the LEXEME. In metalexicography, the sign has been further sentential dictionary abstracted towards the LEMMA, which is the ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. notional position at which an entry can be located in the structure of a REFERENCE WORK. sequential relation ð SYMBOL. ð HIERARCHICAL RELATION. sign dictionary serial incompatibility A reference work with information on SIGN ð INCOMPATIBILITY. LANGUAGE. set expression signifiant ð FIXED EXPRESSION. ð SIGN. set phrase ð FIXED EXPRESSION. signifié ð SIGN. sexism The disparaging use of a word or phrase referring to sign language the gender of groups or individuals. In the widest sense, any non-verbal system of ð GENDERLECT, TERM OF ABUSE. communication. In a narrow sense, sign language 127 SOCIETY OF AUTHORS refers to systems, based on manual, facial and manner. Dictionaries of slang are concerned with a gestural movements, used for communication kind of USAGE that may be obscure because of its ‘in- amongst the deaf. group’ quality (a feature slang shares with JARGON  Schein 1991. and ARGOT), but it remains difficult to define and to  American Sign Language. A Comprehensive differentiate from other LANGUAGES FOR Dictionary (M.L.A.Sternberg), New York NY, 1981; SPECIFIC PURPOSES, a problem compounded in Dictionary of British Sign Language/English (D.Brien), the design and use of bilingual slang dictionaries. London, 1992. Although there is a long tradition going back to sixteenth-century dictionaries of beggars’ slang, and simple term including J.S.Farmer and W.E.Henley’s seven- A term comprising a BASE with or without affixes, volume historical-comparative dictionary Slang and e.g. a head ‘top of the anatomy’, a heading ‘title at its Analogues Past and Present (New York NY, 1890– the top of a page’. 1904), the inherent limitation of collecting CORPUS ð COMPLEX TERM, COMPOUND TERM. data among relatively isolated social groups impedes  ISO 1990. progress.  Lovatt 1984, McArthur 1992. simple word  A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English A word comprising a BASE with or without (E.Partridge), London, 1937/84; The Thesaurus of Slang derivational affixes, e.g. book, happy. (E.Lewin & A.Lewin), New York NY/Oxford, 1988; ð COMPLEX WORD, COMPOUND WORD. Bloomsbury Dictionary of Contemporary Slang (T.Thorne), London, 1990. simplex ð SIMPLE WORD. slang lexicography A complex of activities concerned with the design, single indexing compilation, use and evaluation of SLANG A system of cataloguing references in a library or DICTIONARIES. bibliography by combining authors, subjects and  Crystal 1980, Green 1996. titles, as opposed to ‘divided’ or ‘split’ indexing in which these are filed in separate lists. slip A card with information on the use of a word or situational context phrase, submitted as part of a READING ð CONTEXT (2). PROGRAMME in a dictionary project, and subsequently incorporated in a CITATION FILE. size  Berg 1993. The physical dimensions of a reference work, e.g. in terms of numbers of words, pages, volumes etc. slogan ð COMPARISON OF DICTIONARIES, COVERAGE, A CATCH-PHRASE adopted by a cause, in politics SCOPE. or advertising.  Svensén 1993. Society of American Archivists slang A professional society, based in Chicago IL, founded A word or phrase associated with the informal in 1936 to represent ARCHIVISTS.  language of a particular social group. Interest in such www.archivists.org/ USAGE has produced a range of studies and Society of Archivists specialised reference works variously referred to as A professional society, based in London, founded dictionaries of slang, cant or argot, such as Eric in 1947 to represent ARCHIVISTS and records Partridge’s on soldiers’ vocabulary, but there are severe managers. limitations on collecting evidence in an area where  www.hmc.gov.uk/archon/6/arch6.htm relative obscurity may be a feature of the discourse. Society of Authors slang dictionary A professional society, based in London, founded A type of REFERENCE WORK which documents in 1884 to represent AUTHORS. and interprets SLANG, sometimes in a lighthearted  www.writers.org.uk/society/ SOCIETY OF INDEXERS 128

Society of Indexers sound system A professional society, based in London, founded An informal term for PHONOLOGY. in 1957 to represent INDEXERS. ð AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INDEXERS, source WHEATLEY MEDAL. The raw material from which DATA can be gathered. In many modern dictionaries, a CORPUS of text is sociolect used as a ‘main’ informing source, ‘supplementary’ A social DIALECT. sources being sought in cases of need (e.g. to cover sociolinguistics aspects such as specialised vocabulary or novel A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the senses). A distinction can also be made between study of LANGUAGE VARIETY along such ‘primary’ sources, or original material (e.g. dimensions as age, sex, social class, context and FIELDWORK), and ‘secondary’ sources, or location. Individuals unconsciously and derivative material (e.g. other dictionaries). consciously adapt their communicative styles to  ISO 1990, Thompson 1992b, Svensén 1993. group norms; linguists describe them (as ‘dialect’, ‘genderlect’, ‘sociolect’, ‘register’ source code etc.); and lexicographers mark them, with or An abbreviation or symbol used to LABEL the texts without USAGE LABELS, as ‘regionalisms’, associated with a particular word, phrase or term.  ‘slang’, ‘foreignisms’, ‘formal’, ‘literary’ etc. ISO 1990. What underlies most of these efforts is the source language notion of a STANDARD language which, 1 In TRANSLATION, the language of a text however, is rarely made explicit even in which is to be translated into another (the specialised dictionaries. ‘target’) language. ð Chambers 1994, Coulmas 1996. ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, soft copy BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. ð HARD COPY. 2 In language teaching, the native language (‘L1’), as opposed to the ‘target language‘ (‘L2’), of software the learner. Computer applications for the compilation, editing ð BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, INTERLAN- and presentation of reference works. GUAGE.  DANLEX Group 1987, Svensén 1993. 3 In BORROWING, the donor language from  Oriental [Languages] Software List (J.Krzywicki), which a word or phrase has been transferred. Warsaw, 1993. ð FOREIGNISM. solidarity relation ð COLLOCATION. -speak A COMBINING FORM used to construct a word sound or phrase descriptive of a particular form of speech, The audible effect of vibrations in the air, which e.g. Airspeak (the language of air traffic control) or allow the transmission of human SPEECH. Seaspeak (the language of maritime communi- Individual ‘speech sounds’ (PHONEMES) cations). combine to form higher-level units, from syllables  The Seaspeak Reference Manual (F.Weeks et al.), to words, and in most languages they are Oxford, 1984. represented by graphic symbols (LETTERS, CHARACTERS). As the correspondence between special dictionary speech and writing is not always direct, general ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. dictionaries and USAGE GUIDES may be designed and consulted for guidance on both special field PRONUNCIATION and SPELLING. ð SUBJECT FIELD (1). soundalike special-field dictionary An informal term for PARONYM. ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. 129 SPEECH COMMUNITY specialised dictionary special-purpose dictionary The collective term for a range of REFERENCE ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. WORKS devoted to a relatively restricted set of phenomena. In contrast to the GENERAL special-purpose lexicography DICTIONARY which is aimed at covering the whole ð SPECIALISED LEXICOGRAPHY. vocabulary for the ‘general’ user, specialised (or ‘segmental’) dictionaries concentrate either on more special theory of terminology restricted information, such as idioms or names, or on The discipline concerned with the theoretical the language of a particular subject field, such as the foundations and principles of TERMINOLOGY, in jargon of the drug scene or the technical terms of relation to one technical subject field in one language. ð mechanical engineering. GENERAL THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY, ð LSP DICTIONARY, TECHNICAL DICTIONARY, REFERENCE SCIENCE, SPECIAL LEXICOGRAPHY.  TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. ISO 1990.  Jackson 1988, Svensén 1993. species  Dictionary of Printing Terms (I.Foster), London, ð SPECIFIC TERM. 1976; Dictionary of Glass-making [English-Spanish- Portuguese] (International Commission on Glass), specific concept Amsterdam, 1992. A subordinate concept in a hierarchical generic specialised lexicography relationship. A complex of activities concerned with the design, ð GENERIC CONCEPT. compilation, use and evaluation of SPECIALISED  ISO 1990. DICTIONARIES. There is no uniform framework for this as the nature and scope of such reference specific term works can range widely, from a brief GLOSSARY In a hierarchy of sense-related words, the one which without definitions, through TECHNICAL covers a smaller conceptual space than the GENERIC DICTIONARIES aimed at lay persons, to large-scale TERM. The relationship between ‘genus’ and ‘species’ and standardised TERMINOLOGICAL can be explained in a number of ways. Taxonomically, DATABASES for subject experts and translators. the specific term is subordinate to the superordinate ð SPECIAL LEXICOGRAPHY. generic term; semantically, it is said to cover a more  Bergenholtz & Tarp 1995. restricted area (the species is a HYPONYM, the genus a HYPERONYM); logically, the species is a member of a specialised meaning class which is equivalent to the genus. ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. ð BINOMIAL COMPOUND, DEFINITION. specialised sense specimen entry ð SEMANTIC CHANGE. 1 During the initial stages of a dictionary project, specialist dictionary a sample to typify the intended format and ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. content of the work. 2 A sample of an ENTRY included in the special language EXPLANATORY CHART, to illustrate the ð LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. various information categories presented in a special lexicography reference work. A branch of LEXICOGRAPHY concerned with a particular language, tradition, culture, subject field speech or type of reference work. The result of the first major COMMUNICATIVE SHIFT, from non-verbal communication to spoken ð COMPARATIVE LEXICOGRAPHY, GENERAL language. LEXICOGRAPHY (1). speech community special library A group of people sharing a LANGUAGE or A library, information centre or collection of material language variety. in a specialised field. SPEECH SOUND 130

