Strategies for Restoring Global Land During the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (UN-DER)

land

Review Restoring the Unrestored: Strategies for Restoring Global Land during the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (UN-DER)

Purushothaman Chirakkuzhyil Abhilash 1,2

1 Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India; [email protected]; Tel.: +91-9415-644-280 2 Agroecosystem Specialist Group, IUCN-Commission on Ecosystem Management, 1196 Gland, Switzerland

Abstract: Restoring the health of degraded land is critical for overall human development as land is a vital life-supporting system, directly or indirectly influencing the attainment of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs). However, more than 33% of the global land is degraded and thereby affecting the livelihood of billions of people worldwide. Realizing this fact, the 73rd session of the UN Assembly has formally adopted a resolution to celebrate 2021–2030 as the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (UN-DER), for preventing, halting, and reversing degradation of ecosystems worldwide. While this move is historic and beneficial for both people and the planet, restoration of degraded land at different scales and levels requires a paradigm shift in existing restoration approaches, fueled by the application of applied science to citizen/community-based science, and tapping of indigenous and local knowledge to advanced technological breakthroughs. In addition, there is a need of strong political will and positive behavioral changes to strengthen restoration initiatives at the grassroot level and involvement of people from all walks of life (i.e., from politicians to peasants and social workers to scientists) are essential for achieving the targets of the UN-DER. Similarly, financing restoration on the ground by the collective contribution of individuals (crowd funding) and institutions (institutional funding) are critical for maintaining the momentum. Private Citation: Abhilash, P.C. Restoring companies can earmark lion-share of their corporate social responsibility fund (CSR fund) exclusively the Unrestored: Strategies for for restoration. The adoption of suitable bioeconomy models is crucial for maintaining the perpetuity Restoring Global Land during the UN of the restoration by exploring co-benefits, and also for ensuring stakeholder involvements during Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (UN-DER). Land 2021, 10, 201. and after the restoration. This review underpins various challenges and plausible solutions to avoid, https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020201 reduce, and reverse global land degradation as envisioned during the UN-DER, while fulfilling the objectives of other ongoing initiatives like the Bonn Challenge and the UN-SDGs. Academic Editor: Saskia Keesstra Keywords: Bonn challenge; land resources; land health; land restoration; UN-Sustainable Develop- Received: 24 January 2021 ment Goals; UN Decade of Ecosystem Restoration; indigenous and local knowledge Accepted: 15 February 2021 Published: 17 February 2021

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Land as a Vital Resource for Sustainable Development with regard to jurisdictional claims in Land is a complex biophysical system providing vital ecosystem services for human published maps and institutional afﬁl- wellbeing and a good quality of life [1–4]. It supports primary production for feeding a iations. rapidly growing human population and livestock, maintaining biodiversity and resultant ecological complexities (i.e., from species to ecosystems, and landscapes to biomes) [5–7] and plays a central role in cycling of nutrients [8] (i.e., C, N, P), water [9], and other critical elements [3–6]; and regulating the emission of trace gases (i.e., CH4, CO2,N2O, NO) and Copyright: © 2021 by the author. the earth’s climate [2–11]. Moreover, land is perceived as an important production factor Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. (as an economic resource) for overall human development [10](www.undp.org), and also This article is an open access article has enormous social, biocultural, and religious signiﬁcance [1–3,11]. distributed under the terms and Maintaining the vitality of land resources is therefore essential for environmental conditions of the Creative Commons sustainability and also for the realization of various global goals [11–13] pronounced in Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) (www.sdgs.un.org). As depicted in creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Figure1 , the attainment of various SDGs such as no poverty (Goal No.1), zero hunger (Goal 4.0/).

Land 2021, 10, 201. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10020201 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17 Land 2021, 10, 201 2 of 19

Figure 1, the attainment of various SDGs such as no poverty (Goal No.1), zero hunger (GoalNo.2), No.2), good health good andhealth wellbeing and wellbeing (Goal No.3), (Goal gender No.3), equality gender (Goalequality No. (Goal 5), clean No. water 5), clean and watersanitation and (Goalsanitation No.6), (Goal affordable No.6), and affordable clean energy and clean (Goal energy No. 7), decent(Goal No. work 7), and decent economic work andgrowth economic (Goal No.growth 8), reduced(Goal No. inequalities 8), reduced (Goal inequalities No.10), (Goal responsible No.10), consumption responsible con- and productionsumption and (Goal production No. 12), (Goal climate No. action 12), climate (Goal No. action 13), (Goal are directly No. 13), or are indirectly directly depends or indi- rectlyupon thedepends quality upon of land, the whereas quality theof land, realization whereas of thethe Goal realization No. 15, of i.e., the life Goal on land No. ( ‘protect,15, i.e., liferestore on andland promote (‘protect, sustainable restore and use promote of terrestrial sustainable ecosystems, use of sustainably terrestrial ecosystems, manage forests, sustainably combat managedesertiﬁcation, forests, andcombat halt desertificat and reverseion, land and degradation halt and reve andrse halt land biodiversity degradation loss’ and) andhalt biodiversity associated loss’SDG) targetsand associated are exclusively SDG dependent targets onare landexclusively resource (www.un.orgdependent ).on Hence, land regainingresource (www.un.org).the productivity Hence, of land regaining is crucial forthe the productivity realization of variousland is crucial objectives for envisionedthe realization for the of variousUnited Nations objectives Decade envisioned on Ecosystem for the Restoration United Nations (UN-DER) Decade [11 –on13 ],Ec andosystem also, forRestoration attaining land degradation neutrality (LDN), as well as various other developmental agendas put (UN-DER) [11–13], and also, for attaining land degradation neutrality (LDN), as well as forth by the respective nations [14–16]. various other developmental agendas put forth by the respective nations [14–16].

Figure 1. Pictorial depiction of land’s contributions to human well-being and a good quality of life [1–4]. There is a strong Figure 1. Pictorial depiction of land’s contributions to human well-being and a good quality of life [1–4]. There is a strong and positive interconnectedness between land system, human development, and the UN-SDGs (www.sdgs.un.org). Land and positive interconnectedness between land system, human development, and the UN-SDGs (www.sdgs.un.org). Land is a vital system for overall human development and also regulates critical planetary functions [1,7–10,15]. Therefore, isprotecting a vital system land system for overall is essent humanial for development protecting our and own also future. regulates critical planetary functions [1,7–10,15]. Therefore, protecting land system is essential for protecting our own future. Unfortunately, more than 33% of the global land resources is already degraded due Unfortunately, more than 33% of the global land resources is already degraded due to various direct and indirect drivers of changes [1–4,15–21] including pollution due to to various direct and indirect drivers of changes [1–4,15–21] including pollution due to rapid agriculturalization [5,6,10], urbanization, and industrialization; unsustainable land rapid agriculturalization [5,6,10], urbanization, and industrialization; unsustainable land use practices [15], deforestation [18], salinization [17], desertification, natural and human use practices [15], deforestation [18], salinization [17], desertification, natural and human induced fires, soil erosion, overexploitation of groundwater and other critical natural re- induced fires, soil erosion, overexploitation of groundwater and other critical natural sources, mining activities, invasive alien plants, climate change, poor land governance resources, mining activities, invasive alien plants, climate change, poor land governance and policy measures, behavioral changes, etc. [7,15–21]. According to Stocking [22], land and policy measures, behavioral changes, etc. [7,15–21]. According to Stocking [22], land degradation is defined as the “temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the degradation is defined as the “temporary or permanent decline in the productive capacity of the land, and the diminution of the productiveproductive potential,potential, includingincluding its majormajor landland usesuses (e.g.,(e.g., rain-fedrain-fed arable, irrigation, forests), its farming systems (e.g.,(e.g., smallholder subsistence), and its value as an economic resource”[” [22].22]. In simple terms, land degradation refers to “many processes that drive the decline of biodiversity, ecosystem functions or ecosystem services”[15]. As a result, the degradation nega- Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Land 2021, 10, 201 3 of 19 In simple terms, land degradation refers to “many processes that drive the decline of biodiversity, ecosystem functions or ecosystem services” [15]. As a result, the degradation nega- tively impacts the ecosystem services provided by the land system for human wellbeing, includingtively impacts social, the economic, ecosystem and services cultural provided dimensions by the of land human system development for human wellbeing,(Figure 2) [22].including Recent social, studies economic, of various and inter-governmental cultural dimensions agencies of human like development the United (FigureNations2)[ Con-22]. ventionRecent studies to Combat of various Desertification inter-governmental (UNCCD agencies) (www.unccd.int), like the United the NationsIntergovernmental Convention Science-Policyto Combat Desertiﬁcation Platform on (UNCCD)Biodiversity (www.unccd.int and Ecosystem), theServices Intergovernmental of the United Nations Science- (IPBES)Policy Platform (www.ipbes.net), on Biodiversity the andUnited Ecosystem Nations Services Development of the United Program Nations (UNDP) (IPBES) (www.undp.org),(www.ipbes.net), theand United the NationsIntergovernmental Development Panel Program on (UNDP)Climate (www.undp.orgChange (IPCC)), (www.ipcc.ch),and the Intergovernmental reported that Panel the global on Climate land degra Changedation (IPCC) directly (www.ipcc.ch affects billions), reported of people that worldwidethe global land (i.e., degradationland degradation directly affects affects the billions livelihood of people of almost worldwide 74% of the (i.e., poor land people) degra- anddation causing affects an the economic livelihood damage of almost amounting 74% of theto US$6.3 poor people) trillion andper annum causing [7,15]. an economic For example,damage forest amounting degradation to US$6.3 directly trillion affects per ~1.6 annum billion [7,15 people,]. For example,including forest 70 million degradation indige- nousdirectly peoples affects who ~1.6 are billion solely people, dependent including on the 70 millionforest system indigenous for their peoples survival who [2,3,7,15]. are solely Similarly,dependent it on has the been forest estimated system for that their almost survival 52% [ 2of,3 ,the7,15 global]. Similarly, agricultural it has been lands estimated are de- gradedthat almost (i.e., 52% moderately of the global or severely), agricultural and lands thereby are degradedaffecting (i.e.,the livelihood moderately of or almost severely), 2.6 billionand thereby people, affecting those who the livelihoodare directly of depen almostdent 2.6 on billion the agriculture people, those for whotheir aresustenance directly dependent on the agriculture for their sustenance (www.undp.org). (www.undp.org).

