Responses to Halt Land Degradation and to Restore Degraded Land 6

Home , Island restoration, Land (economics), Land degradation, Land rehabilitation, Land restoration, SahysMod

6 Imeson (theNetherlands),AmanullahKhan (Sweden), EricS.Higgs(Canada),Anton Judy Fisher(Australia),ThomasHahn Broeckhoven (Belgium),AnCliquet (Australia), ViolaineBrochier (France),Nicky (Germany), SimoneAthayde(Brazil),BenBoer Mumuni Abu(Ghana),SebastianArnhold Contributing Authors: Ruishan Chen(China) Fellow: Daniel LuisMasciaVieira(Brazil) (South Africa),NorainiM.Tamin (Malaysia), (Colombia), PhumzaNtshotshoSimelane (Hungary), JuanaMariñoDePosada (United StatesofAmerica),ÁdámKertész Ireland),and Northern DouglasL.Karlen Jim Harris(UnitedKingdomofGreat Britain Brazil), CristóbalFélixDiazMorejón (Cuba), Yaakov Anker(Israel),EmilieCoudel(France/ Lead Authors: (United StatesofAmerica) Ram Pandit(Nepal/Australia),JohnParrotta Coordinating LeadAuthors: RESTORE DEGRADEDLAND DEGRADATION ANDTO RESPONSES TOHALT LAND CHAPTER

6 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Louise Willemen(TheNetherlands) Rajesh K.Rai(Nepal),AlkaSabharwal(India), Ireland),Northern StephenD.Prince(USA), Morris (UnitedKingdomofGreat Britainand (France), PrasantaKumarMishra(India),Joe (The RussianFederation),BlancheLormeteau (Pakistan), RiteshKumar(India),GermanKust pp. 435-528. Ecosystem Services,Bonn,Germany, Science-Policy PlatformonBiodiversityand (eds.). Secretariat oftheIntergovernmental Montanarella, L.,Scholes,R.,andBrainich, A. report onlanddegradationandrestoration. land. InIPBES(2018):Theassessment land degradationandtorestore degraded Vieira, D.L.M.Chapter6:Responsestohalt Ntshotsho Simelane,P., Tamin, N.M.,and Kertész, Á.,MariñoDePosadaJ.L., Diaz Morejón, C. F., Harris,J.,Karlen, D. L., Pandit, R.,Parrota, J.,Anker, Y., Coudel,E., This chaptershouldbecitedas: of America) America), Florencia Montagnini(UnitedStates Susan Galatowitsch(UnitedStatesof Review Editors: 435 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 436 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 6.2 6.4 6.1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . CONTENTS TABLE OF 6.3 REFERENCES 6.5 RESPONSE TYPOLOGY, OPTIONSANDEVALUATION FRAMEWORK. 6.4.1 AND RESTORATION ENABLING ANDINSTRUMENTAL RESPONSESTOLANDDEGRADATION 6.2.1 INTRODUCTION. 6.4.2 6.3.1 DEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION. DIRECT BIOPHYSICALANDTECHNICALRESPONSESTOLAND 6.2.2 6.4.3 6.3.2 KNOWLEDGE GAPSANDRESEARCHNEEDS. 6.4.4 6.4.5 and migration. Responses toindirect drivers:globalization,demographicchange 6.3.2.4 6.3.2.3 Response typologyandoptions. 6.4.2.6 6.4.2.5 6.4.2.4 6.4.2.3 6.4.2.2 6.4.2.1 responsesInstitutional, policyandgovernance . 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.1 6.3.1.5 6.3.1.4 6.3.1.3 6.3.1.2 6.3.1.1 Assessment ofland-usespecific responses. Response evaluationframework. Integrated landscapeapproach asaresponse. . Assessment ofresponses toselecteddirect driversand impacts. Responses basedonresearch andtechnologydevelopment . Responses basedoninstitutionalreforms . Responses towaterqualitychanges. Responses tosoilqualitychanges. Climate changeadaptationplanning Protected areas. Social andculturalinstruments Economic andfinancialinstruments Rights-based instrumentsandcustomarynorms. Legal andregulatory instruments . Responses tomineralextraction Responses toinvasivespecies Responses towetlanddegradation. Responses tourbanlanddegradation Responses torangelanddegradation Responses toforest landdegradation. Responses tocropland degradation