ð CULTURAL DICTIONARY, DIALECT, ð SCRIPT REFORM, SPELLING, SPELLING LANGUAGE POLICY. DICTIONARY. speech sound split indexing ð SOUND. ð SINGLE INDEXING. speller spoken corpus ð SPELLING DICTIONARY. A systematic collection of transcribed recordings of samples of natural speech, which documents the spelling USAGE features of a language or language variety. The conventionalised system of representing speech by Advances in digital technology allow the writing in a particular language. In alphabetic scripts simultaneous phonic and graphic display of spoken the graphic signs stand for one or more speech sounds, language, a facility which, in the future, will provide and languages vary in their correspondence between the dictionary-maker and user with features not GRAPHEMES and PHONEMES. Hence, SPELLING previously available. REFORMS are periodically advocated and/or carried ð BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS, PHONOLOGICAL out to regularise these relationships. Spelling, together INFORMATION. with capitalisation, hyphenation and punctuation, forms the basis of ORTHOGRAPHIC sponge word INFORMATION in dictionaries and, through the An informal term for CLICHÉ. ordered sequence of graphic signs (e.g. alphabetic LETTERS or logographic CHARACTERS), provides standard a system for arranging entries overall. 1 The relatively uniform variety of a ð LITERACY, REFERENCE SKILLS, STANDARD (1). LANGUAGE used for interregional  Jackson 1988, McArthur 1992, Svensén 1993, Mitton 1996. communication. Standard language forms are  Collins COBUILD English Guides 8: Spelling the result of long-term effects of linguistic and (J.Payne), London, 1995. other NORMS promoted by cultural institutions, such as ACADEMIES, and publications such spell(ing) checker as textbooks, grammars and DICTIONARIES, An application in a text-processing system which which tend to favour literary/written rather than highlights the deviations in ORTHOGRAPHY and colloquial/dialectal USAGE. Rules for standard suggests appropriate standard forms. forms can be codified at various levels: spelling ð SPELLING DICTIONARY. (‘orthography’), pronunciation (‘orthoepy’), grammar and vocabulary. In the field of spelling dictionary technical terminology, official agreements A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents among experts in different subjects can lead to ORTHOGRAPHIC INFORMATION, usually in national or international STANDARDISATION. alphabetical order. As the relationships between speech ð AUTHORITY, CODIFICATION, and writing are complex in many languages, PRESCRIPTION, USAGE GUIDE. SPELLING can be a difficult skill to acquire, and general
Woods 1985, Zgusta 1989a, Milroy & and specialised dictionaries cater for this reference need. Milroy 1991, McArthur 1992, Bauer 1994. ð USAGE GUIDE. 2 A nationally or internationally agreed benchmark,  Hatherall 1986. e.g. in TERMINOLOGY. Whilst standards have  Orthographic Dictionary (N.Bailey), London, 1727; been accepted for a wide variety of products and Webster s New World Mis(s)peller s Diction(a)ry services (including book sizes, book and series (P.Norback & C.Norback), New York NY, 1974/83. numbers, even for the notion of ‘quality’ itself), none is as yet generally available for the different spelling reform types of reference works. The process or result of change in the orthography ð EVALUATION. of a particular language, to reduce inconsistencies and to harmonise the correspondence between standard (desk) dictionary PHONEMES and GRAPHEMES. A type of general dictionary for business or college use. 131 STRICT SYNONYMY