Figure 2. While soil erosion, deforestation, pollution, climate change, and unscientific land use are the major drivers of Figure 2. While soil erosion, deforestation, pollution, climate change, and unscientiﬁc land use are the major drivers of land land degradation [1–4], land ownership (i.e., public or private) also affects land health. Figure shows an abandoned public degradation [1–4], land ownership (i.e., public or private) also affects land health. Figure shows an abandoned public land land prone to erosion and pollution in Rajagarh, Mirzapur, UP, India. prone to erosion and pollution in Rajagarh, Mirzapur, UP, India. Therefore, the timely restoration of degraded land is essential for ecosystem resili- Therefore, the timely restoration of degraded land is essential for ecosystem resilience, ence,and also and for also ensuring for ensuring food andfood nutritional and nutritional security security of the of growing the growing human human population popula- [6]. tionApart [6]. from Apart averting from averting the negative the negative effects on e socio-economicffects on socio-economic system, restoration system, restoration of degraded of degradedland is also land pivotal is also for pivotal regaining for ecologicalregaining ecol complexitiesogical complexities mediated bymediated land system by land [23 ].sys- In temthis [23]. way, In the this recent way, international the recent international initiatives such initiatives as the such Bonn as Challenge, the Bonn Challenge, the New York the NewDeclaration York Declaration on Forests (NYDF),on Forests the (NYDF), UN-SDGs, the andUN-SDGs, the UN-DER, and the are UN-DER, historic are and historic highly andcommendable, highly commendable, since all of thesesince initiativesall of these are in exclusivelyitiatives are orexclusively majorly targeted or majorly for restoringtargeted fordegraded restoring land degraded for sustainable land for development. sustainable dev Theelopment. present review The present is aimed review to highlight is aimed the to highlightchallenges the of landchallenges restoration of land for restoratio sustainablen for development sustainable and development provide inventive and provide measures in- ventiveto avoid, measures reduce, and to avoid, reverse reduce, global landand reve degradationrse global during land degradation the UN-DER during (i.e., 2021–2030) the UN- DERand even(i.e., beyond2021-2030) that. and even beyond that.

2. The The Challenges Challenges of Restoring Degraded Land within the Target Period While land restoration is a slow process [[4],4], the mounting pressure exerted by a growing human population on finite ﬁnite land resources necessitate easy and immediate ways of restoration. However, However, the success of land restoration greatly depends upon (i) the the time, time, and also on other important factors such as (i (ii)i) the nature and extent of the degradation, (iii) the biodiversity of the area, (iv) the hist historyory of the land use pattern, (v) the edaphic and climatic conditions, (vi) the availability of resources, people’s support, and involvement, and importantly, (vii) the effectiveness of the restoration technologies employed [2–4,20,21]. Land 2021, 10, 201 4 of 19

Therefore, in strict sense, the objectives of land restoration cannot be completely attained within a short-stipulated time frame, and therefore, restoration activities must be extended for a very long period of time (at least for 50 years) with distinct, and defined short-term (i.e., decadal) as well as long-term restoration targets. Though it may not be possible to restore all of the ecological, economic, and socio-cultural services offered by land in a single go, the combination of short-term as well as long-term efforts will facilitate the attainment of one or more services in a stepwise manner. Therefore, investing ample time is one of the greatest challenges of global land restoration. The lack of accurate information regarding the extent of land degradation (i.e., the total area of degraded land under different land-use) is another major hurdle for planning sustainable restoration initiatives and also for allocating time, and money incurred for the restoration programs accordingly [20,21,24–27]. While several agencies have already acknowledged the worsening impact of worldwide land degradation on ecological and economic systems [1,4,15,28,29], the actual level of degradation (by area wise and land use wise) is yet to be quantified. According to the FAO, more than one-third (i.e., 33%) of the global land is degraded (www.fao.org). However, in reality, the actual land area undergoing degradation may be more than this estimate, because it is difficult to quantify the severity of land degradation under various land use. For instance, the IPBES global assessment on land degradation and restoration indicates that 75% of the global land area has been significantly modified, whereas 90% of the total land is predicted to be significantly altered by 2050 [15,29]. These postulations clearly show the alarming trend of anthropogenic pressures on our finite land system and the need of attaining LDN for environmental sustainability. Since it is comparatively easy to identify the extent of degradation in vegetated system, [30] mainly by assessing the canopy cover (i.e., >75% of canopy cover for the intact forests whereas, <75% for the degraded forest) and biomass (i.e., >75% of aboveground biomass for intact forest) by remote sensing, and also by using other proxy-indicators of degradation such as linear intrusions (i.e., the presence of logging roads, rails etc.), and human settlements etc. [31,32]; there are no well-defined indicators for assessing the extent and severity of degradation in non-forested areas like agroecosystems [6,33] and other land use. In the latter one, the ecological profiling of soil, including physical, chemical, and microbiological profiling is the only way to understand the level of degradation [5,24]. Hence, it will require a considerable amount of time, labor, and other resources for under- taking the soil quality profiling of non-forested areas at a global scale for ascertaining the extent of land quality degradation. Thus, developing simplified protocols for assessing the overall quality of land is essential for devising sustainable management strategies for restoration [5]. Although restoration of degraded land is essential to reduce or reverse the detrimental effects done by humans to nature (www.iis-rio.org), identifying priority areas for immediate restoration is another serious challenge [34–37]. Since it is not possible to initiate restoration of all degraded land under different land use (i.e., forest, grassland, crop land, marginal, and waste land, etc.) in one go, identifying priority areas are utmost important for the immediate initiation of the UN-DER [35,36]. Though the cost of land degradation is higher than the cost of conservation and restoration, land restoration at the global level requires a considerable amount of resources and commitments [37–39]. Therefore, mobilizing financial resources for global land restoration (~US$ 300 to 400 billion per year) is another point of concern [40,41]. As mentioned earlier, identifying priority areas for restoration is a challenging task, because such prioritization must be balanced and based on ecological, economic, and biocultural considerations of the local people. According to Strassburg et al. [34], restoration initiatives in 15% of the converted lands in priority areas of the global South will reduce species extinction by 60%, while sequestering ~ 30% of the atmospheric CO2 (299 gigatons of CO2)[34]. The study also finds that optimizing spatial planning based on multicriteria analysis will reduce the cost of restoration while further improving biodiversity gains by almost 91%, and climate change mitigation by Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17

Land 2021, 10, 201 5 of 19 spatial planning based on multicriteria analysis will reduce the cost of restoration while further improving biodiversity gains by almost 91%, and climate change mitigation by 82% [34–37]. Since most of the forest conversion has happened for food production (as of 82%2014, [ 34>1.5–37 billion]. Since hectares most of of the natural forest conversionecosystems has had happened been converted for food to production croplands (as[29]), of 2014, >1.5 billion hectares of natural ecosystems had been converted to croplands [29]), the the re-conversion of cropland to forest may jeopardize food security of the growing hu- re-conversion of cropland to forest may jeopardize food security of the growing human man population. Hence, land restoration initiatives must be balanced and targeted for population. Hence, land restoration initiatives must be balanced and targeted for both both ecological and socio-economic gains. ecological and socio-economic gains. Last but not least, restoration of polluted land under changing climatic condition is Last but not least, restoration of polluted land under changing climatic condition is another serious concern, especially for plant and microbial-assisted restoration, because another serious concern, especially for plant and microbial-assisted restoration, because the the changing climatic conditions can alter the growth and survival of plant species and changing climatic conditions can alter the growth and survival of plant species and associ- associated rhizospheric and soil microorganisms [5,10,21]. The changing climatic condi- ated rhizospheric and soil microorganisms [5,10,21]. The changing climatic conditions can tions can also alter the fate and behavior of pollutants in soil-plant systems including the also alter the fate and behavior of pollutants in soil-plant systems including the bioavail- bioavailability of pollutants [10,24,25]. Moreover, we do not have proper scientific under- ability of pollutants [10,24,25]. Moreover, we do not have proper scientific understanding regardingstanding regarding the role ofthe emerging role of emerging pollutants pollu liketants micro- like and micro- nanoplastics and nanoplastics [42], nanoparti- [42], na- clesnoparticles [43], etc., [43], on landetc., degradation.on land degradation. Therefore, Therefore, deploying deploying site-specific si andte-specific pollutant-specific and pollu- strategiestant-specific are strategies essential forare restoringessential vastfor re stretchesstoring vast of polluted stretches land of polluted [5]. land [5].

3. Ten-PointTen-point ActionAction PlanPlan forfor GlobalGlobal LandLand RestorationRestoration The 10-point strategies strategies suggested suggested by by the the UN UN (www.deacde (www.deacdeonrestoration.orgonrestoration.org) for) forac- actiontion during during the the 10-year 10-year period period of of the the UN-DER UN-DER (2021 (2021 to to 2030) 2030) is is depicted in Figure3 3.. The The ensuing subsectionssubsections critically critically analyze analyze the the global global implications implications of theseof these action action plans plans over over the UN-DERthe UN-DER period. period.

