Using Taking Sides

QUESTIONS TO ASK WHEN generally it still should be viewed with less trust EXAMINING A POSITION than facts. Some statements contain both fact It is vital to learn how to evaluate an argument and opinion. For example, research has calmly and objectively. Discussing the following demonstrated that animals living in crowded questions will help. These questions will enable cages show more aggressive behavior than you to break down an argument into its those living in less crowded cages. A statement component parts, thereby avoiding the such as “Overcrowding of people in slum areas common tendency to be swayed by a will foster high levels of aggression, rape, and presenter’s delivery techniques or by one’s own child abuse in the same way that one sees in set of biases and opinions. caged animals” contains elements of both • Question: How Empirical Is the Presentation? opinion and fact. The most persuasive argument is the one that • Question: What Propaganda Is Being Used? supports its thesis by referring to relevant, Propaganda is information presented in order accurate, and up-to-date data from the best to influence a reader. It is not necessarily sources possible. One should investigate the “good” or “bad.” Many authors consciously use credibility of the author, how recent the propaganda techniques in order to convince material is, the type of research (if any) that their readers of their special point of view. A supports the position outlined, and the degree close look at the author’s background or some of documentation behind any argument. of the motivations and editorial policies of the Empiricism implies going to the best source for source of the publication may provide clues material. This suggests that original research about what types of propaganda techniques material is preferable to secondary sources, might be used. which in turn are preferable to hearsay. • Question: What Cause/Effect Relationships • Question: What Is Fact? What Is Opinion? Are Proposed? A fact is a statement that can be proven. In Much material is written to establish or contrast, an opinion is a statement that advance hypothesis that some circumstances expresses how a person feels about an issue or “cause” specific things to happen. Experiments what someone thinks is true. Many authors often consist of searching for cause/effect blend fact and opinion; it is the responsibility of relationships. Scientists seem to be linking more the critical thinker to discriminate successfully and more observations with their antecedent between the two. This process of causes. Students should note when an issue has discrimination often ties in with the concept of at its heart a disputed cause/effect relationship; empiricism. Facts are generally empirically isolating the claim and examining the determined from research. They are relationship is the readers’ responsibility. documented and can be known or observed by • Question: Are These Cause/Effect other people. Facts can be verified Relationships Merely Correlations? in other sources or can be replicated by other Many cause/effect statements are flawed research. Good facts should be most convincing because no appropriate research or evidence in any issue. Opinions should carry less weight has isolated a single cause. There may be other in evaluating an argument. While the writer hidden factors underlying the relationship. A may believe them to be true, opinions are a good example is this statement: ”Birds fly south product of the writer’s biases and personal in winter because it gets cold in northern system of beliefs. While many opinions make areas.” This statement is plausible, and many good sense and may win a reader’s approval, readers would accept it because it “makes they must still be classified as mere opinions if sense.” Data exist to show a relationship there is no factual evidence supporting them. between temperature and bird population Opinion may, in fact, be entirely correct, but density: population decreases as temperature decreases. However, no experiment has Many authors make much of analogies as they conclusively established that temperature is a attempt to prove their theses. An analogy is a causative factor of bird migration. Alternative comparison of a hypothesis (which is unproven) hypotheses may very well also explain the to a known set of causal events. For example, a behavior. Food supplies may become scarce statement such as “The United States should during low-temperature periods, breeding not be getting involved in Iraq’s politics; we will instincts may precipitate migration, or the birds have another fiasco as we did in Vietnam” uses may simply want a change of scenery! If an analogy. However true the second part of sufficiently controlled experiments could rule the sentence may or may not be, it should not out these alternative hypotheses, the necessarily be accepted as a demonstration of cause/effect statement could be made. As it is, the truth of the first part of the sentence. a simple correlation (statement of coincidence) Analogies usually ignore many differences (in is all that remains: “Birds fly south