 Landau 1984. status label  Funk & Wagnalls Standard Desk Dictionary (S.I. A LABEL used to mark the currency, frequency or Landau), New York NY, 1966; Larousse Standard degree of acceptability of a word or phrase in a Dictionary French-English, English-French (F.Carney), dictionary. Practices vary widely, and critics have London, 1994. remarked that labels such as ‘obsolete’, ‘rare’, ‘non- naturalised’ and ‘erroneous’ are vague and in need Standard Generalized Mark-up Language of AUTHENTICATION by means of citation files The ISO standard for document description, and text corpora. specifically for the codes used to indicate document ð DIACHRONIC INFORMATION, DIAFREQUENTIAL structure. It is primarily intended for publishing INFORMATION, DIAINTEGRATIVE INFORMATION. purposes, to enable various software programs (and  Landau 1984, Berg 1993. humans) to interpret text consistently. Subsets of SGML include HTML (hypertext mark-up status symbol language), used to publish documents on the ð STATUS LABEL. INTERNET so that WORLD WIDE WEB browsers display text as intended. Although meant primarily stem as a formatting tool, subsets of SGML have also been That form of a word to which derivational and/or used by linguists to indicate syntactic, stylistic and inflectional affixes can be added, e.g. hand + other textual information. inflectional affix -s, hand + derivational affix -ful,  Heidecke 1996. or handful + inflectional affix -s. ð BASE, WORD FORMATION. standardisation  ISO 1990. A collective term for those processes which bring about uniformity in LANGUAGE by reducing stem dictionary diversity of USAGE. In addition to such agents as A type of reference work with information on the national ACADEMIES, education and the print stems and/or roots of words. ð media, reference works such as GENERAL MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, ROOT DICTIONARIES and more specialised USAGE DICTIONARY (1).  GUIDES have made a contribution to the Roots. Family Histories of Familiar Words (P.Davies), development of a STANDARD (or several standards) New York NY, 1981; Grow Your Vocabulary by Learning for English and many other languages, at the levels the Roots of English Words (R.Schleifer), New York NY, of pronunciation (‘orthoepy’), spelling 1995. (‘orthography’), grammar, vocabulary and discourse. stereotype Given widespread agreement, standardisation can be A word or phrase reflecting the image which the particularly effective in TERMINOLOGY. speaker has of the REFERENT, based on either fact ð CODIFICATION, PRESCRIPTION. or belief.  Landau 1984, ISO 1990, Sager 1990. ð BIAS-FREE VOCABULARY. standardised term stop word list A technical TERM which has been agreed by experts A list of words not (to be) included in an electronic as being the most suitable for designating a particular reference work. concept in a subject field. ð ACCEPTABILITY RATING. stress  ISO 1990. ð PROSODIC FEATURE. standardised vocabulary strict synonym A list of technical TERMS in a specific subject field. ð SYNONYMY (1).  ISO 1990. strict synonymy standard language ð SYNONYMY (1). ð STANDARD (1). STRUCTURAL INDICATOR 132 structural indicator approach is to separate out several dimensions of A device which signals links and divisions within variation within the DIASYSTEMATIC the text of a reference work, e.g. the capitalised LABELLING scheme employed in any one incipits at the start of each section of the wordlist, or dictionary. A ‘colloquial’ word or phrase would then punctuation marks (e.g. colons, semicolons, be classified along a scale of DIAPHASIC brackets) and typographical devices (e.g. bold, italic) INFORMATION (from ‘formal’ to ‘informal’), inside entries. DIAMEDIAL INFORMATION (contrasting ‘written’ and ‘spoken’) or DIASTRATIC structure INFORMATION (from ‘high’ to ‘demotic’). The component parts of a DICTIONARY or other ð REGISTER. reference work in terms of its overall design  Landau 1984, Sharpe 1988, Berg 1993. (MACROSTRUCTURE) and contents of individual entries (MICROSTRUCTURE). style manual ð HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE, LIST. Instructions to authors and editorial staff for the use  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. of a consistent HOUSE STYLE.  Landau 1984, Svensén 1993. structure word  The Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors [11th ð FUNCTION WORD. edition] (R.E.Allen et al.), Oxford, 1981. style stylistics A variety of language associated with different texts, An interdisciplinary field between LINGUISTICS authors, genres, oeuvres, or periods, e.g. the and literary studies, concerned with the study of compressed text of a dictionary entry STYLE. (DICTIONARESE). ð DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, SOCIOLINGUISTICS. ð DEFINITION STYLE, STYLE LABEL.  A Dictionary of Stylistics (K.Wales), Harlow, 1990.  Delbridge 1989. sub-culture style checker ð ARGOT. An application in a text-processing system which highlights features of grammar, text cohesion and sub-entry lexical choice, and may suggest appropriate A subdivision of the REFERENCE UNIT, e.g. the alternative forms. numbered senses of a HEADWORD within a dictionary entry. Style Council A conference first held at Macquarie University in subject 1986. Each Style Council is convened by 1 With reference to technical domains, ð Macquarie’s Dictionary Research Centre, and SUBJECT FIELD (1). supported by Language Australia (the National 2 With reference to the content of a text, ð TOPIC. Languages and Literacy Institute of Australia) to 3 With reference to user studies, ð INFORMANT. produce a twice-yearly bulletin, Australian Style, and to carry out research on Australian English. subject arrangement A thematic or conceptual system of ordering items style guide in a reference work or catalogue. ð STYLE MANUAL. subject dictionary style label A SPECIALISED DICTIONARY in a particular A LABEL used to mark the STYLE level of a word SUBJECT FIELD. or phrase in a dictionary. ‘Style’ is notoriously difficult to define, and lexicographers have had subject field problems marking aspects of USAGE with a unitary 1 A technical specialisation or discipline. style label. (Is ‘colloquial’ a feature of style, or
ISO 1990, Svensén 1993. formality, or even social status?) The modern 2 The TOPIC of a text. 133 SUPERORDINATION subject-field dictionary The subordinate concepts can be called A SPECIALISED DICTIONARY in a particular HYPONYMS with respect to their superordinate SUBJECT FIELD. concept or HYPERONYM, e.g. ‘guideword’ and ‘thumb index’ with respect to ‘ordering device’. subject label  ISO 1990. A LABEL used to mark the field of specialisation with which a particular word or phrase is associated. sub-sense Dictionaries differ as to the extent and the manner One of the distinct meanings of a polysemous word, in which they cover and label technical terms. In often marked in dictionaries by means of numbered general, vocabulary from the arts, humanities and SUB-ENTRIES. social sciences, e.g. Ling(uistics), is better ð SENSE. represented (but less well labelled) than that from the sciences and technology. In SUBJECT-FIELD subsidiaries DICTIONARIES the need to label is reduced ð BACK MATTER. because the technical context is given. Thus, the word lemma is unlabelled (for all three senses given) in sub-standard the New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, A word or phrase considered not to conform to the 1993), while the first two senses of lentil are NORMS of the STANDARD language variety, and unlabelled and the third (‘mass of rock’) is labelled often labelled as such in dictionaries or usage Geol. This Dictionary of Lexicography does not mark guides. even terms borrowed from neighbouring disciplines since they are all considered relevant. substitutability ð DIATECHNICAL INFORMATION. The principle by which a word or phrase in a text  Landau 1984, ISO 1990, Berg 1993, Svensén 1993. can be replaced by its dictionary definition. Such a rule cannot be applied to all categories of word, subject-specific dictionary particularly FUNCTION WORDS. ð SUBJECT-FIELD DICTIONARY.  Landau 1984, Jackson 1988, Svensén 1993. sub-language sub-technical vocabulary ð LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES. A word or phrase from the BASIC VOCABULARY, used in technical contexts with a specialised sense, sub-lemma e.g. window, mouse or to cut and paste in the The position at which a SUB-ENTRY can be located literature of computing. within an entry. Typically, this is either one of several ð TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. numbered senses of a HEADWORD, or one of several associated derivative words or phrases, which suffix can be clustered by means of NESTING or ð AFFIX. NICHING. ð LEMMA. superordinate concept ð GENERIC CONCEPT. sub-meaning ð SUB-SENSE. superordinate term ð GENERIC TERM. subordinate concept ð SPECIFIC CONCEPT. superordination The SENSE RELATION obtaining between two or subordinate term more CONCEPTS at different ranks of a hierarchy. ð SPECIFIC TERM. The superordinate concept can be called a HYPERONYM with respect to its subordinate subordination concepts or HYPONYMS, e.g. ‘clustering’ with The SENSE RELATION obtaining between two or respect to ‘nesting’ and ‘niching’. more CONCEPTS at different ranks of a hierarchy.  ISO 1990. SUPPLEMENT 134 supplement grapheme represents a syllable An update to a dictionary, either bound in as an (SYLLABOGRAPHY). These graphemes also form ‘addendum’ with a revised edition, or issued as a the basis for arranging information in the dictionary. separate publication. ð Phonetic Lexicon of Monosyllabic and some  Warburton 1986, Burchfield 1987a. Disyllabic Words with Homophones, Arranged According  The Oxford English Dictionary Supplement [4 to their Phonetic Structure (D.Rockey), London & New volumes] (R.Burchfield), Oxford, 1957–86; Webster’s York NY, 1973. Third New International Dictionary [Addenda section, pp. 55a–120a], Springfield MA, 1993. syllabography A writing system using SYLLABLE-based graphic supplementary source signs. ð SOURCE. symbol suppletive form A visual or verbal SIGN used to represent a meaning or a ð PARADIGM. sound. Examples include a picture representing an event, a term representing a concept, a grapheme representing a suprasegmental feature phoneme. In reference works, graphic symbols are used ð PROSODIC FEATURE. to abbreviate content (e.g. as grammar codes) and to guide the user (e.g. ordering devices). surname ð PICTOGRAPHIC SYMBOL, SEMIOTICS. ð PERSONAL NAME.  Svensén 1993. surrogate equivalent synchronic dictionary ð EXPLANATORY EQUIVALENT. A dictionary which concentrates on the swear word contemporary language, in contrast to a A word or phrase often associated with a profane DIACHRONIC DICTIONARY which traces the oath or an obscenity. origins and developments of words through one or ð EUPHEMISM, TERM OF ABUSE. more periods in the history of the language.   Slang and Euphemism (R.A.Spears), Middle Village Landau 1984, Svensén 1993, Béjoint 1994. NY, 1981. synonym syllabary One of two or more words or phrases characterised A system of graphic characters in a conventional by SYNONYMY (1). sequence, used for the written representation of synonym dictionary speech. Each character in a syllabic system, e.g. A type of REFERENCE WORK which contains Japanese kana or Sanskrit Devanagari, normally information on words or phrases grouped by represents one syllable. semantic similarity. Such dictionaries fulfil a need syllabication for those engaged in encoding tasks by offering ð SYLLABIFICATION. lexical choices for expressing a certain meaning. The synonyms may be arranged in alphabetical or syllabification thematic order, the latter usually with an alphabetical The division of words into phonic SYLLABLES and index (THESAURUS); they may be simply listed their written representation in (or by) graphic (CUMULATIVE SYNONYMY) or have meaning syllables, for the purposes of memorisation or discrimination (DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY). HYPHENATION.  Landau 1984, van Sterkenburg 1992, Svensén 1993.  A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal syllable European Languages (C.D.Buck), Chicago IL, 1949; The A unit of PHONOLOGY consisting of one vowel Penguin Dictionary of English Synonyms and Antonyms sound or a combination of a vowel with one or more (R.Fergusson), Harmondsworth, 1986; The Oxford Thesaurus. consonants. In syllabic scripts such as Korean, each An A-Z Dictionary of Synonyms (L.Urdang), Oxford, 1991. 135 SYSTEMATIC ORDER synonym essay synset ð SYNONYMY (2). ð WORDNET synonym finder syntactic code An informal term for SYNONYM DICTIONARY. ð GRAMMATICAL CODE.  The Synonym Finder (J.I.Rodale), New York NY, syntactic construction 1978. ð CONSTRUCTION. synonymic definition syntactic information An explanation of a word or phrase by means of a ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. SYNONYM. ð DEFINITION STYLE. syntactic valency ð VALENCY. synonymy syntagmatic dictionary 1 The SENSE RELATION obtaining between the A cover term for dictionaries with information on members of a pair or group of words or phrases COLLOCATIONS, CONSTRUCTIONS, FIXED whose meanings are similar. This definition EXPRESSIONS, PHRASES etc. leaves out of account the degree and nature of ð PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. the meaning similarity. ‘Complete’ (‘absolute’, ‘strict’ or ‘total’) synonymy is impossible as no syntagmatic information two words ever have exactly the same sense in ð PHRASEOLOGICAL INFORMATION. terms of denotation, connotation, formality or currency, but ‘partial’ (‘relative’, ‘loose’, ‘quasi- syntagmatic relation ’ or ‘pseudo-’) synonyms can be substituted for The relationship between words or phrases which is each other in some contexts, e.g. able, capable, based on grammatical sequencing rather than competent, qualified. Synonyms are said to be semantic choice, e.g. syntactic relations such as more common in the BASIC VOCABULARY COLLOCATIONS, CONSTRUCTIONS, FIXED than in technical terminology, but in the latter EXPRESSIONS, IDIOMS, PHRASES or pairs, or even multiples, of words with (almost) SENTENCES. This relationship is one of three identical denotation can be found, e.g. the terms dimensions in SEMIOTICS. ð meaning discrimination, meaning PARADIGMATIC RELATION, PHRASEOLOGICAL differentiation, meaning distinction, sense DICTIONARY, PRAGMATIC RELATION (2).  discrimination and sense distinction in DeStadler 1992, Svensén 1993. semantics and lexicography. syntagmatics General dictionaries provide information on ð SYNTAGMATIC RELATION (2). synonymous expressions, either in entries (as a space-saving alternative to an explanatory syntax DEFINITION) or in the form of A branch of GRAMMAR concerned with the supplementary essays on synonym groups (see compatibility of WORDS within sentences and texts. 2 below). Specialised dictionaries offer ð GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION. additional guidance, e.g. through the  Cowie 1987b. SYNONYM DICTIONARY or the thematic THESAURUS. systematic arrangement
Jackson 1988, Hartmann 1990, ISO 1990, ð SYSTEMATIC ORDER. Svensén 1993, Gouws 1996.  The Synonym Finder (J.I.Rodale), New systematic dictionary York NY, 1978. ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. 2 A display of synonym relations, in the form of systematic order essays in the general dictionary in the style of a The principle of arranging items thematically DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY. within a CONCEPTUAL SYSTEM of a subject
Hausmann 1990. field. SYSTEMIC LEXICOGRAPHY 136

ð ORGANISATION. ð EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY.  ISO 1990.  Apresjan 1992. systemic lexicography system of concepts An approach to lexicography based on a coherent ð CONCEPTUAL SYSTEM. linguistic model.

T

table target language A device for presenting INFORMATION, e.g. 1 In TRANSLATION, the language into which a statistics, in LISTS or grids. SOURCE LANGUAGE text is to be translated. ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, BIDIRECTIONAL table of contents DICTIONARY. A LIST of the headings of the component parts of a 2 In language teaching, the language which the printed publication. In reference books, this is usually learner is aiming to master (‘L2’), as opposed placed in the FRONT MATTER or BACK MATTER, to the native or ‘source’ language (‘L1’). and indicates part of the external SEARCH PATH. ð BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, INTERLAN- ð INDEX, MENU. GUAGE. taboo word target user ð A word, phrase or name the use of which is USER. considered unacceptable for social reasons, e.g. taxonomy sacred or sexual expressions. Avoidance strategies The creation and use of principles for the include ABBREVIATION, EUPHEMISM and CLASSIFICATION of terms and concepts. PARAPHRASE. ð FOLK TAXONOMY, NOMENCLATURE, TYPOL- ð FOUR-LETTER WORD. OGY.  Gates 1992.  Barrière & Popowich 1996. technical dictionary tag A type of REFERENCE WORK devoted to the A symbol, code or abbreviated term used to mark the part description of the TECHNICAL LANGUAGE of a of speech or other syntactic or semantic information of a specialised subject discipline. As the ‘technicality’ of a particular word or phrase in a CORPUS. field varies according to the expert knowledge of the user, such dictionaries can display a wide range of tagger formats. In the GENERAL DICTIONARY or the A computer program for automatic TAGGING. LEARNER’S DICTIONARY, technical information may be included in the form of simplified explanations, tagging with or without a controlled DEFINING The analysis of words and phrases in terms of their VOCABULARY. In so-called LSP DICTIONARIES a grammatical or semantic characteristics. Tagging semi-technical vocabulary caters to relative neophytes or constitutes an important stage in the preparation of a advanced learners, while in the TERMINOLOGICAL text CORPUS for concordancing, lemmatisation etc. DICTIONARY for experts, relatively standardised ð PARSING. terms are treated in their systematic conceptual contexts.  Kiefer et al. 1992, Milton & Chowdhury 1994. Often, however, dictionaries (like this Dictionary of Lexicography) must compromise for mixed user groups. target group ð SPECIALISED DICTIONARY. The intended readership of a reference work.  Béjoint 1988, Heltai 1988, ISO 1990, Opitz 1990,  USER. Bergenholtz & Tarp 1995. TECHNICALITY LABEL 138