...... 441 440 473 474 470 467 465 445 441 437 485 462 456 488 477 476 475 459 449 445 442 490 478 462 454 445 491 498 499 494 496 economic conditions(wellestablished) {6.31}Key designed tofitlocalenvironmental, social,culturaland and climatechange–are more effective when theyare activities, deteriorationofsoilhealth andwaterquality adverse impactsofinvasivespecies, mineralextraction rangeland, urbanland,wetlands)–ortodealwiththe avoid orreverse landdegradation (ofcroplands, forests, (well established) land degradation,norforrestoring degradedlands technical responses for avoidingandreducing There are no“one-size-fits-all”biophysicaland established) {6.31, costly thantheiruseforavoidinglanddegradation(well be usedtorestore degradedlands,butmaybemore Many ofthesesametechniquesandmeasures canalso of ecosystemservices(wellestablished){6.311,623} land degradation,whileenhancingtheprovision ofarange sustainable forest managementcansuccessfullyavoid agroecology, conservationagriculture, agroforestry and of theworld(wellestablished){6.31,62}Forexample, been effective inavoidinglanddegradationmanyparts conservation practices,andnature-based solutions,have range ofsustainablelandmanagement,soilandwater period, between2000to2050{6.423}However, abroad forest ecosystemservicesby$1,180trillionovera50-year and land-usechangewouldreduce thevalueofthese uses, itwasestimatedthattheprojected degradation products, carbonsequestration,recreation andpassive that considered valuesofforests forwood,non-wood from $4.3to$202trillionperyear values lostduetolanddegradationandconversionrange Across allbiomes,estimatesoftheecosystemservice the globalcostofdesertificationat1-10%annualAGDP domestic products (AGDP),whileanotherstudyestimated losses duetodesertificationat8-14%ofagriculturalgross of fourteenLatinAmericancountriesestimatedannual land degradationare significant.Forexample,astudy {6 .31,62,42}Theeconomicconsequencesof “prevention isbetterthancure” (wellestablished) degradation inthelongrunistofollowadage The mostcost-effective approach toreduce land EXECUTIVE SUMMARY DEGRADED LAND DEGRADATION ANDTORESTORE RESPONSES TOHALT LAND C HAP TER

{6 .31,62,42}Actionsto 6 .32} .Inaglobalstudy

following anadaptivemanagement restoration plansare fullyimplementedandmonitored extraction-related degradationare successfulwhere {6 .322}Theresponses toinvasivespeciesandmineral forest andwetlandecosystems(wellestablished) restoration measures torecreate functioninggrassland, early replacement oftopsoil;andpassiveactive reclamation ofminesitetopography;conservationand management ofminingwastes(soilsandwater); from mineralresource extractioninclude:on-site established) {6.321}Responsestolanddegradation cultural, biologicalandchemical)measures (well adopting quarantineanderadication(mechanical, identifying andmonitoringinvasionpathways to landdegradationdueinvasivespeciesinclude environment severity ofdriversandtheprevailing enabling drivers andprocesses, dependonthenature and their effectiveness toaddress landdegradation Direct biophysicalandtechnicalresponses, and term consequences. short-term economicgains,but also off-site andlong- to improve managementdecisionsthatconsidernotonly continuously monitorthequality of soilresources isneeded communities {6.311,624}Astrong commitmentto habitat qualityforsoilandabove-ground organismsand processes; filtering;buffering andnutrientcycling; and in soilsincluding:biologicalproductivity; hydrological as wellotherbiogeochemicalfunctionsandprocesses be effective inreducing soillossandimproving soilquality, established) {6.311}Thesemanagementpracticescan and managesoillandresources sustainably(well and traditionalpracticesare effective waystouse Conservation agriculture, agroecology, agroforestry {6 .422, and localknowledgepractices(wellestablished) is oftenenhancedbytheintegrationofindigenous established) .Further, theeffectiveness oftheseactions environmentspolicy andgovernance {6.42}(well and theirsocio-economiccontexts;institutional, affecting theland{6.32};pastandpresent landuses and severityofdegradationdriversprocesses considerations forresponse actionsinclude:thetypes THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 6 .424} (well established){6.32}Responses approach .