at the same this example, differences in military position, time that the weather turns cold.” It would geographic location, political motivation, and even be possible (although not very plausible) other factors) that make the current situation with the observed data to infer the opposite unsuitable for comparison and render the causation: “It turns cold in the northern analogy worthless. latitudes because the body heat from migrating • Question: Is the Author Oversimplifying the birds is no longer present!” Students should be Issue? made aware that faulty cause/ effect Authors generally try to show their theses in the statements may be a major source of confusion best possible light and to discredit opposing and misdirection used by authors to defend positions. When authors are so single-minded their points of view. In some cases, the faulty as to completely ignore opposite positions, they cause/effect proposition is the only rationale probably are guilty of over-simplification. It may used by an author. A good technique for be argued, for example, that bilingual education analyzing this sort of error is to have the has been shown to be beneficial for students. students try to generate alternative plausible However, if data are presented without a hypotheses for any proposed cause/effect discussion (even a derogatory discussion) of the relationship. many social ramifications of bilingual education • Question: Is Information Distorted? programs, the argument has not answered all of Many authors, in an attempt to produce facts to the important questions. substantiate their positions, quote statistics and • Question: Is the Author Stereotyping? research that support their viewpoints. All of This sort of logical flaw is similar to the these statements of facts may be biased. cause/effect flaw. The authors may have “Statistics don’t lie—statisticians do” is a truism. observed some general behavior; they then Students should always question the bias may attempt to apply this general behavior involved in obtaining and presenting data. If (which may or may not be true) to a specific averages are given, ranges and standard individual or situation. For example, if an author deviations should be evaluated critically. One asserts that American cars are inferior to interesting question that can be raised is: What foreign cars (which may or may not be true), he statistics or data are missing? If a simple survey or she might not establish that any particular could be done (in lieu of a statement such as American car is truly inferior. Each point should “Most Americans believe that . . .”), why was be analyzed as it is empirically observed, not as such an easily supportable piece of data not it is grouped with other observations. produced? • Question: Are There Faulty Generalizations? Students should learn not to be too easily In the case of a faulty generalization, a impressed by statistical data. Tabulated judgment is based on inaccurate or incomplete numbers or graphs may only reflect opinions. information. For example: • Question: Are Analogies Faulty? “Ducks and geese migrate south for the winter; body of the story, we learn who in the drug therefore, all birds migrate south for the company failed to act, which city and union winter.” In presentations, many subtle forms of officials extended the strike deadline, and so inappropriate generalizations may occur. The forth. Sometimes, however, these vital details most common form concerns research in one never emerge. area being applied to other areas (as in faulty Consider a column we found on the analogy). For example: “The brain deals in commentary page of a local newspaper with the electric potentials. Computers deal with electric headline: “UN should clean up its act.” The potentials. We can thus say that the brain is a columnist charges that”... the UN’s bureaucracy computer.” Another example of a faulty has long ago forsaken its commitment to Article generalization is when an author observes only 100 of the [UN] Charter.” (Article 100 forbids one event or cites only one case study and UN staffers from seeking or receiving infers that this applies to many other instructions from any government.) He phenomena. Sigmund Freud could be denounces “UN apparatchiks [who] have tried considered guilty of this— his theories of to cover their trail . . .” and charges that “The behavior are derived from only a few published UN bureaucracy . . . inhabits a culture of observations of individual case studies. paranoia, fearful always that a powerful member country or a powerful block of PROPAGANDA ALERT countries is looking over their shoulder” [stress Cri tical thinking requires you to be actively added.] There are over 20,000 UN employees involved with your reading assignments. The working worldwide at many different jobs, but following is a list of some of the more the reader is encouraged to lump them all commonly used propaganda techniques, which together as “apparatchiks” (a derisive term for is derived from Analyzing Controversy: An Soviet-era bureaucrats) and “the UN Introductory Guide by Gary K. Clabaugh, La Salle bureaucracy.” University, and