 Routledge German Technical Dictionary!Universal- telematics Wörterbuch der Technik Englisch, London, 1995. A combination of television, broadcasting, information technology and other means of technicality label telecommunication. This technology can be ð SUBJECT LABEL. harnessed for both the making and consultation of REFERENCE WORKS. technical language A language variety, especially its telephone book VOCABULARY, as used in a specialised field of ð TELEPHONE DIRECTORY. activity such as a scientific or applied discipline. In popular parlance, technical words are often telephone directory considered unnecessary JARGON, but in the A type of REFERENCE WORK which gives pursuit of ever-increasing specialisation, experts information on telephone numbers, with or without develop (and sometimes standardise) a postal addresses, in order of personal or institutional TERMINOLOGY to reflect the conceptual subscribers’ names. Classified telephone books are distinctions they make. When the emphasis is on often called YELLOW PAGES. the teaching of the lexical and stylistic features of such registers, the term LANGUAGE FOR telescoping ð SPECIFIC PURPOSES is also used, and LSP BLENDING. LEXICOGRAPHY for the complex of activities teletext concerned with the reference works that codify A system which allows access to textual information them. broadcast by means of television. ð TECHNICAL LEXICOGRAPHY.  Sager et al. 1980, Svensén 1993. television A result of the fourth major COMMUNICATIVE technical lexicography SHIFT, which provides access to broadcast pictures A complex of activities concerned with the and sound. Advances in technology allow choices design, compilation, use and evaluation of for multi-channel programming and reception, TECHNICAL DICTIONARIES. Depending on promising an explosion in the number of the target users of such reference works, i.e. MULTIMEDIA reference environments. the general reader or language learner or  Thompson 1992b. subject specialist, the compilation is carried  The Television Industry: A Historical Dictionary out from the perspectives of JARGON, (A.Slide), New York NY, 1991. LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES or TERMINOLOGY. temporal information ð DIACHRONIC INFORMATION. technical term ð TERM. temporal label A REGISTER LABEL used to mark a word or technical vocabulary phrase as belonging to a particular PERIOD. 1 The words or phrases used as TERMS in a  Landau 1984. subject field. 2 A specialised GLOSSARY. term ð TERMINOLOGY (3). A word, phrase or alphanumeric symbol used by the practitioners of a specialised technical subject to technolect designate a CONCEPT. Within the TERMINOLOGY The TECHNICAL LANGUAGE of a particular of the whole field, the unity between term and concept subject field. is claimed to be an essential requirement of TEI unambiguous communication, strengthened by agreed Abbreviation for TEXT ENCODING INITIATIVE. definitions and the avoidance of synonymous expressions. Sometimes international, and even 139 TERMINOLOGICAL DATABASE interlingual, STANDARDISATION is possible, and ‘Terminological versus General Lexicography’ the results are recorded in TERMINOLOGICAL (below). DICTIONARIES and TERMINOLOGICAL  Knowles 1988, 1990, Cluver 1989a, ISO 1990, DATABASES. Bergenholtz & Tarp 1995. ð COMPLEX TERM, COMPOUND TERM, SIMPLE  Dictionary of Terminography/Terminografie- TERM. woordeboek (A.D.de V.Cluver), Pretoria, 1989.  Cluver 1989a, ISO 1990, Sager 1990, Varantola 1992. terminological analysis term bank The study of conceptual and terminological networks ð TERMINOLOGICAL DATABASE. in TERMINOLOGY.  ISO 1990. term identification The determination of the ACCEPTABILITY terminological bank RATING of technical vocabulary excerpted from a ð TERMINOLOGICAL DATABASE. CORPUS.  ISO 1990. terminological concordance A CONCORDANCE of technical terms from one terminographer or more subject fields. One who engages in TERMINOGRAPHY. ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, REFERENCE terminological data PROFESSIONAL. DATA used as a basis for selecting and codifying information categories in TERMINOLOGICAL terminography DICTIONARIES. A complex of activities concerned with the design,  ISO 1990. compilation, use and evaluation of TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. The term terminological database ‘terminography’, coined on the analogy of A computerised database, often multilingual, of the lexicology.lexicography:: technical TERMS of one or more subject fields. terminology:terminography, is tending to replace the Examples of nationally based term banks are older term ‘terminological lexicography’. ð TERMIUM in Canada, LEXIS in Germany and CODIFICATION, GENERAL THEORY OF NORMATERM in France; international databases TERMINOLOGY, TERMINOLOGY, Panel include the European Union’s EURODICAUTOM.

Terminological versus General Lexicography TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY 140 terminological dictionary terminologist A type of REFERENCE WORK which provides One who engages in the theory and/or practice of information about the language (especially the TERMINOLOGY. VOCABULARY) of a specialist field as defined by ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, REFERENCE its practitioners. In addition to the usual problems PROFESSIONAL. of DICTIONARY-MAKING, several questions need to be addressed (here answered with special terminology reference to this Dictionary of Lexicography): 1 A field concerned with the theory and practice of coining, documenting and explaining Is the dictionary monolingual or interlingual? technical TERMS in general and their use in Monolingual (English). particular fields of specialisation. Since the Is it subject- or text-specific? 1930s, terminologists have focused on the Based on the literature of the whole field, with improvement of interdisciplinary and glimpses of relevant neighbouring disciplines. interlingual communication by means of What is the format and readership? systematic CONCEPT formation and agreed Relatively independent entries, with encyclopedic definitions of the vocabulary of various definitions, examples and cross-references, as TECHNICAL LANGUAGES. Interestingly, determined by a limited survey of potential specialist and non-expert users. these efforts have been associated more often Is standardisation of the TERMINOLOGY an with engineers, translators and computer explicit aim? specialists than, say, linguists and There are few precedents to draw on, but decisions lexicographers, and there is no unanimity on preferred or less acceptable alternative terms had concerning the underlying principles. to be made, based on the personal jud gements of the Terminologists have sometimes claimed a rigid two authors. division between ‘technical’ discourse and non- technical or ‘general’ language, deprecated the use  ACCEPTABILITY RATING, LEXICOGRAPHY, of synonymous expressions, and stipulated that the THESAURUS (2). creation of TERMS (and their translation  Cluver 1989a, ISO 1990, Bergenholtz & Tarp 1995. equivalents) can be regulated prescriptively. With  Bekleidungswörterbuch/Dictionary of Garment the support of information technology, Terminology/Dictionnaire de l’habillement/Dizionario della international organisations (e.g. terminologia dell’abbigliamento (G.Rebmann), Berlin, 1990. EURODICAUTOM) and multinational companies have built up large-scale TERMINOLOGICAL terminological entry DATABASES which codify terminological ð RECORD. systems across a range of disciplines and languages. ð GENERAL THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY, terminological format GENERAL LEXICOGRAPHY (1). The microstructure of the terminological RECORD.
Riggs 1989, ISO 1990, Knowles 1990, terminological glossary Nedobity 1990, Sager 1990, Bergenholtz & Tarp ð GLOSSARY. 1995.  Dictionary of Terminology/Terminografie- terminological lexicography woordeboek (A.Cluver), Pretoria, 1989. ð TERMINOGRAPHY. 2 The principles governing the design, compilation, use and evaluation of terminological record TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. ð RECORD. ð TERMINOGRAPHY. 3 A structured list of the vocabulary of a technical terminological standardisation subject field, e.g. in the form of a GLOSSARY. The process and result of the STANDARDISATION of terms and the principles governing their Terminology codification. The title of an international journal, published since  ISO 1990. 1994. 141 TEXT LINGUISTICS terminology extraction ‘functionality’, internal ‘cohesion’, and ‘readership’ The EXCERPTION of terminological data from a can be addressed, which in turn may help to raise CORPUS. standards of CRITICISM, COMPILATION and use.  Bourigault et al. 1996. ð DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, HYPERTEXT, TELETEXT, TEXT terminology science COMPRESSION. A cover term for GENERAL THEORY OF  Dolezal 1989, Steele 1990, Wiegand 1990, Webster TERMINOLOGY and SPECIAL THEORY OF 1992, Biber et al. 1994, Flowerdew & Tong 1994, Stubbs TERMINOLOGY. 1996. terminology standard textbook ð STANDARD (2). An introductory or advanced source book for TRAINING. There is still a relative shortage of such terminology work materials for lexicography and related fields. ð TERMINOLOGY. ð PROFESSIONAL RESOURCES.  Zgusta 1971, Hartmann 1983, Landau 1984, Ilson term list 1985, 1986a, Cluver 1989a, Sager 1990, Svensén 1993. In systems of TERMINOLOGY, the list of technical  Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires words and phrases from a specific field, which serves (F.J.Hausmann et al.), Berlin, 1989–91. as a basis for collecting and locating the information in entries or RECORDS. text compression ð WORD-LIST. The condensation of the text material presented in  ISO 1990. reference works, often motivated by the need to save space. Features include the use of CROSS- term of abuse REFERENCES, a lack of repetition or redundancy, A word or phrase intended to insult or cause offence, the use of abbreviations and symbols, and a often in the form of a VULGARISM, OBSCENITY telegraphic style of discourse. or SWEAR WORD. The user needs to develop appropriate REFERENCE ð ETHNOPHAULISM, RACISM. SKILLS to cope with these complexities, and an  McCluskey 1989, Hauptfleisch 1993, Harteveld & awareness of the various ACCESS STRUCTURES used van Niekerk 1996. and SEARCH PATHS provided.  Dictionary of Insults, London, 1995. ð DICTIONARESE, DICTIONARIES AS DISCOURSE, READABILITY. term of address  Wiegand 1996. ð FORM OF ADDRESS. text condensation tertium comparationis ð TEXT COMPRESSION. In CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS, a common text corpus dimension used as a basis for comparing equivalent ð CORPUS. items across languages.  Hartmann 1991. Text Encoding Initiative Internationally agreed guidelines for the creation and text interchange of machine-readable text. A relatively complete and self-contained unit of written ð STANDARD GENERALIZED MARK-UP or spoken language, such as a conversation, a poem or a LANGUAGE, TAGGING. report. Texts may also themselves be composed of constituent texts, e.g. a book of poetry or a film. text lexicography Collections of texts in the form of CORPORA document ð TEXT-SPECIFIC LEXICOGRAPHY. language by bringing together representative samples text linguistics from different text types or GENRES. A branch of LINGUISTICS concerned with the By considering dictionaries and other reference study of language as TEXT. works as textual discourse, such issues as ‘authorship’, ð CORPUS LINGUISTICS, DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. TEXTOGRAPHY 142 textography thematic lexicography ð CODIFICATION. A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of THEMATIC text processing DICTIONARIES. The electronic collection, manipulation, storage and  McArthur 1986b, Jackson 1988. presentation of texts. ð CORPUS, PARSING, TAGGING. thematic order  DANLEX Group 1987, Kiefer et al. 1992. The systematic ARRANGEMENT of information in a reference work according to classes of topics. text-specific dictionary ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY, A type of reference work based on a single TEXT ORGANISATION, THESAURUS. (e.g. Homer’s Iliad) or a collection of texts within a field of specialisation (e.g. venery, heraldry). theoretical lexicography ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY, GENRE. ð THEORY OF LEXICOGRAPHY.  Lexicon of the Medieval German Hunt (D.Dalby), Berlin, 1965. theoretical linguistics ð LINGUISTICS. text-specific lexicography A complex of activities concerned with the design, theoretical terminology compilation, use and evaluation of TEXT-SPECIFIC ð THEORY OF TERMINOLOGY. DICTIONARIES. theory of lexicography text type The academic study of LEXICOGRAPHY, its ð GENRE. principles and research methods. ð GENERAL LEXICOGRAPHY (1), SPECIAL textual book structure LEXICOGRAPHY, Panel ‘Lexicography: Theory and ð MEGASTRUCTURE. Practice’ (page 86).  Geeraerts 1989. textuality label ð DIATEXTUAL INFORMATION. theory of terminology A cover term for GENERAL THEORY OF textual segmentation TERMINOLOGY and SPECIAL THEORY OF The division of a dictionary or other reference work TERMINOLOGY. into its functional components, e.g. FRONT  ISO 1990. MATTER, WORD-LIST, BACK MATTER.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. thesauri The Latin plural form of THESAURUS, theatre lexicography interchangeable in English with thesauruses. A complex of activities concerned with the design, compilation, use and evaluation of dictionaries of thesaurus dramatic art. 1 A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents  Trapido 1980–1. the vocabulary of a language, language variety or  The Dictionary of Performing Arts in Australia subject discipline by systematically tracing (A.Atkinson et al.) St Leonard’s, 1996. synonym networks between words within semantic domains. The title thesaurus signify-ing thematic arrangement a ‘lexical storehouse’ has been in use for a long ð THEMATIC ORDER. time for large (sometimes polyglot) dictionaries. The earliest dictionaries of this type were rooted in thematic dictionary Latin, e.g. Robert Estienne’s Dictionarium, seu A type of REFERENCE WORK which uses Latinae linguae thesaurus (Paris, 1531) and THEMATIC ORDER as an organising principle, e.g. a Thomas Cooper’s Latin-English Thesaurus THESAURUS or an ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. linguae Romanae et Britannicae (with an ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. appendix of proper names and proverbs, London, 143 TITLE

