Timing Water Shares in Wādī Banī Kharūs, Sultanate of Oman

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Timing water shares in Wādī Banī Kharūs, Sultanate of Oman

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Abdullah Al-Ghafri University of Nizwa

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Available from: Abdullah Al-Ghafri Retrieved on: 24 March 2016 Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies

Volume 43 2013

Papers from the forty-sixth meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held at the British Museum, London, 13 to 15 July 2012

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Timing water shares in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Sultanate of Oman

Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

Summary The falaj irrigation system of Oman once provided settlements with all their water needs, but their main use, then and now, is for the cultivation of crops. In most places, the water is shared among farmers such that it is necessary to time the allocation of water. Before wristwatches became widely available, farmers used sundials in the daytime and stars at night to know when to divert the falaj flow to their fields. These traditional practices are still followed, with many villages using the sundial, but only a few using stars. This paper presents the methods of traditional timing in two such villages, Stāll and Hajīr, located a few kilometres apart in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, on the northern flanks of the Jabal AkhΡar, with a focus on the rapidly dying art of star use. The stars were identified in the field; the method of watching stars is the same, rising above the horizon, but there are several differences between the two villages in the stars used and their names. These differences are explored in light of previous findings in other villages in Oman. Comparisons are also made with traditional irrigation water timing in Iran, which has been considered the source of the technique of falaj irrigation.

Keywords: falaj, traditional irrigation timing, Oman, star use, sundials

Introduction a more complete picture of current star use for irrigation purposes in Oman. The falaj (pl. aflāj) irrigation systems of Oman date back to at least 1000 BC (al-Tikriti 2002). They are widespread The settlements and their falaj systems in and around the mountains in the north of the country, where rainfall is sufficient to provide ephemeral Stāll is located at 23º 13’ N, 57º 33’ E; the falaj is of the wadi flow and groundwater recharge. They distribute dāūdī1 type, with groundwater collected and transported groundwater or wadi flow to the land to cultivate crops, underground to meet the surface close to the irrigated the most important of which is the date palm, but they are area. Hajīr is located at 23º 12’ N, 57º 30’ E; the falaj also used for many other purposes, including domestic is of the Κainī type, literally from a spring. The layout of water and — formerly — for drinking. The falaj systems the two villages is shown in Figures 2 and 3. The basic belong to and are run by the community. components of the settlement are dwellings, the falaj, and Before wristwatches became widely available, cultivated land. Abandoned land that was cultivated in the farmers used sundials in the daytime and stars at night past can be seen close to Hajīr: such land is frequently to know when to divert the falaj flow to their fields. The found in villages where falaj flow has decreased, often sundial is still used in many places, but the stars are only due to the introduction of pumped wells since the 1980s. used in a few of the c.3000 active falaj systems. Five In common with many other settlements in Oman, the of these were investigated by Nash between 2005 and affairs of the aflāj are run by various officials on behalf 2008 (Nash 2011); she recorded the methods of timing of the community. The main permanent crop is the date and identified many of the stars for the first time. The palm, and the palm groves have priority with regard to other settlements since identified where stars are still used irrigation; areas of seasonal crops such as vegetables, for this purpose comprise Stāll and Hajīr, in Wādī Banī KharūΒ on the northern flanks of the Jabal AkhΡar (Fig. 1), 1 Meaning ‘of David’ and referring to the Omani legend that Solomon, and three villages inland of the coastal town of Sur. The son of David, ordered his genies to construct hundreds of such irrigation results of this study therefore contribute significantly to systems when he was visiting Oman. 2 Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

Figure 1. The location of Stāll and Hajīr, Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Oman.