FigureFigure 3.3. Ten-pointTen-point actionaction planplan forfor restoringrestoring thethe vitalityvitality ofof thethe globalglobal ecosystemecosystem duringduring thethe UN-DERUN-DER (2021–2030).(2021–2030). WhileWhile these strategies are broadly aimed to create a global movement and solidarity for restoring degraded ecosystem for re- these strategies are broadly aimed to create a global movement and solidarity for restoring degraded ecosystem for regaining gaining ecological complexities, there are also co-benefits associated with land restoration such as creating new job ave- ecological complexities, there are also co-beneﬁts associated with land restoration such as creating new job avenues, and ﬁghting against climate change, biodiversity loss, and climate-induced disasters (www.deacdeonrestoration.org). Therefore, the timely adoption of these strategies will have far reaching implications on global ecosystem restoration and also for the timely realization of the UN-SDGs. Land 2021, 10, 201 6 of 19

3.1. Empower A Global Movement Restoration of degraded land across the globe is not possible with the mere involvement of few individuals and institutions, and therefore, creating a momentum for global solidarity is crucial for the overall success of this mammoth task. Since the ultimate aim of the UN-DER is to halt and reverse the global degradation, it needs the expertise and experience of people from all walks of life (such as policy makers, local peoples, regulatory experts, scientist and technical experts, lawyers, gardeners, engineers, architects, designers, religious leaders, politicians, farmers, women and children, etc.), as well as the collaboration and cooperation of private and public institutions, non-governmental organizations, community/citizen groups, etc. [8,21]. As suggested by the UN (www.deacdeonrestoration.org), it is important to connect and empower the actions of various national, regional, and global initiatives targeted for halting land degradation such as the UN-SDGS (www.sdgs.un.org; as detailed earlier, the Goal No.15 is exclusively for land management, apart from that, several other SDGs and SDG targets are directly or indirectly related to land restoration); the Paris Agreement (www.unfcc.int; the Article 5 (2) of the Paris Agreement underlines the need of ‘policy approaches and positive incentives for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries’); the Bonn Challenge (www. bonnchallenge.org; aimed to restore 350 million hectares of global degraded land by the year 2030); the New York Declaration on Forest (www.forestdeclaration.org; ‘a voluntary and non-binding international declaration to take action to halt global deforestation’); The Global Partnership of Forest and Landscape Restoration (www.forestlandscaperestoration. org; an ongoing global initiative by the International Union for Conservation of Nature for restoring degraded forest and landscapes); the Global Restoration Initiative (www.wri.org; an ongoing initiative by the World Resources Institute targeted for the restoration of forest and degraded lands in 17 different landscapes in 50 countries, spanning over three regions, i.e., Asia Paciﬁc, Africa, and Latin America and Caribbean); The Great Green Wall Initiative (www.greatgreenwall.org; an African-led initiate to grow an 8000 km green wall across the entire width of Africa); the AFR100 (www.afr100.org; the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative, ‘a country-led effort to bring 100 million hectares of land in Africa into restoration by 20300); the Initiative 20x20 (www.initiative20x20.org; a country- lead initiative to reduce land degradation in Latin America and the Caribbean); etc., to strengthen the objectives of the UN-DER.

3.2. Finance Restoration on the Ground Though there are many international initiatives targeted to restore degraded land across the world and several local and regional organizations/communities are willing to carry forward the ethos of restoration, land restoration on the ground needs considerable amounts of resources including financial support [37–41]. Even though the economic benefit of restoration is several folds higher than the cost of restoration (almost 7 to 30-fold, i.e., every US$1 expenditure on land restoration will provide an economic return of US$7–30)[39], huge investments are required for implementing land restoration at the global scale [43,44]. Therefore, restoration on the ground is not possible without financial contributions and active support of all players (www.deacdeonrestoration.org) including government bodies; global lenders such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the African Development Bank (AFD) etc.; and international development agencies such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, UK (FCDO), the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the Norwegian Agency for Development Corporation (Norad), the Danish Inter- national Development Agency (DANIDA), the French Development Agency (AFD), the Australian Aid (AA), the Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development, Germany (BMZ), etc., to name a few. Land 2021, 10, 201 7 of 19

While individuals can support restoration initiatives by generous funding and even through crowd funding, private companies can finance local, regional, or global land restoration initiatives through their ‘Corporate Social Responsibility Funds’ (CSR Funds). Moreover, there is a need to create an exclusive fund for restoration named the ‘Global Restoration Fund’ (GRF), like in the case of the ‘Global Environment Fund’ (GEF) created in 1990 for investing in low carbon initiatives, cleaner and renewable energy-based production, as well as for promoting resources saving industrial operations (www.globalenvironmentfund. com). The national and state government can also allocate a special fund for restoration, as in the case of the Queensland Government’s Land Restoration Fund (LRF) established by the Govt. of Queensland, Australia (www.gld.gov.au) for mobilizing land restoration activities [44]. Furthermore, as recommended by the FAO, integrating land restoration into national accounting is one of the best strategies to garner proper attention of policy makers, and also to allocate adequate funds for land restoration at the national level [45]. The innovative strategies suggested by the WRI [39] for unlocking restoration finance such as (i) diverting revenue generated from carbon taxes (mainly obtained through the Nationally Determined Contributions) for land restoration, (ii) providing robust risk management measures to private players for ensuring their confidence and involvement in restoration projects, (iii) integrating restoration initiatives into the business portfolios of all concerned ministries for better coordination and governance, and importantly, and. (iv) quantifying the actual benefits of land restoration and informing the overall benefits to one and all is essential, so that the general public and other prospective actors can come forward for this common cause [39]. Deriving co-benefits such as bioproducts or phytoproducts during various stages of restoration is considered as an innovative way for supporting a bio-based economy [1,21,46–49] while maintaining the continuity of restoration and also for ensuring stakeholder involvements [21]. A recent assessment done by the International Resource Panel (IRP) of the UNEP on linking land restoration with the SDGs has clearly articulated the possible co- benefits associated with land restoration while concurrently achieving other SDG targets also. These co-benefits are mainly economic (income generation), social (improving the livelihood opportunities by providing employment in restoration sector), and biocultural (regaining biocultural significance of land) in nature and are directly or indirectly obtainable during or after the land restoration programs. For instance, land restoration with multipurpose plant species (like biomass and biofuel crops) provides an opportunity for extracting phytoproducts i.e., biomass [1], bioplastics, bioethanol, biochar, fuel wood, etc., during restoration for supporting a bio-based enterprise [43]. Land restoration also provides additional revenue generation through carbon crediting, and also by converting degraded landscapes to parks and heritage sites/cultural landscape etc. As depicted in Table1, well planned and targeted restoration programs will facilitate the attainment of various SDG targets related to social and economic development such as no poverty, zero hunger, good health and wellbeing, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable energy production (mainly through biomass), decent work and economic growth, reduced inequalities, etc. For example, land restoration helps in ending discrimination against women up to a certain extent by providing equal employment opportunities in restoration sector which in turn creates better opportunities for education to their children including girls (www.foreststreesagroforestry.org)[47–49]. Restoration initiatives will also result in poverty alleviation by improving financial conditions of the women and also by converting degraded lands into agroforestry-based food production systems [50]. In a nutshell, the benefits of land restoration are enormous and inclusive restoration programs will directly or indirectly support the realization of other SDG targets also [2]. Land 2021, 10, 201 8 of 19

1.2.1.4. ByBy 2030, 2030, reduce ensure at thatleast all by men half andthe women,proportion in particularof men, women the poor and and children the of all ages living (Ongoing)x (2030) 1.1. Byin vulnerable,poverty2030, eradicate in all have its extreme dimensions equal rights poverty according to economic for all topeople national resources, everywhere, definitions as well ascurrently access tomeasured basic as people x 1.4. livingByservices, 2030, on ensure less ownership, than that $1.25 all men and a day controland women, over landin particular and other the forms poor ofand property, the vulnerable, have equalx x x 1.2. Byrights inheritance,2030, to reduceeconomic natural at leastresources, resources, by half as the well appropriate proportion as access new ofto men,basic technology womenservices, and and ownership, ﬁnancial children services, ofand all control ages living over x inland povertyincluding and other in microﬁnanceall forms its dimensions of property, according inheritance, to national natural definitions resources, appropriate new technology 1.4. Byand 2030, financial ensure services, that all includingmen and women, microfinance in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal 1.5. By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and x

1.5. Byrights 2030,reduce to build economic their the exposure resilience resources, and of vulnerabilityas the well poor as accessand to climate-relatedth toose basic in vulnerable services, extreme ownership, situations events and controlreduce theirover x x x exposurelandother and economic, andother vulnerability forms social of property, and to environmentalclimate-related inheritance, shocksextreme natural and resources,events disasters and appropriate other economic, new technology social and environmentaland financial services, shocks and including disasters microfinance 1.5.2.1.2.1. By 2030,By 2030, endbuildend hunger the hunger resilience and and ensure ensureof the access poor access by and all by people, allthose people, in in vulnerable particular in particular situationsthe thepoor poor and and and people reduce in their vul- xx exposurenerablepeople situations, and in vulnerablevulnerability including situations, to infants climate-related including infantsextreme events and other economic, social and 2.2. environmentalBy 2030, end all shocks forms andof malnutrition, disasters including achieving by 2025, the internationally agreed 2.2. By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving by 2025, the x 2.1. Bytargets 2030, on end stunting hunger and and wasting ensure accessin children by all unde people,r 5 yearsin particular of age, theand poor address and thepeople nutritional in vul- x internationally agreed targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of x nerableneedsage, of situations, andadolescent address including girls, the nutritional pregnant infants and needs lactating of adolescent women girls, and pregnantolder persons. and lactating 2.2.2.3. By 2030,women enddouble and all olderformsagricultural persons.of malnutrition, productivity including and incomes achieving of small-scale by 2025, the food internationally producers, in agreedpartic- x targetsular women, on stunting indigenous and wasting peoples, in family children farmers, under pastoralists5 years of age, and and fish addressers, including the nutritional through x 2.3.needssecureBy of 2030,and adolescent equal double access girls, agricultural to pregnant land, productivityother and productivelactating and women incomes resources and of and small-scaleolder inputs, persons. foodknowledge, financial producers, in particular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists 2.3. Byservices, 2030, doublemarkets agricultural and opportunities productivity for va andlue additionincomes ofand small-scale non-farm foodemployment producers, in partic- and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive x xx 2.4. ularBy 2030,resources women, ensure andindigenous sustainable inputs, knowledge,peoples, production family financial systems farmers, services, and pastoralists implement markets and and resilient opportunitiesfishers, agricultural including for practicesthrough x x securethatvalue increase and addition equal productivity access and non-farm to andland, production, other employment productive that help resources maintain and ecosystems, inputs, knowledge, that strengthen financial ca- x services,pacity for markets adaptation and to opportunities climate change, for vaextremelue addition weather, and drought, non-farm flooding employment and other disasters 2.4.2.4. Byand 2030,By that 2030, ensureprogressively ensure sustainable sustainable improve production productionland and systems soil systems quality and and implement implement resilient resilient agricultural practices x 2.5. thatBy 2020,agricultural increase maintain productivity practices the genetic that and diversity increase production, productivityof seeds, that cultivatedhelp and maintain production, plants ecosystems, and that farmed help that and strengthen domesticated ca- x maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, x x x pacityanimals for and adaptation their related to climate wild change,species, extreme including weather, through drought, soundly flooding managed and and other diversified disasters extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively x andseed improvethat and progressively plant land banks and soilatimprove the quality national, land and regional soil quality and international levels, and promote access to 2.5. Byfair 2020, and maintainequitable thesharing genetic of benefitsdiversity arising of seeds, from cultivated the utilization plants andof genetic farmed resources and domesticated and asso- x 2.5.animalsciatedBy traditional 2020, and maintaintheir knowledge, related the geneticwild as species, internationally diversity includ of seeds,ing agreed through cultivated soundly plants andmanaged farmed and and diversified x 3.1. seedBy 2030,domesticated and reduceplant banks the animals global at the andmaternal national, their relatedmortality regional wild ratioand species, internationalto less including than 70 levels, per through 100,000 andsoundly promote live births access to x managed and diversified seed and plant banks at the national, regional and 3.2. fairBy 2030, and equitable end preventable sharing deathsof benefits of newborns arising from and thechildren utilization under of 5 geneticyears of resources age, with and all coun-asso-x x international levels, and promote access to fair and equitable sharing of benefits x ciated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed triesarising aiming from to reduce the utilization neonatal ofmortality genetic resourcesto at least andas low associated as 12 per traditional 1000 live births and under- 3.1. By5 mortality 2030,knowledge, reduce to at astheleast internationally global as low maternal as 25 agreedper mortality 1000 live ratio births. to less than 70 per 100,000 live births x 3.2.3.3. ByBy 2030,2030, endend preventablethe epidemics deaths of AIDS, of newborns tuberculos andis, childrenmalaria andunder neglected 5 years oftropical age, with diseases all coun- and x triescombat aiming hepatitis, to reduce water-borne neonatal diseas mortalityes and to atother least communicable as low as 12 per diseases 1000 live births and under- 3.4. 5By mortality 2030, reduce to at leastby one as lowthird as premature 25 per 1000 mortality live births. from non-communicable diseases through x x 3.3. Byprevention 2030, end and the treatment epidemics and of AIDS,promote tuberculos mental healthis, malaria and wellbeingand neglected tropical diseases and x 3.9. combatBy 2030, hepatitis, substantially water-borne reduce the diseas numberes and of otherdeaths communicable and illness from diseases hazardous chemicals in air, x 3.4. Bywater 2030, and reduce soil pollution by one thirdand contamination premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through x x 5.1. preventionEnd all forms and of treatment discrimination and promote against mentalall women health and and girls wellbeing everywhere x x 3.9.5.5. ByEnsure 2030, women’s substantially full reduceand effective the number participat of deathsion and and equal illness opportunities from hazardous for leadershipchemicals in at air, all x x waterlevels andof decision-making soil pollution and in political,contamination economic and public life 5.1.5. a. End Undertake all forms reforms of discrimination to give women against equal all women rights toand economic girls everywhere resources, as well as access to x x 5.5. Ensureownership women’s and control full and over effective land and participat other formion ands of equal property, opportunities financial services,for leadership inheritance at all x x levelsand natural of decision-making resources, in accordancein political, witheconomic national and laws public life 5.5.b. a. EnhanceUndertake the reforms use of enabling to give womentechnology, equal in rights particular to economic information resources, and communications as well as access tech- to x ownershipnology, to promoteand control the empowermentover land and ofother women form s of property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws 5.b.6.3. EnhanceBy 2030, improvethe use of water enabling qual technology,ity by reducing in particular pollution, information eliminating and dumping communications and minimizing tech- x nology,release ofto hazardouspromote the chemicals empowerment and materials, of women halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally 6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing x release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17

Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17 Table 1. Land restoration will not only help in the realization of several SDG targets, but also provide an opportunity for deriving additional benefits (co-benefits) [2,3,7] during or after the restoration stage (i.e., by the end of the UN-DER) [2]. An indicative list of SDG targets (related to land restoration) for which co-benefits are possible or likely obtainable re- Tableported 1. by Land the restorationInternational will Resource not only Panelhelp in (IRP) the realizationof the UNEP of several[2]. The SDG opportunity targets, but to alsoharness provide co-benefits an opportunity will further for derivingencourage additional world-wide benefits restoration (co-benefits) initiatives. [2,3,7] during or after the restoration stage (i.e., by the end of the UN-DER) [2]. An indicative list of SDG targets (related to land restoration) for which co-benefits are possible or likely Possibleobtainable Co-Benefits re- portedRelated by the International Resource Panel (IRP) of the ConcernedUNEP [2]. The opportunity to harness co-benefitsfrom will Land further Restoration encourageSDGs world-wide restoration initiatives. SDG Targets Restoration Restored (Ongoing) (2030) Possible Co-Benefits 1.1. By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people Related Concerned from xLand Restoration living on less than $1.25 a day SDGs SDG Targets Restoration Restored 1.2. By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living (Ongoing)x (2030) in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions 1.1. By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people x 1.4. By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal living on less than $1.25 a day x rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership, and control over 1.2. By 2030, reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living xx land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions and financial services, including microfinance 1.4. By 2030, ensure that all men and women, in particular the poor and the vulnerable, have equal x 1.5. By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their rights to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership, and control over x exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and x land and other forms of property, inheritance, natural resources, appropriate new technology environmental shocks and disasters and financial services, including microfinance 2.1. By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vul- x 1.5. By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their x nerable situations, including infants exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and 2.2. By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving by 2025, the internationally agreed environmental shocks and disasters x targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional 2.1. By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vul- x needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons. nerable situations, including infants 2.3. By 2030, double agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in partic- x Land 2021, 10, 201 2.2. By 2030, end all forms of malnutrition, including achieving by 2025, the internationally agreed x 9 of 19 ular women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through targets on stunting and wasting in children under 5 years of age, and address the nutritional x secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial needs of adolescent girls, pregnant and lactating women and older persons. services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment 2.3. By 2030, double agricultural productivity and incomes of small-scale food producers, in partic- x 2.4. By 2030, ensure sustainable production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices ular women, indigenous peoples, familyTable farmers, 1. Cont. pastoralists and fishers, including through x that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen ca- x secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial x pacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment Possible Co-Beneﬁts from Related and that progressively improve landConcerned and soil quality Land Restoration 2.4. By 2030, ensure sustainable production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices x SDGs 2.5. By 2020, maintain the genetic diversitySDG of Targets seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthenRestoration ca- Restoredx animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified(Ongoing) x (2030) pacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters x seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to 3.1.and Bythat 2030, progressively reduce the improve global maternal land and mortality soil quality ratio to less than 70 per fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and asso- x 2.5. By 2020,100,000 maintain live births the genetic diversity of seeds, cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated x ciated traditional knowledge, as internationally agreed animals and their related wild species, including through soundly managed and diversified x 3.1.3.2. By 2030,By 2030, reduce end the preventable global maternal deaths mortality of newborns ratio and to childrenless than under70 per 5100,000 years of live age, births x seed and plant banks at the national, regional and international levels, and promote access to x 3.2. By 2030,with allend countries preventable aiming deaths to reduce of newborns neonatal and mortality children to under at least 5 years as low ofas age, 12 with per all coun- x fair and1000 equitable live births sharing and under-5 of benefits mortality arising to from at least the as utilization low as 25 of per genetic 1000 live resources births. and asso- ciatedtries aiming traditional to reduce knowledge, neonatal as mortality internationally to at least agreed as low as 12 per 1000 live births and under- 3.1.3.3. By5 mortality 2030,By 2030, reduce to end at the least the global epidemics as low maternal as of25 AIDS,per mortality 1000 tuberculosis, live ratio births. to less malaria than and 70 per neglected 100,000 tropical live births x 3.3. By 2030,diseases endand the combatepidemics hepatitis, of AIDS, water-borne tuberculos diseasesis, malaria and and other neglected tropical diseases and xx 3.2. By 2030, end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years of age, with all coun- x combatcommunicable hepatitis, water-borne diseases diseases and other communicable diseases tries aiming to reduce neonatal mortality to at least as low as 12 per 1000 live births and under- 3.4. By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through x x 3.4.5 mortalityBy 2030, to reduce at least by as one low third as 25 premature per 1000 live mortality births. from non-communicable prevention and treatment and promote mental health and wellbeing 3.3. By 2030,diseases end throughthe epidemics prevention of AIDS, and tuberculos treatment andis, malaria promote and mental neglected health tropical diseases andx xx 3.9. By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illness from hazardous chemicals in air, combatand hepatitis, wellbeing water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases x water and soil pollution and contamination 3.4. By 2030, reduce by one third premature mortality from non-communicable diseases through x x 5.1.3.9. EndBy all 2030,forms substantially of discrimination reduce against the number all women of deaths and girls and illnesseverywhere fromhazardous prevention and treatment and promote mental health and wellbeing x xx chemicals in air, water and soil pollution and contamination 3.9.5.5. ByEnsure 2030, women’ssubstantially full reduceand effective the number participat of deathsion and and equal illness opportunities from hazardous for chemicalsleadership in at air, all x xx levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life 5.1.waterEnd and all soil forms pollution of discrimination and contamination against all women and girls everywhere x x 5.1.5. a. End Undertake all forms reforms of discrimination to give women against equal all women rights andto economic girls everywhere resources, as well as access to x xx 5.5.ownershipEnsure women’sand control full over and land effective and participationother forms of and property, equal opportunities financial services, for inheritance 5.5. Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at allx x xx andleadership natural resources, at all levels in accordance of decision-making with national in political, laws economic and public life levels of decision-making in political, economic and public life 5.b. Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications tech- x 5. 5.a.a. UndertakeUndertake reforms reforms to togive give women women equal equal rights rights to to economic economic resources, resources, as well asas access to x nology, to promote the empowerment of women ownershipaccess toand ownership control over and controlland and over other land form ands otherof property, forms of financial property, services, ﬁnancial inheritance x and services,natural resources, inheritance in andaccordance natural with resources, national in accordance laws with national laws 6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing x 5.b. Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information and communications tech- x 5.b.releaseEnhance of hazardous the use ofchemicals enabling and technology, materials, in halving particular the information proportion andof untreated wastewater nology, to promote the empowerment of women x andcommunications substantially increasing technology, recy tocling promote and safe the reuse empowerment globally of women 6.3.6.3. By 2030,By 2030, improve improve water water qual qualityity by reducing by reducing pollution, pollution, eliminating eliminating dumping dumping and and minimizing x release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated wastewater Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWminimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the proportion x9 of 17 and ofsubstantially untreated wastewater increasing recy andcling substantially and safe increasingreuse globally recycling and safe reuse globally