1565). In its modern sense, the term is associated Organising Music Information (A.Harold & with Peter Roget’s thematically arranged G.Lea), London, 1991; Thesaurus of Psychological Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, a Index Terms (A.Walker), Arlington VA, 1991. synonym list first published in London in 1852, which was influenced by the classifications of the thesaurus-cum-dictionary universalist philosopher John Wilkins. This work  HYBRID. was a CUMULATIVE SYNONYMY rather than a DISTINCTIVE SYNONYMY: it merely listed thesaurus lexicography and classified (rather than defined and A complex of activities concerned with the design, discriminated) words of similar sense. It was compilation, use and evaluation of THESAURUSES. designed as a system of grouped synonyms to There is no unified framework except the intention assist writers’ ‘word-finding’ and thus laid the to help users with encoding tasks, which involves foundations for modern THESAURUS the grouping of words and phrases into sets of (near- LEXICOGRAPHY. )synonyms so that the most appropriate items can Access to the word-list in such systematic be chosen to express a particular concept. compilations is via an INDEX (Roget’s Thesaurus ð ONOMASIOLOGY. did not have an alphabetical index in its first  Ravin et al. 1990, Hüllen 1994. edition). Alternatively, the whole thesaurus can be designed as a SYNONYM DICTIONARY in A-Z thinking-aloud protocol format, each entry containing a set of In USER RESEARCH, a technique of tracing the discriminated or undefined words related in mental processes at work during the act of meaning, such as L.Urdang’s Oxford Thesaurus CONSULTATION. This involves the user verbalising (Oxford, 1991) or J.I.Rodale’s Synonym Finder and recording the decisions taken during the search for (New York NY, 1978). There are also HYBRID required information in performing a task such as forms in combination with general dictionaries translating or reading a text with the aid of a dictionary. (such as W.T.McLeod’s Collins Dictionary and ð Thesaurus in One Volume (London & Glasgow, DIARY (2), USER STRATEGIES.  1987) which splits each page into a traditional Lam 1994. dictionary section and a thesaurus section from the corresponding part of the alphabet). Thesauruses threshold level also exist for particular PERIODS of a language or A minimal proficiency in language for performing for the written work of a particular author. basic communicative tasks, particularly associated ð WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY. with Council of Europe initiatives in developing
McArthur 1986a, 1986b, Marello 1990, graded objectives for LANGUAGE TEACHING. Hüllen 1994, Piotrowski 1994b. ð BASIC VOCABULARY.  Longman Lexicon of Contemporary  van Ek 1988. English (T.McArthur), Harlow, 1981; Dickson’s Word Treasury: A Connoisseur’s Collection of thumb index Old and New, Weird and Wonderful, Useful and A series of notches in the fore-edges of the pages of Outlandish Words (P.Dickson), New York NY, a reference work, which act as STRUCTURAL 1992; Cambridge Word Routes Anglais- INDICATORS to assist the user in finding the Français (M.McCarthy), Cambridge, 1994. required section of the word-list. 2 In TERMINOLOGICAL LEXICOGRAPHY, a monolingual or multilingual alphabetical and/or tilde systematic index of standardised key terms in a ð REPETITION SYMBOL. specialised field to facilitate access to a DATABASE. Depending on the range of time register label specialisation, a distinction can be made between ð TEMPORAL LABEL. ‘macrothesaurus’ and ‘microthesaurus’.
Cluver 1989a, Sager 1990. title  Root Thesaurus [3rd edition] (British A word or phrase used as an identifying NAME for Standards Institution), Milton Keynes, 1988; The a dictionary or other reference work. Terms such as Musaurus: A Music Thesaurus: A New Approach to ‘dictionary’, ‘thesaurus’ and ‘encyclopedia’ and 144