437 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 438 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND national boundariesthroughout the20 on theirherds’ mobility, withtheestablishmentofnew avoided thedegradationofpasture landthrough restrictions settings .Shepherd communitiesoftheJordan Valley have year-round livestockhusbandryinpastoralfarmandvillage more effective formaintainingrangelandresources than practiced ontheEgypt-Israelborder hasbeenfoundtobe {6 .313}Forexample,historicnomadicpastoralgrazing with socialandeconomicinstruments(wellestablished) effectiveness canbeenhancedbyaligningtheseresponses generally effective inhaltingrangelanddegradation,butthe established) {6.313}Thesebiophysicalresponses are management, andweedpestmanagement(well pasture andforagecrop improvement, silvopastoral and monitoring,grazingpressure management, include landcapabilityandconditionassessment Effective responses torangelanddegradation THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION drivers oflanddegradationand create conditions Enabling andinstrumentalresponses address indirect {6 .423,64} land managementtechniques(establishedbutincomplete) through therestoration ofbiodiversityandusesustainable effective inreducing floodriskandimproving waterquality ecosystem serviceapproaches havebeenproven tobe are concentrated,catchment-level naturalcapitaland/or In developedcountries,where largeurbanpopulations depends onthecontextaswelleffective implementation. of theseresponses tominimize urbanlanddegradation restoration (wellestablished) {6.314}Theeffectiveness sewage andwastewatertreatment, andriverchannel amelioration ofcontaminatedsoilsandsealedsoils, improved planning,green infrastructure development, to improve theliveabilityinurbanareas include Responses tohalturbanlanddegradationand incomplete) {6.324} sources anddesalinationofwastewater(establishedbut and waterconservationpractices,controlling pollution effective responses toimprove waterqualityincludesoil constructed wetlands(wellestablished){6.315}Similarly, through passiveandactiverestoration measures suchas wetland hydrology, biodiversityandecosystemfunctions land andwatermanagementstrategiesrestoring and non-pointpollutionsources byadoptingintegrated reverse wetlanddegradationincludecontrolling point {6 .315,624}Theeffective responses toavoidor techniques andtheirimplementation(wellestablished) the adoptionofintegratedsoilandwatermanagement degradation andwaterqualitydependon The effectiveness ofresponses towetland change {6.313} development regimes alsoimprove theirresilience toclimate systematic orsemi-systematicgrazingandrangeland of thestationarypastoralruralcommunitiestomaintain th century .Theability and otherecosystemservices - wouldencourage the provision ofwildlifehabitat,climatechangemitigation marketed valuesincost-benefit calculations-suchas benefits .Theincorporationofabroader setofnon- ecosystem services,publicvalues andintergenerational management practices,whileundervaluingbiodiversity, rates favourlessinvestmentinsustainablelandusesand only financialorprivatebenefitsandutilizehighdiscount incomplete) {6.423}Economicanalysesthatconsider andprivateinvestors(establishedbutgovernments decision-making bylandowners,communities, reversing landdegradation cansupportsound and long-termcostsbenefitsofavoiding More inclusiveanalyses oftheshort-,medium- recreation (2.0) (3 .0),agriculture (2.3),livestock(33)andoutdoor to thatofothersectors,includingtheoilandgasindustry activities intheUSArangesfrom 1.5to29,comparable economic output.Theemploymentmultiplierforrestoration creates anadditional95,000jobsand$15billioninannual $9 .5billionineconomicoutputannually-whichindirectly workers inrestoration projects intheUSAgenerates watershed restoration .Thedirect employmentof126,000 removal, and39.7fornational-levelforest, landand local-level wetlandrestoration, 33.3forinvasivespecies restoration programmes hasbeenestimatedtobe6 .8for average numberofjobscreated per$1millioninvestedin and economicgrowth .IntheUSAforexample, Investments inrestoration canalsostimulatejobcreation every dollarinvestedoveratimehorizonof25years. providing direct localbenefitstofarmersof$5.2-59for that adaptingagroforestry iseconomicallybeneficial, a studyoflarge-scalelandscaperestoration inMalifound degradation) land) are