6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efﬁciency across all sectors and ensure 6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and xx withdrawalssustainability and supply reduce of the freshwater number of to people addre sufferingss water scarcity from water and scarcitysustainability reduce the number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.5.6.5. By 2030,By 2030, implement implement integrated integrated water water resources resources management management at atall all levels, levels, including through xx transboundaryincluding through cooperation transboundary as appropriate. cooperation as appropriate. 6.6. By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, x 6.6. By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, rivers, aquifers and lakes x forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes 6.a. By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing coun- x 6.a.triesBy in 2030,water expand and sanitation-related international cooperation activities and capacity-buildingprograms, including support water to harvesting, desalination,developing water countries efficiency, in wastewater water and sanitation-related treatment, recycling activities and reuse and programs,technologies x 6.b. Supportincluding and strengthen water harvesting, the participation desalination, of local water communities efﬁciency, wastewaterin improving treatment, water and sanita- x tion recyclingmanagement and reuse technologies 7.1. By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services x 6.b. Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water x 7.2. By 2030,and sanitationincrease substantially management the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix x x 7.a. By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and x x technology, including renewable energy, energy efficient and advanced cleaner fossil-fuel technology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology 7.b. By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable x energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their respective programs of support 8.1. Sustain the per capita economic growth in accordance with national circumstances and, in par- x x ticular, at least 7% GDP growth per annum in the least developed countries 8.2. Achieve higher levels of economic productivity through diversification, technological upgrad- x x ing and innovation, including through a focus on high-value added and labor-intensive sectors 8.3. Promote development-oriented policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, x x entrepreneurship, creativity and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of micro-, small-and medium-sized enterprises, including through access to financial services 8.4. Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and produc- x tion and endeavor to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-yesr programs on sustainable consumption and production, with developed countries taking the lead 8.5. By 2030, achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, x x including for your peoples and persons with disabilities, and equally pay for work of equal value 8.6. By 2020, substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training x 8.7. Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, and modern slavery and x x human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour, including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms 8.9. By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and x promotes local culture and products. 8.10. Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to x banking, insurance and financial services for all 10.1. By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom of 40 percent of the x x population at a rate higher than the national average 10.2. By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective x of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, or economic or other status. 10.7. Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including x through the implementation of planned and well managed migration policies.

11.3. By 2030, enhance inclusive and sustainable urbanization and capacity for participatory, inte- x x grated and sustainable human settlement planning and management in all countries. 11.4. Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage x 11.5. By 2030, significantly reduce the number of death and number of people affected and substan- x tially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global GDP caused by disasters, the number of deaths and the number of people, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations 11.6. By 2030, reduce the adverse per capital environmental impacts of the cities, including by pay- x ing special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management 11.7. By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in x particular for women and children, older person and person with disabilities Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable x Land 2021, 10, 201 withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and sustainability reduce the 10 of 19 number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.5. By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through x transboundary cooperation as appropriate. 6.6. By 2020, protect and restore water-relatedTable ecosystems, 1. Cont. including mountains, forests, wetlands, x rivers, aquifers and lakes Possible Co-Benefits from 6.a. By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing coun- Related Concerned Landx Restoration Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWtries in water and sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting, de- 9 of 17 SDGs SDG Targets Restoration Restored salination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies (Ongoing) (2030) 6.b. Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanita- x 7.1.tion Bymanagement 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services x 7.1.6.4. By By 2030, 2030, ensure substantially universal increase access towater-use affordable, efficiency reliable across and mode all sectorsrn energy and services ensure sustainable x 7.2. By 2030, increase substantially the share of renewable energy in the global x withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and sustainability reduce thex x 7.2. By 2030,energy increase mix substantially the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix x x number of people suffering from water scarcity 7.a. By 2030, enhance international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy research and x x 6.5. By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through 7.a.technology,By 2030, including enhance internationalrenewable energy, cooperation energy toefficient facilitate and access advanced to clean cleaner energy fossil-fuel tech- x transboundaryresearch and cooperation technology, as including appropriate. renewable energy, energy efficient and nology, and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology x x 6.6. By 2020,advanced protect cleaner and restore fossil-fuel water-related technology, ecosystems, and promote including investment mountains, in energy forests, wetlands, 7.b. By 2030, expand infrastructure and upgrade technology for supplying modern and sustainable xx rivers,infrastructure aquifers and and lakes clean energy technology energy services for all in developing countries, in particular least developed countries, small 6.a.7.b. islandBy 2030,By developing 2030, expand expand international States, infrastructure and land-lockedcooperation and upgrade develoand capacity-building technologyping countries, for supplying insupport accordance modernto developing with their coun- re- x tries in water and sanitation-related activities and programs, including water harvesting, de- spectiveand sustainableprograms of energy support services for all in developing countries, in particular least x salination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies 8.1. Sustaindeveloped the per capita countries, economic small islandgrowth developing in accordance States, with and national land-locked circumstances developing and, in par- x x countries, in accordance with their respective programs of support 6.b.ticular, Support at and least strengthen 7% GDP growth the participation per annum of in local the leastcommunities developed in improvingcountries water and sanita- x tion management 8.2.8.1. Achieve Sustain higher the perlevels capita of economic economic productivity growth in accordance through di withversification, national circumstances technological upgrad- x x 7.1. By 2030, ensure universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services ing andand, innovation, in particular, including at least 7%through GDP a growth focus on per high-value annum in added the least and labor-intensive sectors x xx 8.3.7.2. Promote By 2030,developed development-orientedincrease countries substantially thepolicies share that of renewable support productive energy in theactivities, global decentenergy job mix creation, xx xx 7.a. entrepreneurship,By 2030, enhance creativityinternational and cooperationinnovation, andto facilitate encourage access the toformalization clean energy and research growth and of x x 8.2.micro-,technology,Achieve small-and including higher medium-sized levels renewable of economic enterprises,energy, productivity energy including efficient through through and diversification, advanced access to cleaner financial fossil-fuel services tech- technological upgrading and innovation, including through a focus on high-value x x 8.4. Improvenology, andprogressively, promote investment through 2030, in energy global infrastructure resource efficiency and clean in consumption energy technology and produc- added and labor-intensive sectors x 7.b.tion By 2030, and endeavorexpand infrastructure to decouple economicand upgrade growth technology from environmental for supplying degradation,modern and sustainablein accord- x 8.3.anceenergyPromote with services the development-oriented 10-yesr for all programs in developing on sustainable policies countries, that consumption supportin particular productive and least production, developed activities, decentwithcountries, developed small island developing States, and land-locked developing countries, in accordance with their re- countriesjob creation, taking the entrepreneurship, lead creativity and innovation, and encourage the x x 8.5. Byspective 2030,formalization achieveprograms full and of andsupport growth productive of micro-, employment small-and medium-sizedand decent work enterprises, for all women and men, x x 8.1. includingSustainincluding the for per your through capita peoples economic access and to financialgrowthpersons in with services accordance disabilities, with and national equally circumstances pay for work and, of inequal par- x x ticular, at least 7% GDP growth per annum in the least developed countries 8.4.valueImprove progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption 8.6.8.2. By Achieve 2020, substantially higher levels reduce of economic the proportion productivity of youth through not indi versification,employment, technologicaleducation or trainingupgrad- xx x and production and endeavor to decouple economic growth from environmental x 8.7. Takeing degradation,and immediate innovation, and inaccordance including effective throughmeasures with the a 10-yesrfocusto eradicate on programs high-value forced on labour,added sustainable and and labor-intensive modern slavery sectors and x x 8.3. humanPromoteconsumption trafficking development-oriented and and production, secure the policies withprohibition developed that suppo and countrieseliminationrt productive taking of activities, the the worst lead decent forms jobof childcreation, la- x x bentrepreneurship,our, including recruitment creativity andand useinnovation, of child soldiers,and encourage and by the 2025 formalization end child labour and growth in all its of 8.5.micro-,By 2030, small-and achieve medium-sized full and productive enterprises, employment including and through decent access workfor to financial all women services formsand men, including for your peoples and persons with disabilities, and equally x x 8.4. Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and produc- 8.9. By 2030,pay fordevise work and of equalimplement value policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and xx promotestion and endeavorlocal culture to decouple and products. economic growth from environmental degradation, in accordance with the 10-yesr programs on sustainable consumption and production, with developed 8.10.8.6. StrengthenBy 2020, the substantially capacity of reduce domestic the proportionfinancial institutions of youth not to inencourage employment, and expand access to x x banking,countrieseducation insurance taking or trainingthe and lead financial services for all 10.1.8.5. ByBy 2030, achieveprogressively full and achieve productive and sustain employment income andgrowth decent of the work bottom for all of women40 percent and of men, the xx xx 8.7.includingTake immediate for your peoples and effective and persons measures with to eradicatedisabilities, forced and labour, equally and pay modern for work of equal populationslavery at and a rate human higher trafficking than the and national secure average the prohibition and elimination of the value x x 10.2. By 2030,worst empower forms of childand promote labour, including the social, recruitment economic and and political use of child inclusion soldiers, of all, and irrespective x 8.6. ofBy age, 2020,by sex, 2025 substantially disability, end child race labourreduce, ethnicity, inthe all proportion its origin, forms religion, of youth or not economic in employment, or other education status. or training x 10.7.8.7. TakeFacilitate immediate orderly, and safe, effective regular measures and respon to sibleeradicate migration forced and labour, mobility and ofmodern people, slavery including and x xx 8.9.throughhumanBy 2030, traffickingthe implementation devise and and secure implement of theplanned prohibition policies and towell promotean managedd elimination sustainable migration of the tourism policies. worst that forms of child la- x bour,creates including jobs andrecruitment promotes and local use culture of child and soldiers, products. and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms 8.10. Strengthen the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and x 11.3.8.9. ByBy 2030,expand2030, deviseenhance access and inclusive to banking,implement and insurance sustainablepolicies andto promote urbanization financial sustainable services and capacity for tourism all for that participatory, creates jobs inte- and x xx gratedpromotes and local sustainable culture humanand products. settlement planning and management in all countries. 11.4.8.10. Strengthen Strengthen efforts the capacity to protect of domestic and safeguard financia thel institutionsworld’s cultural to encourage and natural and heritage expand access to x x 11.5. banking,By 2030, significantlyinsurance and reduce financial the numberservices of for death all and number of people affected and substan- x 10.1.tially By 2030, decrease progressively the direct achieveeconomic and losses sustain relati incomeve to global growth GDP of the caused bottom by disasters,of 40 percent the num-of the x x berpopulation of deaths at and a rate the highernumber than of people, the national including average water-related disasters, with a focus on pro- 10.2.tecting By 2030, the empower poor and andpeople promote in vulnerable the social, situations economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective x 11.6. ofBy age, 2030, sex, reduce disability, the adverse race, ethnicity, per capital origin, environmental religion, or impacts economic of theor other cities, status. including by pay- x 10.7.ing Facilitate special attentionorderly, safe, to air regular quality and and respon municipalsible and migration other waste and mobility management of people, including x 11.7. throughBy 2030, theprovide implementation universal access of planned to safe, and inclusive well managed and accessible, migration green policies. and public spaces, in x particular for women and children, older person and person with disabilities