Figure 2. The layout of Stāll. Timing water shares in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Sultanate of Oman 3

Figure 3. The layout of Hajīr. legumes, and grain receive water only after the demand There are many ways of compensating for this apparent from the permanent crops is satisfied. Farmers generally unfairness in the system: longer āthār may have a higher own both water and land, but some water shares are monetary value for sale or mortgage; the time that a usually put aside to raise money for such purposes as particular share is used may vary, often alternating from falaj repairs, mosques, and traditional schools. day to night every week or so. An example of this for Hajīr is shown in Figure 5, which illustrates the four- Timing water shares week cycle that applies to Saturdays; other days have even more complex rotations. The main falaj channels in the two villages flow continuously, so the water is used by day and by night, The use of the sundial each of which is one badda (in the singular this term is variable and bāda is also frequently used; the plural is The sundial at Stāll (Fig. 6) is typical of the majority of rarely used, but one form is buwād). In principle, each sundials used for water division in Oman. It comprises badda is divided into twenty-four equal time spaces called a vertical stick, 8 cm in diameter and 2 m long, in a flat āthār (sg. athar), which vary in the time they represent rectangular area with time divisions marked by stones depending on the length of day or night, but average 30 oriented east–west. The time it takes the shadow of the minutes over the course of a year (Fig. 4). The amount tip of the pole to move from one stone to the next is one of water received by farmers thus varies according to the athar. This sundial has three lines of stones: one for number of āthār owned, their length, and the flow rate of summer, one for winter, and one for spring and autumn, the falaj. to adjust for the angle of the sun in different seasons. In practice, athar lengths are more variable than In Hajīr, the sundial is located in the compound of the the theoretical division described above. For example, village mosque, and the shadow of the mosque wall is particularly long āthār are often found at dusk and dawn. used in place of a separate pole. 4 Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

Figure 4. Divisions of time.

Nash to obtain this information in 2008–2009, following her research on star use in other villages. In Stāll, Nash was assisted by Mohammed al-Sarmi. The stars were pointed out by Khalifa bin Khalfan al- Hattali (Fig. 7). He and the few others still using stars to time their allocation of water are all over 80 years old, and although Khalifa is teaching his 15-year-old son the system, in general young people in the village are not interested either to learn about or to use them. This means that within a few years, everyone will use wristwatches for the allocation of water at night. The stars were watched rising above the horizon. Their identifications were checked with a MySKY ‘gun’, which uses a global positioning system (GPS) to identify objects in the sky, and on StarryNight™ astronomy software, which shows the night sky at any time and place. In this way it was possible to identify many of the stars that Figure 5. An example of the rotation of water shares. could not be seen on the nights that fieldwork was carried out. The information collected, together with the athar The use of stars lengths provided by Khalifa, is presented in Figure 8. A single athar ranges from approximately 13 to 36 minutes. Abdullah al-Ghafri investigated and presented information This is a wider range than the seasonal difference between on the traditional sharing of water in these two villages in day and night which, if divided equally, would give an his doctoral thesis (2004), including the use of the sundial athar a duration of 26 to 34 minutes at this latitude. and rotation of water shares. Although he listed the main Several divider stars are used, some bright or easily stars and the number of āthār each represents, the stars recognized stars, such as Bellatrix (c Orionis) but only were not identified, and he therefore arranged for Harriet Hamal (a Arietis) is named, as Κayyūq al-Kawkabayn. Timing water shares in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Sultanate of Oman 5

Figure 6. A sundial in Stāll.

Figure 7. Stargazing in Stāll. 6 Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

