China's Quest for Sporting Mega-Events

China’s Quest for Sporting Mega- Events

The holding of sporting mega-events is viewed by the Chinese authorities as a prominent way to push forward the Reform and Opening Up, arouse patriotism among the public, and display national resurgence in the world. Chinese cities have thus keenly pursued the Olympics, the Asian Games and the Universiade since the 1980s. Theoretically, the President, the Premier and the central government should provide all-out support, so boosting Chinese cities’ odds of success. Yet the reality shows that their attitude toward the bids varies from case to case. Through reviewing the 20 bidding cases, this book aims to demystify the reasons behind this phenomenon. The findings provide an in-depth account of (1) how domestic and inter national political factors determine the state leaders’ blessing and silence as well as the central government’s backing, indifference and opposition, and (2) how the bids for the sporting mega-events are used to serve the broader political goals of the Chinese authorities at home and abroad. Additionally, they shed light on the political strategies to boost the Chinese cities’ chances of success, and the political reasons for their wins, losses and discontinuation, in the bidding contests. In summary, this book vividly elucidates the inseparable nature of politics and sport in China.

Marcus P. Chu is assistant professor in the Department of Political Science, Lingnan University, Hong Kong. Routledge Contemporary China Series

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216 China’s Quest for Sporting Mega-Events The Politics of International Bids Marcus P. Chu

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Marcus P. Chu First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Marcus P. Chu The right of Marcus P. Chu to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978- 0 - 367 - 20667 - 3 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 0 - 429 - 26281 - 4 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Contents

List of tables vi Acknowledgments vii Abbreviations viii

1 Introduction 1

2 Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 7

3 International sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 36

4 Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 58

5 The President and Chinese cities’ Asian Games bids 83

6 The Premier and Chinese cities’ Summer Universiade bids 104

7 Central government and Chinese cities’ discontinued bids 132

8 Conclusion 150

Index 164 Tables

1.1 China’s performance in the Summer Olympics since 1984 2 1.2 China’s performance in the Asian Games since 1974 2 1.3 China’s performance in the Summer Universiade since 1977 3 1.4 Chinese cities’ bids for sporting mega-events governed by the IOC, OCA and FISU since 1980 3 Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Brian Bridges, Annie Chan, Chan Che-po, Gerald Chan, Chen Hon-fai, Francis Cheung, Ted Fung, Lawrence Ho, Joanne Lai, Alan Lee, Peter Leung, Li Pang-kwong, Simon Li, Vic Li, Liu Junli, Lao Liu, Lu Zhouxiang, Zita Lui, Vivian Lun, Ma Yuhuai, Eric Man, Mai Sasahara, Shalendra Sharma, Eric Wong, Jack Wong, Natalie Wong, Wong Yiu-chung, Max Wu, Xiang Xi, Xu Xiaohong, Eilo Yu and Raymond Yuen for their advice, encouragement and help. I am equally indebted to Simon Bates and Tan ShengBin in Routledge Contempo- rary China Series for their professional suggestions about my proposal and manu- script, as well as Louise Lubke Cuss for her careful proofreading and editing service. My special thanks go to Lingnan University direct grant (no. DR19B6), which supported the research of Chapter 4. Lastly, I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to my parents. This book could not have been completed without their care and love. Abbreviations

AFC Asian Football Confederation AGA Asian Games Association ANC African National Congress APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation BIE Bureau International des Expositions CCP Chinese Communist Party CEPA Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement CGAS China General Administration of Sport CNCS China National Commission of Sport COC Chinese Olympic Committee DPP Democratic Progressive Party ECFA Cross-Straits Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement FIFA International Federation of Association Football FISU International University Sports Federation GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade IAAF International Association of Athletics Federations IGF International Gymnastic Federation IOC International Olympic Committee ITTF International Table Tennis Federation IWGA International World Games Association KMT Kuomintang LegCo Legislative Council LOCPG Central People’s Government Liaison Office in Hong Kong MFN Most Favoured Nation NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization NPC National People’s Congress OCA Olympic Council of Asia PNTR Permanent Normal Trade Relations PRC People’s Republic of China ROC Republic of China SAR Special Administrative Region SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome SF&OC Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China WHA World Health Assembly WTO World Trade Organization 1 Introduction

While its people suffered in the ruthless political struggles of the Cultural Revo- lution, China on October 25, 1971 successfully expelled Taiwan, becoming a full member of the United Nations. Within the next 12 months, President Mao Zedong met US President Richard Nixon in Zhongnanhai. The UK, Japan and West Germany all established diplomatic relations with Beijing. In this context, a number of international sporting organizations encouraged China to join them. The most populous country on the planet was thus successively recognized by the Asian Games Association, which later was renamed as the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA), in 1973, the International University Sports Federation (FISU) in 1975, and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1979. Since then, Chinese athletes have been entitled to take part in the Asian Games, the Universiade, the Olympics, and other activities overseen by these three powerful athletic bodies. Given that outstanding performance in international competitions is deemed to be able to arouse the national pride of the public, boost the status and profile of China on the world stage, and consolidate the ruling legitimacy of the Com- munist regime in the post-Cultural Revolution era, Chinese authorities are particularly keen to see the medal haul of their fellow sportsmen in the Olympics, the Asian Games and the Universiade. Accordingly, the Whole-Nation Sports System (juguo tizhi), through which most of the sports resources in the country are allocated to support elite athletes who are able to win medals in the competitions of international sporting mega-events, was launched.1 Although it was criticized for depriving the general public in the country of their rights to enjoy the relevant sports resources, this policy measure successfully led Chinese sportsmen to gain superiority over their overseas rivals in table tennis, diving, weightlifting, gymnastics, shooting and badminton. As a result, the Chinese delegations were constantly ranked in the top tier of these sporting mega- events’ medal tables (see Tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). It was arranged that the champions frequently participated in official propaganda activities. Their stories were extensively reported by state media. The public was deeply moved by the achievements of the sports heroes. Meanwhile, the Chinese authorities busily formulated policies to boost the economy and arouse the patriotism of the public. They also proactively adopted 2 Introduction Table 1.1 China’s performance in the Summer Olympics since 1984

Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank

Los Angeles 1984 15 8 9 32 4 Seoul 1988 5 11 12 28 11 Barcelona 1992 16 22 16 54 4 Atlanta 1996 16 22 12 50 4 Sydney 2000 28 16 14 58 3 Athens 2004 32 17 14 63 2 Beijing 2008 48 22 30 100 1 London 2012 38 31 22 91 2 Rio 2016 26 18 26 70 3

Source: author’s database.

Table 1.2 China’s performance in the Asian Games since 1974

Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank

Tehran 1974 33 46 27 106 3 Bangkok 1978 51 54 46 151 2 New Delhi 1982 61 51 41 153 1 Seoul 1986 94 82 46 222 1 Beijing 1990 183 107 51 341 1 Hiroshima 1994 126 83 57 266 1 Bangkok 1998 129 78 67 274 1 Pusan 2002 150 84 74 308 1 Doha 2006 165 88 63 316 1 Guangzhou 2010 199 119 98 416 1 Incheon 2014 151 109 85 345 1 Jakarta and Palembang 2018 132 92 65 289 1

Source: author’s database. measures to project the soft power of China and display its resurgence on the world stage. Since holding the sporting mega-events governed by FISU, the IOC and the OCA was deemed as a useful prescription to realize these goals, Chinese cities, since the 1980s, have keenly pursued their hosting rights. Up to 2019, Beijing, Shanghai, Harbin, Changchun, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Nanjing, Chengdu, Hangzhou and Shantou have completed bids for the Summer Uni- versiade four times, the Asian Games thrice, the Asian Winter Games twice, the Asian Youth Games twice, the Summer Olympics twice, the Winter Olympics twice, the Summer Youth Olympics once, the Winter Universiade once, and the Winter Youth Olympics once (see Table 1.4).

Objective The procedure regarding Chinese cities’ bids for sporting mega-events is well regulated. Before the application letters of the municipalities (zhixiashi), like Introduction 3 Table 1.3 China’s performance in the Summer Universiade since 1977

Gold Silver Bronze Total Rank

Sofia 1977 0 1 3 4 21 Mexico City 1979 1 1 4 6 13 Bucharest 1981 10 6 5 21 4 Edmonton 1983 5 3 4 12 6 Kobe 1985 6 7 6 19 4 Zagreb 1987 11 9 12 32 5 Duisburg 1989 4 2 5 11 6 Sheffield 1991 20 17 13 50 2 Buffalo 1993 17 6 5 28 2 Fukuoka 1995 13 10 16 39 4 Sicily 1997 10 9 7 26 5 Palma de Mallorca 1999 9 5 11 25 5 Beijing 2001 54 25 24 103 1 Daegu 2003 41 27 13 81 1 Izmir 2005 21 16 12 49 2 Bangkok 2007 33 30 27 90 1 Belgrade 2009 22 21 15 58 3 Shenzhen 2011 75 39 31 145 1 Kazan 2013 26 29 22 77 2 Gwangju 2015 34 21 16 71 3 Taipei 2017 9 6 2 17 9 Napoli 2019 22 13 8 43 3

Source: author’s database.

Table 1.4 Chinese cities’ bids for sporting mega-events governed by the IOC, OCA and FISU since 1980

Year City Bidding project

1983–1984 Beijing 1990 Asian Games 1988–1989 Shanghai 1993 Summer Universiade 1991–1993 Beijing 2000 Summer Olympics 1992–1993 Harbin 1996 Asian Winter Games 1997–1998 Beijing 2001 Summer Universiade 1999–2001 Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics 2001–2002 Harbin 2010 Winter Olympics 2002 Changchun 2007 Asian Winter Games 2003–2004 Guangzhou 2010 Asian Games 2004–2005 Harbin 2009 Winter Universiade 2005–2007 Shenzhen 2011 Summer Universiade 2008 Harbin 2012 Winter Youth Olympics 2009–2010 Nanjing 2014 Summer Youth Olympics 2010 Nanjing 2013 Asian Youth Games 2013–2015 Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics 2015 Hangzhou 2022 Asian Games 2018–2019 Chengdu 2021 Summer Universiade 2019 Shantou 2021 Asian Youth Games

Source: author’s database. 4 Introduction Beijing or Shanghai, are delivered to the international sporting organizations, their government must obtain approval from the State Council and its subordi- nate ministries. Sometimes, the endorsement of the Politburo Standing Com- mittee, the most powerful body in the Chinese Communist Party, is needed. If the government of any sub-provincial city (fushengjishi), like Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Harbin, Nanjing, Hangzhou or Chengdu, decides to apply for hosting rights, it needs to be agreed by its superior provincial government first and then they must seek the approval of the ministries and the State Council. By this logic, the permission of the central government in bids is mandatory. Without it, Chinese cities cannot put forward their applications to international sporting organizations directly.2 In fact, both municipalities and sub-provincial cities have reluctantly forgone their intention to pursue the Olympics, the Asian Games or the Universiade a few times due to the central government’s opposition. After submitting their application letters to the international sporting organizations, the Chinese cities plan to expend billions of dollars building stadiums, improving the environment, upgrading transportation and renovating other urban facilities. They also form bid committees to complete the application tasks, like preparing for the Candidature File and other documents as well as handling the lobbying and publicity affairs, in accordance with the stipulations of the international sporting organizations.3 Since the violation of any stipula- tion would affect the Chinese cities’ odds of success, the Bid Committee members – including the chiefs of the local governments, the heads of the state ministries, and their subordinates – are extremely cautious about their words and deeds while they are handling the bidding tasks. Yet none of the terms in the constitutions of the international sporting organizations stipulate the duties of the head of state, the head of government and other national leaders in the bids. The rules regarding the responsibilities that the central government must shoulder, apart from signing guarantee letters and other supporting documents, are also absent.4 Accordingly, unlike that of the members of the local governments and the state ministries, the behavior of the Chinese President and the Chinese Premier should be less restrained. The Chinese central government may decide on its own whether support needs to be given to the bid committees. It needs to be noted that any Olympics, Asian Games or Universiade bid in which two or more cities participate is an international zero-sum competition. This arrangement means that the hosting right of each gala must be assigned to one city candidate only. Even if there is only one city putting forward the intention to hold a gala, this city is still required to obtain the supporting votes of most of the international sporting organization’s members.5 In the above context, the state leaders and the central government, to increase every Chinese city’s chance of victory, are supposed to give all-out support at all times. The reality, however, is that the attitudes of the President, the Premier and the central government toward the Chinese cities’ bids for the Olympics, the Asian Games and the Universiade vary from case to case. This book, through reviewing the 20 Introduction 5 cases, aims to understand the reasons behind the state leaders’ blessing and silence as well as the central government’s backing, opposition and indifference. The findings of these case studies provide an in-depth account of how the domestic and international political factors determined the varied attitudes of Presidents Li Xiannian, Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping, Premiers Li Peng, Zhu Rongji, Wen Jiabao and Li Keqiang, and the Chinese central government toward the bids for the 2000, 2004 and 2008 Summer Olympics, the 2018 and 2022 Winter Olympics, the 1990, 2010, 2019 and 2022 Asian Games, and the 1993, 1997, 2001, 2011 and 2021 Summer Universiade and how these bidding projects were leveraged to realize the ambitious political goals of the Chinese authorities at home and abroad. They also shed light on the political strategies to boost the Chinese cities’ chance of success, and the political reasons behind their win, loss and discontinuation, in the bidding contests. In short, the inseparable nature of sport and politics is vividly elucidated in this book.

Outline of this book After the introduction, the first three chapters study the inconsistencies in Beijing’s bids for the 2000 Summer Olympics, the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2022 Winter Olympics. Through scrutinizing the President and Premier’s words and actions, Chapter 2 explains why Jiang Zemin and Li Peng closely worked with each other to support the 2000 Summer Olympics, but Jiang and Zhu Rongji as well as Xi Jinping and Li Keqiang did not follow suit in the 2008 Summer Olympic bid and the 2022 Winter Olympic bid. In Chapter 3, the Shanghai 1993 East Asian Games, the Tianjin 1999 Artistic Gymnastics World Championships and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics are reviewed first. It next examines why the first sporting gala was used by the Chinese central government to promote Beijing’s bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, but the others were not used to promote its bids for the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2022 Winter Olympics. Chapter 4 concerns the role of Hong Kong in the three Olympic bids. It investigates the rationales of the Chinese central government for leveraging the city to rather back Beijing’s bids for the 2000 and 2008 Summer Olympics than Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Presidents Li Xiannian, Hu Jintao and Xi Jinping are found to hold different attitudes toward Beijing’s bid for the 1990 Asian Games, Guangzhou’s bid for the 2010 Asian Games and Hangzhou’s bid for the 2022 Asian Games. Premiers Li Peng, Zhu Rongji, Wen Jiabao and Li Keqiang are confirmed to enthusiastically support Beijing’s bid for the 2001 Summer Universiade and Shenzhen’s bid for the 2011 Summer Universiade as well as indifferently handle Shanghai’s bid for the 1993 Summer Universiade and Chengdu’s bid for the 2021 Summer Universiade. While Shanghai was discontinued by the central government to bid for the 1997 Summer Universiade after its application documents had been submitted to FISU, Beijing, Harbin and Nanjing were discontinued by the central government to bid for the 2004 Summer Olympics, the 2018 Winter Olympics and the 2019 Asian Games before their application documents were put forward 6 Introduction to the IOC and the OCA. The reasons for the above inconsistencies are investigated in Chapters 5, 6 and 7, respectively. As the conclusion of this book, Chapter 8 recaps the findings of the 20 case studies and projects possible political factors that would affect China’s quest for sporting mega-events during Xi Jinping’s New Era.

Notes 1 Wu Shaozu, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Tiyushi 1949–1998 [PRC Sports History 1949–1998] (Beijing: China Book Press, 1999), 288–294. 2 Marcus P. Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s international mega-sports events: a case study of Guangdong,” Sport in Society 19, no. 10 (2016): 1622. 3 For the IOC, OCA and FISU regulations about the Olympics, the Asian Games and the Universiade bids, see Olympic Charter (Lausanne: IOC, 2019), 70–72; OCA Constitu- tion and Rules (Hawalli: OCA, 2017), 72–77; Regulations for FISU Events (Brussels: FISU, 2007), 85. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid.

References Chu, Marcus P. “Provincial governments and China’s international mega-sports events: a case study of Guangdong.” Sport in Society 19, no. 10 (2016): 1622–1634. FISU. Regulations for FISU Events. Brussels: FISU, 2007. IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC, 2019. OCA. OCA Constitution and Rules. Hawalli: OCA, 2017. Wu, Shaozu. Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Tiyushi 1949–1998 [PRC Sports History 1949–1998]. Beijing: China Book Press, 1999. Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 23 of the other Chinese leaders, including that of Premier Li Keqiang. This led the interaction between Xi and Li in Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics to be different from those of their predecessors in Beijing’s preceding Olympic bids. Since Xi leveraged the 2022 Games to demonstrate his supreme authority in China, Li chose not to take the initiative of endorsing the bidding affairs. He also used the words delivered by Xi to answer the questions of international society about the capital city’s Olympics pursuit. Aside from the attitudes of the President and the Premier, this chapter has reviewed the cause of Beijing’s win and loss in the three bidding contests. The troops’ brutal suppression of unarmed civilians in summer 1989 and China’s other decades-long dismal human rights record resulted in Western states’ collective opposition to Beijing’s holding of the 2000 Summer Olympics. The Chinese central and local officials’ unwise words and deeds during the bid further damaged the image of the Chinese candidate. Eventually the capital city was defeated in the neck-to-neck race vis-à-vis Sydney. Eight years later, China accelerated the pace to boost GDP and engage in international institutions. The US and other Western powers, to gain interests in the Chinese market, reduced the voices criticizing China’s human rights performance. Thus, Beijing successfully won the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. Unlike most of the Western countries whose GDP slumped due to the global financial tsunami, China’s steady economic growth continued in the early 2010s. Given this contrast, Beijing stood until the last second in the 2022 Winter Olympic bidding contest, whereas its European rivals discontinued their applications. The hosting rights were finally awarded to the Chinese city candidate.