A Selection of European Dictionary Titles 145 TRAINING their equivalents in many other languages derive ð CULTURAL ATLAS, GEOGRAPHICAL from metaphorical expressions suggesting such INFORMATION. notions as ‘bundle’, ‘storehouse’, ‘ocean’, ‘garden’, ‘key to enlightenment’ etc. topographic(al) filing ð Panel ‘A Selection of European Dictionary Titles’ ð GEOGRAPHICAL FILING. (page 144). topolect title page The variety of a language, specifically its The initial part of the FRONT MATTER designating VOCABULARY, associated with a particular the topic or theme of the work. The right-hand page geographical location. (‘recto’) typically includes the title itself, the sub-title, ð REGIONALISM. author(s) or editor(s) etc., name of publisher and place of publication; the reverse page (‘verso’) typically toponym includes the name of the printer and publisher, the book The NAME of a geographical location such as a number, the date of publication and history of the village, town, port or district. ð edition, and copyright and cataloguing details. HYDRONYM.  Sometimes the information given on the title page does Modern Place-Names in Great Britain and Ireland not correspond to that on the outer cover. (A.Room), Oxford, 1983. ð IMPRINT. toponymy token The study of TOPONYMS. An instance of a graphic word occurring in a given total synonym CORPUS. FREQUENCY COUNTS are typically cited ð SYNONYMY (1). in numbers of tokens, e.g. one million word forms (tokens) in running English text will represent only about total synonymy 27,000 different words (‘types’), as many words (e.g. ð SYNONYMY (1). the, of, a, to, is, and) occur with very high frequency. ð HAPAX LEGOMENON, TYPE (2). trade directory  ISO 1990. ð DIRECTORY. tone trademark ð PROSODIC FEATURE. ð TRADE NAME. topic trademark term The subject matter of a text, often summarised in ð TRADE NAME. the form of a title, e.g. of a book. In the ENTRY of a reference work, the topic is typically indicated by trade name the HEADWORD, and the information provided A proprietary symbol or name of a company or product may be considered a COMMENT on it. officially registered and thus legally protected. Some ð BASE STRUCTURE, DEFINITION, FORM (1), trademark terms achieve generic status, and become LEMMA. part of everyday language, e.g. in English biro, hoover,  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989. xerox, and there is some debate as to whether such items still enjoy COPYRIGHT protection or can be freely topical arrangement cited in reference works. ð THEMATIC ORDER.  Landau 1984, Read 1984. topical order training ð THEMATIC ORDER. The academic and/or practical instruction of lexicographers and other REFERENCE topographic(al) dictionary PROFESSIONALS. Until recently, formal training A type of reference work which provides encyclopedic programmes have largely been confined to publishers’ information on a particular place or region. in-house apprenticeship schemes. Some universities TRANSCRIPTION 146 and DICTIONARY RESEARCH CENTRES have translation begun to provide professionally oriented short courses A practical field concerned with the restatement of the and degrees, e.g. the Master of Arts in written or spoken forms of one language by those of LEXICOGRAPHY at the University of Exeter and another. Translation is relevant to lexicography in two comparable programmes at Amsterdam, Barcelona, major respects. Firstly, it is the process by which lexical Lille, Stellenbosch and elsewhere. EQUIVALENTS are codified in bilingual dictionaries. ð DICTIONARY CULTURE, EUROPEAN Secondly, in the process of translation, reference needs LANGUAGE COUNCIL, PROFESSIONAL RESOURCES, arise, both factual and linguistic, which the translator USER EDUCATION. attempts to meet inter alia by consulting dictionaries  Kipfer 1985, Ilson 1986a, Atkins 1992, Hartmann and other reference works. 1992b. Depending on the degree of cultural and linguistic diversity between the source and target languages, transcription and the communicative purposes of the activity, a 1 The process and result of representing spoken distinction can be made between ‘literal’ translation language by means of a specific notation system, (based on ‘word-for-word’ or phrase-by-phrase e.g. the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC correspondence) and ‘free’ translation (or textual ALPHABET. Phonetic transcription, in which the adaptation). These purposes may include foreign- symbols represent articulatory values, is used in language learning, professional interpreting, literary linguistic fieldwork in the collection of evidence activity or technical publishing. Advances in on speech features. Phonemic transcription information technology allow a degree of automation (sometimes also erroneously called ‘phonetic in translation, but machine translation has not yet transcription’), in which the symbols represent reached perfection. distinct units of the sound system of a particular ð ACTIVE DICTIONARY, PARALLEL TEXTS, language, are used in dictionaries to indicate the PASSIVE DICTIONARY. PRONUNCIATION of words and phrases.  Snell-Hornby & Pöhl 1989, Starren & Thelen 1990, Depending on the degree of PHONOLOGICAL Larson 1991, Leemets 1992. INFORMATION provided, a distinction is  The Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies sometimes made between ‘narrow’ (more detailed) (M.Baker), London, 1998. and ‘broad’ (less detailed) transcription. ð RESPELLING, TRANSLITERATION. translation dictionary
Roach 1992, Sobkowiak 1996. ð BILINGUAL DICTIONARY.  Phonetic Symbol Guide (O.K.Pullum & W.A.Ladusaw), Chicago IL, 1986. translation equivalent ð 2 The representation of words written in one script by EQUIVALENT. means of another, e.g. the Korean or Devanagari translation studies scripts represented by the LATIN ALPHABET. An academic field concerned with the theory of ð ROMANISATION, TRANSLITERATION. TRANSLATION and the training of
ISO 1990. TRANSLATORS.  transfer dictionary Varantola 1992.  A bilingual ELECTRONIC DICTIONARY used in An Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, Chinese- machine translation. English, English-Chinese (S.W.Chan & D.E.Pollard), Hong Kong, 1995. transferred sense ð FIGURATIVE MEANING. translation theory ð TRANSLATION STUDIES. translated dictionary A dictionary which is the result of a translation of translator another dictionary. One who engages in TRANSLATION. Translators ð BILINGUALISED DICTIONARY, BRIDGE are among the most avid users and critics of DICTIONARY, ROOT DICTIONARY (2). monolingual as well as bilingual, general as well as specialised dictionaries and other reference works. 147 TYPOLOGY

 International Who’s Who in Translation and dictionaries, ‘size’ for ‘gem’, ‘compact’, Terminology (Union Latine et al.), Nottingham, 1995. ‘concise’, ‘comprehensive’ etc.  ISO 1990. transliteration The representation of words written in an alphabetic typeface script by means of another, e.g. the Greek alphabet The design of an inventory of graphic characters in represented by the LATIN ALPHABET. printed form, e.g. Helvetica 10 or Times New Roman 9. ð ROMANISATION, TRANSCRIPTION.  ISO 1990. typographic(al) device ð STRUCTURAL INDICATOR. travel guide ð GUIDE. typographic(al) display The LAYOUT of the printed page in terms of lines, tree structure columns, grids, margins, headings etc. The basic metaphor for displaying hierarchical ð TYPOGRAPHY. structures and genetic relationships, e.g. conceptual relations, phrase structures or language families. typography ð BASE STRUCTURE, ROOT (1). A practical field concerned with presenting texts in the form of printed pages. The LAYOUT of the trilingual dictionary material on the page of a reference work, including A type of DICTIONARY which relates the the use of different TYPEFACES and styles (e.g. vocabularies of three languages together by bold or italic) is an important consideration in translation EQUIVALENTS or other means. READABILITY and to help the USER locate ð BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, REVERSIBILITY. required information.  Kernerman 1994.  Svensén 1993.  Alvearie or Triple Dictionarie (J.Baret), London,  The Bookman’s Glossary [3rd edition], New York NY, 1573; Longman English-Chinese-Japanese Photo 1951. Dictionary (M.S.Rosenthal & D.B.Freeman), Hong Kong, 1987. typology 1 The classification of dictionaries and other truncated definition REFERENCE WORKS. A typology based on ð FORMULAIC DEFINITION. formal features is termed ‘phenomenological’, one based on uses in context is termed two-way dictionary ‘functional’. More specifically, it is possible to BIDIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. distinguish dictionary types (sometimes called ‘genres’) by size (from ‘unabridged’ to ‘gem’), type by coverage (‘general’ versus ‘specialised’), by 1 A category or genre of REFERENCE WORK format (‘alphabetical’ versus ‘thematic’), by which usually, but not necessarily, has a distinct medium (‘print’ versus ‘electronic’), by title, e.g. ‘general dictionary’, ‘etymological functionality (‘active’ versus ‘passive’), by dictionary’, ‘terminological dictionary’, predominance of INFORMATION ‘dictionary of personal names’, ‘thesaurus’ etc. CATEGORIES provided (DICTIONARY, ð TYPOLOGY (1), Panel Types of Reference THESAURUS, ENCYCLOPEDIA, Works’ (page 148). CATALOGUE etc.), by languages 2 The individual examples of different words or (‘monolingual’, ‘bilingual’, ‘multilingual’), and combinations of words occurring in a given by user type (‘scholarly’, ‘learner’s’, CORPUS. ‘translator’s’ etc.). ð HAPAX LEGOMENON, TOKEN. The terminology used to distinguish reference
ISO 1990. works is extremely fluid; compare for instance 3 A category label for a group of the use of GUIDE, HANDBOOK and manual. CHARACTERISTICS, e.g. with respect to ð Panel ‘Types of Reference Works’ (page 148). TYPOLOGY 148

Shcherba 1940/95, Landau 1984, Svensén 2 In the context of linguistics, ð LANGUAGE 1993, Béjoint 1994, James 1994a. TYPOLOGY.  Dictionary of Dictionaries (T.Kabdebo), London, 1992.