No. of Duration, Name Identification English name āthār minutes al-Thurayyā Messier Object 45 Pleiades 2 55 al-Dabrān al-Suflī α Aurigae Capella al-Dabrān α Tauri Aldebaran 3 78 divider γ Orionis Bellatrix al-Yimīn δ, ε + ζ Orionis Orion’s belt 3 78 al-Shacrat al-BayΡah α Canis Majoris Sirius 1 32 al-Shacrat al-Дamrah α Canis Minoris Procyon 2 ½ 64 al-Janb δ, ε, η, σ + ρ Hydrae head of Hydra 2 ½ 64 al-Dhirāc al-Awwal α + γ Leonis Algeiba + Regulus 2 48 al-Dhirāc al-Ākhīr δ + θ Leonis Zosma + Chertan, Chort 1 28 al-Farafrah β Leonis Denebola 2 62 al-Mawāthīb δ, γ, β + ε Corvi the constellation Corvus 2 56 al-Abū Gabān α Boötis Arcturus 2 52 divider ε Boötis Izar al-Ghafar α Coronae Borealis Alphecca, Gemma 2 64 al-Zubān al-Awwal β Herculis Kornopherus 2 26 al-Zubān al-Thānī α Herculis Rasalgethi 2 28 al-Kwī α Lyrae Vega 2 72 divider γ Lyrae Sulafat ManΒuf β Cygni Albireo 2 50 divider α Cygni Deneb al-Ṭā’ir α Aquilae Altair 1 ½ 38 al-Ghurāb α, β, δ + λ2 Delphini Sualocin (α), Rotanev (β) 2 ½ 77 al-Adam ε Pegasi Enif 2 36 al-Сārat al-Ūlā β Pegasi Scheat 2 62 al-Сārat al-Wustīah α Andromedae Alpheratz 2 48 al-Сārat al-Ākhīrah β Andromedae Mirach 2 64 divider γ Andromedae Almach al-Kawkabayn β + γ Arietes Sheratan + Mesarthim 2 50 divider α Arietes Hamal al-FatΉ 41 Arietis 2 60

Figure 8. Stars used in Stāll.

Al-ΚAyyūq is the literary Arabic name for Capella (a the north of Aldebaran and the horizon is lower in this Aurigae) but in Oman it is commonly used as an adjective direction. denoting helper or indicator, and thus applied to a number As can be seen in Figure 8, a falaj star name may of different stars. Al-Dabrān is the literary Arabic name refer to more than one star (al-Ghurāb, for example, has for Aldebaran (a Tauri), and is widely used for this star four stars), and the brightest is usually the formal star in Oman. Capella is also called al-Dabrān in places, here for time reckoning. The falaj star al-ṬāΜir (meaning the in Stāll with the adjective suflī meaning low, as it rises to flying eagle), is one star (Altair — a Aquilae), but the Timing water shares in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Sultanate of Oman 7

No. of Name No. of stars Identification English name āthār al-Thurayyā 2 Messier Object 45 Pleiades al-Dubrān head of Taurus 3 α Tauri Aldebaran al-Yimīn 3 3 δ, ε + ζ Orionis Orion’s belt al-Shacrat al- BayΡah 1 1 ½ α Canis Majoris Sirius al-Shacrat al- Дamrah 1 2 ½ α Canis Minoris Procyon al-Janb c. 5 2 ½ δ, ε, η, σ + ρ Hydrae head of Hydra al-Dhirāc al- Awwal 1 2 γ Leonis Algeiba al-Dhirāc al- Ākhīr 1 1 ½ δ Leonis Zosma al-Farafrah 1 2 β Leonis Denebola al-Mawāthīb 2 2 ε + γ Virginis Vindemiatrix + Porimma al-Bū Gabān 1 2 α Boötis Arcturus divider 1 ε Boötis Izar al-Ghafr al-Awwal 1 2 α Coronae Borealis Alphecca, Gemma al-Ghafr al- Ākhīr 1 1 ζ Herculis al-cAqrab 4 2 ½ α Herculis Rasalgethi al-Kuwī 1 2 α Lyrae Vega divider 1 δ Cygni al-MunΒuf 1 2 β Cygni Albireo divider (called al-Tā’ir al- 1 α Cygni Deneb Suflī or al-Mudhenib) al-Ṭā’ir 1 1 ½ α Aquilae Altair al-Ghurāb 5 2 ½ α, β, δ + λ2 Delphini Sualocin (α), Rotanev (β) al-Adam 1 2 ½ ε Pegasi Enif al-Сārat al-Ūlā 1 2 α Pegasi Markab al-Сārat al-Wustah 1 2 λ Pegasi Algenib al-Akhlah/ al-Sārat al- 1 1 γ Andromedae Almach Ukhrah al-cUrsh 1 not identified al-Kawkabayn 2 2 β + α Arietes Sheratan + Hamal al-FateΉ 1 2 41 Arietis