Notes 1 “Shenban chenggong liaoquele Deng Xiaoping suyuan” [Beijing’s success in the Olympic bid fulfills Deng Xiaoping’s dream],People , February 16, 2007, http://paper. people.com.cn/hqrw/html/2007-02/16/content_12373280.htm. 2 Zhang Caizhen, “Yayunhui dailaile wuda bianhua” [The Asian Games bring five changes], China Sports Daily, June 15, 1990, 1. 3 “Bixu qizhi xianming de fandui dongluan” [We must take a clear-cut stand against disturbances], People’s Daily, April 26, 1989, 1; “Zai shoudu dangzhengjun ganbu dahuishang Li Peng tongzhi de jianghua” [Comrade Li Peng’s speech delivered in a meeting with the party, government and military cadres in Beijing], People’s Daily, May 19, 1989, 1; Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan Disanjuan [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993), 302–308. 4 Nicholas D. Kristof, “Beijing death toll at least 300,” New York Times, June 5, 1989, www.nytimes.com/1989/06/05/world/beiijing-death-toll-least-300-army- tightens-control-city-but-angry-resistance.html. 5 Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 660. 6 “Shenban aoyun zhongguoren de meng” [Hosting Olympics is Chinese people’s dream], China Sports Daily, September 23, 1993, 1&2. 7 “Li zongli laidaole xunlianguan” [Premier Li Peng comes to training center], China Sports Daily, July 20, 1990, 1. 24 Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 8 “Jiang Zemin Yang Shangkun fenbie huijian Samalanqi” [Jiang Zemin and Yang Shangkun meet Samaranch], People’s Daily, September 23, 1990, 2. 9 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 296; Bruce Gilley, Tiger on the Brink: Jiang Zemin and China’s New Elite (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 132–133; Joseph Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen: From Deng Xiaoping to Hu Jintao (2nd edition) (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 23–27; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 622–623. 10 Baum, Burying Mao, 302–303; Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 171–177; Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen, 38–39; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 660. 11 “Chenggong juban yayunhui youzhutu juban aoyunhui” [Successfully hosting the Asian Games facilitate China to hold the Olympics], China Sports Daily, September 25, 1990, 4. 12 He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 6. 13 “Li Peng zongli da zhongwai jizhe wen” [Premier Li Peng answers Chinese and overseas reporters’ questions], People’s Daily, April 10, 1991, 1&4. 14 Li Cheng, Chinese Politics in the Xi Jinping Era: Reassessing Collective Leadership (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2016), 13. 15 Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen, 4. 16 John Major, John Major: The Autobiography (London: Harper Collins Publishers, 1999), 505. 17 Wu Jianmin, Shunshi Wu Jianmin Tanwaijiao [World Mega-Trend and China’s Diplomacy] (Beijing: China Democracy and Legal System Publishing House, 2015), 173–181. 18 “Congnuzu kan zhengbab aoyun” [Watching Olympic bid through FIFA Women’s World Cup], Wen Wei Po, December 1, 1991, 8. 19 “Li Peng zongli zhi guoji aoweihui zhuxi ji quanti weiyuan han” [Premier Li Peng’s letter to IOC President and members], Beijing Daily, December 2, 1991, 4. 20 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 41. 21 “Li Peng huijian Jin Yunlong” [Li Peng meets Kim Un-yong], People’s Daily, August 30, 1992, 1. 22 Baum, Burying Mao, 247; Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 186; Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen, 66; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 680. 23 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 677. 24 “Quanli zhichi Beijing shenban aoyunhui” [Fully support Beijing’s Olympic bid], People’s Daily, July 13, 1992, 1. 25 “Jiang Zemin tongzhi de jianghua” [Comrade Jiang Zemin’s speech], People’s Daily, August 17, 1992, 1; “Beijing shenaowei xiang samalanqi zhuansong Jiang Zemin qinbi tizi de zhaopian” [Beijing Bid Committee passed a Jiang Zemin-signed picture to Samaranch], Beijing Daily, July 19, 1992, 1, “Basailuona aoyun jingyan henzhide beijing xuexi” [Beijing should learn Barcelona’s experience of holding the Olympics], Beijing Daily, July 27, 1992, 1. 26 Li Peng, “1992 nian zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 1992], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 20, 2006, www.gov.cn/test/2006-02/ 16/content_200922.htm; “Li Peng huijian saineijiaer keren” [Li Peng meets Senegal guests], People’s Daily, September 22, 1992, 1. 27 Robert L. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 142–143; Sheryl Wudunn, “Chinese angered by French arms sale to Taiwan,” New York Times, November 20, 1992, www.nytimes.com/1992/11/20/world/chinese-angered- by-french-arms-sale-to-taiwan.html. 28 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 74. Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 25 29 Baum, Burying Mao, 366–367; Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 194–196; Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen; 75–76. 30 Jiang Zemin Wenxuan Diyijuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin Volume I] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), 210–254. 31 “Li Peng huijian guoji aoweihui kaochatuan” [Li Peng meets IOC Evaluation Com- mission], People’s Daily, March 9, 1993, 1. 32 Li Peng, “1993 nian zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 1993], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 15, 1993, www.gov.cn/test/2006-02/ 16/content_200926.htm; “Daibiao yu zongli gongyizheng” [Representatives and Premier discuss policies together], Beijing Daily, March 17, 1993, 1. 33 “Beijing shenban 2000 nia aoyunhui dedaole quanguo renmin dali zhichi” [Beijing’s bid for Olympics obtain Chinese people’s all-out support], Beijing Daily, March 31, 1993, 1; “Zhongguo renmin zhiliyu heping yu fazhan zhehe aolinpike jingshen shiyizhide” [Chinese people stick to peace and development as this is consistent to Olympism], Beijing Daily, April 18, 1993, 1; “Shiyiyi renmin shi puji aolinpike jingshen kekao Liliang” [1.1 billion Chinese people is a reliable force to promote Olympism], Beijing Daily, April 17, 1993, 1. 34 “Jiang Zemin zai Shanghai huijian samalanqi” [Jiang Zemin meets Samaranch at Shanghai], People’s Daily, May 10, 1993, 1. 35 “Saweng qiche guangjingcheng” [Samaranch cycles in Beijing], Beijing Daily, May 13, 1993, 1. 36 “Samalanqi yingxing feili Beijing” [Samaranch left Beijing], Beijing Daily, May 14, 1993, 1. 37 “H.Res.188 – To express the sense of the House of Representatives that the Olympics in the Year 2000 should not be held in Beijing or elsewhere in the People’s Republic of China,” US Congress,. www congress.gov/bill/103rd-congress/house-resolution/ 188/all-actions?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22Beijing+2000+Olympics%22%5D% 7D&r=3&overview=closed#tabs. 38 “Jiang Zemin zhuxi zhixin guoji aoweihui weiyuan” [President Jiang Zemin addresses letter to IOC members], People’s Daily, June 24, 1993, 1. 39 “Xueli suibei pinggu wei daremen Beijing shenban aoyun xinxin bujian” [Beijing is still confident of Olympic bid although Sydney is assessed as frontrunner],Ming Pao, July 14, 1993, 8. 40 “H.Res.188 – To express the sense of the House of Representatives that the Olympics in the Year 2000 should not be held in Beijing or elsewhere in the People’s Republic of China.” 41 Fan Hong and Lu Zhouxiang, “Beijing’s two bids for the Olympics: the political games,” International Journal of the History of Sport 29, no. 1 (2012): 147; Susan Brownell, Training the Body for China: Sports in Moral Order of the People’s Republic (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 323. 42 “Samalanqi biaoshi guoji aoweihui bujieshou meiguo yali” [Samaranch says IOC will not be pressurized by the US], China Sports Daily, July 31, 1993, 1. 43 “Beijing shimin zhichi aoyunshenban zhiduoshao 98.7%” [98.7 percent of Beijing residents support Olympic bid], China Sports Daily, July 28, 1993, 1. 44 “Erqiannian aoyun zhengduo guangtou daoshu dijiutian Beijing turan tiqian liugeyue jiashi Wei Jingsheng” [Beijing released Wei Jingsheng nine days before IOC vote], Ming Pao, September 15, 1993, A2; “Xuesheng lingxiu Zhai Weimin zhouyi xingman yihuoshi” [Student leader Zhai Weimin has been released on Monday], Ming Pao, September 16, 1993, B12. 45 “Jiang Zemin huijian guoji aoweihui weiyuan” [Jiang Zemin meets IOC members], People’s Daily, September 5, 1993, 1; “Samalanqi huijian Beijing shenbantuan fuzeren” [Samaranch meets Beijing bidding delegation members], People’s Daily, September 20, 1993, 1; “Deng Xiaoping Kaijinkou pan Beijing banaoyun” [Beijing says he wishes Beijing to host Olympics], Ming Pao, September 19, 1993, B1. 26 Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 46 “World Olympic chief probe bribery scandal,” BBC, January 23, 1999, http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/261152.stm; Fan and Lu, “Beijing’s two bids for the Olympics,” 148–149. 47 “Tigong yundongyuan qinshu mianfei zhusu” [Offering free accommodation to sportsmen’s relatives], Ming Pao, September 20, 1993, A2. 48 Ibid. 49 “Handade fandui Beijing banaoyun zhongfang zhichi zhengke buying ganyu” [Douglas Hurd opposes Beijing to host the Olympics and Chinese authorities condemn him for interference], Ming Pao, September 17, 1993, A2. 50 One of the instances was the Yinhe Incident in August and September 1993. Due to the obstruction of the US Navy, Chinese container ship Yinhe, which was suspected to be carrying chemical weapons material to Iran, was refused use the docks of the surrounding Gulf countries. After parking in international waters for over three weeks, the ship agreed to accept the inspection of the US technicians. Eventually, no suspected materials were found, but the Americans refused to give an apology. For details see Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 174–177; Patrick E. Tyler, “No chemical arms aboard China ship,” New York Times, September 6, 1993, www. nytimes.com/1993/09/06/world/no-chemical-arms-aboard-china-ship.html. 51 “Zhang Baifa yuncheng yaodizhi meiaoyun jingaoshenwei qiangdiao feiguanfang lichang” [Zhang Baifa claims China boycott the US Olympics and Beijing bidding committee emphasizes that it is not its official position],Ming Pao, September 18, 1993, A16. 52 “Zhao Ziyang lumian zhichi shenban aoyun” [Zhao Ziyang supports Beijing to host Olympics], Ming Pao, September 21, 1993, A2. 53 Ming Pao, “Tigong yundongyuan qinshu mianfei zhusu.” 54 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 282. 55 Ibid., 283–284. 56 In fact, from 1992 to 2004, the four Summer Olympics were held in Europe, North America and Australasia. Thus, the 2008 Summer Olympics, according to the prediction of the international media, was very likely to be awarded to an Asian city. 57 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 289. 58 Ibid., 293. 59 Ibid., 298. 60 Andrew Wedeman, Double Paradox: Rapid Growth and Rising Corruption in China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012), 165–166; Sun Yan, Corruption and Market in Contemporary China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 140. 61 Zhou Zhenjie, Corporate Crime in China: History and Contemporary Debates (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2015), 13–15. 62 Jeffery C. Kinkley, Corruption and Realism in Late Socialist China: The Return of the Political Novel (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007), 126. 63 David A. Palmer, Qigong Fever: Body, Science, and Utopia in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 269. 64 James W. Tong, Revenge of the Forbidden City: The Suppression of the Falun Gong in China, 1999–2005 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 5. 65 David Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 175. 66 “Zhonghua renmin gongheguo minzhengbu guanyu qudi falun dafa yanjiuhui de jueding” [PRC Civil Affairs Ministry’s decision eradicate Falun Gong], People’s Daily, July 23, 1999, 1; “Zhonghua remin gongheguo gonganbu de tonggao” [PRC Public Security Ministry’s announcement], People’s Daily, July 23, 1999, 1. 67 Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China, 64; Palmer, Qigong Fever, 278–279. 68 “Sports administrator calls for opposition to Falun Gong,” Xinhua, August 6, 1998. Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 27 69 Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 363–369. 70 Ibid., 369–380. 71 Richard C. Bush, Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), 55–56. 72 Ibid., 57–58. 73 Game of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008 Host City: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (Lausanne: IOC, 2000). 74 Tang Jiaxuan, Jingyu Xufeng [Heavy Storm & Gentle Breeze: A Memoir of China’s Diplomacy] (Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 2009), 211–213. 75 Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 386–388; 392–399. 76 Bush, Untying the Knot, 61–62. 77 Kinkley, Corruption and Realism in Late Socialist China, 126. 78 “Wu Shaozu removed as head of Chinese sports,” Agence France-Presse, April 19, 2000. 79 “Zhongguo de fanzhan libukai shijie shijie de fanrong ye xuyao zhongguo” [China cannot develop without the world, the world also needs China for prosperity], People’s Daily, May 9, 2000, 1. 80 Report by the IOC Candidature Acceptance Working Group: Game of the XXIX Olympiad 2008 (Lausanne: IOC, 2000). 81 “Beijing shenao chengshu poda” [Beijing’s chances of winning Olympics are quite high], Hong Kong Commercial Daily, November 27, 2000, B03. 82 Jiang Zemin Wenxuan Dierjuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin Volume II] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), 1–49. 83 They included the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the Forum on China-African Cooperation, and the International Bamboo and Rattan Organization. 84 “Jiang Zemin zhixin samalanqi zhongguo jiang yiqujiwang de zhichi aolinpike xiuzhan jingshen” [Jiang Zemin addresses letter to Samaranch supporting Olympic truce on behalf of China], People’s Daily, September 15, 2000, 1; “Jiang Zemin zhuxi zhixin samalanqi” [President Jiang Zemin addresses letter to Samaranch], People’s Daily, October 4, 2000, 1. 85 Jiang Zemin, “Zaihuijian diershiqijie aoyunhui zhongguo tiyu daibiaotuan shide jianhua” [Speech delivered at meeting with Chinese Olympic delegation], People’s Daily, October 4, 2000, 1. 86 Zhu Rongji, “2001 nian guowuyuan zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 2001], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 5, 2001, www.gov. cn/test/2006-02/16/content_201157.htm. 87 “Bashoudu jiancheng xiandaihua guoji dadushi” [Construct the capital to a modernized international metropolis], People’s Daily, January 20, 2001, 1&4. 88 “Jiang Zemin huijian guoji aoweihui pinggutuan chengyuan” [Jiang Zemin meets with the IOC Evaluation Commission], People’s Daily, February 22, 2001, 1. 89 Beijing Yearbook 2002 (Beijing: Beijing Yearbook Press, 2002), 55. 90 Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008 (Lausanne: IOC, 2001), 74–75. 91 “Guoji aoweihui danhua renquan wenti” [IOC play down human rights issue], BBC, February 7, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/hi/newsid_1150 000/newsid_1159300/1159345.stm. 92 “H.Con.Res.73 – Expressing the sense of Congress that the 2008 Olympic Games should not be held in Beijing unless the government of the People’s Republic of China releases all political prisoners, ratifies the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and observes internationally recognized human rights,” US Congress, www.congress.gov/bill/107th-congress/house-concurrent-resolution/73/all-actions? overview=closed#tabs. 93 Richard Baum, “From strategic partner to strategic competitor: George W. Bush and the politics of U.S. China policy,” Journal of East Asian Studies 1, no. 2 (2001): 191–220. 28 Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 94 Tang, Jingyu Xufeng, 302–327. 95 “Meiguo zhengfu dui Beijing shenao chizhongli” [US government is neutral to Beijing’s Olympic bid], BBC, June 26, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/ hi/newsid_1400000/newsid_1406200/1406248.stm. 96 “Meibiao zhichi Beijing shenao” [US expresses support for Beijing’s Olympic bid], Apple Daily, July 10, 2001, A10; Marcus P. Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids: Leveraging international sporting mega-events to improve Beijing’s odds of success,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 35, no. 12–13 (2018): 1312. 97 “Huiyi xiri shenao jianzheng bainian mengyuan fang yuanzhonggong zhongyang zhengzhiju changwei guowuyuan fuzongli Li Lanqing” [Li Lanqing’s recall to Beijing’s Olympic bid], People’s Daily, July 18, 2008, 5. 98 “Jiang Zemin dadianhua relie zhuhe” [Jiang Zemin gives phone call for congratulations], People’s Daily, July 14, 2001, 2. 99 “Jiang Zemin zhixin samalanqi” [Jiang Zemin addresses letter to Samaranch], People’s Daily, July 14, 2001, 1. 100 “Shoudu gejie huanqing Beijing shenban 2008 nian aoyunhui chenggong” [The capital celebrates Beijing’s success in 2008 Olympic bid], People’s Daily, July 14, 2001, 1. 101 “Beijing choubei aoyun hua sanqianyi” [Beijing spent over CNY 300 billion for Olympics], Beijing News, August 5, 2008, A13; “IOC President’s speech at the closing ceremony of the Games of the XXIX Olympiad,” IOC, August 24, 2008, www.olympic.org/news/ioc-president-s-speech-at-the-closing-ceremony-of-the-games- of-the-xxix-olympiad. 102 They included Wu Bangguo, Jia Qinglin, Li Changchun, Xi Jinping, Li Keqiang, He Guoqiang and Zhou Yongkang. 103 “Diershijiujie aolinpike yundonghui zai Beijing longzhong kaimu” [The 29th Olympic Games open at Beijing], People’s Daily, August 9, 2008, 1&2; “Di ershijiujie aolinpike yundonghui zai Beijing yuanman bimu” [The 29th Olympic Games round off at Beijing], People’s Daily, August 25, 2008, 1&2. 104 “Xu Kuangdi: wosuo jingli de Shanghai shibohui shenban gongzuo” [Xu Kuangdi: my experience in Shanghai’s World Expo bid], People, May 4, 2010, http://scitech. people.com.cn/GB/25509/11513978.html. 105 “184 tian kongqian shenghui chuangxia yigege shibo xinjilu” [A number of world records in World Expo history have been broken at the 184-day festival], Expo 2010, November 1, 2010, www.expo2010.cn/a/20101101/000033.htm. 106 For details see Chapter 7. 107 Li, Chinese Politics in the Xi Jinping Era, 8–11. 108 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe bijing jieshou aolinpike jinzhi xunzhang” [Xi meets IOC President Bach and accepts Olympic gold order], People’s Daily, November 12, 2013, 1. 109 Chu, “China’s Decisiveness in Olympic Bids,” 1315. 110 “Zhongguo aolipike jingshen de jianxingzhe he hongyangzhe” [China: practitioner and promoter of Olympic spirit], People’s Daily, February 9, 2014, 2. 111 Stephen Wilson, “Stockholm regrets withdrawal of 2022 Games bid,” Washington Times, October 28, 2014, www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/oct/28/ stockholm-regrets-withdrawal-of-2022-games-bid/?page=all. 112 Marissa Payne, “Krakow withdraws 2022 Olympic bid after residents note ‘No’,” Washington Post, May 27, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/early-lead/ wp/2014/05/27/krakow-withdraws-2022-olympic-bid-after-residents-vote-no/. 113 Houston Mitchell, “Lviv, Ukraine withdraws bid for 2022 Winter Olympics,” Los Angeles Times, June 30, 2014, www.latimes.com/sports/sportsnow/la-sp-sn-lviv- ukraine-2022-winter-olympics-20140630-story.html. 114 Lynn Zinser, “Oslo withdraws bid to host 2022 Winter Games,” New York Times, October 1, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/sports/oslo-withdraws-bid-for- 2022-olympics-citing-high-cost-of-games.html?_r=0. Chinese leaders and Beijing’s Olympic bids 29 115 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe” [Xi Jinping meets IOC President Tomas Bach], Nanjing Daily, August 17, 2014, A2. 116 Li, Chinese Politics in the Xi Jinping Era, 12. 117 “Li Keqiang huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe” [Li Keqiang meets IOC President Bach], Economic Daily, August 29, 2014, 2. 118 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoxie zhuxi yaao lishihui zhuxi aihamaide qinwang” [Xi Jinping meets Olympic Solidarity Commission and Olympic Council of Asia President Ahmad Al-Fahad Al-Sabah], People’s Daily, January 15, 2015, 1. 119 Li Keqiang, “2015 zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State council work report 2015], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 16, 2015, www.gov.cn/guowuyuan/ 2015-03/16/content_2835101.htm; Beijing 2022 Candidature File Volume I (Beijing: Beijing 2022 Bid Committee, 2015). 120 Elizabeth C. Economy, The Third Revolution: Xi Jinping and the New Chinese State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 186–230. 121 For instance, the Pentagon spokesman only used the words “unsafe and unprofes- sional” to respond to China’s intercepts. For details see “US accuses China fighter of reckless mid-air intercept,” BBC, August 23, 2014, www.bbc.com/news/ world-asia-china-28905504. 122 Mark Landler, “U.S. and China reach climate accord after months of talks,” New York Times, November 11, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/11/12/world/asia/china-us- xi-obama-apec.html. 123 For details of the 2020 Agenda, see Olympic Agenda 2020: 20+20 Recommendations (Lausanne: IOC, 2014). 124 Marcus P. Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics: from Harbin’s failure to Beijing and Zhangjiakou’s success,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 5, no. 2 (2016): 126. 125 “Xi Jinping shipin liting dongao: qingxuan Beijing” [Xi Jinping supports Winter Olympics: please vote for Beijing], Beijing News, August 1, 2015, A04. 126 These guarantees included (1) China only spent USD 3.17 billion to operate the event, a speedy rail link would be built so travel between Beijing and Zhangjiakou only took 45 minutes, a sufficient supply of water would be offered to make artifi- cial snow and the entire process would be free from disturbing the livelihood of the local residents, and USD 130 billion would be expended to improve the air quality of the region. See Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics,” 126–127. 127 “Xi Jinping zhixin guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe” [Xi Jinping addresses letter to IOC President Bach], People’s Daily, July 31, 2015, 1. 128 “Li Keqiang huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe” [Li Keqiang meets IOC President Bach], People’s Daily, August 23, 2015, 1.