Edward G. Rozycki, Widener Some UN employees may well deserve such University (Contemporary Learning Series, labels; but most must surely be worthy and do 1997). Be on the alert for those as you read the admirable work. Consider, as an example, those Taking Sides debates. who sacrificed their lives attempting to bring Generalization food and medicine to besieged Bosnians. Do One kind of generalization that can be hard to they deserve such labels? identify, interpret, or test is the reification. To Name Calling reify means to treat a vague general term as if it Many people would not directly insult those were a concrete, even living, thing. Reifications who disagree with them. Such people often tend to obscure important questions about pride themselves on either their civility or responsibility, cost, and benefit. In addition, objectivity. Nonetheless, they often subtly they are frequently used to demean or insult their opponents not by focusing on the demonize entire groups of people. We argument but by questioning their opponents’ encounter reifications every day. Below are character or motives. some headlines from a major metropolitan In evaluating competing sides of a controversial newspaper with possible reifications italicized. issue, look for terms that delegitimate interests • Drug Company Did Not Act on AIDS Virus (rob them of their legitimacy). Whose interests Warning they invalidate can be quite revealing. For • City and Union Extend Strike Deadline example, in “The Tilt to the News: How • Chinese Police Detain Wife of Political Prisoner American Journalism Has Swerved from the • Clinton Calls on UN to Cut Back on Waste Ideal of Objectivity, “The World and I These are story headlines, and, in most cases, in (December 1993), H. Joachim Maitre denounces the the alleged liberality of National Public Radio (NPR). He cites as an example NPR’s correspondent at the Supreme Court, Nina supply of nasty words that promote and exploit Totenberg, for her “stubborn effort to prevent hatred for particular racial, ethnic, or religious Clarence Thomas from being confirmed as a groups. These are all too commonly known, so justice of the Court.” He might have said we prefer not to provide any further examples “intensive,” “tireless,” or “persistent” effort. for the sake of good taste. Bear in mind, “Stubborn” delegitimizes her actions without however, that there are subtler loaded words giving reasons as to why he thinks she was that also play on hatred. Here are some code wrong. words used to trigger revulsion: welfare queen, Emotions and Persuasion bleeding heart, fascist, extremist, international However irrelevant they might be when it banker, one-worlder, tree hugger, union buster, comes to factual claims or the logic of an puritan, bureaucrat, shyster, and draft dodger. argument, feelings still play a particularly crucial Of course, there are many, many more. role in persuasion. In fact, Aristotle classified Appeals to Pride emotional appeals (pathos) as one of the most Pride is another of the so-called seven deadly effective means of influencing others. Some sins, the one, we are told, that most surely appeals to emotion are uncalculated, coming separates a sinner from the grace of God. Often from disputants who are emotionally wrapped we can spot appeals to pride by looking for up in the issue themselves. But others emanate characteristic indicator phrases like the from practiced publicists or cunning following: propagandists who play on emotions as skillfully • Any educated (or substitute intelligent, as a virtuoso plays the piano. We should be healthy) person knows that . . . wary of this. Some classic appeals to emotion • A person with your good background that you should watch out for follow. (breeding) can’t help but see that . . . Appeals to Fear • You will be proud to know that . . . Fear as a self-protective response is perfectly An inverse appeal to pride plays on our fear of reasonable. But this same emotion can also seeming stupid. Persuasion professionals are cloud judgment. And, as in the case of envy, well aware of this and cleverly use it to their fear can be played upon. Some possible advantage. To make you feel alone and stupid indicators that fear is being appealed to are the in your opinions, for instance, they might use the fear (F) terms instead of the more commission a poll with loaded questions; then neutral (N) terms in the following pairs: (F) bully release the findings to the press. Essentially (N) assertive; (F) aggressive (N) self-confident; they are saying “Look at all the people who (F) sneaky (N) cautious; (F) underhanded (N) agree with us. You must be wrong.” Be alert for circumspect; (F) furtive (N) discreet; (F) such maneuvers. surreptitious (N) watchful; (F) out-of-control (N) Slogans spontaneous; (F) impulsive (N) freewheeling; (F) Slogans are vague statements that typically are rash (N) instinctive; (F) reckless (N) carefree. used to express positions or goals. They The point is that the same essential trait or characteristically conceal potential conflict behavior can be referred to in a way that plays while promoting