Figure 9. Stars used in Hajīr. constellation of three stars (a, b, c Aquilae) is known discrepancy between his identification in the sky and that by Khalifa, who described it as a bird, with the two less on the computer, giving confidence in the identifications bright stars (b, c) forming the wings attached to the body. made on the computer. Al-ΚUrsh was the only star Salim In Hajīr, Salim bin SaΜeed al-Hattali pointed out was not sure about. The stars and the number of āthār several stars rising in the sky, from al-Kwī to al- each represents are listed in Figure 9. The number of Kawkabayn, and their identifications were checked with āthār for each main star is generally similar to Stāll, with a Celestron SkyScout (another GPS tool for identifying the few differences clearly explained by the different stellar objects). He was also able to point out many stars stars used and the different line of sight to the horizon. on the computer using StarryNight™. There was no Information on the time in hours and minutes between 8 Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

Figure 10. The main falaj stars used in Stāll and Hajīr. each star was not collected, but a similar range to that in choice. Other differences are not so easily explained, such Stāll can be expected. as the stars called Сārah. Almost all of them, however, are The name al-ΚAqrab is used in places for a falaj star close to or north of the celestial equator, such that they in the constellation Scorpius, especially for b and d and rise roughly in the east and set in the west, giving the sometimes p Scorpii, a group also called al-Iklīl (the longest possible time between the rise of two main stars. crown/coronet). This al-ΚAqrab generally does not include This, with the use of divider stars, allows a more detailed Antares (a Scorpii), the brightest in the international and accurate division of time than the use of circumpolar constellation and also easily recognized by its red colour. stars, which have a shorter period of visibility. In several villages, however, the falaj star of al-ΚAqrab The names of stars are passed down orally from bears no relationship to the constellation Scorpius, but is generation to generation and are given in Figures 8 and 9 a more northern star, closer to the latitude of Oman: it as spoken, except for the article (al-) which is assimilated is Rasalgethi (a Herculis) in Hajīr, while in Qaryat Banī in speech to the following word for certain letters and СubΉ (Qaryah), to the south of the mountains, it is Eltanin the tā marbūtah, which is generally not pronounced. The (c Draculis). meanings of several star names have been given above, Many of the stars used in Hajīr are the same as in and others are given in Figure 11. Stāll, but there are several differences, as illustrated in Some of these names are specific to certain stars: al- Figure 10. Some are minor, such as the stars used for Thurayyā, al-Janb, al-Ghafr, al-Kuwī, al-Adam, and al- Kawkabayn, which appear to be simply a matter of Kawkabayn are generally used for the same star or star Timing water shares in Wādī Banī KharūΒ, Sultanate of Oman 9