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Shunshi Wu Jianmin Tanwaijiao [World Mega-Trend and China’s Diplo- macy]. Beijing: China Democracy and Legal System Publishing House, 2015. Wudunn, Sheryl. “Chinese angered by French arms sale to Taiwan,” New York Times, November 20, 1992, www.nytimes.com/1992/11/20/world/chinese-angered-by- french-arms-sale-to-taiwan.html. Xinhua. “Sports administrator calls for opposition to Falun Gong,” August 6, 1998. Zhang, Caizhen. “Yayunhui dailaile wuda bianhua” [The Asian Games bring five changes], China Sports Daily, June 15, 1990, 1. Zhou, Zhenjie. Corporate Crime in China: History and Contemporary Debates. Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2015. Zhu, Rongji. “2001 nian guowuyuan zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 2001], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 5, 2001, www.gov.cn/ test/2006-02/16/content_201157.htm. Zinser, Lynn. “Oslo withdraws bid to host 2022 Winter Games,” New York Times, October 1, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/sports/oslo-withdraws-bid-for- 2022-olympics-citing-high-cost-of-games.html?_r=0. 46 Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids votes to the Chinese candidate. Beijing became the first city to be awarded the rights to host both the Summer and Winter Olympics.90 From 2015 to 2017, at least five former and current senior executives of Jiangsu were imprisoned due to their involvement in bribery.91 Zhou Yongkang, Ling Jihua and the others who took part in the conspiracy against Xi were expelled from the Party and sentenced to life in jail. Coincidentally, Xiao Tian, the CGAS Vice President who echoed Nanjing’s statement of linking the 2014 Youth Olympics with Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics, was also arrested on a charge of corruption.92 In 2019, rumors were abuzz regarding Li Yuanchao having committed suicide. To refute this rumor, two photos showing Li reading the People’s Daily issued on June 24, 2019 and his reunion with university classmates respectively were unveiled on the Internet.93

Conclusion Due to their fear of being removed from office, President Jiang Zemin, Premier Li Peng and the other members of the CCP Politburo, after paramount leader Deng Xiaoping’s southern tour in early 1992, accelerated the pace of the Reform and Opening Up and endorsed Beijing’s bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics. The central government subsequently decided to leverage the Shanghai 1993 East Asian Games to boost Beijing’s odds of success. To this end, its officials frequently came to the municipality, helping the local government to flawlessly stage this 10-day sporting gala. Although its bid for the 2008 Summer Olympics was approved by the Politburo Standing Committee in October 1998, neither President Jiang Zemin nor Premier Zhu Rongji gave a blessing to Beijing in the next 36 months. It was because they were troubled by a series of domestic and international political issues. Given the leaders’ silence, the central government decided not to leverage the Tianjin 1999 Artistic Gymnastics World Championships – China’s last sporting mega-event in the twentieth century – to promote the capital city’s ongoing Olympics pursuit. Information about the bid was absent in Tianjin while the celebration of the World Championships was taking place. After learning that Beijing’s chance of victory in the 2022 Winter Olympic bidding competition was slim, Nanjing Party Secretary Yang Weize decided to use the Nanjing 2014 Summer Youth Olympics to turn the tables. President Xi Jinping, China’s new paramount leader, refused this idea, however, as Yang and the other Nanjing senior officials had close personal ties with his political oppo- nents and were suspected of being involved in corruption. Accordingly, the central government did not link the bidding project with the Youth Olympics. Nor did the Nanjing authorities mention the capital city’s Olympics pursuit any more.

Notes 1 Liang Lijuan, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2007), 230–231. Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 47 2 China established official relations with Saudi Arabia, the largest and most powerful state in the Gulf region, in July 1990. It was regarded as a strategic achievement of Beijing’s diplomacy in the post-Tiananmen era. For details see Jonathan Fulton, China’s Relations with Gulf Monarchies (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2019), 93. 3 Liang, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream, 280. 4 Marcus P. Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids: Leveraging international sporting mega-events to improve Beijing’s odds of success,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 35, no. 12–13 (2018): 1037. 5 “Zhang Baifa xiang aoweihui diban aoyun shenqingshu” [Zhang Baifa submits application letter to IOC], Wen Wei Po, December 6, 1991, 12. 6 “Guowuyuan pizhun you Shanghai chengban” [State Council assigns Shanghai to host East Asian Games], Jiefang Daily, January 26, 1992, 4. 7 For details see Chapter 7. 8 Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1038. 9 Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 677. 10 Bruce Gilley, Tiger on the Brink: Jiang Zemin and China’s New Elite (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 186. 11 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 676. 12 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 347; Joseph Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen: From Deng Xiaoping to Hu Jintao (2nd edition) (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 66; Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 186; Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Trans- formation of China, 680. 13 Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 187; Li Peng, “1992 nian zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 1992], Central People’s Government of PRC, March 20, 2006,. www gov.cn/test/2006-02/16/content_200922.htm. 14 “Quanli zhichi Beijing shenban aoyunhui” [Fully support Beijing’s Olympic bid], People’s Daily, July 13, 1992, 1. 15 “Dongya yundonghui zuweihui dansheng” [East Asian Games Organizing Committee is formed], Jiefang Daily, November 6, 1992, 1. 16 Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1038. 17 “Beijing jianjue zhichi Shanghai banhao shoujie dongyayun” [Beijing firmly support Shanghai to complete the holding of East Asian Games], Jiefang Daily, January 13, 1993, 1; “Zhang Baifa juankuan qianyuan zhichi dongyayun” [Zhang Baifa donated CNY 1,000 to Support East Asian Games], Jiefang Daily, January 14, 1993, 1. 18 Randy Harvey, “China’s Olympic bid is an explosive situation,” Los Angeles Times, September 20, 1993, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-09-20-sp-37315-story. html. 19 For details see He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 32–106. 20 “Shiyiyi zhongguoren qipanzhe 2000 nian aoyunhui zaijing juxing” [1.1 billion Chinese people wish Beijing to hold 2000 Olympics], Beijing Daily, October 31, 1992, 1; “Beijing shenban aoyun biaoming zhongguo gengjia kaifang” [Beijing holding Olympics will make China more open], Beijing Daily, December 10, 1992, 1. 21 “Dongyayun jingsai gongzuo shouci helian” [First rehearsal of East Asian Games competition works is held], Jiefang Daily, April 7, 1993, 6; “Dongyayun choubei gongzuo lingren manyi” [East Asian Games preparation tasks are satisfied], China Sports Daily, April 10, 1993, 1; “Dongyayun zuo jinxing dierci helian” [Second rehearsal of East Asian Games was held yesterday], Jiefang Daily, April 25, 1993, 6; “Yuan Weimin jiancha dongyayun choubei gongzuo” [Yuan Weimin inspected East Asian Games preparation tasks], Jiefang Daily, May 4, 1993, 6; “Dongyayun kaimushi 48 Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids caipai chenggong” [East Asian Games opening ceremony rehearsal is successfully staged], Jiefang Daily, May 7, 1993, 1. 22 “Fendou 18 tian yi yiliu shuiping qing dongyayun” [Striving for 18 days preparing East Asian Games by first-class standards],Jiefang Daily, April 22, 1993, 1; “Huang Ju jiancha dongyayun choubei qingkuang” [Huang Ju inspects East Asian Games preparation tasks], Jiefang Daily, April 23, 1993, 1; “Dongyayun gexiang sheshi yunzhuan lianghao” [Facilities prepared for East Asian Games are all in good shape], Jiefang Daily, April 30, 1993, 1. 23 “Shoujie dongya yundonghui pingshu” [Review of the First East Asian Games], China Sports Daily, May 19, 1993, 1. 24 See Chapter 2. 25 “Xueli suibei pinggu wei daremen Beijing shenban aoyun xinxin bujian” [Beijing is still confident in Olympic bid although Sydney is assessed as frontrunner],Ming Pao, July 14, 1993, 8. 26 “World Olympic chief probe bribery scandal,” BBC, January 23, 1999, http://news. bbc.co.uk/2/hi/261152.stm. 27 Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1310. 28 Michael J. Enright, Developing China: The Remarkable Impact of Foreign Direct Investment (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2017), 115. 29 “Maixiang shijie de xiongzhuang bufa – shipinsai shouhuo zhiyi” [World Table Tennis Championship review I], Tianjin Daily, May 17, 1995, 1. 30 “43 jie shipinsai zuweihui caiwu juesuan jingshencha pizhun” [The 43rd World Table Tennis Championships audit report being approved], Tianjin Daily, January 28, 1996, 1. 31 “Di 43 jie shipinsai zaijin longzhong kaimu” [The 43rd World Table Tennis Champion- ships open], Tianjing Daily, May 2, 1995, 1; “Di 43 jie shipinsai yuanman bimu” [The 43rd World Table Tennis Championships round off], Tianjin Daily, May 15, 1995, 1. 32 “Li Peng huijian samalanqi” [Li Peng meets Samaranch], Tianjin Daily, May 15, 1995, 1; “Hamalongde de bimuci” [Hammarlund’s speech delivered in the closing ceremony], Tianjin Daily, May 15, 1995, 1. 33 “Zhuhe 43 jie shipinsai yuanman chenggong” [Congratulating the celebration of the 43rd World Table Tennis Championships], Tianjin Daily, May 15, 1995, 1; Li Tieying, “Tianjin shi juban 43 jie shipinsai gongzuo zongjie biaozhang dahui shangde jianghua” [Speech delivered at 43rd World Table Tennis Championships commenda- tion ceremony], Tianjin Daily, June 20, 1995, 1. 34 “Meiguo liangchu dipai” [The US shows trump card], Tianjin Daily, April 23, 1996, 6. 35 “Shijie zhongqing Tianjin – Zhang Jian tan xiajie shitisai” [The world appreciates Tianjin – Zhang Jian talks about Artistic Gymnastics World Championships], Tianjin Daily, September 8, 1997, 6. 36 “Bengshi huode ticao shijinsai zhubanquan” [Tianjin obtains World Gymnastics Championships hosting right], Tianjin Daily, July 19, 1996, 1. 37 “1999 nian Tianjin shijie ticao jinbiaosai choubei gongzuo zhengshi quanmian qidong” [The preparation of Tianjin 1999 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships starts], Tianjin Daily, August 19, 1997, 6. 38 “Samalanqi kanwang Tianjin daibiaotuan” [Samaranch meets Tianjin delegation], Tianjin Daily, September 8, 1997, 1. 39 “Jiang Zemin huijian samalanqi” [Jiang Zemin meets Samaranch], People’s Daily, October 14, 1997, 1. 40 “Tianjin shijie ticao jinbiaosai zuweihui chengli” [Tianjin Artistic Gymnastics World Championships Organizing Committee is formed], Tianjin Daily, July 29, 1998, 1. 41 David Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 171; David A. Palmer, Qigong Fever: Body, Science, and Utopia in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 266. Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 49 42 Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China, 171; Palmer, Qigong Fever, 267. 43 Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China, 269. 44 Palmer, Qigong Fever, 175. 45 “Tigao renshi kanqing weihai bawo zhengce weihu wending” [Improve understanding, recognize danger, maintain a hold on policy, uphold stability], People’s Daily, July 23, 1999, 1. 46 For the detailed eradication measures, see James W. Tong, Revenge of the Forbidden City: The Suppression of the Falun Gong in China, 1999–2005 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009). 47 Robert L. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 363–377. 48 “Wu Shaozu tan Tianjin ticao shijisai choubei gongzuo” [Wu Shaozu talks about Tianjin’s preparation for Artistic Gymnastics World Championships], Tianjin Daily, March 21, 1999, 3. 49 “Benshi zuo zhaokai ticao shijinsai dongyuan dahui” [Tianjin held Artistic Gymnastics World Championships mobilizing meeting yesterday], Tianjin Daily, March 21, 1999, 1&2; “Li Shenglin zai ticao shijinsai zuweihui shangqiandiao dasai jijiang daojishi gege fangmian zuogongxian” [Li Shenglin emphasizes that all parties should contribute to World Championships], Tianjin Daily, June 30, 1999, 1; “Nuliba shitisai bancheng yiliu saishi” [Strive to complete Artistic Gymnastics World Championships], Tianjin Daily, August 22, 1999, 1. 50 “Zhaig Lichang zai jiancha ticao shijinsai choubei gongzuoshi haozhao” [Remarks delivered by Zhang Lichang while inspecting Artistic Gymnastics World Champion- ships preparation], Tianjin Daily, August 20, 1999, 1; “Shitisai kaibimushi choubei jinzhan shunli” [The preparation for opening and closing ceremonies runs smoothly], Tianjin Daily, September 3, 1999, 1; “Shitisai choubei jinru chongci jieduan” [The preparation for World Championships came into last stage], Tianjin Daily, September 26, 1999, 1; “Wanshi jubei yingdasai” [Everything is ready for the World Championships], Tianjin Daily, October 4, 1999, 1; Wu Shaozu Li Shenglin Liu Yanfeng deng jiancha shitisai choubei gongzuo [Wu Shaozu Li Shenglin Liu Yanfeng and others inspect the World Championships preparation], Tianjin Daily, October 5, 1999, 1; Zhang Lichang guankan shitisai kaomushi yuyan [Zhang Lichang watches opening ceremony rehearsal], Tianjin Daily, October 5, 1999, 1. 51 “Tianjin ticao shijinsai shengli bimu” [Tianjin Artistic Gymnastics World Champion- ships round off], Tianjin Daily, October 17, 1999, 1&2. 52 “Jiang Zemin meets Bulunuo” [Jiang Zemin meets Bruno Glandi], Tianjin Daily, October 9, 1999, 1&2; “Jiang Zemin Li Ruihuan tingqu shitisai choubei gongzuo huibao bing jiejian woticao daibiaotuan” [Jiang Zemin listens to World Championship preparation report and meets Chinese gymnastics delegation], Tianjin Daily, October 9, 1999, 1&2; “Jiang Zemin zai Tianjin kaocha gongzuo” [Jiang Zemin inspects Tianjin], Tianjin Daily, October 11, 1999, 1; “Jiang Zemin shuji zai Tianjin kaocha ceji” [Sidelight on Jiang Zemin’s inspection in Tianjin], Tianjin Daily, October 12, 1999, 1; “Zhu Rongji huijian guoji tilian zhuxi gelandi” [Zhu Rongji meets Bruno Glandi], Tianjin Daily, October 16, 1999, 1; “Zhu Rongji zai Tianjin huijian guoji tilian guanyuan” [Zhu Rongji meets IGF officials], Tianjin Daily, October 16, 1999, 1; “Zhu Rongji jiejian zhongguo ticao daibiaotuan” [Zhu Rongji meets Chinese gymnastics delegation], Tianjin Daily, October 17, 1999, 1; “Zhu Rongji zai Tianjin kaocha gongzuo” [Zhu Rongji inspects Tianjin], Tianjin Daily, October 18, 1999, 1. 53 Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 386–388. 54 Tang Jiaxuan, Jingyu Xufeng [Heavy Storm & Gentle Breeze: A Memoir of China’s Diplomacy] (Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 2009), 216–217. 55 Game of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008 Host City: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (Lausanne: IOC, 2000). 50 Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 56 “Guojia tiyu zongju lingdao banzi tiaozheng” [The CGAS leaders change], China Sports Daily, April 19, 2000, 1. 57 Palmer, Qigong Fever, 278–279. 58 “Zhongguo de fanzhan libukai shijie shijie de fanrong ye xuyao zhongguo” [China cannot develop without the world, the world also needs China for prosperity], People’s Daily, May 9, 2000, 1; “Jiang Zemin zhuxi zhixin samalanqi” [President Jiang Zemin addresses letter to Samaranch], People’s Daily, October 4, 2000, 1. 59 Jiang Zemin, “Zaihuijian diershiqijie aoyunhui zhongguo tiyu daibiaotuan shide jianhua” [Speech delivered at meeting with Chinese Olympic delegation], People’s Daily, October 4, 2000, 1. 60 “Shilingdao yu gejie qunzhong youyuan qingwuyi” [Municipal leaders and local residents visit parks and celebrate labor day together], Tianjin Daily, May 2, 2001, 1; “Benshi juxing zhushenao jianshen changpao dasai” [Tianjin organizes long distance running competition to promote Olympic bid], Tianjin Daily, May 13, 2001. 61 “Shoudu gejie huanqing Beijing shenban 2008 nian aoyunhui chenggong” [The capital celebrates Beijing’s success in 2008 Olympic bid], People’s Daily, July 14, 2001, 1. 62 “Benshi wanren lianhuan qingzhu Beijing shenao chenggong” [Over ten thousand Tianjin residents celebrated Beijing’s successful bid], Tianjin Daily, July 14, 2001, 5; “Zhuazhu shenao chenggong jiyu jiakuai Tianjin zishen fazhan” [Use Olympic bid success to speed up Tianjin’s development pace], Tianjin Daily, July 17, 2001, 1&2. 63 “Benshi jiangtouzi 14 yiyuan qidong yingaoyun luse shengtai xingdong” [Tianjing invests CNY 1.4 billion to improve environment], Tianjin Daily, August 15, 2001, 2; “Aoyun Tianjin tiyu zhongxin xiangmu qidong” [The construction of Tianjin Olympic Sports Center is about to start], Tianjin Daily, August 19, 2001, 1. 64 The Summer Youth Olympics was a multi-sports event proposed by the IOC President Jacques Rogge in 2007 with the aim of promoting the Olympic culture to young people. 65 2nd Summer Youth Olympic Games in 2014: Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission (Lausanne: IOC, 2010), 21; “Nanjing huode qingaohui jubanquan” [Nanjing obtained hosting rights], Nanjing Daily, February 12, 2010, A1&A2. 66 Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1314. 67 “Lixing jieyue fandui langfei” [Uphold frugality and cease waste and extravagance], People’s Daily, January 29, 2013, 1. 68 They included streamlining the Organizing Committee, housing participant athletes in the residence halls of the local universities, organizing an online virtual torch relay, holding most of the competitions in the existing venues, and economizing man- power and material resources for the opening and closing ceremonies. See Marcus P. Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics: from Harbin’s failure to Beijing and Zhangjiakou’s success,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 5, no. 2 (2016): 205–209; Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1314. 69 “Yang Weize jieshou guonei 21 jia chengshi dianshitai lianhe caifang” [Yang Weize accepted interview conducted by 21 Chinese cities’ TV stations], Nanjing Daily, July 17, 2013, A1&A5; “Nanjing rang yaqing gengjingcai” [Nanjing makes Asian Youth Games more magnificent], People’s Daily, July 29, 2013, 1; “Nanjing jiejian ban yaqing” [Nanjing frugally holds Asian Youth Games], Xinhua Daily Telegraph, August 3, 2013, 1. 70 “Yaao lishihui Nanjing yaqing zuweihui juxing lianhe xinwen abuhui” [OCA and Nanjing Asian Youth Games organizing committee together hold press conference], Nanjing Daily, August 25, 2013, A1. 71 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe bijing jieshou aolinpike jinzhi xunzhang” [Xi meets IOC President Bach and accepts Olympic gold order], People’s Daily, November 12, 2013, 1. 72 Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics,” 209–210; Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1315–1316. Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 51 73 For details see Chapter 2. 74 “Shendongao dashiji” [Timeline of Winter Olympic bid], Beijing Daily, August 1, 2015, 8; “Beijing shenaowei jiu 2022 nian dongaohui shenban gongzuo zai suoqi zhaokai xinwen tongqihui” [Beijing Winter Olympic Bid Committee reports its working updates at Sochi], Beijing Daily, February 9, 2014, 1. 75 Chu, “China’s decisiveness in Olympic bids,” 1315. 76 “Beijing Ban Dongaohui 2026 Gengkaopu” [Beijing should hold the 2026 Winter Olympics], Beijing Youth Daily, November 6, 2013, B8. 77 “Zhongguo aolipike jingshen de jianxingzhe he hongyangzhe” [China: practitioner and promoter of Olympic spirit], People’s Daily, February 9, 2014, 2. 78 “Xi Jinping tong guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe jiaotanshi qiangdiao zhongguo chaozhe tiyu qiangguo de mubiao maijin” [Xi Jinping while meeting with Tomas Bach stresses that China is stepping forward to the sports strong power], People’s Daily, February 8, 2014, 1. 79 “Nanjing qingaohui youzhuyu zhongguo shenban dongaohui” [Nanjing Youth Olympics facilitate China to bid for Winter Olympics], Nanjing Daily, April 16, 2014, 2. 80 “Nanjing qingao jiang yingxiang jingzhang lianban dongao” [Nanjing Youth Olympics would influence Beijing and Zhangjiakou to bid for Winter Olympics],Wen Wei Po, May 9, 2014, A36. 81 “Xi Jinping jiu qingaohui chouban gongzuo zuochu zhongyao zhishi” [Xi Jiping delivered important instruction to Youth Olympics], Nanjing Daily, May 8, 2014, 1; “Xi Jinping gei Nanjing qingao zhiyuanzhe huixin” [Xi Jinping’s reply to Nanjing Youth Olympics volunteers], Nanjing Daily, July 17, 2014, 1. 82 Guo Xuezhi, The Politics of the Core Leader in China: Culture, Institution, Legitimacy, and Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 267; Kerry Brown, CEO, China: The Rise of Xi Jinping (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2016) 75–77. 83 It needs to be noted that before becoming the chief of the Organization Committee in 2007, Li had chaired the Party affairs of Jiangsu for five years. 84 Stephen Wilson, “Stockholm regrets withdrawal of 2022 Games bid,” Washington Times, October 28, 2014, www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/oct/28/ stockholm-regrets-withdrawal-of-2022-games-bid/?page=all; Houston Mitchell, “Lviv, Ukraine withdraws bid for 2022 Winter Olympics,” Los Angeles Times, June 30, 2014, www.latimes.com/sports/sportsnow/la-sp-sn-lviv-ukraine-2022-winter- olympics-20140630-story.html; Marissa Payne, “Krakow withdraws 2022 Olympic bid after residents vote ‘No’,” Washington Post, May 27, 2014, www.washingtonpost. com/blogs/early-lead/wp/2014/05/27/krakow-withdraws-2022-olympic-bid-after- residents-vote-no/. 85 “Oslo, Almaty and Beijing become candidate cities for the Olympic Winter Games 2022,” IOC, July 7, 2014, www.olympic.org/news/oslo-almaty-and-beijing-become- candidate-cities-for-the-olympic-winter-games-2022/234939. 86 “Qingaohui de Nanjing yangban” [Nanjing, the sample of Youth Olympics], Nanjing Daily, August 24, 2014, A1&A2. 87 “Innovate Nanjing delivers bright future for Youth Olympic Games,” IOC, August 28, 2014, www.olympic.org/news/innovative-nanjing-delivers-bright-future-for- youth-olympic-games; “Nanjing Qingaohui Wei Beijing Shenban Dongao Jiafen Bushao” [Nanjing Youth Olympics does help Beijing to improve odds in Winter Olympic bid], China Youth Daily, August 16, 2014, 1. 88 For Oslo’s frontrunner status and withdrawal reasons, see XXIV Olympic Winter Games Working Group Report (Lausanne: IOC, 2014); Lynn Zinser, “Oslo withdraws bid to host 2022 Winter Games, citing cost,” New York Times, October 1, 2014,. www nytimes.com/2014/10/02/sports/oslo-withdraws-bid-for-2022-olympics- citing-high-cost-of-games.html. 89 Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics,” 126. 52 Sporting galas and Beijing’s Olympic bids 90 Ibid., 126–127. 91 They included former Vice Jiangsu Governor and Deputy Jiangsu Party Secretary Qiu He, former standing committee member of Jiangsu Provincial Party Committee Feng Yajun, former Chief-of-Staff of Jiangsu Provincial Party Committee Zhao Shaolin, Vice Jiangsu Governor Li Yunfeng, and Nanjing Party Secretary Yang Weize. For details see Li Cheng, Chinese Politics in the Xi Jinping Era: Reassessing Collective Leadership (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2016), 298–299; Viola Zhou, “No place for Hu Jintao stalwart among Xi’s new Communist Party power brokers,” South China Morning Post, October 24, 2017, www.scmp.com/news/ china/policies-politics/article/2116822/no-place-hu-jintao-stalwart-among-xis-new- communist. 92 “China jails former deputy sports minister Xiao Tian for 10 and a half years for bribery,” South China Morning Post, December 26, 2016, www.scmp.com/sport/ soccer/article/2057257/china-jails-former-deputy-sports-minister-xiao-tian-10-and- half-years. 93 “Li Yuanchao lumian kan renmin ribao” [Li Yuanchao shows up, reading People’s Daily], Sing Tao Daily, June 27, 2019, A17; “Li Yuanchao xianshen fudan” [Li Yuanchao shows up in Fudan University], Sing Tao Daily, September 16, 2019, A12.