higherthanthecostsofinaction(continuing The benefitsoftakingaction(restoring degraded {6 .421,64,5} forest landsandwatersheds,inmanypartsoftheworld enabled successfulrestoration orrehabilitation ofdegraded structuresgovernance andthedevolutionofpower-have instruments -andtheestablishmentofappropriate the applicationofappropriate legalandregulatory institutional reform (wellestablished){6.42}Forexample, development, skillsandknowledgedevelopment; of anthropogenic assetssuchasresearch andtechnology support forindigenousandlocalknowledge;strengthening cultural policyinstrumentssuchas:customarynormsand rights-based, economicandfinancial,social political) .Theseincludeavarietyoflegalandregulatory, and address itsindirect drivers(e.g,economicandsocio- available toavoid,reduce andreverse landdegradation, 6 .45}Arangeofenablingandinstrumentalresponses are technical responses (wellestablished){6.41,62, to enhanceeffectiveness ofdirect biophysicaland (well established) {6 .423} {6 .423}Forexample, by bringingthetruevalueofland -includingnon-monetary promising toolforavoidingland(flowandstock)degradation response tolanddegradationisinitsinfancy, butisa established) {6.423}Naturalcapitalaccountingasa situations where theserightsare notwelldefined(well essential andeffective way toavoidlanddegradationin but incomplete){6.423}Secure property rightsare an evidence before upscaling theseapproaches (established norms andlandmanagementpractices-requiring more and henceare alsosometimes inconflictwithlocal REDD+) andbiodiversityoffsets are contextdependent schemes suchaspaymentsforecosystemservices(e.g, established) {6.423}Effectiveness ofemerging incentive restoration activitieshavebeen mostlysuccessful(well land degradingbehaviourandsubsidiestopromote land but incomplete){6.423}Tax measures whichrestrict natural assetsinnationalaccounts(established accounting toreflect theflowandstockvalueof property rights);andtheadoptionofnaturalcapital offsets; improved landtenure security(establishing payments forecosystemservices;biodiversity policy-induced pricechanges(i.e,taxes,subsidies); to provide ecosystemservicesandgoodsinclude: degradation andtorestore degradedlandinorder The economicandfinancialinstrumentstoavoidland needs {6.424} long-term experienceandinnovation,intunewithlocal and contextspecific,theyare nearlyalwaysbasedon {6 .422}Whilesuchpracticesare generallyheterogenous contributed tosustainablelandmanagement,forcenturies by localcommunitieshaveavoidedlanddegradationand Customary norms(localandindigenouspractices)adopted (PEFC) standards hasincreased inrecent years{6.424} the Programme fortheEndorsementofForest Certification schemes suchastheForest Stewardship Council(FSC)and of production forestry underforest certification(eco-labelling) with context(establishedbutincomplete){6.425}Thearea (established butincomplete),theireffectiveness varies instrumental inavoidinglanddegradationacross theworld of protected areas, asalegal/regulatory response, hasbeen these havebeengenerallyeffective {6.42}Establishment the adoptionofsustainablelandmanagementpracticesand 6 .42}Avarietyofinstrumentshavebeenusedtopromote systemsinplace(wellestablished){6.22, governance on thelocalcontext,aswellinstitutionaland The effectiveness ofpolicyinstrumentsdepends degraded of restoring degradedland,particularlyinseverely and investorstorecognize andcapture thepublicvalue incentives thatencouragelandowners,landmanagers scale restoration goalsrequires creating (economic) land degradationneutralityobjectivesandlarge- projects greater publicandprivateinvestmentinrestoration (established butincomplete){6.423}Fulfilling landscapes . Plateau region {6.311} the restoration ofdegradedwatershedsinChina’s Loess restore degradedlands,asforexampleinthecaseof preferred approach toavoidlanddegradationand mechanisms adoptedbylocalauthoritieshavebeenthe countries andcontexts,legalinstrumentscompliance previously degradedforest landscapes{6.45}Inother deforestation andforest degradationsaswellrestoring Users Groups havebeenhighlysuccessfulinavoiding for example,theestablishmentoflocalCommunityForest established) {6.311,62,424,5}InNepal, and waterqualityindevelopingcountries(well for conservingforests, soils,wildlife(biodiversity) knowledge orpracticeshavebeenproven effective both Western scientificandindigenouslocal natural resource