Name Meaning communication, 9 October 2012), and it is probable that al-Thurayyā wealth they adopted the system already in place. al-Dubrān follower (of al-Thurayyā) The range of athar duration found in these two villages al-Yimīn on the left is not uncommon. No explanation has yet been found for this by the authors, but one hypothesis being considered al-Shacrah meaning not known. BayΡah = is that water shares were set at different lengths to reflect white; Дamrah = red the original ownership. It is possible that at some time in al-Janb side/flank the past, the same stars and names were used widely, with al-Dhirāc arm some variation among villages depending on the visibility furfur al-Farafrah possibly from , a small bird of particular stars — i.e. mainly on the topography — al-Mawāthīb leaper/leaping and later diverged, as each village developed its own (A)Bū Gabān possibly (father of the) coward detailed management system. If the falaj system was al-Ghafr guard/ watchman introduced from Persia rather than developed locally, as al-Zubān claw (of a scorpion) is sometimes proposed, the system of sun and star use al-cAqrab scorpion may have been introduced at the same time. It has only al-Kuwī /Kwī possibly ‘burning’ or ‘blaze’ been possible to compare the practice in Oman with al-MunΒuf/ManΒif local forms of manΒaf, meaning that in Iran (Nash, Khaneiki & Semsar 2012), where the etc divider use of the wristwatch became ubiquitous in the 1950s. al-Mudhenib (of the) tail/end The sundial, however, was different in construction: it al-Ṭā’ir flying (eagle) comprised a purpose-built free-standing wall with stone/ al-Ghurāb crow brick dividing lines, rather than the gnomon type which al-Adam meaning not known is so frequent in Oman. Moreover, it appears that stars al-Сārah possibly head or peak were only used for relatively long water shares of several al-cUrsh possibly throne or seat hours, while for smaller shares a water clock was used. al-Kawkabayn two stars The water clock was also used in Oman in a few places, al-FatΉ/FateΉ conqueror but this was the exception rather than the rule. The study of the two villages of Stāll and Hajīr adds Figure 11. The meanings of star names. to the small body of literature on the traditional timing of water shares in Oman, in particular on the use of stars, and is thus an important contribution to our knowledge group in all villages in Oman where information has been of Oman’s heritage in respect of practices that have collected to date. The majority vary from one village to developed over thousands of years but will soon be lost. another, however, meaning that they cannot be identified Current star use in the three villages inland of Sur has also by name alone and must be identified by sight. been investigated by Nash in the last few years. Once that work is published, if funding can be obtained it is planned Discussion and conclusions to carry out more interviews in a selection of places where star use has stopped, to give a more complete picture of the range of timing methods and star names. Stāll and Hajīr are less than 5 km apart as the crow flies. Given their proximity, it is perhaps surprising that there is any difference in the stars used. Information on stars Acknowledgements formerly used in Misfat al-ΚAbrīyīn (Misfah), on the south side of the mountains, was also obtained from a ДaΓΓālī The authors are grateful to the Seven Pillars of Wisdom family (Nash 2011), but there are many differences in the Trust, the Society of Arabian Studies, and the United stars used between Misfah and Wādī Banī KharūΒ, and it Nations University, Tokyo and Hokkaido University, appears that clan affiliations do not affect the selection Japan, for funding part of the fieldwork; and to and use of stars, at least in modern times. It is understood Mohammed al-Busaidi, Chief Astronomer at the Royal that the ДaΓΓālī clan only came to Stāll and Hajīr in the Court of Oman, who loaned a ‘MySky’ gun for fieldwork early nineteenth century (Harith Saif al-Kharusi, personal in Stāll. 10 Abdullah al-Ghafri, Harriet Nash & Mohammed al-Sarmi

References al-Ghafri A.S.S. 2004. Study on Water Distribution Management of Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman. PhD thesis, Hokkaido University. [Unpublished.] Nash H. 2011. Water Management: the use of stars in Oman. (Society for Arabian Studies Monographs, 11). Oxford: Archaeopress. Nash H., Khaneiki M.L. & Semsar Y.A.A. 2012. Traditional timing of water shares. Proceedings of the International Conference on Traditional Knowledge for Water Resources Management, Yazd, Iran 21–23 February 2012. http://hdl.handle. net/10036/3545 al-Tikriti W.Y. 2002. The south-east Arabian origin of the falaj system. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 32: 117–138.

Authors’ addresses

Abdullah al-Ghafri, Director of Aflaj Research Unit, The University of Nizwa, PO Box 33, Postal Code 616, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman. e-mail [email protected]

Harriet Nash, Honorary Research Fellow, Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4ND, UK. e-mail [email protected]

Mohammed al-Sarmi, Second Secretary, Diplomatic Institute, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, PO Box 252, Postal Code 100, Sultanate of Oman. e-mail [email protected]