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Tianjin Daily. “Benshi jiangtouzi 14 yiyuan qidong yingaoyun luse shengtai xingdong” [Tianjing invests CNY 1.4 billion to improve environment], August 15, 2001, 2. Tianjin Daily. “Aoyun Tianjin tiyu zhongxin xiangmu qidong” [The construction of Tianjin Olympic Sports Center is about to start], August 19, 2001, 1. Tong, James W. Revenge of the Forbidden City: The Suppression of the Falun Gong in China, 1999–2005. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Vogel, Ezra F. Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. Wilson, Stephen. “Stockholm regrets withdrawal of 2022 Games bid,” Washington Times, October 28, 2014, www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/oct/28/stockholm-regrets- withdrawal-of-2022-games-bid/?page=all. Xinhua Daily Telegraph. “Nanjing jiejian ban yaqing” [Nanjing frugally holds Asian Youth Games], August 3, 2013, 1. Wen Wei Po. “Zhang Baifa xiang aoweihui diban aoyun shenqingshu” [Zhang Baifa submits application letter to IOC], December 6, 1991, 12. Wen Wei Po. “Nanjing qingao jiang yingxiang jingzhang lianban dongao” [Nanjing Youth Olympics would influence Beijing and Zhangjiakou to bid for Winter Olympics], May 9, 2014, A36. Zhou, Viola. “No place for Hu Jintao stalwart among Xi’s new Communist Party power brokers,” South China Morning Post, October 24, 2017, www.scmp.com/news/ china/policies-politics/article/2116822/no-place-hu-jintao-stalwart-among-xis-new- communist. Zinser, Lynn. “Oslo withdraws bid to host 2022 Winter Games, citing cost,” New York Times, October 1, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/10/02/sports/oslo-withdraws-bid- for-2022-olympics-citing-high-cost-of-games.html. 72 Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids and the 1997 political handover. To reverse the situation, the central government arranged (1) its officials to promote Beijing’s bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics in Hong Kong, and (2) promised to let the city host several competitions of the event. Three years after the sovereignty transfer, Chinese officials came to Hong Kong again, publicizing Beijing’s bid for the 2008 Summer Olympics and lobbying the local business community to give financial and professional support. Yet, considering the importance of defending the high degree of autonomy under the One Country Two Systems principle, none of them pledged that Hong Kong could stage some programs of the event if Beijing won the bid. Given the massive protest on July 1, 2003, the central government prioritized the boost of Hong Kong people’s patriotism. Accordingly, the city was assigned to host the 2008 Summer Olympics equestrian competitions. While Hong Kong was preparing for the equestrian competitions, the central government promised that the SAR could implement universal suffrage to select the Chief Executive in 2017. However, in 2004, the Chinese authorities’ guidelines to nominate the 2017 Chief Executive candidates were viewed by the Hong Kong public as a violation of the international standards of universal suffrage. Accordingly, the 79-day occupation movement was undertaken. Hong Kong young people’s antipathy toward China mounted. Therefore the central government decided not to publicize Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Hong Kong. Nor did it invite the renowned local figures to give assistance. Aside from those of the central government, the attitudes of the Hong Kong governments toward Beijing’s Olympic bids have been investigated in this chapter. The colonial authorities were reluctant to endorse Beijing’s bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics partly because Manchester applied to host the event and partly because the Chinese government was furious over Governor Chris Patten’s proposal for political reform. To impress President Jiang Zemin and other Chinese leaders and ensure the renewal of his Chief Executive contract, Tung Chee-hwa and his administration keenly mobilized the people of Hong Kong to support Beijing’s bid for the 2008 Summer Olympics. Given the political upheaval, Hong Kong was excluded by the central government in the support of Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics. Chief Executive Leung Chun-ying and his colleagues accordingly decided not to organize pro-capital city activities.