managementandtheutilization of Institutional reform thatenablescommunity-based implement suchpractices. training orextensiongapsrequired bylocalcommunities to Asia andthePacific),theirapplicationmaybelimitedby feasible incountrieswithlowerlabourcosts(suchas while labour-intensive restoration approaches maybemore prone toandaffected bylanddegradation{6.44}However, information systemsinmanydevelopingcountriesthatare sustainable landmanagement,includingefficient land Particularly, there isaneedforcapacity-buildingin halt landdegradationandrestore degradedlands{6 .5} resources amongcountriesneedtobeaddressed to or inadequaciesinknowledgeandskills,capacity regions (establishedbutincomplete){6.44}Gaps within, andespeciallybetween,countries capacities andresources) are unevenlydistributed degradation andrestoration needs(knowledge, Anthropogenic assetsrequired toaddress land 6 .426,3} development priorities)(establishedbutincomplete){6.424, sectors inanintegratedway(i.e,aligningwithothersectoral corporate socialresponsibility approaches from private change adaptationplanning;and(iv)enhancingeffective making -includingtraditionalandlocalpractices;(iii)climate lands); (ii)community-basedmanagementanddecision- sustainable landmanagementpractices(arableandurban {6 .43}Thiswouldtypicallyinvolve:(i)thepromotion of minimizing trade-offs (establishedbutincomplete) across relevant sectoraldevelopmentpolicieswhile and publicsectorcansuccessfullycreate synergies degradation problems thatinvolvesboththeprivate Integrated landscapeplanningtoaddress land (unresolved) {6.423} societal values-intolandmanagementdecision-making THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 439 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 440 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND current response strategies; boththeireffectiveness for 2015), thischapterfocuseson critical evaluationsof Consistent withtheIPBESframework (Díazetal., al., 2011). et degradation remains aformidable challenge(Winslow stability), progress towards effectively responding toland human life(i.e,food,feed,fibre, fuelsupplies andsocial interactions onbothecosystemservicesandqualityof knowledge baseregarding drivers,processes andtheir neutral world”bytheglobalcommunity).Despiteagrowing and macro scales(e.g,strivingfora“landdegradation at micro (e.g,farmeradoptionofzero tillage practices) responses havebeenapplied individually, orincombination, As statedbyLaletal.(2012),thesemitigationorrestoration degradation driversandprocesses underdifferent situations. direct responses havebeenappliedtoaddress land Historically, varioustypesofenabling,instrumentaland voluntary agreements) . education/training, corporatesocialresponsibility and and (iv)socialculturalprogrammes (e.g,eco-labelling, of newmarketssuchaspaymentsforecosystemservices); financial incentives(e.g,taxes,subsidies,grants,orcreation based instrumentsandcustomarynorms;(iii)economic instruments include:(i)legalandregulatory rules;(ii)right- 2002; Hesseletal.,2014;Reed2011).Thosepolicy degradation andpromote restoration (Geist&Lambin, initiatives andpolicyinstrumentsdesignedtohaltland responses oftendependsonenablingandinstrumental (Liniger &Critchley, 2007).Theeffectiveness ofthesedirect that havebeenusedtoavoidorreduce landdegradation conservation measures andlandmanagementpractices Typical direct responses oftenincludeawiderangeof feasible (Hesseletal.,2014). economically viable,sociallyacceptableandpolitically they mustbetechnicallyandenvironmentally sound, For responses tobeeffective inbringingdesirablechanges, knowledge) (Reedetal.,2011;SRC,2016a;2016b). (i .e,naturalandsocialscience,indigenouslocal based onthebestavailableknowledgefrom allsources restoration responses, anytypeofhumanactionmustbe of complexityandsite-specificitylanddegradation technical responses (i.e,ontheground actions).Because systems)anddirectand governance biophysicaland instrumental responses (i.e,legislation,policy, institutions restoration canbebroadly grouped intoenablingand (Chapter 5).Humanresponses tolanddegradationand processes (Chapter4)andimpactsonhumanwell-being a thorough understandingofitsdrivers(Chapter3), well asmitigationresponses tolanddegradationrequires The designandapplicationofeffective, preventive as 6.1 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION INTRODUCTION