6.4. By 2030, substantially increase water-use efficiency across all sectors and ensure sustainable x Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEWwithdrawals and supply of freshwater to address water scarcity and sustainability reduce the 9 of 17 number of people suffering from water scarcity 6.5. By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through x transboundary cooperation as appropriate. 6.4.6.6. By 2020,2030, protectsubstantially and restore increase water-related water-use ecosystems,efficiency across including all sectors mountains, and ensure forests, sustainable wetlands, xx withdrawalsrivers, aquifers and and supply lakes of freshwater to address water scarcity and sustainability reduce the 6.a. numberBy 2030, of expand people international suffering from cooperation water scarcity and capacity-building support to developing coun- x 6.5. Bytries 2030, in water implement and sanitation-related integrated water activities resources and management programs, includingat all levels, water including harvesting, through de- x transboundarysalination, water cooperation efficiency, aswastewater appropriate. treatment, recycling and reuse technologies 6.6.6.b. BySupport 2020, protectand strengthen and restore the water-relatedparticipation ofecosystems, local communities including in mountains, improving forests,water and wetlands, sanita- x x rivers,tion management aquifers and lakes 6.a.7.1. ByBy 2030, expandensure universalinternational access cooperation to affordable, and reliablecapacity-building and mode rnsupport energy to services developing coun- x x 7.2. triesBy 2030, in water increase and substantially sanitation-related the share activities of renewable and programs, energy inincluding the global water energy harvesting, mix de- x x 7.a. salination,By 2030, enhance water efficiency, international wastewater cooperation treatment, to facilitate recycling access and toreuse clean technologies energy research and x x 6.b. Supporttechnology, and including strengthen renewable the participation energy, energyof local ef communitiesficient and advanced in improving cleaner water fossil-fuel and sanita- tech- x tionnology, management and promote investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy technology 7.1.7.b. ByBy 2030,2030, ensureexpand universal infrastructure access and to affoupgraderdable, technology reliable and for mode supplyingrn energy modern services and sustainable xx 7.2. Byenergy 2030, services increase for substantially all in developing the share countries, of renewable in particular energy inleast the developedglobal energy countries, mix small x x 7.a. Byisland 2030, developing enhance internationalStates, and land-locked cooperation develo to facilitateping countries, access to in clean accordance energy withresearch their and re- x x technology,spective programs including of supportrenewable energy, energy efficient and advanced cleaner fossil-fuel tech- 8.1. nology,Sustain andthe per promote capita investment economic growth in energy in accordance infrastructure with and national clean energycircumstances technology and, in par- x x 7.b. Byticular, 2030, at expand least 7% infrastructure GDP growth and per upgrade annum intechnology the least developed for supplying countries modern and sustainable x 8.2. energyAchieve services higher levelsfor all of in economic developing productivity countries, throughin particular diversification, least developed technological countries, upgrad- small x x islanding and developing innovation, States, including and throughland-locked a focus develo on high-valueping countries, added in and accordance labor-intensive with their sectors re- 8.3. spectivePromote programsdevelopment-oriented of support policies that support productive activities, decent job creation, x x 8.1. Sustainentrepreneurship, the per capita creativity economic and growth innovation, in accordance and encourage with national the formalization circumstances and and, growth in par- of x x ticular,micro-, atsmall-and least 7% medium-sizedGDP growth per enterprises, annum in inthecluding least developed through access countries to financial services 8.2.8.4. AchieveImprove higher progressively, levels of througheconomic 2030, productivity global re sourcethrough efficiency diversification, in consumption technological and upgrad-produc- x xx ingtion and and innovation, endeavor to including decouple through economic a focus growth on high-value from environmental added and degradation, labor-intensive in accord-sectors 8.3. Promoteance with development-oriented the 10-yesr programs policies on sustainable that suppo consumptionrt productive and activities, production, decent with job developed creation, x x entrepreneurship,countries taking the creativity lead and innovation, and encourage the formalization and growth of 8.5. micro-,By 2030, small-and achieve fullmedium-sized and productive enterprises, employment including and throughdecent workaccess for to allfinancial women services and men, x x Land 2021, 10, 201 8.4. Improveincluding progressively, for your peoples through and 2030,persons global with re disourcesabilities, efficiency and equally in consumption pay for work and ofproduc- equal x11 of 19 tionvalue and endeavor to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation, in accord- 8.6. Byance 2020, with substantially the 10-yesr reduceprograms the on proportion sustainable of youth consumption not in employment, and production, education with developedor training x 8.7. countriesTake immediate taking theand lead effective measures to eradicate forced labour, and modern slavery and x x 8.5. Byhuman 2030, trafficking achieve full and and secure productive the prohibition Tableemployment 1. anCont.d andelimination decent workof the for worst all womenforms of and child men, la- x x includingbour, including for your recruitment peoples and and persons use of childwith soldiers,disabilities, and and by 2025equally end pay child for labour work ofin equalall its valueforms Possible Co-Beneﬁts from Related 8.6.8.9. ByBy 2020,2030, substantially devise and implement reduce the policiesproportionConcerned to promoteof youth sustainablenot in employment, tourism educationthat creates or jobstraining and Land x Restoration x SDGs SDG Targets 8.7. Takepromotes immediate local culture and effective and products. measures to eradicate forced labour, and modern slaveryRestoration and x Restoredx 8.10.human Strengthen trafficking the capacity and secure of domestic the prohibition financia l aninstitutionsd elimination to encourage of the worst and forms expand of accesschild(Ongoing) la- to x (2030) bbanking,our, including insurance recruitment and financial and servicesuse of child for allsoldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its 10.1. By 2030, progressively achieve and sustain income growth of the bottom of 40 x x 10.1.forms By percent2030, progressively of the population achieve at aand rate sustain higher income than the growth national of averagethe bottom of 40 percent of the x x 8.9. Bypopulation 2030, devise at a rateand higherimplement than policiesthe national to promote average sustainable tourism that creates jobs and x 10.2. By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, 10.2.promotes By 2030, empowerlocal culture and and promote products. the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective x irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, or economic or x of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion, or economic or other status. 8.10. Strengthenother status. the capacity of domestic financial institutions to encourage and expand access to x 10.7.banking, Facilitate insurance orderly, andsafe, financial regular andservices respon forsible all migration and mobility of people, including x 10.1.10.7.through By Facilitate2030, the progressively implementation orderly, safe, achieve regular of planned and and sustain responsible and incomewell managed migration growth migration of and the mobility bottom policies. of 40 people, percent of the x x populationincluding at a through rate higher the implementationthan the national of average planned and well managed x

10.2. By 2030,migration empower policies. and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective x 11.3.of By age, 2030, sex, enhance disability, inclusive race, ethnicity, and sustainable origin, religion, urbanization or economic and capacity or other for status. participatory, inte- x x 11.3.gratedBy and 2030, sustainable enhance inclusive human settlement and sustainable planning urbanization and management and capacity in all for countries. 10.7. Facilitateparticipatory, orderly, integrated safe, regular and and sustainable responsible human migration settlement and planning mobility andof people, includingx xx 11.4. Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage throughmanagement the implementation in all countries. of planned and well managed migration policies. x 11.5. By 2030, significantly reduce the number of death and number of people affected and substan- x 11.4.tiallyStrengthen decrease the efforts direct to protecteconomic and losses safeguard relative the to world’s global culturalGDP caused and by disasters, the num- x 11.3.ber By ofnatural2030, deaths enhance heritage and the inclusive number and of people,sustainable including urbanization water-related and capacity disasters, for with participatory, a focus on inte- pro- x x gratedtecting and the poorsustainable and people human in vulnerablesettlement planningsituations and management in all countries. 11.5. By 2030, signiﬁcantly reduce the number of death and number of people affected 11.4.11.6. StrengthenBy and2030, substantially reduce efforts the to adverse decreaseprotect perand the capital safeguard direct environmental economic the world’s losses impacts cultural relative of and to the global natural cities, GDP includingheritage by pay- xx 11.5.ing By 2030,specialcaused significantly attention by disasters, to reduce air the quality number the number and of municipal deaths of death and and and the other numbernumber waste of people,people management affected including and substan- xx 11.7.tially By water-related2030, decrease provide thedisasters, universaldirect economic withaccess a focustolosses safe, on relati inclusive protectingve to andglobal the accessible, poor GDP and caused green people by and disasters, in public spaces,the num- in x berparticular ofvulnerable deaths for and women situations the number and children, of people, older including person and water-related person with disasters, disabilities with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations 11.6. By 2030, reduce the adverse per capital environmental impacts of the cities, 11.6. By 2030,including reduce by the paying adverse special per attentioncapital environmental to air quality andimpacts municipal of the cities, and other including by pay- xx ing specialwastemanagement attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management 11.7. By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in x 11.7.particularBy 2030, for provide women universaland children, access older to safe, person inclusive and person and accessible, with disabilities green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older person and person x with disabilities Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17 11.a. Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban, and rural areas by strengthening national and regional x development planning

11.a.12.2. Support By 2030, positive achieve economic, the sustainable social and management environmental and efﬁcient links between use of natural urban, resources peri-urban, and x x x rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning 12.4. By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all 12.2. By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources x x wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international x 12.4. By 2020,frameworks, achieve the and environmentally signiﬁcantly reduce sound their management release to air, of waterchemicals and soiland inall order wastes to through- x out theirminimize life cycle, their in adverse accordance impacts with on agreed human international health and the frameworks, environment and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human 12.5.healthBy and 2030, the substantially environment reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, x recycling and reuse. 12.5. By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and x 12.6.reuse.Encourage companies, especially large and translational companies, to adopt 12.6. Encouragesustainable companies, practices especially and to integrate large and sustainability translational information companies, intoto adopt their sustainable prac- xx tices reportingand to integrate cycle sustainability information into their reporting cycle 12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sus- x x 12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and tainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature x x awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 13.1. Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters x x in all countries 13.2. Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning x 13.3. Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on clime change x mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