Notes 1 “Shenban aoyun zhongguoren de meng” [Hosting Olympics is Chinese people’s dream], China Sports Daily, September 23, 1993, 1&2. 2 Marcus P. Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 3–4. 3 “Li jiacheng huiyi liangci danduhuimian” [Li Ka-shing looks back upon his two meetings with Deng Xiaoping], Tai Kung Pao, August 23, 2004, A09. 4 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 3–4. 5 “Sida liyou zhichi zhongguo shenban erqiannian aoyunhui” [Four reasons for supporting China’s bid for the 2000 Olympics], Wen Wei Po, January 16, 1992, 8; “Mishuzhang Wei Jizhong zuo yingyao zaigang yanjiang” [Wei Jizhong delivered Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 73 speech in HK yesterday], Wen Wei Po, May 19, 1992, 8; “Zhang Baifa toulu lapiao qizhao” [Zhang Baifa discloses lobbying strategies], Wen Wei Po, November 28, 1992, 8. 6 Jeremy Walker, “Beijing may give Games venue to HK,” South China Morning Post, May 19, 1992, 30; “Wei Jizhong Zhang Baifa zai basailuona jianizhe” [Wei Jizhong and Zhang Baifa meet journalists in Barcelona], Wen Wei Po, July 18, 1992, 8. 7 Steve Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2004), 252. 8 Percy Cradock, Experiences of China (New Edition) (London: John Murray, 1999), 232. 9 Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 677. 10 Of CNY 17 billion, 11 billion would be invested to renovate the city and the remaining 6 billion would be for the operation of the event. For details see: “Beijing yixielie gongcheng shangma jiangtouzi yibai yishiyi yiyuan” [Beijing will invest CNY 11 billion for a number of projects], Wen Wei Po, January 25, 1992, 8; “Beijing shenaowei dajizhewen” [Beijing Olympic bid committee answers media questions], Wen Wei Po, April 4, 1992, 8. 11 John Major, John Major: The Autobiography (London: Harper Collins Publishers, 1999), 505–506. 12 Chris Patten, East and West: The Last Governor of Hong Kong on Power, Freedom and the Future (London: Macmillan, 1998), 11–37. 13 This arrangement was called “through train” (zhitongche). 14 Ming K. Chan, “The politics of Hong Kong’s imperfect transition: dimensions of the China factor,” in The Challenge of Hong Kong’s Reintegration with China, ed. Ming K. Chan (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1997), 17. 15 Lu Ping and Qian Yijiao, Lu Ping Koushu Xianggang Huigui [Lu Ping’s Oral Account on Hong Kong Handover] (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2009), 84–87; Zong Daoyi and Zhou Nan, Zhou Nan Koushu: Shenzai Jifeng Zhouyuzhong [Zhou Nan’s Oral Account] (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2007), 368–371. 16 Major, John Major, 506. 17 “Mazhuoan xuanbu yingzhengban aoyunhui” [Major declares the UK would fight for Olympics hosting rights], Ming Pao, February 19, 1993, 5. 18 Peter Woolrich, “HK sports split down the middle,” South China Morning Post, February 7, 1993, 19. 19 “Manchester deserves Olympics – IOC boss,” South China Morning Post, April 8, 1993, 25. 20 He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 126&155. 21 Ibid., 105&148. 22 Ibid., 85. 23 Norideen Kitchell, “HK backs Olympics for Beijing,” South China Morning Post, February 17, 1993, 1. 24 Christine McGee and Jeremy Walker, “Beijing’s Olympic team: Hong Kong sees gold in a Beijing games,” South China Morning Post, May 8, 1993, 21. 25 “Yuwanming shimin buxing huodong zhichi Beijing shenban aoyunhui” [Over ten thousand people take part in the activity to support Beijing’s Olympic bid], Wen Wei Po, May 3, 1993, 12. 26 Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong, 261. 27 Jonathan Dimbleby, The Last Governor: Chris Patten and the Handover of Hong Kong (London: Little, Brown and Company, 1997), 192–193. 28 Zong and Zhou, Zhou Nan Koushu, 372–373. 29 Jonathan Braude, “Strength of Clinton support delights Patten’s delegation,” South China Morning Post, May 5, 1993, 1. 74 Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 30 “Xueli suibei pinggu wei daremen Beijing shenban aoyun xinxin bujian” [Beijing is still confident in Olympic bid although Sydney is assessed as frontrunner], Ming Pao, July 14, 1993, 8. 31 Two tycoons, Henry Fok and Tsang Hin-chi, promised to donate a stadium with the capability of accommodating 100,000 people and CNY 100 million respectively if Beijing won the hosting rights. See Chris Yeung, “Tycoon calls on international support for Olympic dream,” South China Morning Post, July 2, 1993, 3; Christine Chan, “Goldlion backs Beijing’s bid,” South China Morning Post, July 13, 1993, 38. 32 Victoria Finlay, “Solid HK backing for Games bid,” South China Morning Post, July 5, 1993, 1; “Hong Kong backs Beijing’s Games bid, says survey,” South China Morning Post, September 23, 1993, 11. 33 Victoria Finlay, “Choose Beijing, says HK: territory comes together to get the message across,” South China Morning Post, September 18, 1993, 2. 34 Edmund Siu-tong Kwok, 60 Years of Sporting Excellence: The Sports Federation & Olympics Committee of Hong Kong, China (Hong Kong: Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China, 2011), 215. 35 “China not ready, says UK minister,” South China Morning Post, September 23, 1993, 10. 36 “West attacks over Olympics,” South China Morning Post, September 27, 1993, 7. 37 Jiang Enzhu, Daguo Jiaoliang: Zhongou Guanxi Yu Xianggang Huigui Qinli [Great Power Rivalries: My Experience in Sino-Europe Relations and HK handover] (Hong Kong: Open Page, 2016), 181–189. 38 You Zhi, Shu Bai and Shan Ling, Zhang Junsheng Fangtanlu [An Interview with Zhang Junsheng] (Hong Kong: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011), 208; Zong and Zhou, Zhou Nan Koushu, 372–373. 39 Jiang, Daguo Jiaoliang, 190–192; Lu and Qian, Lu Ping Koushu Xianggang Huigui, 88–90. 40 Tsang, A Modern History of Hong Kong, 265. 41 For details see Chapter 3. 42 “Gangxie huizhang huo zhenting: xianggang zhengban yayun xue fahui youshi” [SF&OC chairperson Timothy Fok: Hong Kong needs to show advantage in the Asian Games bidding competition], Tai Kung Pao, June 19, 1999, C04. 43 It needs to be noted that Tung’s colleagues initially did not favor Fok’s proposal because they thought Hong Kong was incapable of hosting sporting mega-events and did not want the SAR government to cover all the Asian Games-related expend- iture. However, they backed off after President Jiang Zemin endorsed Fok’s proposal, local enterprises promised to fund the Asian Games, and an appraisal report prepared by an international well-known sports consultancy concluded that Hong Kong was able to complete the event. See Marcus P. Chu, “Post-handover Hong Kong’s international sporting bids: a win-less-lose-more journey,” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2016): 1194–1195. 44 “Fangshu sunshi liangyiwuyuan jiang zhuijiu chengjianshang zeren” [Housing authorities incur HKD250 million loss], Tai Kung Pao, March 17, 2000, A08. 45 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 29. 46 Jan Currie, Carole Petersen and Ka-Ho Mok, Academic Freedom in Hong Kong (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006), 65–88. 47 “Sanqianren nuhou: Dong Jianhua xiatai” [Three thousand people roar: Tung Chee-hwa steps down], Ming Pao, July 2, 2000, A2. 48 “Jiang Zemin yujizhe duihua quanwen” [Full script of Jiang Zemin’s conversation with journalists], Ming Pao, October 28, 2000, A2. 49 Report by the IOC Candidature Acceptance Working Group: Game of the XXIX Olympiad 2008 (Lausanne: IOC, 2000). 50 “Jinggang qiatanhui zuo longzhong kaimu” [Beijing and Hong Kong Economic Cooperation Symposium opened yesterday],” Tai Kung Pao, November 3, 2000, A08. Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 75 51 “Chen Long zhuijng shenban aoyun shoupin danren xingxiang dashi” [Jackie Chan is appointed as ambassador to promote Beijing’s Olympic bid], Wen Wei Po, October 27, 2000, A01; “Gangao 11 mingren renjing aoshenwei guwen” [11 celebrities of Hong Kong and Macao are appointed as advisors of Beijing Bid Committee],” Wen Wei Po, November 3, 2000, A03. 52 “Tequ zhichi Beijing shenban aoyun” [The SAR support Beijing’s bid for the Olympics], Hong Kong SAR Government, November 2, 2000, www.info.gov.hk/ gia/general/200011/02/1102174.htm. 53 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 294. 54 “Xianggang tongsheng zhiyuan shenao” [Hong Kong supports Beijing’s bid for the Olympics by the same tone], Tai Kung Pao, July 3, 2001, A01; “Shibawan shimin qianming zhichi shenao” [One hundred eighty thousand people signed to support Beijing’s bid for the Olympics], Tai Kung Pao, July 7, 2001, A03; “Shenao chenggong xianggang cheng huanle Haiyang” [Hong Kong is joyful after Beijing win the hosting rights], Wen Wei Po, July 14, 2001, A11. “Gangren changpao zhichi Beijing shenao” [Hong Kong people support Beijing Olympic bid by joining long-distance run], Wen Wei Po, June 18, 2001, A03; Kwok, 60 Years of Sporting Excellence, 215. 55 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 27; “Teshou: falungong shi xijiao” [Chief Executive: Falun Gong is cult], Ming Pao, June 15, 2001, A02. 56 Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008 (Lausanne: IOC, 2001), 74–75. 57 “Meiguo zhengfu dui Beijing shenao chizhongli” [US government is neutral to Beijing’s Olympic bid], BBC, June 26, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk/chinese/simp/ hi/newsid_1400000/newsid_1406200/1406248.stm. 58 “Wei Jizhong gusuan Beijing banao xianggang shouyi kehuo baiyi meiyuan shengyi” [Wei Jizhong estimates that Hong Kong can gain at least USD 10 billion from Beijing Olympics], Wen Wei Po, June 21, 2001, C06. 59 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 68–69. 60 It needs to be noted that two days prior to this, the Chinese central and Hong Kong SAR governments signed the CEPA agreement. 61 “Yu wushiwan shimin shangjie nuhou” [Over five hundred thousand citizens roar], Hong Kong Economic Journal, July 2, 2003, P02. 62 The Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China (Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government, 2015), 15. 63 “Qicheng shimin zhichi puxuan teshou” [70 percent of citizens support selecting Chief Executive by universal suffrage], Ming Pao, September 23, 2003, A11. 64 Lau Siu-kai, Huiguihou Xianggang Zhengzhi [Hong Kong Politics after the Handover] (Hong Kong: Commercial Press, 2013), 31–76. 65 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 71–72. 66 “The interpretation by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of Article 7 of Annex I and Article III of Annex II to the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China,” Hong Kong SAR Government,. www basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/images/basiclawtext_doc18.pdf. 67 Wang Fengchao, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015 [Political Development of Hong Kong 1843–2015] (Hong Kong: Zhonghua Book Company, 2017), 193–194. 68 Wong Yiu-chung, “Absorption into a Leninist policy: a study of the interpretation by the National People’s Congress of the Basic Law in post-handover Hong Kong,” in New Trends of Political Participation in Hong Kong, ed. Joseph Y.S. Cheng (Hong Kong: City University of Hong Kong Press, 2014), 49. 69 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 72. 70 Ibid., 74. 71 Wang, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015, 195–200. 72 Ibid., 200–205. 76 Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 73 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 74–75. 74 Wang, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015, 212–223. 75 Hu Jintao, “Zai xianggang tebie xingzhengqu huanying wanyanshang de jianghua” [Speech delivered in Hong Kong SAR banquet], Central People’s Government Liaison Office in Hong Kong SAR, June 30, 2007, www.locpg.gov.cn/gjldrnxg/ hujingtao/200707/t20070709_2604.asp. 76 Donald Tsang, “The 2008–09 policy address: embracing new challenges,” Hong Kong SAR Government, October 16, 2008, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/08-09/eng/ docs/policy.pdf; Donald Tsang, “The 2009–10 policy address: breaking new ground together,” Hong Kong SAR Government, October 14, 2009, www.policyaddress.gov. hk/09-10/eng/docs/policy.pdf; Donald Tsang, “The 2010–11 policy address: sharing prosperity for a caring society,” Hong Kong SAR Government, October 26, 2010, www.policyaddress.gov.hk/10-11/eng/pdf/policy.pdf; Donald Tsang, “The 2011–12 policy address: from strength to strength,” Hong Kong SAR Government, October 24, 2011; www.policyaddress.gov.hk/11-12/eng/pdf/Policy11-12.pdf. 77 “Yu yuqian zhongxiao xuesheng zhenqing duihua” [Chinese spacemen talk with over a thousand secondary and primary school students], Hong Kong Commercial Daily, August 12, 2012, A01; “Guoshou yu 2000 xuesheng zhenqing duihua” [Chinese gold medalists talk with 2,000 students], Wen Wei Po, August 27, 2012, A02. 78 Ying-kit Lai and Johnny Tam, “CE shelves national education guidelines after panel report,” South China Morning Post, October 8, 2012, www.scmp.com/news/hong- kong/article/1056353/ce-shelves-national-education-guidelines-after-panel-report. 79 They included Secretary of Development Mak Chai-kwong, his deputy Paul Chan and non-official member of the Executive Council Franklin Lam. Mak and Lam stepped down in July 2012 and August 2013 respectively. 80 “Shendongao dashiji” [Timeline of the Winter Olympic bid], Beijing Daily, August 1, 2015, 8. 81 “Aosilu shenban dongao chengwei daremen” [Oslo becomes the frontrunner in the Winter Olympic bid], Nanjing Daily, November 15, 2013, B4; “Liu chengshi shenban dongaohui aosilu chengwei daremen” [Oslo is the frontrunner among the six cities in the Winter Olympic bid], Liaoning Daily, November 15, 2013, B06. 82 “Luobingxian zhu Beijing shenban 2022 nian dongaohui,” [PricewaterhouseCoopers assists Beijing to bid 2022 Winter Olympics], Wen Wei Po, August 7, 2015, A19. 83 See Chapter 2. 84 “Liang zhenying chi zhanzhong weifanfa erfanfa qiangdiao zhengfu zhifa uebu guxi” [Leung Chun-ying condemns occupation Central movement], Tai Kung Pao, June 10, 2013, A1. 85 “Zhang Xiaoming dajizhewen cuoyao” [Zhang Xiaoming’s answers to journalists’ questions], Tai Kung Pao, July 17, 2013, A2. 86 Stephan Ortmann, “Umbrella Movement and Hong Kong’s protracted democratization process,” Asian Affairs 46, no. 1 (2015): 37–39. 87 Ibid., 44–47. 88 Gu Yu, Hong Kong’s Legislature under China’s Sovereignty 1998–2013 (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 176. 89 Rimsky Yuen, “Civic nomination for 2017 is plainly inconsistent with the Basic Law,” South China Morning Post, January 28, 2014, www.scmp.com/comment/insight- opinion/article/1415804/civic-nomination-2017-plainly-inconsistent-basic-law. 90 For a detailed explanation on this point, see Richard C. Bush, Hong Kong in the Shadow of China: Living with the Leviathan (Washington, DC: Brookings Institu- tion Press, 2016), 100–106. 91 Tanna Chong, “Top Chinese law scholar rules out any public nomination of chief executive candidates,” South China Morning Post, March 23, 2014, www.scmp. com/news/hong-kong/article/1455141/mainland -chinese -law -scholar -rao -geping - rejects-public-nomination. Hong Kong and Beijing’s Olympic bids 77 92 “The practice of the One Country Two Systems policy in Hong Kong SAR,” PRC State Council Information Office, June 10, 2014, www.scio.gov.cn/zfbps/ ndhf/2014/Document/1373163/1373163.htm. 93 Wang, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015, 229–231. 94 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoweihui zhuxi bahe” [Xi Jinping meets the IOC President Tomas Bach], Nanjing Daily, August 17, 2014, A2. 95 Wang, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015, 232–235. 96 “The UGL incident,” Hong Kong SAR LegCo, February 23, 2017, www.legco.gov. hk/research-publications/english/1617in03-the-ugl-incident-20170223-e.pdf. 97 Wang, Xianggang Zhengzhi Fazhan Lichen 1843–2015, 236. 98 “Hong Kong reform package rejected as pro-Beijing camp walk out in ‘miscommunication’,” South China Morning Post, June 18, 2015, www.scmp.com/news/ hong-kong/politics/article/1823398/hong -kong -political -reform -package -voted -down - legco-leaving. 99 Marcus P. Chu, “Chinese cities bid for the Winter Olympics: from Harbin’s failure to Beijing and Zhangjiakou’s success,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 5, no. 2 (2016): 126–127. 100 “Beijing shizhang yao gangrene canyu chouban” [Beijing mayor invited Hong Kong people to take part in Winter Olympics organization], Wen Wei Po, August 1, 2015, A02. 101 Brian Bridges, “Booing the national anthem: Hong Kong’s identities through the mirror of sport,” Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Relations 2, no. 2 (2016): 819–843. 102 Chan Che-po, “Post-umbrella movement: localism and radicalness of Hong Kong student movement,” Contemporary Chinese Political Economy and Strategic Rela- tions 2, no. 2 (2016): 897–899. 103 “Liang you futai jianchi minzu zijue suqiu” [Regine Yau and Baggio Leung promote their political pursuits in Taiwan], Ming Pao, October 23, 2016, A2. 104 “Interpretation of Article 104 of the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administra- tive Region of the People’s Republic of China by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress,” Hong Kong SAR Government,. www basiclaw.gov.hk/en/ basiclawtext/images/basiclawtext_doc25.pdf. 105 “Xianggang jibenfa diwuci shifa gefang fanying” [Varies parties’ responses to the fifth National People’s Congress interpretation to the Basic Law], BBC, November 7, 2016, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2016/11/161107_hongkong_ interpretation_reax. 106 The other four lawmakers were Lau Siu-lai, Nathan Law, Leung Kwok-hung and Edward Yiu. 107 “Li jiacheng hanjian juiying zhongguo guanmei chezi piping” [Li Ka-shing responds to the Chinese state media’s criticism for his business retreat], BBC, September 29, 2015, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2015/09/150929_ li_ka_shing_responess.

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There- fore, President Li Xiannian particularly lobbied the OCA President and his colleagues to increase the capital city’s chance of victory. Although he had chaired the Party and state affairs, President Hu Jintao’s de facto authority inside the Communist regime was still weak. In this context, the Guangdong provincial and Guangzhou municipal officials seldom followed his instructions in handling executive affairs. Hu, to express his dissatisfaction about this attitude, was reluctant to endorse local grand projects, including Guangzhou’s bid for the 2010 Asian Games. In President Xi Jinping’s eyes, Hangzhou being assigned to hold the 2022 Asian Games was able to not only facilitate the pro- motion of his political protégés, but also showcase the achievement of his first- decade rule. Consequently, he proactively gave his backing while the bidding project was taking place.