Types of Reference Works U

unabridged (dictionary) and without prejudice requires patience, and The largest size in a DICTIONARY FAMILY. EVIDENCE which is often not available, e.g. because a  Webster’s Third New International Dictionary comprehensive CORPUS of recorded utterances for a (P.B.Gove), Springfield MA, 1961 (with Addenda, 1993). particular text type or situation has not been assembled. Meanwhile subjective linguistic intuition is invoked by unidirectional dictionary those asked to judge a word or phrase as ‘correct’ or ð MONODIRECTIONAL DICTIONARY. ‘appropriate’, supplemented by arguments about non- linguistic factors such as ‘logic’ or ‘beauty’. USAGE Uniform Resource Locator INFORMATION is collected and presented in the An address for accessing information on the general dictionary (also referred to as ‘usage INTERNET. dictionary’ because of this), often by using descriptive unilingual dictionary LABELS or USAGE NOTES and/or by giving ð MONOLINGUAL DICTIONARY. example sentences. There are also specialised dictionaries (called USAGE GUIDES) codifying this union list information in various ways. An alphabetically, thematically or chronologically ð AUTHORITY, CORPUS LINGUISTICS, arranged catalogue of publications held in a group of SOCIOLINGUISTICS, STANDARD (1), USAGE libraries. LABEL, USAGE PANEL. ð LIBRARY UNION DATABASE.  Creswell 1975, Landau 1984, Greenbaum 1988,  Historic English Dictionaries 1559–1899: A Union Algeo 1989a, 1989b, Delbridge 1989, Wadsworth 1989, Catalogue of Holdings in Exeter Libraries (T.Leamouth Gilman 1990, McArthur 1992. & S.Macwilliam), Exeter, 1986; The South Asia and Burma Retrospective Bibliography [Stage 1:1556–1800] usage dictionary (G.Shaw), London, 1987. A type of REFERENCE WORK which describes and illustrates the (usually current) state of a unmarked language. The prototype of this dictionary is the ð MARKEDNESS. popular monolingual GENERAL DICTIONARY. Depending on the compiler’s view of, and the user’s upward reference attitude to, the role of the dictionary in promoting A CROSS-REFERENCE from a specific (or less forms which are considered regular, or ‘correct’, the comprehensive) to a general heading in a CATALOGUE. term STANDARD DICTIONARY is sometimes URL used for the genre. ð Abbreviation for UNIFORM RESOURCE USAGE, USAGE GUIDE. LOCATOR. usage guide usage A type of REFERENCE WORK intended to help A collective term for various judgements on aspects of USERS with encoding tasks such as speaking or language. To observe language in action objectively writing. Entries are often mini-essays on (unre-solved) USAGE INFORMATION 150 issues rather than articles on particular words or usage lexicography phrases. Examples include advice on spelling (e.g. A complex of activities concerned with the design, center versus centre); hyphenation (e.g. data base compilation, use and evaluation of USAGE versus data-base versus database); stress (e.g. DICTIONARIES and USAGE GUIDES. There is no ‘controversy versus con‘troversy); regional usage (e.g. unified framework except the intention to help speakers agricultural show versus county fair); grammar (e.g. and writers in cases of LINGUISTIC INSECURITY. split infinitive: to boldly go versus boldly to go). ð GRAMMAR DICTIONARY, USAGE. usage note  McArthur 1992. A discursive paragraph providing additional  A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (H.W.Fowler/ information on a word or phrase, and inserted close rev. E.Gowers/rev. R.Burchfield), Oxford, 1926/65/96; to the respective dictionary entry. In GENERAL Oxford English. A Guide to the Language (J.C.B.Dear), DICTIONARIES or LEARNER’S Oxford, 1986; Longman Guide to English Usage DICTIONARIES, Usage notes, sometimes specially (S.Greenbaum & J.Whitcut), Harlow, 1988; Webster’s marked out on the page in boxed panels, draw the Dictionary of English Usage (E.W.Gilman), Springfield reader’s attention to synonymous and related words MA, 1989; Collins COBUILD English Guides: Reporting or phrases, explanations of idiomatic expressions, (G.Thompson), London, 1994. stylistic or other restrictions on USAGE.  Hausmann & Wiegand 1989, Herbst 1990. usage information One of the INFORMATION CATEGORIES usage panel presented by the compiler and consulted by the user A group of advisers consulted by compilers or of the dictionary, based on USAGE. Although publishers of a dictionary on controversial issues of objective EVIDENCE on language in action is USAGE. The negative popular reviews of the third difficult to obtain, general and specialised edition of Webster’s New International Dictionary dictionaries offer guidance on matters such as of the English Language (Springfield MA, 1961) SPELLING, GRAMMATICALITY and prompted the editors of the American Heritage APPROPRIATENESS in the form of USAGE Dictionary of the English Language (Boston, 1969) LABELS, USAGE NOTES or illustrative sentences. to assemble a panel of 105 experts, whose ð USAGE GUIDE, USAGE PANEL. composition and judgements were in turn criticised, leading to further changes. usage label ð IMAGE OF THE DICTIONARY. The marking of a word or phrase as typical or  Creswell 1975, Read 1986, Algeo 1990. appropriate in a particular context or language variety. General and specialised dictionaries use a range of Usenet symbols and abbreviations for some or all of the A network of INTERNET discussion groups. following: currency or period, e.g. arch(aic); formality use of reference works or register, e.g. inf(ormal); regionality or dialect, e.g. The totality of activities involved in the Am(erican), York(shire); technicality or subject field, CONSULTATION of a dictionary or other reference e.g. bot(anical); textuality or genre, e.g. poet(ic). work. This list is not exhaustive, and some of these ð FUNCTION, USER PERSPECTIVE, USER distinctions do not have clear boundary lines. RESEARCH. Consequently, dictionaries differ widely in the scope and consistency of their labelling practices. Native speakers user have an ‘intuitive’ grasp of these sociolinguistic facts, but One who engages in the CONSULTATION of a they do not always agree. Non-native learners are dictionary or other reference work. Research into users’ deemed to need explicit guidance, even warnings, about REFERENCE NEEDS and REFERENCE SKILLS marginal, e.g. taboo, usages. (the so-called USER PERSPECTIVE) promises to bring ð DIASYSTEMATIC LABELLING, USAGE PANEL, new insights into the various strategies and patterns of Panel ‘Usage Labels’ (page 151). use observed, and the DESIGN and FORMAT of  Hartmann 1983, Landau 1984, Svensén 1993, reference works appropriate to each. Osselton 1995. ð USER EDUCATION.

Usage Labels USER EDUCATION 152

 Mufwene 1984, Hartmann 1989, Varantola 1994. user research A collective term for a number of methods employed user education to investigate the REFERENCE NEEDS and The training of USERS in the development of REFERENCE SKILLS of users of reference works. REFERENCE SKILLS in response to The USER PERSPECTIVE is still a relatively REFERENCE NEEDS. Limited instruction is underdeveloped specialisation in lexicography, provided at secondary-school and university level requiring an interdisciplinary approach and a in some syllabuses and coursebooks. The need for combination of techniques ranging from relatively greater dictionary awareness is partly catered for large-scale (but indirect) opinion polls and by WORKBOOKS, and occasional local questionnaire surveys to more objective (but workshops for teachers, often sponsored by smallscale) tests and thinking-aloud protocols. publishers. Relevant findings are likely to influence ð USER’S GUIDE. DICTIONARY-MAKING and USER  Béjoint 1989. EDUCATION. ð USE OF REFERENCE WORKS. user needs analysis  Hartmann 1989, Atkins & Knowles 1990, Stark 1990. ð NEEDS ANALYSIS.  Bibliography of user studies (Y.Tono) website: www.u-gakugei.ac.jp/~tefldpt/tonolab/userstudy/ user orientation index.html ð USER PERSPECTIVE. user’s guide user perspective Help given to the USER of a particular reference An approach that considers LEXICOGRAPHY work, either in the FRONT MATTER or as a separate from the point of view of the USER. Issues to be publication (WORKBOOK). considered include the status of users, their previous background and experience, their user strategies familiarity with available reference works and A collective term for those mental operations and the look-up strategies required to consult these decisions made by USERS in the process of successfully, and whether deliberate instruction CONSULTATION, from the selection of the relevant can develop and improve REFERENCE reference work, through appropriate search and SKILLS. retrieval acts, to integration of the information ð COMPILER PERSPECTIVE, TYPOLOGY (1), obtained with the original REFERENCE NEEDS. USER EDUCATION, USER RESEARCH, Panel ð SEARCH PATH, USER RESEARCH. ‘Compiler and User Perspectives’ (page 25).  Neubach & Cohen 1988, Laufer & Melamed 1994.  Bejoint 1989, Hartmann 1989, Martin & Al 1990, Starren & Thelen 1990, Battenburg 1991, Bogaards user studies 1992, Nuccorini 1992, 1994, Svensén 1993. ð USER RESEARCH.

V

vade-mecum ð CONJUGATION, GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION, A GUIDE to a subject field. VALENCY.  McArthur 1992, Svensén 1993. valency The bonding potential of words and phrases in verbal context sentences, usually in relation to the verb as a syntactic ð CONTEXT (1). nucleus. ð CONSTRUCTION. verbal illustration  Svensén 1993, Noël et al. 1996. ð EXAMPLE. valency dictionary verification A specialised GRAMMAR DICTIONARY devoted ð AUTHENTICATION. to information on VALENCY relations.  Wörterbuch zur Valenz und Distribution deutscher Verben vernacular [5th edition] (G.Helbig & W. Schenkel), Leipzig, 1980. ð INDIGENOUS LANGUAGE. variant verso A form of a word which differs from other forms in ð TITLE PAGE. SPELLING, PRONUNCIATION or GRAMMAR, e.g. colour/color, ‘controversy/con ‘troversy, got/ visual design ð gotten. CANONICAL FORMS are chosen from VISUAL LANGUAGE. among several variants of a word or phrase to be visual dictionary cited as HEADWORDS in a dictionary entry, e.g. A type of PICTURE DICTIONARY with vivid open from opens, opening, opened. Dictionaries and illustrations in full colour. USAGE GUIDES often present variants, explain  Facts on File Visual Dictionary (J.-C. Corbeil & their existence, and comment on their use. M.Manser), New York NY & Oxford 1988; Dorling- ð LANGUAGE VARIETY, LEMMATISATION. Kindersley Ultimate Visual Dictionary (J.Evans), London  ISO 1990. & New York NY, 1996. variation visual language ð LANGUAGE VARIETY. The totality of systems of communication which rely for variety their effect on the symbolism and variations in colour, ð LANGUAGE VARIETY. shape, motion etc., exploited in e.g. the DESIGN, LAYOUT and presentation of reference works. verb ð FILM, ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY, A PART OF SPEECH which serves to express an MULTIMEDIA, PHOTO DICTIONARY, PICTURE action or state. DICTIONARY, TYPEFACE, VISUAL DICTIONARY.  Kress & van Leeuwen 1996. VOCABULARY 154 vocabulary to refer to early forerunners of the dictionary, 1 The sum total of the words used in a language, such as the GLOSSARY. by a speaker, or for dictionary-making.
Collison 1982, Stein 1985, ISO 1990, Estimates vary as to the size of a language’s Green 1996. word-stock (for English alone, it is estimated to be in excess of a billion items); the ACTIVE vocabulary control VOCABULARY or PASSIVE VOCABULARY The deliberate restriction of the type and number of of individual speakers; or the number of words words for pedagogical or lexicographic purposes. codified in reference works. Based on the technology of FREQUENCY A ‘core’, or BASIC VOCABULARY is often COUNTS, attempts have been made to determine a distinguished from more specialised words and basic common core vocabulary that would help phrases. All languages are ever-changing and children and foreign-language learners to read and variable in different communicative contexts, acquire words. In LEARNER’S DICTIONARIES thus it is convenient to subdivide their this principle has been applied to both the selection vocabularies along such dimensions as and the definition of lexical items. DIALECT, IDIOLECT or SUBJECT FIELD, ð CORE WORD, DEFINING VOCABULARY. and compile reference works for these varieties.  Neubauer 1989. The specialisation of vocabulary for different uses is potentially infinite, but science and vocabulary selection technology (TERMINOLOGY), and certain ð VOCABULARY CONTROL. areas of popular social interest, e.g. politics, religion, or sex, are often singled out for lexical vogue word treatment in reference works. A NEOLOGISM in fashion for the time being. ð ð CORE WORD, DEFINING CATCH-PHRASE. VOCABULARY, LEXEME, LEXICON (1), voice synthesis STANDARD (1) TYPOLOGY, WORD, Electronically generated sound to simulate human WORD-LIST. speech. This is being used experimentally in helping
Béjoint 1988, Jackson 1988, McArthur the visually-impaired to consult reference works. 1992, Dodd 1993.  Law & Sandness 1985.  Hierolexicon linguarum orientalium, Hebraicae, Chaldaicae, et Syriacae vulgarism (I.Weitenauer), Freiburg, 1759; Safire’s Political An obscene or profane word or phrase which Dictionary (W.Safire), New York NY, 1978; provokes shock or embarrassment in polite society. Eroticon (R.-H.Zuidinga), The Hague, 1990. ð FOUR-LETTER WORD. 2 A list of words or phrases, with or without definitions. The term ‘vocabulary’ is often used