14.1. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from x x land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution 14.2. Sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse x x impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take actions for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans

3.3. Set the Right Incentives Though the profitability index i.e., the benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of restoration is very high, it will take years to reap the monetary benefits out of land restoration. Therefore, introducing suitable market-based incentives (MBI) like subsidies or loans are essential for attracting more players into land restoration ventures, whereas imposing disincentives such as penalties, taxes, permits, etc., will restrict or penalize the activities which further leads to land degradation [39,51,52]. For instance, a study on the role of MBI for landscape restoration in Shinyanga, Tanzania proved that incentives worked best for privately owned land, whereas disincentives played well for restoring community or public land. As suggested by Chapman and Lindernmayer [53], introducing alternate MBI like revenue-contingent loan (RCL) is suitable for attracting public sector engagement with agricultural land restoration as ‘it has subsidy-reducing properties for government budgets’ [53] as well as flexible repayment opportunities i.e., repayment normally starts with the revenue generation or ‘financial assistance repaid contingent on a farm’s capacity to pay’ [54]. In addition, there is a need to change the way existing incentives are allocated, especially for agricultural activities. Since agrochemicals constitute the major budgetary outlay for marginal and subsistence farmers in developing countries, providing subsidies for fertilizers is often viewed as an economic support to the farmer’s endeavors [55]. Unfortunately, the subsidized price often leads to over-application of fertilizers (due to higher purchasing power of farmers), and subsequent environmental pollution [55]. It has been estimated that synthetic fertilizers (e.g., nitrogenous fertilizers) are one of the major drivers of land degradation and the rampant use of synthetic fertilizers have already crossed the planetary boundaries [56–58]. Therefore, setting the right incentives for the right activities is of paramount significance for preventing future land degradation, while diverting the subsidies for activities that facilitate/support land restoration [39]. In this context, the incentives must be set for biofertilizers/organic/sustainable agricultural practices, instead of existing incentives for synthetic/mineral fertilizers (Figure 4). Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17

11.a. Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban, and x 11.a. Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban, and rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning x rural areas by strengthening national and regional development planning 12.2. By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources x x Land 2021, 10, 201 12.2. By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources x x12 of 19 12.4. By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes through- x 12.4. By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly re- x out their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human duce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment health and the environment Table 1. Cont. 12.5. By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and x 12.5. By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse. x reuse. Possible Co-Beneﬁts from Related 12.6. Encourage companies, especially largeConcerned and translational companies, to adopt sustainable prac- x 12.6. Encourage companies, especially large and translational companies, to adopt sustainable prac-Land Restoration SDGs tices and to integrate sustainabilitySDG information Targets into their reporting cycle x tices and to integrate sustainability information into their reporting cycle Restoration Restored 12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for(Ongoing) sus- x (2030)x 12.8. By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature x x tainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 13.1.13.1. StrengthenStrengthen resilience resilience and and adaptive adaptive capacity capacity to to climate-related climate-related hazards hazards and naturalnatural disasters x x 13.1. Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disastersx x in alldisasters countries in all countries x x in all countries 13.2. Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning x 13.2. Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning x 13.3.13.2. ImproveIntegrate education, climate changeawareness-raising measures into and national human and policies, institutional strategies capacity and planning on clime changex x 13.3. Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on clime change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning x mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning 13.3. Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on x clime change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

14.1. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from x x 14.1. By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from 14.1.land-basedBy 2025, activities, preventand including signiﬁcantly marine reduce debris marine and nutrient pollution pollution of allkinds, in x x land-basedparticular activities, from land-based includingactivities, marine debris including and nutrient marine debrispollution and x x 14.2. Sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse x x 14.2. Sustainablynutrient pollutionmanage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take actions for their restoration in x x impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take actions for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans 14.2.orderSustainably to achieve managehealthy andand protectproductive marine oceans and coastal ecosystems to avoid signiﬁcant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take x x actions for their restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans

3.3. Set the Right Incentives 3.3.3.3. Set Set the the Right Right Incentives Incentives Though the profitability index i.e., the benefit–cost ratio (BCR) of restoration is very ThoughThough the the profitability profitability index index i.e., i.e., the the benefit–cost benefit–cost ratio ratio (BCR) (BCR) of of restoration restoration is is very very high, it will take years to reap the monetary benefits out of land restoration. Therefore, high,high, it itwill will take take years years to to reap reap the the monetary monetary benefits benefits out out of of land land re restoration.storation. Therefore, Therefore, introducing suitable market-based incentives (MBI) like subsidies or loans are essential for introducingintroducing suitable suitable market-based market-based incentives incentives (MBI) (MBI) like like subsidies subsidies or loans or loans are essential are essential for attracting more players into land restoration ventures, whereas imposing disincentives attractingfor attracting more moreplayers players into land into restorat land restorationion ventures, ventures, whereas whereas imposing imposing disincentives disincen- such as penalties, taxes, permits, etc., will restrict or penalize the activities which further suchtives as suchpenalties, as penalties, taxes, permits, taxes, permits, etc., will etc., restrict will or restrict penalize or penalizethe activities the activities which further which leads to land degradation [39,51,52]. For instance, a study on the role of MBI for landscape leadsfurther to land leads degradation to land degradation [39,51,52]. [For39,51 instance,,52]. For a instance,study on athe study role onof MBI the rolefor landscape of MBI for restoration in Shinyanga, Tanzania proved that incentives worked best for privately restorationlandscape in restoration Shinyanga, in Shinyanga,Tanzania proved Tanzania that proved incentives that incentives worked workedbest for bestprivately for pri- owned land, whereas disincentives played well for restoring community or public land. ownedvately land, owned whereas land, whereasdisincentives disincentives played well played forwell restoring for restoring community community or public or publicland. As suggested by Chapman and Lindernmayer [53], introducing alternate MBI like reve- Asland. suggested As suggested by Chapman by Chapman and Lindernmayer and Lindernmayer [53], introducing [53], introducing alternate alternate MBI like MBI reve- like nue-contingent loan (RCL) is suitable for attracting public sector engagement with agricul- nue-contingentrevenue-contingent loan (RCL) loan is (RCL) suitable is suitable for attracting for attracting public sector public engagement sector engagement with agricul- with tural land restoration as ‘it has subsidy-reducing properties for government budgets’ [53] turalagricultural land restoration land restoration as ‘it has assubsidy-reducing ‘it has subsidy-reducing properties properties for government for government budgets’ [53] bud- as well as flexible repayment opportunities i.e., repayment normally starts with the reve- asgets’ well [as53 ]flexible as well repayment as flexible repaymentopportunities opportunities i.e., repayment i.e., repaymentnormally starts normally with startsthe reve- with nue generation or ‘financial assistance repaid contingent on a farm’s capacity to pay’ [54]. nuethe generation revenue generation or ‘financial or assistance ‘financial assistancerepaid contingent repaid contingenton a farm’s on capacity a farm’s to capacitypay’ [54]. to Inpay’ addition, [54]. Inthere addition, is a need there to ischange a need the to way change existing the way incentives existing are incentives allocated, are especially allocated, In addition, there is a need to change the way existing incentives are allocated, especially forespecially agricultural for agriculturalactivities. Since activities. agrochemical Since agrochemicalss constitute the constitute major budgetary the major outlay budgetary for for agricultural activities. Since agrochemicals constitute the major budgetary outlay for marginaloutlay for and marginal subsistence and farmers subsistence in developing farmers in countries, developing providing countries, subsidies providing for subsidies fertiliz- marginal and subsistence farmers in developing countries, providing subsidies for fertiliz- ersfor is fertilizersoften viewed is often as an viewed economic as an support economic to the support farmer’s to theendeavors farmer’s [55]. endeavors Unfortunately, [55]. Un- ers is often viewed as an economic support to the farmer’s endeavors [55]. Unfortunately, thefortunately, subsidized the price subsidized often leads price to oftenover-application leads to over-application of fertilizers (due of fertilizers to higher (due purchasing to higher the subsidized price often leads to over-application of fertilizers (due to higher purchasing powerpurchasing of farmers), power and of subsequent farmers), and environmenta subsequentl environmentalpollution [55]. It pollution has been [ estimated55]. It has that been power of farmers), and subsequent environmental pollution [55]. It has been estimated that syntheticestimated fertilizers that synthetic (e.g., nitrogenous fertilizers (e.g., fertilizers) nitrogenous are one fertilizers) of the major are one drivers of the of major land drivers deg- synthetic fertilizers (e.g., nitrogenous fertilizers) are one of the major drivers of land deg- radationof land and degradation the rampant and theuse rampantof synthetic use offertilizers synthetic have fertilizers already have crossed already the crossedplanetary the radation and the rampant use of synthetic fertilizers have already crossed the planetary boundariesplanetary boundaries[56–58]. Therefore, [56–58]. setting Therefore, the right setting incentives the right for incentives the right for activities the right is activities of par- boundaries [56–58]. Therefore, setting the right incentives for the right activities is of par- amountis of paramount significance significance for preventing for preventing future land future degradation, land degradation, while diverting while the diverting subsidies the amount significance for preventing future land degradation, while diverting the subsidies forsubsidies activities for that activities facilitate/support that facilitate/support land restoration land [39]. restoration In this [context,39]. In this the context,incentives the for activities that facilitate/support land restoration [39]. In this context, the incentives mustincentives be set for must biofertilizers/organic/sustainable be set for biofertilizers/organic/sustainable agricultural practices, agricultural instead practices, of existing instead must be set for biofertilizers/organic/sustainable agricultural practices, instead of existing incentivesof existing for incentives synthetic/mineral for synthetic/mineral fertilizers (Figure fertilizers 4). (Figure4). incentives for synthetic/mineral fertilizers (Figure 4). Land 2021, 10, 201 13 of 19 Land 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17