Notes 1 Harry Harding, China’s Second Revolution: Reform after Mao (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1987), 55; Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 54–55. 2 Liang Lijuan, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream (Beijing: Foreign Lan- guages Press, 2007), 241–242. 3 Ibid., 242. 4 Jae Ho Chung, Between Ally and Partner: Korea-China Relations and the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 32. 5 See Table 1.2. 6 For a detailed analysis about Hua’s decline, see Roderick MacFarquhar, “The succession to Mao and the end of Maoism, 1969–82,” in The Politics of China: The Eras of Mao and Deng (2nd edition), ed. Roderick MacFarquhar (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 311–327; Robert Weatherley, Mao’s Forgotten Successor: The Political Career of Hua Guofeng (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), 141–167; Harding, China’s Second Revolution, 57–66. 7 The reasons for Deng giving endorsement were that Chen’s conservative economic policy was believed to be able to lay the foundation for the Reform and Opening Up and back China’s war against Vietnam, and he also wanted to maintain a consensus with his peers at the highest level of the Chinese authorities. See Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 424–435; Harding, China’s Second Revolution, 91. 8 Yu-Min Joo, Yooil Bae and Eva Kassens-Noor, Mega-Events and Mega-Ambitions: South Korea’s Rise and the Strategic Use of the Big Four Events (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 27. 9 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 450. 10 Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan Dierjuan [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993), 1–4; Hu Yaobang Wenxuan 1975–1986 [Selected Works of Hu Yaobang 1975–1986] (Hong Kong: Wen Wei Publishing Company, 2009), 320–355. 11 For details see Table 1.2. 12 “Zhao Ziyang Wan Li deng lingdao tongzhi huijian he mianli canjia yayunhui de tiyu jianer” [Zhao Ziyang, Wan Li and other Chinese officials meet and praise the Chinese 96 The President and Asian Games bids athletes who participated in the 1982 Asian Games], People’s Daily, December 10, 1982, 1. 13 Showing a green light to the South Koreans meant that people from any countries or regions of Asia could enter China. For details see Chung, Between Ally and Partner, 33–34. 14 Liang, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream, 244. 15 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 452. 16 Ibid. 17 The Olympic Formula states that China and Taiwan can co-exist in the Olympic Games and other IOC-organized activities, but unlike China which is allowed to display its national symbols, Taiwan must display a newly designed flag and emblem rather than its national symbols. For details see Gerald Chan, “The ‘Two-Chinas’ Problem and the Olympic Formula,” Pacific Affairs 58, no. 3 (1985): 473–490. 18 He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 2. 19 “Wozai guoji aoweihui hefa quanli dedao huifu” [China’s right in the IOC has been resumed], People’s Daily, November 27, 1979, 1. 20 Harold M. Tanner, Strike Hard!: Anti-Crime Campaigns and Chinese Criminal Justice, 1979–1985 (East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1999), 83–104; “Ministry of Public Security launches seven-month nationwide Strike Hard campaign,” Congressional Execu- tive Commission on China, August 11, 2010, www.cecc.gov/publications/commission- analysis/ministry-of-public-security-launches-seven -month-nationwide-strike. 21 June Teufel Dreyer, Middle Kingdom and Empire of the Rising Sun: Sino-Japanese Relations, Past and Present (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2016), 171–173. 22 Wan Ming, Sino-Japanese Relation: Interaction, Logic, and Transformation (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2006), 23. 23 Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan Disanjuan, 51–52. 24 Ibid., 69–71. 25 Liang, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream, 245–246. 26 Ibid., 247. 27 The COC Vice President Lu Jindong, in August 1984, publicly announced that if Beijing was chosen to host the 1990 Asian Games, China would apply for the 2000 Summer Olympics. See “Zhongguo jianghui shenqing 2000 nian juban aoyunhui” [China will apply to host 2000 Olympics], People’s Daily, July 26, 1984, 1. 28 Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China, 733; Richard Evans, Deng Xiaoping and the Making of Modern China (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997), 250. 29 “Li Xiannian huijian yazhou aolihui zhuxi fahede yixing” [Li Xiannian meets OCA President Fahad Al-Sabah and his colleagues], People’s Daily, June 18, 1984, 1. 30 Liang, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream, 247. 31 “Dishiyijie yayunhui jiangzai woguo Beijing juxing” [The eleventh Asian Games will be held in Beijing], People’s Daily, September 29, 1984, 1; “Wei cujin yazhou tiyu zuogongxian” [Give contribution to Asia’s sports], People’s Daily, September 29, 1984, 1. 32 “Zhao Ziyang zongli huijian samalanqi yixing” [Premier Zhao Ziyang meets Juan Samaranch and his colleagues], People’s Daily, October 2, 1984, 3. 33 The remaining half was covered by the Beijing municipal government (CNY 650 million) and public fundraising (CNY 600 million). For details see Zhang Caizhen, “Yayunhui dailaile wuda bianhua” [The Asian Games bring five changes], China Sports Daily, June 15, 1990, 1. 34 For instance, over 180 million people took part in the nationwide torch relay of the event. For details see Wu Shaozu, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo Tiyushi 1949–1998 [PRC Sports History 1949–1998] (Beijing: China Book Press, 1999), 437. 35 “Wo huozhun jiaru yazhou aoyun weihui” [We have been accepted to join OCA], Central Daily News, September 26, 1986, 6; “Aomen jiaru yazhou aowei huode The President and Asian Games bids 97 pizhun” [Macao has been accepted by OCA as its member], Jornal Va Kio, December 15, 1989, 14. 36 It needs to be noted that the Amateur Athletic Federation of Hong Kong joined the Asian Games Federation in 1952. Thus, Hong Kong athletes participated in all the Asian Games from 1954. For details see Edmund Siu-tong Kwok, 60 Years of Sport- ing Excellence: The Sports Federation & Olympics Committee of Hong Kong, China (Hong Kong: Sports Federation & Olympic Committee of Hong Kong, China, 2011), 233. 37 “Jiang Zemin zongshuji shicha yayun gongcheng” [General Secretary Jiang Zemin inspects Asian Games projects], China Sports Daily, August 21, 1990. 1; “Li Peng zongli shicha yayunhui bufen gongcheng” [Premier Lu Peng inspects some Asian Games projects], China Sports Daily, October 20, 1989, 1. 38 “Shenban aoyun zhongguoren de meng” [Hosting Olympics is Chinese people’s dream], China Sports Daily, September 23, 1993, 1&2. 39 “Zhongyang lingdaoren jiejian zhongguo tiyu daibiaotuan ji zuweihui renyuan” [Leaders meet Chinese sportsmen and Asian Games Organizing Committee members], People’s Daily, October 10, 1990, 1. 40 For details see Chapter 2. 41 Marcus P. Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s international mega-sports events: a case study of Guangdong,” Sport in Society 19, no. 10 (2016): 1623. 42 Zhao Ziyang Wenji 1980–1989: Disijuan 1987–1989 [The Collected Works of Zhao Ziyang 1980–1989: Volume IV 1987–1989] (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2016), 217–254. 43 Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s International mega-sports events,” 1623–1624. 44 “Shoujie shijie nvzu jinbiaosai nizai wosheng juxing” [Guangdong plans to hold the first FIFA Women’s World Cup],Guangzhou Daily, March 1, 1989, 4. 45 Marcus P. Chu, “Post-handover Hong Kong’s international sporting bids: A win- less-lose-more journey,” International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2016): 1194–1197; Marcus P. Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 62–67. 46 Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s International mega-sports events,” 1624. 47 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 68–69. 48 Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s International mega-sports events,” 1624. 49 Jiang Zemin Wenxuan Disanjuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), 528–575. 50 “Shanghai shibohui shenbanwei zaijing juxing huiyi” [Meeting of Shanghai World Expo Bidding Committee is held in Beijing], Jiefang Daily, August 22, 2001, 1&2. 51 Shanghai Almanac 2003 (Shanghai: Shanghai Almanac Press, 2003), 33–39; “Wu Yi huijian guoji zhanlanju zhuxi” [Wu Yi meets BIE President], People’s Daily, July 2, 2002, 3. 52 Zhang Guangning, “2003 nian Guangzhou shi zhenfu baogao” [Guangzhou municipal government work report 2003], Guangzhou Municipal Government, September 28, 2003, www.gz.gov.cn/gzgov/s2821/200309/167100.shtml. 53 Hu Jintao Wenxuan Dierjuan [Selected Works of Hu Jintao Volume II] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2016), 39–45. 54 Ibid., 104–105. 55 “Guangzhou huozhun shenban 2010 yayunhui” [Guangzhou Was Approved to Bid for the 2010 Asian Games], Nanfang Daily, December 17, 2003, A01. 56 Given such an arrangement, Hu, unlike his predecessor Jiang Zemin, was not entitled as the core leader (hexin) of China. He even promised to seek instruction and listen to the views of Jiang. For details see Joseph Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen: From Deng Xiaoping to Hu Jintao (2nd edition) (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 242. 98 The President and Asian Games bids 57 Joseph Kahn, “Police raid Chinese newspaper that reported new SARS case,” New York Times, January 8, 2004, www.nytimes.com/2004/01/08/world/police-raid- chinese-newspaper-that-reported-new-sars-case.html; “Chuan huzong wen nanduan keqingpan” [It is rumored that President Hu has meddled in the Southern Metropolis Daily case], Hong Kong Economic Times, June 8, 2004, A41. 58 “Zhang Dejiang ming kuandai nandu gaoceng” [Zhang Dejiang ordered judiciary to leniently treat the two Southern Metropolis Daily seniors], Ming Pao, June 8, 2004, A26. 59 “Hu Jintao guanzhu nanduan” [Hu Jintao attaches importance to Southern Metro polis Daily case], Apple Daily, May 17, 2004, A25. 60 “Guangzhou 2200 yii yingyayun cuchengjian” [Guangzhou will spend CNY 220 billion for the Asian Games and urban infrastructure], Guangzhou Daily, June 29, 2004, A1&A5. 61 Marcus P. Chu, “The pursuit of regional geopolitical aspirations: China’s bids for the Asian Games and the Asian Winter Games since the 1980s,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 30, no. 10 (2013): 1054&1058. 62 “Nandubao fuzhubian huoshi” [Southern Metropolis Daily deputy editor has been released from jail], Ming Pao, August 9, 2004, A18; “Nanduan pingfan lushuguang” [Southern Metropolis Daily journalists are likely rehabilitated], Ming Pao, September 3, 2004, A26; “Nanduan baoren tizao chuyu” [Another Southern Metropolis Daily journalist has been released], Ming Pao, February 14, 2007, A23; “Nandu qian fuzhubian tiqian huoshi” [Former Southern Metropolis Daily associate editor has been released], Ming Pao, February 9, 2008, A13. 63 “Zhang Guifang renzhang Guangzhou zhengfawei” [Zhang Guifang was still the chief of Guangzhou Party Political and Legal Affairs Commission], Ming Pao, September 17, 2004, A26. 64 “2010 nian Guangzhou yayunhui he yacanyunhui caiwu shouzhi ji changguan jianshe xiangmu shenji jieguo gonggao” [The 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games and Asian Para Games auditing report], Guangdong Audit Office, November 25, 2011, http://zwgk.gd.gov.cn/006940028/201201/t20120119_301448.html. 65 “Yayun changguan yunxing tou 136 yi chengshi jichu sheshi tou 1090 yi” [Guangzhou invested CNY 13.6 billion for Asian Games stadiums and operation and CNY 109 billion for urban renovation], Guangzhou Daily, October 14, 2010, A1&A9. 66 Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s International mega-sports events,” 1626. 67 J.A. Mangan, “Marketing ‘brand China’: maintaining the momentum – ‘the middle kingdom’ resurgent and resplendent,” International Journal of the History of Sport 20, no. 10 (2013): 1026–1036. 68 “Guangzhou not planning to bid for Olympics,” China Daily, November 27, 2010, www.chinadaily.com.cn/sports/2010-11/27/content_11619116.htm; Ye Jingsi, “Guangzhou yaiunhui zai shengda biaoyanzhong luoxia weimu” [Guangzhou Asian Games rounded off], BBC, November 27, 2010, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/ china/2010/11/101127_gz2010_games_conclude. 69 “2022 Hangzhou yayun chayidian 2023 nian ban” [The Hangzhou 2022 Asian Games was initially planned to be held in 2023], Western China Metropolis Daily, September 17, 2015, A13. 70 Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 76–79. 71 Ibid. 72 “Shenban you qiban, yayun zenmeban” [From bid to hosting right renouncement, what should the Asian Games do], Guangzhou Daily, April 25, 2014, AIII07. 73 Chu, “Provincial governments and China’s International mega-sports events,” 1629. 74 “Shen dayunhui zhangmian kuisun wei baiyi” [Shenzhen have a CNY 10 billion deficit in the holding of Universiade],Tai Kung Pao, December 28, 2012, A08. 75 Marcus P. Chu, “International Mega-sports Events at Nanjing: China’s Frugal Games,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 5, no. 3 (2016): 202–214; The President and Asian Games bids 99 Marcus P. Chu, “Extravagance and its decline: China’s triple East Asian Games since the 2000s,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 6, no. 1 (2017): 19–33. 76 It needs to be noted that aside from following Xi’s order, giving this promise was also to meet the requirements of the newly released 2020 Agenda, the guidelines for cities to hold the future IOC-governed sporting mega-events. For more information about the 2022 Agenda, see Olympic Agenda 2020: 20+20 recommendations (Lausanne: IOC, 2014). 77 “Vietnam backs out as host of 2019 Asian Games,” Reuters, April 17, 2014, www. reuters.com/article/us-games-asia-vietnam/vietnam-backs-out-as-host-of-2019-asian- games-idUSBREA3G18H20140417; “Hanoi will not host Asian Games,” Bangkok Post, April 17, 2014, www.bangkokpost.com/sports/405380/vietnam-says-it-will- not-host-asian-games. 78 “Jakarta – Palembang 2018,” OCA,. www ocasia.org/Game/GHAFDetails?q=NtpwTO liipDwo6ShqBnESxktSlr5+biYzaR1aA7kbpRCHZ3Rd6NkxmCO5ZagFD9Yu4Ro/ tDoxphjxbcZ28qSuQ==. 79 Li Cheng, “Xi Jinping’s inner circle: part 3: political protégés from the provinces,” China Monitor Leadership, no. 45 (2014), www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/ research/docs/clm45cl-xi_jinpings_inner_circlepart_3-_political_proteges_from_the_ provinces.pdf. 80 For instance, Xi, in February 2015, assigned Hangzhou to host the 2016 G20 Summit. 81 “Xi Jinping huijian guoji aoxie zhuxi yaao lishihui zhuxi aihamaide qinwang” [Xi Jinping meets the OCA and the National Olympic Committees Association President Ahmad Al-Fahad Al-Sabah], People’s Daily, August 23, 2015, 1. 82 “Shandong Dongying huagongchang baozha guanfang queren 13 ren siwang” [The explosion of a chemical plant in Shangdong Dongying causes 13 people’s death], BBC, September 6, 2015, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/china/2015/09/150906_ china_shandong_blast. 83 “Shijiujie yayunhui zuweihui chengli dahui zaihang juxing” [The 2022 Asian Games Organizing Committee is formed], Hangzhou Daily, April 10, 2016, 1.

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In the eyes of the Chinese authorities, Taiwan’s holding of sporting mega-events might facilitate the fabrication of the “Two Chinas” and/or “One China One Taiwan” and undermine the territorial integrity of the nation. Thus, to foil Kaohsiung in the bids for the 2001 and 2011 Summer Universiade, Premier Zhu Rongji and his successor Wen Jiabao enthusiastically supported Beijing and Shenzhen. Since Xi Jinping’s formal accession of power, endorsing Chinese cities’ applications to host sporting mega-events became his franchise. Accordingly, Premier Li Keqiang, whose power was severely weakened by Xi, remained silent while Chengdu’s bid for the 2021 Summer Universiade was taking place. Apart from the Premier’s attitudes, this chapter has investigated the reasons behind Shanghai, Beijing and Shenzhen’s success and failure in bidding competitions. Although the central government decided not to give support, Shanghai still had a fair chance to win the hosting rights of the 1993 Summer Universiade in the contest vis-à-vis Buffalo of the US. However, the troops’ brutal crackdown against unarmed civilians in the streets of Beijing inevitably caused the collapse of China’s image in the eyes of the world. FISU eventually awarded the hosting rights to the American city candidate. Premiers Zhu Rongji and Wen Jiabao’s high-profile support undoubtedly increased Beijing and Shenzhen’s odds of success in the bids for the 2001 and 2011 Summer Universiade. China’s fast GDP growth, keen engagement in international affairs and harmonious ties with the US and other Western states since the mid-1990s were also vital in boosting the two cities’ chances of victory. The lavish financial cards played by municipal governments were another factor determining the wins of the Chinese candidates.