W

Walford Award SPEECH), stylistic associations (e.g. as ARCHAISMS, An annual award by the LIBRARY ASSOCIATION REGIONALISMS and FOREIGNISMS) and uses (e.g. for outstanding services to BIBLIOGRAPHY. as technical TERMS). ð BASE, COMPLEX WORD, COMPOUND WORD, war of the dictionaries ROOT, WORD-LIST. ð DICTIONARY WAR.  Jackson 1988, ISO 1990, McArthur 1992, Katamba website 1994. ð WORLD WIDE WEB. wordbook Wheatley Medal An informal term used as a popular alternative for An annual award by the LIBRARY ASSOCIATION DICTIONARY. and the SOCIETY OF INDEXERS for an  Human Words: The Compleat Uncomputerized Human outstanding index. Wordbook (R.Hendrickson), Philadelphia PA, 1972. who’s who word-by-word alphabetisation A type of REFERENCE WORK which presents A principle of ALPHABETICAL ORGANISATION in information on selected individuals in order of their which words or phrases are listed in order of their letters, names. by taking account of word boundaries, in contrast to ð BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, DIRECTORY. LETTER-BY-LETTER ALPHABETISATION, which  Who’s Who 1997, London, 1996; Lexicon is used in this Dictionary of Lexicography. In word-by- Grammaticorum. Who’s Who in the History of World word alphabetisation, lexicalisation would follow Linguistics (H.Stammerjohann), Tübingen, 1996; Who’s lexical word. Who in Lexicography (S.McGill), Exeter, 1996.  Svensén 1993. word The basic unit of VOCABULARY. The word can be word class considered an entity of phonology (speech sounds united ð PART OF SPEECH. by a stress/intonation pattern), orthography (letters united by a spelling/punctuation pattern), grammar word-class dictionary A type of dictionary which contains (morphemes united by a phrase/sentence pattern) or GRAMMATICAL INFORMATION on a Specific semantics (senses united by a conceptual pattern). The PART OF SPEECH, e.g. adjectives or verbs. linguistic approach regards words as ‘lexicological’ ð units (LEXEMES), the result of a combination of MORPHOLOGICAL DICTIONARY.  graphic/phonic ‘form’ in grammatical ‘context’ with a Cassell Dictionary of Appropriate Adjectives semantic ‘meaning’. In this lexical guise words are used (E.H.Mikhail), London, 1994; Grammar Patterns 1: Verbs in reference works to head entries (HEADWORDS) and (G.Francis), London & Glasgow, 1996. to explain other words by means of DEFINITIONS. word-class label Words have varied origins (ETYMOLOGY), ð GRAMMATICAL LABEL. constituent structure (WORD FORMATION, PART OF WORD COUNT 156 word count (denominal verb) ‘to record’; BORROWING from ð FREQUENCY COUNT. another language, e.g. perestroika < Russian ‘restructuring’; SEMANTIC CHANGE, e.g. the word derivation figurative extension from window ‘fenestral ð DERIVATION. opening’ to ‘part of computer screen’ or ‘gap in timetable’. word division The results of some of these processes are ð HYPHENATION. documented in the general dictionary, and there are word entry specialised reference works such as dictionaries of ð ENTRY. word-formation elements that cover them in detail. ð LEXEME. word family  Bauer 1983, Stein 1984, Me Arthur 1992, Denning A group of words related by derivational history and/ & Leben 1995. or morphological structure.  Collins COBUILD English Guides 2: Word Formation  Bauer & Nation 1993. (J.Bradbury), London, 1991.  A German Word Family Dictionary. Together with English Equivalents (H.H.Keller), Berkeley CA, 1978. word-for-word equivalent ð EQUIVALENT. wordfinder word frequency ð WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY. ð FREQUENCY. word game word-finding dictionary A form of entertaining competitive activity in A type of REFERENCE WORK which supplies which players are involved in the construction, words for meanings. This is done by inverting the definition, manipulation, selection or use of traditional order which explains the meaning of words. Dictionaries are often turned to for relatively unknown words by easy words judgements as to the acceptability of solutions, (SEMASIOLOGY), providing instead access to the and for some word games (e.g. CROSSWORDS), more unusual words via easy ones. special dictionaries are available to assist players ð ONOMASIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. in their endeavours.  Reader’s Digest Reverse Dictionary (J.E.Kahn),  Vocabulon [Board game based on dictionary London, 1989; Sisson’s Word and Expression Locator definitions], Paris. (A.F.Sisson/rev. B.A.Kipfer), Englewood Cliffs NJ, 1994; Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary (H.Trappes- word geography Lomax), Oxford, 1997. A specialisation within DIALECT GEOGRAPHY, concerned with the regional distribution of words. word-finding list ð WORD-FINDING DICTIONARY. word-list The basic order in which entries in dictionaries and word form other reference works are sequenced. The ð VARIANT. conventional arrangement in English dictionaries is the ALPHABETICAL ORDER of entries, each word formation headed by an appropriate HEADWORD. The creation of new words in a language. In ð MACROSTRUCTURE. English, the following derivational processes can  Landau 1984, Béjoint 1994. be used: coining a new word (ROOT-CREATION), e.g. googol; combining a base with one or more WordNet AFFIXES or other morphological elements, e.g. An on-line lexical reference system in which English postmodern; various forms of ABBREVIATION, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are organised e.g. yuppie; fusing words (BLENDING), e.g. into SYNONYM sets (‘synsets’), each representing brunch; changing word class (CONVERSION one underlying lexical concept. (1)), e.g. tape (noun) ‘recording’ > to tape  Miller 1990, Vossen 1996. 157 WWW

 Website: www.cogsci.princeton.edu/~wn/index Wörterbücher/Dictionaries/Dictionnaires The title of a trilingual three-volume encyclopedia, word origin edited by Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, An informal term for ETYMOLOGY. Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (1989– 91), containing 337 keynote articles on all aspects word-processing of LEXICOGRAPHY. An informal term for TEXT PROCESSING. writer word-stock ð AUTHOR. An informal term for VOCABULARY (1). writer’s dictionary word token ð AUTHOR’S DICTIONARY. ð TOKEN. writers’ dictionary word type ð DICTIONARY OF AUTHORS. ð TYPE. workbook writing A pedagogic manual developed to enhance users’ The result of the second major COMMUNICATIVE REFERENCE SKILLS. SHIFT, from spoken communication to the graphic ð USER EDUCATION. representation of language, which allowed the  O’Brien & Jordan 1985, Stark 1990, Berg 1993. storage and more accurate and widespread  Making the Most of Dictionaries in the Classroom transmission of information. This technology helped (A Free Guide for Teachers of English), Oxford, n.d.; develop the processing of information in LIST and Longman Dictionary Skills Handbook (J.McAlpin), glossary form, making use of scripts (e.g. alphabetic Harlow, 1988. or logographic) as an organising principle. ð GRAPHEMICS, GRAPHOLOGY. working language  Gaur 1984, Zgusta 1989b. ð OFFICIAL LANGUAGE.  Handbook of Scripts and Alphabets (G.L.Campbell), London, 1996. work of reference ð REFERENCE WORK. writing system An inventory of graphic symbols and the rules for their work-station combination, used to represent human language. The A powerful desk computer with access facilities to totality of these symbols (LETTERS or telecommunications and specialised reference tools, CHARACTERS) in a particular language is used for which can be used for work in dictionary-making giving the user access to the INFORMATION contained and translation. in reference works, e.g. the ALPHABETICAL  Picchi et al. 1992. ORGANISATION of entries in a dictionary. ð GRAPHEMICS. world lexicography  Zgusta 1989b. The internationalisation of the reference profes- sion. written corpus ð ASSOCIATIONS, PROFESSIONAL RESOURCES. A systematic collection of samples of written  Ilson 1986a. TEXTS, which document the USAGE features of a language or language variety or idiolect. World Wide Web ð BRITISH NATIONAL CORPUS, CORPUS, The global electronic information retrieval system. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS. Organisations and individuals can establish ‘websites’ or information displays. In this Dictionary written language of Lexicography, the website addresses of several ð WRITING. relevant bodies are cited. ð INTERNET. WWW Abbreviation for WORLD WIDE WEB. X

XYZ  ABC. The last three letters of the LATIN ALPHABET, used  The XYZ of Love (I.Hengeler & S.Hengeler), New to mean the whole alphabet. The term is sometimes York NY, 1970; The XYZ of Psychoanalysis: Epilogue to found in the titles of primers or introductory works a Great Beginning (H.Feldman), New York NY, 1991. on any subject, as a synonym of ‘introductory dictionary’.

Y

yearbook yellow pages® A type of REFERENCE WORK published in annual A TELEPHONE DIRECTORY classified editions. thematically by the industries, trades, occupations  The Humanities Computing Yearbook 1989–90 and services etc. of the subscribers listed. (I.Lancashire), Oxford, 1991.

Z

zìdian˘˘˘ ð CHARACTER DICTIONARY.

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