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Ecology of Savanna Ecosystems in Indonesia

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Ecology of Savanna Ecosystems in Indonesia Edith Cowan University Research Online Theses: Doctorates and Masters Theses 2017 Ecology of Savanna Ecosystems in Indonesia Sutomo Edith Cowan University Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses Part of the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons, Environmental Sciences Commons, and the Weed Science Commons Recommended Citation Sutomo (2017). Ecology of Savanna Ecosystems in Indonesia. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/2020 This Thesis is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/2020 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorize you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. Where the reproduction of such material is done without attribution of authorship, with false attribution of authorship or the authorship is treated in a derogatory manner, this may be a breach of the author’s moral rights contained in Part IX of the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Courts have the power to impose a wide range of civil and criminal sanctions for infringement of copyright, infringement of moral rights and other offences under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. Ecology of Savanna Ecosystems in Indonesia Sutomo M.Sc. (University of Western Australia), B.Sc. (Universitas Gadjah Mada) A thesis submitted for the requirements for the award Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors: Dr. Eddie van Etten & Dr. David Goodall School of Science Edith Cowan University Australia July, 2017 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning The Copyright Warning page has been moved to the start of the thesis. i | P a g e USE OF THESIS The Use of Thesis statement is not included in this version of the thesis. With thanks to: o Centre for Ecosystem Management, School of Science, and ECUPRS Edith Cowan University Australia. o Research and Innovation in Science and Technology Program Scholarship (RISET-Pro) Indonesia. o Indonesian Institute of Sciences - Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI). o Southeast Asian Regional Centre for Tropical Biology – SEAMEO BIOTROP. o Bali Botanical Garden Indonesia (Kebun Raya “Eka Karya” Bali - LIPI). o Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry. o Rufford Foundation for Conservation. iii | P a g e ABSTRACT Tropical savannas in South East Asia are important yet understudied ecosystems. In fact, the description of savanna is limited in the Indonesian Archipelago, a region which, based on climate alone, would be expected to have mostly forest. In this thesis, I compared and contrasted the vegetation characteristics of four savannas in the wetter part of the Indonesian archipelago (Java – Bali – Lombok) to understand how fire and grazing influence their dynamics, and searched for evidence of savanna origins, maintenance, invasion by exotic/woody species and possible ecosystem transitions. Vegetation surveys, remote sensing techniques and statistical models were used to spatially and temporally analyse the savanna community composition and the environmental variables and disturbances that influence their structure. Results showed that there are distinct elevation gradients (along with related climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation), as well as fire regime gradients, linked to tropical savanna community composition across Java, Bali and Lombok Islands. These compositions are characterized by different sets of species, and where invasive alien species are becoming significant components of the ecosystems. Lack of prescribed fire and a range of invasive species threaten to convert savanna at Bali Barat and Alas Purwo into secondary forests or shrubland, whereas the presence of forest pioneer/edge species within the savanna at Rinjani suggests successional change from grassland to forest may occur in the absence of future fires (although the role of soil, topography and microclimate in maintaining grass dominance needs also to be further explored). Compared to the others studied, the savanna in Baluran National Park has characteristics of being relatively old and persistent rather than one being created and maintained via recent human conversion of forests. Overall in Indonesia, there is much less savanna compared to forests, hence it is expected that a greater percentage of savanna is burned. Using remote sensing analysis, I confirmed that approximately 2% of savanna/open vegetation had burned over a 14 year period, whereas only 0.8% of forest has burned across Indonesia. The extent and frequency of burning is mostly associated with annual Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). Most burning occurred in years when the SOI sustained negative SOI values, which generally means drier conditions across South East Asia. iv | P a g e I also developed species distribution models for the main invasive alien species of the savanna ecosystems studied, Acacia nilotica, to establish its invasion potential, both locally in Baluran National Park and regionally in other parts of Indonesia. Acacia nilotica was different from the other invasive species studied, in that it is promoted by herbivory, and possibly also by fire. It appears that spatially, A. nilotica is rapidly advancing into the savanna of Baluran National Parks where it was observed that over fourteen years the savanna size has decreased (-1,361 ha), whilst the A. nilotica stand has increased in area (+ 1,886 ha). It was demonstrated that fire and grazing play an important role in this invasion. Results also show that global climate change is likely to increase the potential distribution of A. nilotica in Indonesia and the area at risk of invasion. By year 2045, A. nilotica has potential to spread across much of the eastern parts of Indonesia . As fire and grazing are common to savannas of eastern Indonesia, they are likely to facilitate its invasion into these areas. In summary, I have shown that savanna plant community in Indonesia is formed and maintained by interactions between climatic factors, fire regime and grazing. Invasive species were also present in the studied savannas such as Chromolaena odorata , and Lantana camara . These invasive species together with forest pioneer/edge specialist species ( Ficus septica, Laportea stimulans, Melastoma polyanthum, Nauclea orientalis, Rubus rosifolius ), may also be increasing in absence of fire and also may be leading to change of state from savanna to dense woody vegetation. Absence of fire seems to be changing structure and floristic of savanna vegetation which has implications for savanna species including rare fauna such as Jalak Bali/Bali Starling ( Leucopsar rotschildi ) and Javan Banteng/Wild Java cattle ( Bos javanicus subsp. javanicus ). Results from this thesis showed that Bali Starling range in Bali Island has shrunk to remaining small patches of fire-induced open shrub and savanna woodland found below an elevation of 150–175 m in the north-east part of peninsular Prapat Agung of Bali Barat National Park. The description of the savanna dynamics presented here provides further evidence of the complexity of the savanna ecosystem and its susceptibility to change as a result of changing fire regimes and invasion by invasive species. A greater understanding of the possible ecosystem processes driving the dynamics of the savannas will assist in the formulation of successful savanna management strategies at local and regional scales. v | P a g e COPYRIGHT AND ACCESS DECLARATION I certify that this thesis does not, to the best of my knowledge and belief: i. Incorporate without acknowlegement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any institution of higher education; ii. Contain any material previously published or wrtitten by another person except where due reference is made in the text; or iii. Contain any defamatory material Signed: Sutomo Dated: 08 October 2017 vi | P a g e This thesis is dedicated to my mother who passed away during my candidature, may Allah grant you Jannah , and we love you and miss you so much! vii | P a g e ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Praise is to “ Allah Subhanahu wataàla” and the peace and blessing be upon the prophet Muhammad. Alhamdulillah , for this blessings and gift of health among many others blessings for me to be able to finish this thesis. I wish to thank my families, my wife and biggest supporter of all, Windri, for love, patience and accompany during the hardship of my candidature. To my son M. Hafidz Imtiyaz Sutomo, to my parents in Bekasi-West Java and Jogjakarta-Central Java, my Father, Nana Suhana thank you for your supports and endless prayers for me and never ending love to mother, my Mother Susilowati who passed away during my candidature, may Allah grant you Jannah , we love you and miss you so much! Bapak and Ibu in Jogjakarta, thank you both for your love, supports and prayers. Thank also to my sisters and brothers, Kristina, Tika Permatasari, Aries, Andria, Yuni, Novianto, and Usman (congratulation, and welcome my little niece Keinara Azkaira Letta!). My sincere thank also goes to our extended family in Perth, Lynette Wood for her kind supports for me and Windri during our stay in Australia. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisors Dr. Eddie van Etten and Dr. David Goodall. It has been a great honour for me that they were willing to accept me as their student and gave me the opportunity to work with them. I thank Eddie for his patience for getting into the details of my research, field sites visit to Baluran National Park and Bali Barat National Park, his constructive criticisms, suggestions and ideas throughout my research and various supports during my PhD candidature.
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