Notes 1 “5th National Games: Shanghai 1983,” Chinese Olympic Committee, March 17, 2004, http://en.olympic.cn/games/national/2004-03-27/121771.html. 2 “Benshi touzi liuqianduo wanyuan” [Shanghai invested over 60 million yuan], Wenhui Daily, September 9, 1983, 1. 3 “Shanghai gaibugai shenban shijie daxuesheng yundonghui?” [Should Shanghai bid for the Universiade?], Jiefang Daily, May 2, 1989, 4. 4 Marcus P. Chu, “Beyond status and prestige: Chinese cities bids for the Summer World University Games,” Sport in Society 18, no. 6 (2015): 706. 5 For details see Chapter 5. 6 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 706. 7 Apart from age, the other reason for Chen and Wang’s retirements was that they lacked the energy to spur the economic reform in the city. See Bruce Gilley, Tiger on the Brink: Jiang Zemin and China’s New Elite (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 76. 8 “Shanghai shi jiji choubei lizheng zhubanquan” [Shanghai proactively prepare for the bid], China Sports Daily, December 31, 1988, 2. 9 Gilley, Tiger on the Brink, 74–110; Robert Lawrence Kuhn, The Man Who Changed China: The Life and Legacy of Jiang Zemin (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004), 113–134 120 The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 10 Zhao Ziyang Wenji 1980–1989: Disijuan 1987–1989 [The Collected Works of Zhao Ziyang 1980–1989: Volume Four 1987–1989] (Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press, 2016), 217–254. 11 David Holley, “Shanghai hepatitis cases up to 300,000: 11 deaths reported in 2-month epidemic that shocked China,” Los Angeles Times, March 23, 1988, www. latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-03-23-mn-1872-story.html. 12 “Zhide zanshang de fansi” [Admirable introspection], People’s Daily, February 16, 1988, 1. 13 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 706. 14 Jiang Zemin Wenxuan Diyijuan [Selected Works of Jiang Zemin Volume I] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2006), 20–34; Zhu Rongji Shanghai Jianghua Shilu [Memoir of Zhu Rongji’s Speeches in Shanghai] (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2013), 18–19. 15 “Shanghai shenqing juban 1993 nian shijie daxuesheng yundonghui” [Shanghai will apply to host the 1993 Universiade], Jiefang Daily, September 8, 1988, 1. 16 “Groski sees a 98% chance for University Games here,” Buffalo News, December 3, 1988, www.buffalonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19881203/CITYAND REGION/312039986. 17 “Shanghai juyou lianghao tiaojian” [Shanghai has good conditions], Jiefang Daily, September 8, 1988, 5 18 “Gorski briefs lawmakers on Games,” Buffalo News, April 5, 1989, www.buffalonews. com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?avis=BN&date=19890405&category=CITYANDREGIO N&lopenr=304059980&Ref=AR. 19 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 707. 20 “Bulgaria trip keeps bid for Games alive,” Buffalo News, March 10, 1989, www. buffalonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?avis=BN&date=19890310&category=CITY ANDREGION&lopenr=303109989&Ref=AR. 21 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 707. 22 Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan Dierjuan [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993), 262–263. 23 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 232–238; Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 469–473. 24 Ibid. 25 Li Peng, “1989 nian guowuyuan zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [State Council work report 1989], Central People’s Government of PRC, http://big5.gov.cn/gate/big5/ www.gov.cn/test/2006-02/16/content_200875.htm. 26 “Shanghai gaibugai juban shijie daxuesheng yundonghui” [Shanghai should host the Universiade or not], Wenhui Daily, April 20, 1989, 2. 27 “Yanjun de xuanze” [Tough choice], Wenhui Daily, April 14, 1989, 3. 28 “Shanghai buyi chengban 1993 nian shijie daxuesheng yundonghui” [Shanghai is not suitable to host the 1993 Universiade], China Sports Daily, March 25, 1989, 1. 29 “Official keeps mum on outlook for Games,”Buffalo News, May 25, 1989, www. buffalonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?avis=BN&date=19890525&category=CITY ANDREGION&lopenr=305259892&Ref=AR. 30 Nicholas D. Kristof, “Beijing death toll at least 300,” New York Times, June 5, 1989, www.nytimes.com/1989/06/05/world/beiijing-death-toll-least-300-army- tightens-control-city-but-angry-resistance.html. 31 “Shanghai jiaotong zuo quanmian tanhuan” [Shanghai’s transportation was completely paralyzed yesterday], Jiefang Daily, June 6, 1989, 1; “Yiqi yanzhong de saoluan shijian” [A serious turmoil], Wenhui Daily, June 8, 1989, 1. 32 Zhu Rongji Shanghai Jianghua Shilu, 281–287. 33 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 707. The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 121 34 “Concurrent resolutions,” U.S. Government Printing Office, June 6, 1989, www.gpo. gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-103/pdf/STATUTE-103-Pg2555-2.pdf; “Buffalo area wins bid to be host of ’93 World University Games event may bring 200,000 here,” Buffalo News, June 17, 1989, https://buffalonews.com/1989/06/17/buffalo-area- wins-bid-to-be-host-of-93-world-university-games-event-may-bring-200000-here/. 35 “Unrest in China could aid bid for Games here,” Buffalo News, June 5, 1989, www. buffalonews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?avis=BN&date=19890605&category=CITY ANDREGION&lopenr=306059940&Ref=AR. 36 For details see Chapter 2. 37 Marcus P. Chu, “China’s decisiveness in the Olympic bids: leveraging sporting mega-events to improve Beijing’s odds of success,” The International Journal of the History of Sport 35, no. 12–13 (2018): 1310. 38 “Lizongtong biaoming zhengban yayun yiyuan” [President Lee expresses intention to host the Asian Games], China Times, June 28, 1994, 24. 39 Wu Ching-kuo and Tseng I-fang, Aoyun Changwai De Jingji: Wu Jingguo De Wuhuan Shiyue [Competition outside the Olympics: Wu Ching-kuo’s Vow under Five Rings] (Taipei: BookZone, 2001), 57–65; Liang Lijuan, He Zhenliang and China’s Olympic Dream (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2007), 311–318. 40 Jiang Zemin Wenxuan Diyijuan, 418–424. 41 Marcus P. Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids: fatal obstructer, neutral bystander and enthusiastic supporter,” Sport in Society 20, no. 11 (2017): 1670–1671. 42 Ibid.; Marcus P. Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 10. 43 Sheng Lijun, China’s Dilemma: The Taiwan Issue (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2001), 105. 44 Patrick E. Tyler, “China demands US cancel visit by Taiwan’s president,” New York Times, May 24, 1995, www.nytimes.com/1995/05/24/world/china-demands-us- cancel-visit-by-taiwan-s-president.html. 45 The reason for doing so was to encourage Beijing to bid for the 2004 Summer Olympics. For details see Chapter 7. 46 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1671; Chu, Politics of Mega-events in China’s Hong Kong and Macao, 11–12. 47 “Shenban shidayun tizong zhankai xingdong” [Sports Federation start to bid for the Universiade], China Times, May 24, 1995, 24. 48 Richard C. Bush, Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), 53. 49 Robert L. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 251–260. 50 “Yinying dangqian liangan guanxi li denghui qiguoren jieji yongren” [Given the current cross-Strait relations, Lee Teng-hui calls on the Taiwanese to avoid haste and be patient], China Times, September 15, 1996, 1. 51 Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 348. 52 Qian Qichen, Waijiao Shiji [Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy] (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2004), 247–253. 53 From 1949 to 1998, Beijing staged five National Games of China in 1959, 1965, 1975, 1979; four People’s Liberation Army Games; two National Workers’ Games of China; a National University Games of China; a National Peasants’ Games of China, an Asian Games; and a Far East and South Pacific Games for the Disabled. Kaohsiung, however, only held three Taiwan Province Games and four Taiwan Region Games. For details see Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 709. 54 “Yiding yaozai zhongguo banyijie dayunhui” [China must host the Universiade], Wenhui Daily, July 19, 1993, 8. 122 The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 55 He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 294. 56 “Li Lanqing huijian guoji datilian zhuxi jilian” [Li Lanqing meets with FISU President Killian], People’s Daily, July 8, 1998, 1; “Jia Qinglin huijian guoji daxuesheng tiyu lianhehui daibiaotuan” [Jia Qinglin meets with the FISU delegation], China Sports Daily, July 8, 1998, 1. 57 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 296&298. 58 “Shidayun Beijing chengban” [Beijing will hold the Universiade], Central Daily News, December 2, 1998, 19. 59 Kaohsiung initially proposed to donate USD 5 million to FISU. The Sports Affairs Council of the ROC Executive Yuan however refused to do so. See “Xianjue tiaojian: bufudan juanzhujin” [Prerequisite: no donation], Central Daily News, November 10, 1998, 19. 60 “Beijing zhengshi xuanbu shenban 2008 nian aoyunhui” [Beijing declare bidding for 2008 Olympics], Beijing Daily, November 26, 1998, 1; “Beijing huode 2001 nian shijie daxuesheng yundonghui jubanquan” [Beijing obtains hosting rights of the 2001 Universiade], Beijing Daily, November 30, 1998, 1. 61 Bush, Untying the Knot, 55–56. 62 Ibid., 57–58. 63 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 710. 64 “Shenzhen huozhun shenban dayunhui” [Shenzhen is approved to bid for the Uni- versiade], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, December 31, 2004, A01. 65 “Shenban zhengshi hanjian shuaixian dijiao guoji datilian” [Application letter is submitted to FISU], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, November 4, 2005, A4. 66 Bush, Untying the Knot, 61–62. 67 One of the instances was that he, while the 2008 Summer Olympic bid was ongoing, stated that Taiwan was willing to co-host the event with Beijing if it won. For details see Wu and Tseng, Aoyun Changwai De Jingji, 228. 68 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1673. 69 “Ma yingjiu xie changting lianren” [Ma Ying-jeou and Frank Hsieh are re-elected], United Daily News, December 8, 2002, 1 70 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1673. 71 Ibid., 1675. 72 “China passes Taiwan anti-secession law,” ABC, March 14, 2005, www.abc.net.au/ news/2005-03-14/china-passes-taiwan-anti-secession-law/1533042. 73 Roy D. Kamphausen and Justin Liang, “PLA power projection: current realities and emerging trends,” in Assessing the Threat: The Chinese Military and Taiwan’s Secu- rity, ed. Michael D. Swaine, Andrew N. D. Yang, and Evan S. Medeiros, with Oriana Skylar Mastro (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2007), 126. 74 Keith Bradsher, “Defiant leader of Taiwan scraps unification panel with China,” New York Times, February 27, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/02/27/international/ asia/defiant-leader-of-taiwan-scraps-unification-panel-with.html. 75 So Taiwan successfully resumed diplomatic relations with Nauru in May 2005. See Joy So, “Nauru switches its allegiance back to Taiwan from China,” Taipei Times,” May 15, 2005, www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2005/05/15/2003 254718. 76 Chu, “Beyond status and prestige,” 710. 77 “Xiekui: shenao jiamazhi 160 yi” [Premier Hsieh: NTD 16 billion would be given to host the 2020 Olympics], China Times, July 12, 2005, C6. 78 “Zhizai bide Shenzhen tou 1.7 yi” [Shenzhen provide CNY 170 million for win], Ta Kung Pao, January 18, 2007, A13. 79 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1676. The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 123 80 “2011 shidayun zhubanquan you zhongguo Shenzhen qude” [Shenzhen obtain the 2011 Universiade hosting right], National Sports Quarterly of Executive Yuan Sports Affairs Council, no. 152 (2007), www.sac.gov.tw/resource/annualreport/Quarterly 152/p20.asp. 81 “Zhizai bide Shenzhen tou 1.7 yi,” Ta Kung Pao. 82 One of these was to activate the construction of the Shenzhen Universiade Sports Centre – which included a 6.5 kilometer square large main sports stadium; an indoor stadium that is able to house 16,000 people; an aquatic center; 8 football pitches; and 20 basketball and tennis courts, in July 2006 – 6 months before the vote for the hosting city. See “Shenzhen shenban dayunhui jinru chongci jieduan” [Shenzhen’s Universiade bid enters final stage], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, July 21, 2006, A3. 83 “Beishizhang hao longbin gaoshizhang chen ju” [Taipei mayor Hau Lung-pin Kaohsiung mayor Chen Chu], Liberty Times, December 10, 2006, A01. 84 “Wen Jiabao huijian guoji datilian zhuxi” [Wei Jiabao meets FISU President], People’s Daily, December 15, 2006, 1. 85 “Ju quansheng zhili zhichi Shenzhen shenda” [Shenzhen has Guangdong’s full backing for the Universiade bid], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, December 13, 2006, A1&A4; “Shenzhen wanquan youshili juban dayunhui” [Shenzhen is capable of hosting the Universiade], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, December 15, 2006, A1&A4; “Qianli zhichi Shenzhen shenda” [Fully support Shenzhen to bid for the Universiade], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, December 16, 2006, A01. 86 “Shenzhen shi 2011 dayunhui zuijia shenban chengshi” [Shenzhen is the best city to hold 2011 Universiade], Shenzhen Special Zone Daily, January 17, 2007, A2. 87 Accordingly, the Beijing and Guangzhou municipal governments cut costs on building the stadiums in which the competitions of the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2010 Asian Games respectively would be held. For details see “Niaochao fangan tiaozheng shenji fengge bubian” [The Bird Nest construction plan has been revised although its architectural style remains unchanged], Beijing Daily, October 30, 2004, 1; “Sui yayunchang shoushen liaosheng shushiyi” [Guangzhou will slim Asian Games stadiums so billions of yuan is estimated to be saved], Hong Kong Economic Journal, October 30, 2004, A31. 88 “Zhizai bide Shenzhen tou 1.7 yi,” Ta Kung Pao. 89 Gerald Chan, “Diplomatic truce in cross-strait relations: limits and prospects,” in New Dynamics in Cross-Taiwan Strait Relations: How far can the Rapprochement go?, ed. Weixing Hu (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2013), 97–114. 90 Hu Jintao Wenxuan Disanjuan [Selected Works of Hu Jintao Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2016), 186–195. 91 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1677. 92 Richard C. Bush, Uncharted Strait: The Future of China-Taiwan Relations (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2013), 3. 93 Chu, “China in Taiwanese cities’ sporting mega-event bids,” 1677. 94 Douglas B. Fuller, “ECFA’s empty promise and hollow threat,” in Political Changes in Taiwan Under Ma Ying-jeou: Partisan Conflict, Policy Choices, External Con- straints and Security Challenges, ed. Jean-Pierre Cabestan and Jacques deLisle (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2014), 85–99. 95 André Beckershoff, “The Sunflower Movement: origins, structures and strategies of Taiwan’s response against the black box,” in Taiwan’s Social Movements under Ma Ying-jeou: From the Wild Strawberries to the Sunflowers, ed. Dafydd Fell (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2017), 113–133. 96 J. Michael Cole, Cross-Strait Relations Since 2016: The End of the Illusion (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2020). 97 They include São Tomé and Príncipe, Panama, Dominica Republic, Burkina Faso, El Salvador, Solomon Islands and Kiribati. 124 The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 98 “Taiwan’s participation in WHA must be based on one-China principle: spokesper- son,” Xinhua, May 6, 2019, www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-05/06/c_13803 8502.htm. 99 “Shishang diyizao shidayun tuantisai daludui quanquexi” [Unprecedentedly Chinese athletes will not participate in group matches of 2017 Summer Universi- ade], China Times, May 12, 2017, www.chinatimes.com/cn/newspapers/201705 12000322-260111?chdtv. 100 For details see Table 1.3. 101 Chung-lan Cheng, “Taibei shidayun luomu cong bukanhao dao mantangcai” [Taipei Universiade closed: from underdog to winner], BBC, August 31, 2017, www.bbc.com/zhongwen/simp/chinese-news-41105319. 102 “FISU proposes Seoul, Pyongyang jointly host 2021 Summer Universiad,” Korean Broadcasting System, October 14, 2018, http://world.kbs.co.kr/service/news_ view.htm?lang=e&Seq_Code=139981. 103 Ibid. 104 Chris Buckley and Keith Bradsher, “China moves to let Xi stay in power by abolishing term limit,” New York Times, February 25, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/ 02/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping.html. 105 According to the US President Donald Trump, Xi was happy when being called “King of China” at official occasions. See Keegan Elmer and Kinling Lo, “Donald Trump reveals he called Xi Jinping ‘king’ – and says he liked it,” South China Morning Post, April 9, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/ 3004431/donald-trump-reveals-he-called-xi-jinping-king-and-xi-liked-it. 106 The Belt and Road Initiative is a Xi-signature project with the aim of giving China direct responsibility over infrastructure constructions and investments as well as trade and cultural exchange with Asian, African, European and Oceanian countries. For details see Yong Wang, “Offensive for defensive: the Belt and Road initiative and China’s new grand strategy,” Pacific Review 29, no. 3 (2016): 455–463. 107 “Made in China 2025” is a state-led industrial policy with the aim of making China dominant in global high-tech manufacturing. To this end, the Chinese government offered massive subsidies to the relevant industries. For details see Issaku Harada, “Beijing drops ‘Made in China 2025’ from government report,” Nikkei Asian Review, March 6, 2019, https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/China-People-s-Congress/ Beijing-drops-Made-in-China-2025-from-government-report. 108 “His own words: the 14 principles of ‘Xi Jinping Thought’,” BBC, October 18, 2017, https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/c1dmwn4r. 109 “Xi Jinping chunjieqian fusichuan kanwang gezu ganbu qunzhong” [Jinping visits Sichuan before the Spring Festival], People’s Daily, February 14, 2019, 1. 110 Luo Qiang, “2018 nian Chengdushi zhengfu gongzuo baogao” [Chengdu municipal government work report 2018], Chengdu Municipal Government, March 5, 2019, http://cdyjs.chengdu.gov.cn/cdsrmzfyjs/c109592/2018-03/05/content_5 06a7cc3a52c41e6bfbf0e2dd940961c.shtml. 111 For Xi’s support for Beijing and Hangzhou’s bids, see Chapters 2 and 5. For Xi’s support for Shanghai’s bid, see “Shanghai huode 2021 nian di 46 jie shijie jineng dasai jubanquan” [Shanghai obtains the 2002 46th WorldSkills Competitions], People’s Daily, October 14, 2017, 1. 112 Jacob Pramuk, “It’s not just China: Trump’s trade war is raging on several fronts,” CNBC, May 13, 2019, www.cnbc.com/2019/05/13/trump-carries-out-tariff-trade- wars-with-china-eu-canada-and-mexico.html. 113 “Timeline: Key dates in the U.S.-China trade war,” Reuters, October 10, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-timeline/timeline-key-dates-in-the-us-china- trade-war-idUSKBN1WP23B. The Premier and Summer Universiade bids 125 114 “Remarks by Vice President Pence on the administration’s policy toward China,” White House, October 4, 2018, www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/ remarks-vice-president-pence-administrations-policy-toward-china/. 115 Gabriel Wildau, “China’s Xi Jinping revived Maoist call for ‘self-reliance’,” Finan- cial Times, November 12, 2018, www.ft.com/content/63430718-e3cb-11e8- a6e5-792428919cee. 116 “Timeline: Key dates in the U.S.-China trade war,” Reuters. 117 “Xiangxin Chengdu he FISU de hezuo hui feichang chenggong” [Trust Chengdu will have a successful co-operation with FISU], Chengdu Daily, December 13, 2018, 03. 118 “FISU steering committee meets, takes key step towards Summer Universiade 2021 hosting,” FISU, December 13, 2018, www.fisu.net/news/hosting/fisu-steering- committee-meets-takes-key-step-towards-summer-universiade-2021-hosting. 119 Kate O’Keeffe and Stu Woo, “Canadian authorities arrest CFO of Huawei technologies at U.S. request,” Wall Street Journal, December 5, 2018, www.wsj.com/articles/ canadian-authorities-arrest-cfo-of-huawei-technologies-at-u-s-request-1544048781. 120 Lily Kuo, “Kim in Beijing for Xi meeting as second Trump summit looms,” The Guardian, January 8, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jan/07/special- north-korean-train-reportedly-crosses-chinese-border; David Welch and Crystal Chui, “China wants Elon Musk to help promote stable ties with the U.S.,” Bloomberg News, January 9, 2019, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-09/beijing-urges-musk- to-promote-u-s-china-ties-boost-ev-market. 121 Wei Lingling, “Beijing drops contentious ‘Made in China 2025’ slogan, but policy remains,” Wall Street Journal, March 5, 2019, www.wsj.com/articles/ china-drops-a-policy-the-u-s-dislikes-at-least-in-name-11551795370. 122 “Summer Universiade 2021 awarded to Chinese city of Chengdu,” FISU, March 1, 2019,. www fisu.net/news/summer-universiade/summer-universiade-2021-awarded-to- chinese-city-of-chengdu. 123 Miles Johnson, “Italy endorses China’s Belt and Road Initiative,” Financial Times, March 23, 2019, www.ft.com/content/fda398ac-4d72-11e9-b401-8d9ef1626294. 124 “Xi Jinping’s second Belt and Road forum: three key takeaways,” Bloomberg News, April 28, 2019, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-04-28/xi-jinping-s-wins- and-losses-at-his-second-belt-and-road-forum. 125 Robert Delaney, “In abrupt move, Donald Trump says 10 per cent China tariffs will rise to 25 per cent on Friday,” South China Morning Post, May 6, 2019, www.scmp. com/news/world/united-states-canada/article/3008939/ donald-trump-says-10-percent-china-tariffs-will. 126 Daniel Bases, “Trump orders national emergency on information security; Com- merce Department follows with Huawei restrictions,” South China Morning Post, May 16, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3010396/donald-trump- signs-executive-order-laying-ground-us-ban-chinas. 127 Nevertheless, Chengdu obtained the hosting rights of these two sporting mega-events in April and May 2019. See “Houston, Chengdu to host 2021, 2022 Table Tennis Worlds,” China Daily, April 23, 2019, www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/23/ WS5cbe7db7a3104842260b7bf0.html; “Chengdu wins bid for 2025 World Games,” China Daily, May 9, 2019, www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201905/09/WS5cd39 352a3104842260bab8f.html.

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Zhu Rongji Shanghai Jianghua Shilu [Memoir of Zhu Rongji’s Speeches in Shanghai]. Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2013. 142 Central government and discontinued bids going to investigate former Politburo Standing Committee member Zhou Yongkang who was suspected to be involved in corruption and other crimes. Since Yang had a close personal connection with Zhou,69 the Committee attached great importance to Gao’s report, so its members promptly prepared to scrutinize his leadership. In this situation, any important projects proposed by Yang needed to be shelved. In July 2014, Jakarta was assigned to hold the 2019 Asian Games. The OCA, to avoid interrupting the 2019 Indonesian general election, later approved the event being celebrated in 2018.70 In view of this, the decision of the Zhejiang provincial authorities to hold the 2022 Asian Games in their capital city Hangzhou was made. Given that the gala could serve as a landmark of his first ten-year rule and a political achievement of his protégés, Xi, who chaired the Party and executive affairs of Zhejiang from 2002 to 2007, readily gave his blessing.71 Eventually, Hangzhou obtained the hosting rights in September 2015. Furthermore, one month after Zhou Yongkang was found guilty of bribery, abuse of power and leaking state secrets, Yang Weize was confirmed to have taken bribes and was expelled by the Party. In December 2016, he was sentenced to jail for 12 years.72 Eleven months later, the Chinese authorities dis- closed that Zhou, together with Bo Xilai, Ling Jihua, Xu Caihou, Guo Boxiong and Sun Zhengcai, had attempted to usurp the power of the current Party and state leaders by coup.73

Conclusion To ensure that the FISU president would support Beijing in the 2000 Summer Olympic bidding contest and the Italian government would help China’s re- engagement in international affairs, the central government decisively discontinued Shanghai’s application for the 1997 Summer Universiade. Sicily of Italy eventually won the hosting rights. In 1994 and 1995, a series of domestic and international occurrences caused the continuous decline of China’s reputation in world society. Nevertheless, Beijing still intended to bid for the 2004 Summer Olympics. The central government thus showed a red card to the capital city. In 2009, the central government first did not approve Harbin to bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics and then gave all-support to Pyeongchong, so as to consolidate South Korea as a strategic cooperative partner of China and push forward free trade negotiations between the two countries. While he was suspected of being involved in corruption, Party Secretary Yang Weize unveiled Nanjing’s plan to bid for the 2019 Asian Games. The central government, to avoid any embarrassing situations in the future, decided not to give its endorsement. The bidding plan was thus abolished at once.