broad but only shallow on our feelings, in this case, fear. consensus. Because of their vagueness, they are Appeals to Hatred easy to agree with; but we often later find that Hatred is strangely seductive, and zealots of others interpret them in ways we find every stripe seem to need a devil. Hitler, for objectionable. Slogans are not so vague as to be instance, demonized the Jews, and it served meaningless. On the contrary, slogans are Stalin’s murderous purposes to incite hatred for powerful persuaders precisely because they do “wreckers” (of the revolution) and so-called mean something. Crucially, however, what that enemies of the people. Loaded language is something is differs dramatically from person to particularly effective in triggering hate. For person. example, there seems to be a nearly endless Consider the following: • Statements difficult to disagree with: “Take a a. Improve on-time performance. bite out of crime!”; “Support our troops!”; b. Purchase more locomotives. “Preserve the environment!”; “Just say ‘No!’ to 4. Government is wasting money. drugs!” a. Improve fiscal efficiency. • Key terms with multiple interpretations: “law” b. Decentralize purchasing. in “The law is too soft on criminals” and “peace” 5. Too many children are using illegal drugs. in “peacekeeping force” or “peace-loving a. Teach them to say “No!” to drugs. nations.” b. Spend 10 percent more on drug education. • Statements commonly used at political rallies: Presuppositions the “New Deal,” “Contract with America,” or Controversies may rest—not on deliberate “with liberty and justice for all.” misinformation— but on the incorrect • Statements used by the media: “The Trial of assumption that the fundamental sources of the Century,” “Deficit Reduction,” “Liberals,” knowledge that we depend on are functioning and “Conservatives.” well. It is this presupposition of their Pseudo Solutions trustworthiness that supports our arguments. When a real solution to an urgent problem is For instance, consider the following not forthcoming, many arguers offer pseudo presupposition shared by disputants on either solutions, vague generalizations that sound side of the controversy Should Laws Prohibiting convincing and incite people to a cause but say Marijuana Use Be Relaxed? from Taking Sides little more than “Let’s solve this problem by Drugs and Society, Seventh edition doing something that will solve this problem.” (Contemporary Learning Series, 2005). Ethan That’s pretty safe advice, but with these Nadelmann, founder and executive director of solutions, arguers are really avoiding the the Drug Policy Foundation, argues that law possibility of failure, evading details, and enforcement officials are overzealous in neglecting to talk about who will shoulder the prosecuting individuals for marijuana cost. Real solution proposals, on the other possession. Eighty-seven percent of marijuana hand, require the risk of failure, saying exactly arrests are for possession of small amounts of what is to be done, and, often as not, wrestling the drug. The Office of National Drug Control with issues of cost. To distinguish pseudo Policy (ONDCP) contends that marijuana is not a solutions from potentially workable ones, use harmless drug. Besides causing physical the “Can it fail?” Rule. This involves asking, Can problems, marijuana affects academic the solution fail? performance and emotional adjustment. 1. No identifies pseudo solutions. Underlying both of their arguments is the 2. Yes identifies real possibilities. presupposition that adults cannot be permitted Consider the following problems and paired to make their own decisions about the use of “solutions.” The “a” items are pseudo solutions. particular drugs as they choose. A libertarian The “b” items are real proposals. Can you see who worries about governmental restrictions why? on personal liberty would immediately 1. That party is too noisy. recognize this deep assumption and challenge a. Quiet it down. it. The point here is that controversies rest on b. Call the cops. presuppositions that may in themselves be 2. Kids aren’t doing homework. challenged. a. Motivate them. b. Assign lunch detentions. 3. Trains are seldom on time.

TAKING SIDES ANALYSIS REPORT (LONG FORM) Name:______Course:______Book:______Issue number: ______Title of issue:______1. Author and major thesis of the Yes side.______2. Author and major thesis of the No side. ______3. What fallacies of question-framing are made by the authors of the text?______4. Briefly state in your own words two facts presented by each side. ______5. Briefly state in your own words two opinions presented by each side. ______

6. Briefly identify as many fallacies on the Yes side as you can. ______7. Briefly identify as many fallacies on the No side as you can. ______8. All in all, which author impressed you as being the most empirical in presenting his or her thesis? Why? ______9. Are there any reasons to believe the writers are biased? If so, why do they have these biases? ______10. Which side (Yes or No) do you personally feel is most correct now that you have reviewed the material in these articles? Why? ______