High-external input Low-external input

Linear economy Circular economy

Carbon emission Carbon sequestration

Monocropping Multicropping

Pollution Planetary healthy production

Sustainable Restoration of Agricultural Land

Figure 4. Setting the right incentives are imperative for promoting planetary healthy food production while reducing Figure 4. Setting the right incentives are imperative for promoting planetary healthy food production while reducing pollution from agroecosystems [6,59–62]. Moreover, good cultivation practices based on circular economy principles will pollution from agroecosystems [6,59–62]. Moreover, good cultivation practices based on circular economy principles will protect agricultural land from further degradation. Therefore, incentives must be provided for framing practices based on protectlow-external agricultural input as land well from as resource further conserving degradation. practices Therefore, (mainly incentives replacing must synthetic be provided fertilizers for framing by organic practices and bioferti- based onlizers low-external [60,63–67], sustainable input as well utilization as resource of agro-residues), conserving practices improving (mainly soil carbon replacing pool, syntheticand also based fertilizers on multiple by organic cropping and biofertilizerspatterns targeted [60,63 to– 67maintain], sustainable agrobiodiversity utilization for of agro-residues),ecological resilience, improving and food soil carbonand nutritional pool, and security also based [6]. on multiple cropping patterns targeted to maintain agrobiodiversity for ecological resilience, and food and nutritional security [6]. 3.4. Celebrate Leadership 3.4. Celebrate Leadership Though there are many national, regional, and multilateral agreements and commit- mentsThough (both binding there areand many non-binding) national, are regional, operational and across multilateral the world agreements and several and coun- com- tries/organizationsmitments (both binding are committed and non-binding) to restore aredegr operationaladed landscape across back the to world life [68,69], and several resto- rationcountries/organizations at a global scale needs are committedmore leadership to restore and degradedpolitical will, landscape and also back the to engagement life [68,69], ofrestoration peoples from at a various global scalesectors needs across more the world. leadership Therefore, and political new commitments will, and also are the essen- en- tialgagement for strengthening of peoples fromongoing various efforts sectors [69]. acrossSo, it is the the world. right Therefore,time to celebrate new commitments leadership, fosterare essential commitments, for strengthening and encourage ongoing others efforts to co [69me]. forward. So, it is theIn this right way, time the to celebrateinitiative takenleadership, by the fosterG-20 countries commitments, (i.e., Argentina, and encourage Australia, others Brazil, to come Canada, forward. China, In thisFrance, way, Ger- the many,initiative India, taken Indonesia, by the G-20 Italy, countries Japan, Republic (i.e., Argentina, of Korea, Australia, Mexico, Brazil,Russia, Canada, Saudi Arabia, China, SouthFrance, Africa, Germany, Turkey, India, United Indonesia, Kingdom, Italy, Unit Japan,ed RepublicStates, and of Korea,the European Mexico, Union) Russia, named Saudi theArabia, ‘Global South Initiative Africa, on Turkey,Reducing United Land Degrad Kingdom,ationUnited and Enhancing States, and Conservation the European of Terrestrial Union) named the ‘Global Initiative on Reducing Land Degradation and Enhancing Conservation of Habitats’ to restore a 50% of degraded land by 2040, on a voluntary basis, is a welcome step Terrestrial Habitats’ to restore a 50% of degraded land by 2040, on a voluntary basis, is a forward [70]. Similarly, other international forums/organizations such as the Common welcome step forward [70]. Similarly, other international forums/organizations such as the Wealth of Nations, the European Union, the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Asso- Common Wealth of Nations, the European Union, the Asia Paciﬁc Economic Cooperation, ciation of Southeast Asian Nations, the SAARC, the BRICS, the South Asia Subregional the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the SAARC, the BRICS, the South Asia Sub- Economic Cooperation, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the Or- regional Economic Cooperation, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, ganization for Economic Co-operation and Development, etc., can also start similar initia- the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, etc., can also start similar tives in line with the G-20 countries for land restoration (www.g20riyadhsummit.org) and initiatives in line with the G-20 countries for land restoration (www.g20riyadhsummit.org) formulate explicit financial packages for promoting land restoration activities in their re- and formulate explicit ﬁnancial packages for promoting land restoration activities in their spective regions/member states. respective regions/member states.

3.5. Shift Behaviors Shifting behaviors are important for restoration narratives [71]. [71]. While land degradation is aa locallocal issue,issue, thethe driversdrivers of of land land degradation degradation are are often often connected connected to to the the global global market mar- ketsystem system (due (due to global to global production production and and use ofus goodse of goods and services)and services) [71,72 [71,72].]. Therefore, Therefore, land landrestoration restoration not only not requiresonly requires money, money, resources, resources, and technology, and technology, but also but needs also behavioral needs be- havioralchanges, changes, especially especially a pragmatic a pragmatic change in change the way in we the manage way we our manage land resources our land resources as well as as well as the way we produce and consume. Therefore, the behavioral shift towards Land 2021, 10, 201 14 of 19

the way we produce and consume. Therefore, the behavioral shift towards planet-friendly ways of industrial and agricultural production, green transportation, and consumption patterns (including the consumption of restoration-based products) based on circular economy principles rather than linear economy will prevent future degradation of our landscapes, while supporting regional initiatives for restoration [71–75]. Most importantly, the transition towards a planetarily healthy diet (based on a plant-based diet with ﬂexible amount of ﬁsh/animal protein) will enable us to sustainably manage agricultural system while protecting our natural landscapes from further degradation [76].

3.6. Invest in Research Investing in land restoration research is essential for developing site-specific restoration packages [13,25,75]. Though the drivers of restoration may be common for various land use, successful restoration needs site-specific, and customized efforts [76,77]. Since restoration is a complex processes, it needs scientific advancements of various disciplines such as ecology, agriculture, plant science, forestry, agroforestry, microbiology, zoology, geology, geography, remote sensing, landscape designing, engineering, modelling, economics, planning, sociology, anthropology, law, governance, business management, etc., as well as the sustainable utilization of traditional and indigenous knowledge (including biocultural knowledge) of the concerned people, and also the adoption of citizens science/community science. As mentioned earlier, restoration under changing climatic conditions is a challenging task, and therefore optimizing restoration practices for diverse edaphic and agrometeorological conditions under futuristic climate is a herculean task [25–27]. Identifying suitable plant species for revegetation and optimizing their agro- nomic practices for large-scale cultivation in degraded landscapes needs robust research inputs. Moreover, redesigning of the degraded landscapes are essential for maintaining the biocultural significance of the concerned land. Therefore, coordinating land restoration research at various scales and levels are imperative for developing practical and action- able restoration packages corroborated by nature-based solutions, and ecosystem-based strategies for implementing a successful restoration decade.

3.7. Build up Capacity While thousands of land restoration programs are already underway (www.deacdeonrestoration. org), involving immediate sufferers of land degradation (especially, women and youth) in restoration ventures and building capacity of such marginalized people [78] to successfully steering restoration during the UN decade is essential for executing restoration on the ground (www.iufro.org). Capacity building will not only empower and educate such groups for this common cause, but also facilitate a platform for networking of like-minded people [79]. Such platforms will also help in imparting awareness regarding ecological, economic, and socio-cultural signiﬁcance of ecosystem restoration, conducting training on best restoration practices, knowledge and experience sharing, and also for sharing information regarding mobilization of ﬁnancial resources [80], etc. Therefore, creating a network of interested people, and thereby properly utilizing their expertise, experience, and enthusiasm is essential for the success of land restoration.

3.8. Celebrate a Culture of Restoration Land restoration is neither a time bound nor an easy target. It needs considerable years of time and efforts to restore a degraded land back to normalcy. For a successful restoration, the support of all players including common people are essential [81]. Therefore, as a global citizen, it is the responsibility of each and every individual to inspire and motivate others to take part in land restoration ventures. Importantly, adopting a culture of restoration in our daily life itself is one of the best strategies to keep the ball rolling [82,83]. Learning the biocultural practices of indigenous and local people from diverse parts of the world is essential to understand the relevance of implying cultural practices for land Land 2021, 10, 201 15 of 19

restoration [81,83] and also for attaining multi-level sustainability goals in a time-bound manner [84].

3.9. Build up the Next Generation As the consequences of land degradation will greatly impact the youth and future generations, honing the soft and hard skills of the next generation is essential for leading restoration drive forward and also for creating ‘sustainable job opportunities based on a restoration economy’ (www.deacdeonrestoration.org) for their wellbeing. Education for restoration can be imparted through various formal (i.e., speciﬁc courses and training programs/ﬁeld work for School and University students, and also through Massive Online Open Courses (MOOC) etc.) and also through various informal ways (e.g., through mobile apps) [85]. As highlighted by the UN, “education for restoration will turn today’s children into ecosystem ambassadors, provide skills for sustainable jobs and ensure that the UN Decade’s achievements far outlive its timeframe” (www.deacdeonrestoration.org).

3.10. Listen and Learn Listening and learning from each other and building a culture of sharing knowledge, resources, and expertise for caring land resources is imperative for the success of the UN decade. Respecting others and learning from the success [86] and failures of previous and ongoing land restoration ventures [87] will provide an opportunity for necessary course corrections. Furthermore, it is the high time to re-embrace the forgotten concept of ‘land ethic’ proposed by ‘Aldo Leopold’ [88] and we must change our attitude towards land as a ‘living entity’ rather than a ‘ﬁctitious commodity’. Together, by collective efforts, we can fulﬁll the ambitious goals of the UN-DER and also other ongoing initiatives targeted for land restoration.

4. Conclusions Land degradation is one of the major impediments for sustainable development and causing economic damage amounting to US $6.3 trillion per annum. Devising sustainable strategies for restoring degraded land at the local, national, regional, and global level is imperative for the timely realization of the UN-SDGs. The UN-DER opens the ﬂoodgates of opportunities for restoring degraded land for the beneﬁt of both people and the planet. However, individuals and institutions must come forward to grab this golden opportunity to restore the health of our dying land for a sustainable future.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Acknowledgments: At the very first, I would like to thank ‘Land’ editorial office for giving me this opportunity to write this review on a contemporary topic. I am thankful to my students and collaborators for their kind support and also for many fruitful discussions. I am also thankful to international organizations such as UN-IPBES, IRP-UNEP, and IUCN for giving me an opportunity to be involved with their regional/global assessments on biodiversity and ecosystem services, land degradation and restoration, and regaining land health for sustainable agriculture. All of such involvements have strengthened my knowledge and experience, and helped me a lot in contemplating sustainable strategies for managing land system for attaining the UN-SDGs. Thanks are also due to the Head, DESD and the Director, IESD for encouragement. Last but not least, I dedicate this review to all the unsung warriors of global land restoration. Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest. Land 2021, 10, 201 16 of 19

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