Notes 1 Deng Xiaoping Wenxuan Dierjuan [Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 1993), 366–367; Ezra F. Vogel, Deng Central government and discontinued bids 143 Xiaoping and the Transformation of China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011), 666. 2 Joseph Fewsmith, China since Tiananmen: From Deng Xiaoping to Hu Jintao (2nd edition) (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 49–50. 3 “Shanghai zhengshi shenban yijiujiuqi nian shijie xianji daxuesheng yundonghui” [Shanghai activated the bid for the 1997 Summer Universiade], China Sports Daily, May 14, 1991, 1. 4 “Shanghai jiang shenban shijiujie shijie daxuesheng yundonghui” [Shanghai will apply for 19th Universiade], Wenhui Daily, May 13, 1991, 1. 5 Randy Harvey, “Samaranch requests a shift in IOC power: meeting: he wants national committees, international federations to have more control,” Los Angeles Times, July 21, 1992, www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-07-21-sp-4251-story.html. 6 He Zhenliang, Jianxin De Huihuang: Wode Shenao Riji [Tough Glory: My Diary of Olympic Bids] (Hong Kong: Motherland Press, 2008), 76. 7 “1997 Universiade to be held in Italy,” Xinhua News Service, July 13, 1991. 8 “Neibiluo zanyang zhongguo tiyu shiye feiyue fazhan guanxin Beijing shenban 2000 nian aoyunhui” [Nebiolo expresses concern over Beijing’s bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics], Guangzhou Daily, July 18, 1991, 4. 9 Wu Jianmin, Shunshi Wu Jianmin Tanwaijiao [World Mega-Trend and China’s Diplomacy] (Beijing: China Democracy and Legal System Publishing House, 2015), 181. 10 “Milan withdraws Olympic bid,” Los Angeles Times, March 11, 1993, http://articles. latimes.com/1993-03-11/sports/sp-1197_1_olympic-milan-withdraws. 11 For instance, Nebiolo strongly criticized the US congressmen for proposing the bill opposing Beijing to host the 2000 Summer Olympics. See “Neibiluo pingji mei ganshe Beijing shenban aoyun” [Nebiolo blames the US for its interference in Beijing’s bid for the Olympics], China Sports Daily, July 10, 1993, 1. 12 Chris Yeung, “Beijing residents favor 2004 Olympic Games if 2000 bid fails,” South China Morning Post, July 27, 1993, 9. 13 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 227; “Japan encourages Beijing to challenge again for 2004,” Agence France-Presse, September 24, 1993. 14 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 280. 15 Wu, Shunshi Wu Jianmin Tanwaijiao, 216. 16 Christin Brennan, “Samaranch believes China might give way to Africa; Speculates on bidding for 2004 Games,” Washington Post, October 31, 1993, D03. 17 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 283. 18 Brennan, “Samaranch believes China might give way to Africa.” 19 Qian Qichen, Waijiao Shiji [Ten Episodes in China’s Diplomacy] (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing, 2004), 227–238. 20 “China plays Olympic waiting games,” Agence France-Presse, December 6, 1993. 21 Brennan, “Samaranch believes China might give way to Africa.” 22 Qian, Waijiao Shiji, 240–243. 23 Robert L. Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of US-China Relations, 1989–2000 (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 2003), 182. 24 “USA-China presidential meeting – differences remain on human rights issue,” BBC, November 22, 1993. 25 Bill Clinton, My Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), 598. 26 For details see Chapter 4. 27 John Mehaffey, “Britain will not submit bid for 2004 Olympics,” Reuters, September 21, 1995. 28 Sun Daguang, Zhongguo Shenao Qinliji: Liangci Shenao Beihoude Gushi [My Experience in China’s Pursuit of the Olympics: Stories behind the Bids] (Beijing, People’s Literature Press, 2007), 54–55. 144 Central government and discontinued bids 29 Patrick E. Tyler, “Beijing now admits that robbers killed 24 Taiwan tourists,” New York Times, April 19, 1994, www.nytimes.com/1994/04/19/world/beijing-now-admits- that-robbers-killed-24-taiwan-tourists.html; Teresa Poole, “China attempts to cover up Taiwanese boat murders,” The Independent, April 24, 1994, www.independent.co.uk/ news/world/china-attempts-to-cover-up-taiwanese-boat-murders-1372048.html. 30 Wang won the gold medal for the women’s 10,000m in the 1993 World Athletic Championships. Zhang was the world record holder for the women’s 3,000m. 31 Yuan Shan, Zhongguo Nanzihan: Yuan Weimin Yu Titan Fengyun [Yuan Weimin and sporting situation] (Hong Kong: Ming Pao Press, 2009), 29–32. 32 “Ackerman quits in row over Cape Town Olympic bid,” Reuters, March 6, 1995. 33 Keith Wheatley, “Cape Town’s dream begins to unravel,” Financial Times, May 27, 1995, 9. 34 Eventually, Samaranch’s words delivered at the opening ceremony of the General Assembly successfully led most of the OCA members to cast their votes for Pusan. For details see Chapter 6. 35 “Samaranch invited Beijing Olympic bid,” Agence France-Presse, May 17, 1995. 36 Wu, Shunshi Wu Jianmin Tanwaijiao, 193. 37 Given this result, China was unable to become the founding member of the World Trade Organization. See Feng Hui, The Politics of China’s Accession to the World Trade Organization: The Dragon Goes Global (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2006), 57–60. 38 Richard C. Bush, Untying the Knot: Making Peace in the Taiwan Strait (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), 53. 39 Patrick E. Tyler, “Beijing party ‘decapitated’ by President,” New York Times, May 8, 1995,. www nytimes.com/1995/05/08/world/beijing-party-decapitated-by-president. html. 40 Gilles Van Grasdorff, Hostage of Beijing: The Abduction of the Panchen Lama (Shaftesbury: Element, 1999), 203–210; Melvyn C. Goldstein, The Snow Lion and the Dragon: China, Tibet, and the Dalai Lama (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997), 100–111. 41 “Athens will bid for 2004 Summer Olympics, official,”Reuters , December 14, 1995. 42 He, Jianxin De Huihuang, 289. 43 Richard Baum, Burying Mao: Chinese Politics in the Age of Deng Xiaoping (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994), 383; Patrick E. Tyler, “Deng’s daughter opens a long-shut door,” New York Times, January 13, 1995, www.nytimes. com/1995/01/13/world/deng-s-daughter-opens-a-long-shut-door.html. 44 “China out of the race for 2004 Olympics,” Agence France-Presse, January 4, 1996. 45 Suettinger, Beyond Tiananmen, 251–260. 46 Yao Jianfu, Chen Xitong Qinshu: Zhongkou Lejin Nan Lezhen [Conversations with Chen Xitong] (Hong Kong: New Century Press, 2012). 47 “Harbin shenban 2009 nian shijie daxuesheng dongji yundonghui chenshu baogao” [Report delivered by Harbin 2009 Winter Universiade Bid Committee], Harbin Daily, January 11, 2005, 3; “Wanshi jubei Haerbin shijie daxuesheng dongji yundonghui kaimu zaiji” [Harbin is ready to host the Winter Universiade], Central People’s Government of PRC, February 6, 2009, www.gov.cn/jrzg/2009-02/06/ content_1223018.htm. 48 Hu Jintao Wenxuan Disanjuan [Selected Works of Hu Jintao Volume III] (Beijing: People’s Publishing House, 2016), 101–114. 49 “Heilongjiang sheng shengzhang tan chouban dadonghui” [Heilongjiang Governor Li Zhanshu talks about the organization of the Winter Universiade], People’s Daily, December 23, 2008, 12. 50 “Datilian zhuxi renwei haerbin younengli chengban dongaohui” [FISU President George Killian believes that Harbin is capable of holding the Winter Olympics], Beijing News, February 18, 2009, A31. Central government and discontinued bids 145 51 “Harbin zhengshi tiqing shenban 2018 dongaohui” [Harbin formally informs the central government of its intention to apply for the 2018 Winter Olympics], Wen Wei Po, September 5, 2009, B03. 52 “Harbin Changchun zhengduo 2018 dongao shenbanquan” [Harbin and Changchun will compete for the right to bid for the 2018 Winter Olympics on behalf of China], Wen Wei Po, September 5, 2009, A36. 53 Harbin, from 1959 until 2008, hosted the National Winter Games of China five times. It also staged an Asian Winter Games and a Winter Universiade in 1996 and 2009 respectively. Changchun, up to 2008, had only staged a National Winter Games of China and an Asian Winter Games. 54 Candidates Acceptance Procedure: XXI Olympic Winter Games in 2010, (Lausanne: IOC, 2002). 55 Through assessing the aspects of (1) governance and guarantees, (2) finance, (3) Youth Olympic Village, (4) sports and venues, and (5) cultural and education program, the IOC Evaluation Commission concluded that Harbin would bring risks if it was assigned to host the 2014 Youth Winter Olympics. Eventually, Innsbruck and Kuopio were shortlisted as the candidates. For details see 1st Winter Youth Olympic Games in 2012: Report of the IOC Evaluation Commission (Lausanne: IOC, 2008). 56 “Zhang Xiaolian huijian guoji binglian zhuxi” [Zhang Xiaoliang meets International Ice Hockey Federation President], Harbin Daily, April 9, 2008, 1. 57 “Hanshen 2018 dongaohui xujie zhongguo zhichi” [South Korea needs China’s support in its bid for the Winter Olympics], Ming Pao, April 6, 2011, A21; “Wanguo tiyu zhuanjia jianyi zhongguo yingshenban 2022 nian dongaohui” [Foreign experts advise China to bid for 2022 Winter Olympics], Guangzhou Daily, August 10, 2009, A13. 58 “China-ROK Joint Statement,” Foreign Affairs Ministry of PRC, May 28, 2008, www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/t469103.shtml. 59 “China-ROK Joint Communiqué,” Foreign Affairs Ministry of PRC, August 25, 2008,. www fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/t513632.shtml. 60 Ye Min, China-south Korea Relations in the New Era: Challenges and Opportunities (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2017), 77. 61 “Haerbin wuyuan 2018 nian dongaohui” [Harbin will not host the 2018 Winter Olympics], Wenhui Daily, October 15, 2009, 3. 62 “Zhichi haerbin shenban 2022 nian dongaohui” [Support Harbin to bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics], Tencent News, March 8, 2012, https://news.qq.com/a/ 20120308/001499.htm. 63 “Vietnam backs out as host of 2019 Asian Games,” Reuters, April 17, 2014, www. reuters.com/article/us-games-asia-vietnam/vietnam-backs-out-as-host-of-2019-asian- games-idUSBREA3G18H20140417; “Hanoi will not host Asian Games,” Bangkok Post, April 17, 2014, www.bangkokpost.com/sports/405380/vietnam-says-it-will- not-host-asian-games. 64 “Nanjing shiwei shuji Yang Weize shoudu biaotai yuanchengban 2019 yayunhui” [Nanjing Party Secretary Yang Weize expresses that Nanjing is willing to host the 2019 Asian Games], Sohu News, May 8, 2014, http://news.sohu.com/20140508/ n399306786.shtml. 65 Marcus P. Chu, “International mega-sports events at Nanjing: China’s frugal games,” Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social Science 5, no. 3 (2016): 205–209. 66 “Jubanquan jiushi fanzhanquan Nanjing yayun wulong zhihou” [Hosting right is development right, Nanjing after the Asian Games case], Southern Weekly, May 15, 2014, www.infzm.com/content/100667; Daniel Ren, “Nanjing should think twice before bidding for Asian Games,” South China Morning Post, May 31, 2014 www.scmp.com/ news/china/article/1522227/nanjing-should-think-twice-bidding-asian-games. 67 “Nanjing yuanban yayunhui? Guanfang lianye chengqing” [Is Nanjing willing to host the Asian Games? The municipal government gives clarification at once], Beijing News, May 9, 2014, A10. 146 Central government and discontinued bids 68 “Yang Weize beichaqian de sanbaitian” [300 days before Yang Weize was investigated], Beijing News, January 8, 2015, A20&A21. 69 “Zaichuanyan zhong luoma de shiwei shuji” [Party Secretary steps down with rumor], Beijing Youth Daily, January 6, 2015, A12. 70 “Jakarta – Palembang 2018,” OCA,. www ocasia.org/Game/GHAFDetails?q=NtpwTO liipDwo6ShqBnESxktSlr5+biYzaR1aA7kbpRCHZ3Rd6NkxmCO5ZagFD9Yu4Ro/ tDoxphjxbcZ28qSuQ==. 71 For details see Chapter 5. 72 “China jails former Nanjing city chief for 12 years for graft,” Reuters, December 14, 2016,. www reuters.com/article/us-china-corruption-court/china-jails-former-nanjing- city-chief-for-12-years-for-graft-idUSKBN1430TA. 73 Wendy Wu and Choi Chi-yuk, “Coup plotters foiled: Xi Jinping fended off threat to ‘save Communist Party’,” South China Morning Post, October 19, 2017, www.scmp. com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2116176/coup-plotters-foiled-xi-jinping- fended-threat-save.

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Hong Kong: Ming Pao Press, 2009. 158 Conclusion export restrictions related to China’s treatment of the Uyghur Muslims in Xinjiang.22 A few hours later, NATO members admitted that since it aggressively displayed its muscle on the world stage, China had been the most formidable challenge that they had ever faced.23 This statement implied that Western countries had extensively recognized the threat posed by, and would collectively adopt measures against, Beijing. In this situation, the Chinese authorities stated that all Muslim detainees in the re-education camps had left.24 The Hong Kong police issued a letter of no objection to a pro-democracy rally scheduled on December 8. Eventually about 800,000 people joined.25 In the meantime, to avoid tariffs being slapped on more Chinese exports, Xi Jinping made conces- sions, accepting the conditions proposed by the US government, including purchasing more American agricultural products, in the first-stage trade negotiations. Trump still stated that he would continue to use tariffs as leverage in future negotiations with China.26 Evidently, without major revision of Xi’s domestic and international policies, a deadlock in making a future trade deal between the American and Chinese governments will emerge. The slowdown of the Chinese economy will continue. Local authorities’ suppression of civilians in Hong Kong, Xinjiang and other parts of China will remain. The tension in China’s relations with the US and other Western countries will rise. If so, what will the supporting strategies of Xi and his subordinates be while Chinese cities pursue the hosting rights of the FIFA World Cup, the Summer Olympics and other world-renowned sporting mega-events in the 2020s? Will the governments of the US and other Western democracies keep their hands off the Chinese bids or firmly oppose them? And will the international sporting community still be willing to let China host these galas? The answers are awaited.

Notes 1 David Shambaugh, “The coming Chinese crackup,” Wall Street Journal, March 6, 2015, www.wsj.com/articles/the-coming-chinese-crack-up-1425659198. 2 Jonathan White, “China to test bid for 2030 FIFA World Cup ahead of targeting tournament in 2034,” South China Morning Post, November 14, 2018, www.scmp. com/sport/football/article/2173198/china-test-bid-2030-fifa-world-cup-ahead-targeting- centenary; Alice Yan, “Shanghai confirms study into 2032 Olympics but clarifies it has not decided on a bid,” South China Morning Post, November 15, 2018, www. scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2173450/shanghai-says-study-2032-olympics- doesnt-mean-it-will-launch-bid. 3 Sidney Leng, “China’s job market improves in second quarter despite record low growth rate,” South China Morning Post, July 17, 2019, www.scmp.com/economy/ china-economy/article/3019015/chinas-job-market-improves-second-quarter-despite- record-low; Sidney Leng, “China economy reports lowest GDP growth on record for second quarter as US trade war bites,” South China Morning Post, July 15, 2019, www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3018580/china-economy-reports- lowest-gdp-record-second-quarter-us. 4 Tom Hancock, “Xi Jinping’s China: why entrepreneurs feel like second-class citizens,” Financial Times, May 20, 2019, www.ft.com/content/fcb06530-680a- 11e9-9adc-98bf1d35a056. Conclusion 159 5 For Trump’s motives to impose tariffs, see Chapter 6. 6 Kate Fazzini, “Trump is now blacklisting several big Chinese companies – here’s what they do and why they are important,” CNBC, October 8, 2019 www.cnbc. com/2019/10/08/trumps-latest-china-blacklist-hits-several-huge-companies.html. 7 “US officially labels China a ‘currency manipulator’,”BBC , August 6, 2019, www. bbc.com/news/business-49244702. 8 Shibani Mahtani, “Hong Kong protestors outmaneuver police, vandalize Chinese Liaison Office,”Washington Post, July 21, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/world/ asia_pacific/police-dramatically-increase-security-in-hong-kong-as-protests-continue- unabated/2019/07/21/1de14dd2-aafa-11e9-8733-48c87235f396_story.html. 9 Lily Kuo and Verna Yu, “Where were the police? Hong Kong outcry after masked thugs launch attack,” The Guardian, July 22, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/ 2019/jul/22/where-were-the-police-hong-kong-outcry-after-masked-thugs-launch- attack. 10 Kimmy Chung and Tony Cheung, “Hong Kong protests have obvious characteristics of colour revolution, top Beijing official warns amid worst crisis since 1997 handover,” South China Morning Post, August 8, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/ politics/article/3021877/protests-colour-revolution-threatening-hong-kong-abyss-top; Zhang Yi, Kathy Zhang and Dai Kaiyi, “Sign of Terrorism seen in HK unrest,” China Daily, August 13, 2019, www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/250/250/246/156563 0378909.html. 11 Tony Cheung, “Beijing stands behind Hong Kong police in state media while local officials insist anti-extradition protests are under control,”South China Morning Post, August 2, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3021258/ beijing-stands-behind-hong-kong-police-state-media-while. 12 Catherine Wong, Gary Cheung, Denise Tsang and Teddy Ng, “Chinese military can be deployed at Hong Kong’s request to contain protests, Beijing says,” South China Morning Post, July 24, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/china/military/article/3019854/ chinese-military-can-be-deployed-hong-kongs-request-contain; Kimmy Chung, “Hong Kong tycoon Li Ka-shing hits back at ‘unwarranted’ accusations he condones crime and caused city’s housing crisis,” South China Morning Post, September 13, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3027185/hong-kong-tycoon-li- ka-shing-hits-back-unwarranted; Sopan Deb, “NBA Commissioner: China asked us to fire Daryl Morey,”New York Times, October 17, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/ 10/17/sports/basketball/nba-china-adam-silver.html. 13 “NBA and China: 77% of American public tell Houston Rockets owner to keep and defend his tweeting GM,” Seton Hall Sports Poll, October 25, 2019, http://blogs. shu.edu/sportspoll/2019/10/25/nba-and-china-77-of-american-public-tell-houston- rockets-owner-to-keep-and-defend-his-tweeting-gm/. 14 “Remarks by President Trump to the 74th Session of the United Nations General Assembly,” White House, September 25, 2019, www.whitehouse.gov/briefings- statements/remarks-president-trump-74th-session-united-nations-general-assembly/; “Remarks by Vice President Pence at the Frederic V. Malek Memorial Lecture,” White House, October 24, 2019, www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks- vice-president-pence-frederic-v-malek-memorial-lecture/. 15 Newt Gingrich, Trump vs. China: Facing America’s Greatest Threat (New York: Center Street, 2019). 16 Laura Zhou, “Xi Jinping again backs Hong Kong police use of force in stopping unrest,” South China Moring Post, November 14, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/ china/politics/article/3037811/xi-jinping-again-backs-hong-kong-police-use-force- stopping. 17 Edward Wong and Ezra Cheung, “Hong Kong colleges become besieged citadels as police close in,” New York Times, November 13, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/ 11/13/world/asia/hong-kong-protests-students.html; Casey Quackenbush, Anna 160 Conclusion Kam and Shibani Mahtani, “Hong Kong police move on university campus, threaten live rounds, retreat before growing flames,”Washington Post, November 18, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/world/hong-kong-police-pummel-university-with-water- cannon-as-officer-hit-by-arrow/2019/11/17/f004c978-091f-11ea-8054-289aef6e3 8a3_story.html. 18 Of the 452 seats, 389 were occupied by the pro-democracy candidates. See Keith Bradsher, Austin Ramzy and Tiffany May, “Hong Kong election results give democracy backers big win,” New York Times, November 24, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/ 11/24/world/asia/hong-kong-election-results.html. 19 “S.1838 – Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act of 2019,” US Congress, www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1838. 20 Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckley, “ ‘Absolutely no mercy’: leaked files expose how China organized mass detentions of Muslims,” New York Times, November 16, 2019, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/11/16/world/asia/china-xinjiang-documents. html. 21 Nevertheless, this figure was still believed by the Chinese economists to be overrated. See Finbarr Bermingham and Orange Wang, “China’s economic growth worse than expected, sinking to new low of 6.0 per cent in third quarter amid US trade war,” South China Morning Post, October 18, 2019, www.scmp.com/economy/china- economy/article/3033481/chinas-economic-growth-worse-expected-third-quarter- sinking; Sidney Leng, “China plans to tackle fraudulent data with harsh new penalties for local leaders and the help of AI,” South China Morning Post, October 25, 2019, www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3034617/china-plans-tackle-fraudulent- data-harsh-new-penalties-local. 22 “S.178 – Uyghur Human Rights Policy Act of 2019,” US Congress, www.congress.gov/ bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/178. 23 Phil Stewart and Robin Emmott, “Long focused on Russia, NATO widens gaze toward China,” Reuters, December 4, 2019, www.reuters.com/article/us-nato-summit- usa-china/long-focused-on-russia-nato-widens-gaze-toward-china-idUSKBN1Y81I4. 24 Eva Dou, “China’s claim that detainees in Xinjiang have ‘graduated’ draws skepticism,” Wall Street Journal, December 9, 2019, www.wsj.com/articles/china-says- students-at-xinjiang-detention-centers-have-all-graduated-11575882821. 25 “As it happened: ‘about 800,000’ join Hong Kong protest on eve of six-month anniversary of anti-government unrest,” South China Morning Post, December 8, 2019, www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/3038319/thousands-show-hong- kong-protest-organised-civil-human. 26 William Mauldin, Lingling Wei and Alex Leary, “U.S., China Agree to Limited Deal to Halt Trade War,” Wall Street Journal, December 14, 2019, www.wsj.com/articles/ us-china-confirm-reaching-phase-one-trade-deal-11576234325.

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