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Setting Environmental Standards Guidelines for Decision-Making

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Setting Environmental Standards Guidelines for Decision-Making Setting environmental standards Guidelines for decision-making Edited by H. W. de Koning Published by the World Health Organization, in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme and the lnternational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources . \.'2 . ~J ~ . ~ ~~• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION - GENEVA The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations with primary responsibility for international health matters and public health. Through this organization, which was created in 1948, the health professions of sorne 165 countries exchange their knowledge and experience with the aim of making possible the attainment by all citizens of the world by the year 2000 of a level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and economically productive life. By means of direct technical cooperation with its Member States, and by stimulating such cooperation among them, WHO promotes the development of comprehensive health services, the prevention and control of diseases, the improvement of environmental conditions, the development of health manpower, the coordination and development of biomedical and health services research, and the planning and implementation of health programmes. These broad fields of endeavour encompass a wide variety of activities, such as developing systems of primary health care that reach the whole population of Member countries; promoting the health of mothers and children; combating malnutrition; controlling malaria and other communicable diseases, including tuberculosis and leprosy; having achieved the eradication of smallpox, promoting mass immuniz­ ation against a number of other preventable diseases; improving mental health; providing safe water supplies; and training health personnel of all categories. Progress towards better health throughout the world also demands international cooperation in such matters as establishing international standards for biological substances, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals; formulating environmental health criteria; recommending international nonproprietary names for drugs; administering the International Health Regulations; revising the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death; and collecting and disseminat­ ing health statistical information. Further information on many aspects of WHO's work is presented in the Organization's publications. SETTING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS SETTING ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS GUIDELINES FOR DECISION-MAKING Edited by H. W. de Koning Division of Environmental Health World Health Organizat10n Geneva, Switzerland WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION GEN EVA 1987 ISBN 92 4 154214 4 © World Health Organization 1987 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. For rights of reproduction or translation of WHO publications, in part or in toto, application should be made to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. The World Health Organization welcomes such applications. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. The editor alone is responsible for the views expressed in this publication. TYPESET IN INDIA PRINTED IN ENGLAND 86/7112 -Macmillan/Clays-4500 Contents Preface ..... V Contributors and reviewers vi l. Introduction . 1 2. Identification of priority pollution issues . 5 Selection of pollutants for control . 6 Advantages of international cooperation 8 3. Information on health effects 13 Studies of health effects . 13 Dose-effect relationships . 17 4. Assessment of exposure. 28 High-risk groups . 28 Definition of adverse health effects . 30 5. Strategies for prevention and control . 33 Source-oriented measures. 33 Medium-related measures 41 6. Legal framework. 43 Nature of the decision .. 43 Scope and development of environmental legislation . 44 Content and structure of regulations . 46 Institutional considerations. 48 Geographical dimension of environmental problems 50 Supporting measures for regulatory strategies . 51 7. Consequences of different approaches to environmental health protection . 57 Risks and benefits. 57 Cross-media concerns . 58 Acceptable risks . 59 Cost and effectiveness of control measures 59 Other types of analysis . 60 8. Decision-making process . 65 Interactions between science and policy 67 Constraints affecting developing countries . 68 Characteristics of an effective standard-setting process. 70 References . 71 ¡¡¡ Contents Annex l. WHO Environmental Health Criteria documents (as of September 1986). 77 Annex 2. Example from the legal file of the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals. 79 Annex 3. IARC Monographs on the evaluation of the carcino­ genic risk of chemicals to man (as of September 1986) 81 Annex 4. Pesticides for which evaluations of residues in food have been carried out (as of September 1986). 83 Annex 5. Compounds for which evaluations have been carried out by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (as of September 1986). 85 Annex 6. Summary of WHO water quality guideline values. 93 Annex 7. Summary of air quality guidelines , developed by the WHO Regional Office for Europe . 96 iv Preface Awareness about environmental pollution has increased during recent years so that there is now widespread appreciation of the serious health risks and the need for preventive measures. Such measures, implemented voluntarily or through legislation, have many technical and economic ramifications, as well as social and public health implications. The various aspects of the decision-making process for the development of environmental standards are discussed in this publication from the standpoint of health. Several sections deal with the definition of appropriate health objectives or norms while other sections discuss the strategies and legislative instruments available to achieve these norms. In practice, of course, the decision-making process must be adapted to the overall economic, social, public health, and planning policies of each country. An attempt has been made throughout the text to provide examples and illustrations of how individual countries have done this. Various procedures related to the decision-making process are described to provide the reader with an insight into and an understanding of what is involved and what uncertainties may surround the information that is being used. More detailed information on these procedures can be obtained from the references cited. Many experts in different fields have contributed to the preparation of this publication. Sorne have prepared whole sections, while others have provided comments and suggestions for improvement, par­ ticipated in meetings or acted as consultants. A list of contributors is given on pp. vi-vii and the contribution of all those involved is gratefully acknowledged. Special mention should be made of the work of Dr W. Muir, Hampshire Research Associates Inc., Alexandria, VA, USA, who, particularly in the early stages of the project, played a significant role in its coordination. This book is the result of cooperation between the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Law Centre, which is located in Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany, and forms part of the Secretariat of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) ..The Centre provided support in the preparation of this publication and technical advice throughout the project. The United Nations Environment Programme provided financial support for the publication of this book. Comments and queries regarding this publication should be addressed to the Division of Environmental Health, W orld Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland. The views expressed in this book should not be construed as representing either decisions or policies of the lnternational Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, the United Nations Environment Programme, or the World Health Organization. V Contributors and reviewers V. Aalto, World Health Organization, Brazzaville, Congo M. Baram, Franklin Pierce Law Center, Concord, MA, USA C. Bartone, Pan American Center for Sanitary Engineering, Lima, Peru M. Bothe, University of Hanover, Hanover, Federal Republic of Germany W. Burhenne, IUCN Commission on Environmental Policy, Law and Administration, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany F. Burhenne-Guilmin, Environmental Law Centre, Bonn, Federal Republic of Germany K. Bustueva, Central Institute for Advanced Medica! Training, Moscow, USSR J. Butler, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA J. Carmichael, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, Vienna, Austria E. Clark II, The Conservation Foundation, Washington, DC, USA C. Cochrane, International Centre for Industry and Environment, Villeneuve de Berg, France G. Davila, World Health Organization, Washington,
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