this previously degradedlandsare examined.More specifically, avoiding ormitigatinglanddegradationandforrestoring support) considerations. feasibility, policy, legalprovisions andinstitutional and knowledge,technology), political(acceptability, local knowledgeandpractices), technical (scientificskills customary practice,localnorms andvalues,indigenous biodiversity, sustainability),cultural(compatibility with environmental (ecosystem function,ecosystemservices, distributional, inclusivity, participatory, adoptionpotential), indirect, present/future), social(equity-procedural/ (feasibility, efficiency, effectiveness -on-/off- site,direct/ while theresponse criteriaperseinclude:economic interdependencies between frameworkcomponents, The dashedortwoheadedarrows inFigure 6.1represent et al.,2015). 2015) andtheEconomicsofLandDegradation(Mirzabaev based ontheconceptualframeworksofIPBES(Díazetal., evaluate theeffectiveness ofvariousresponse options a chapter-specific conceptualframework(Figure 6.1)to organizational anddecision-makingscales,wedeveloped responses operateatdifferent temporal,spatial, Recognizing thatlanddegradationandrestoration

institutions, governance systems)ofland degradation; institutions, governance techniques, accesstotraining)andindirect drivers(e.g, options todirect drivers(e.g,betterlandmanagement Evaluates theeffectiveness ofvariousresponse effects onecosystemservicesandqualityoflife; degradation, underlyingdirect andindirect drivers,and characteristics, includingthetypeandseverityof and restoration varyaccording tosite-specific Assesses howresponses tolanddegradation responses toresearch andtechnologydevelopment. Assesses different institutional,policyandgovernance technical andpoliticalscenarios; a rangeofeconomic,social,environmental, cultural, avoid, reduce andreverse landdegradationacross andmanagementresponsegovernance optionsto Examines therelative successofdifferent institutional, needed tosustainhumansocieties; is toenablethelandprovide theessentialfunctions ecosystem structure andservices.Theultimategoal and wetlands)through therecovery ofbiodiversity, (e .g,croplands, rangelands,forest lands,urbanlands rehabilitate orrestore varioustypesofdegradedlands avoid andreduce landdegradationprocesses andto effectiveness ofexistinginterventionsdesignedto Develops achapter-specific frameworktoassessthe chapter: scenarios (Figure 6.2,columns3,4 and5) effective forachievinglanddegradationneutralityandbetter and instrumentaland/ordirect responses willbemost processes andimpactswilldeterminewhichenabling stage andseverityoflanddegradation, thevariousdrivers, restoration andoffsets) .Furthermore, dependingon the entire response hierarchy (i.e,prevention, mitigation, service impactsoflanddegradation-mustconsiderthe framework -whichaddresses biodiversityandecosystem 15 .3oftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,anyresponse To achievelanddegradationneutrality, asstatedinTarget options 6.2.1 FRAMEWORK AND EVALUATION TYPOLOGY, OPTIONS 6.2 Figure • Policy, institution, • Anthropogenicassets • Legal andregulatoryinstruments and governance RESPONSE Response typologyand (underlying causes) 6 Indirect drivers

Indirect: enablingandinstrumentalresponses 1

responses, includingprevention, mitigationandrehabilitation. Framework toevaluateeffectiveness oflanddegradationandrestoration Response evaluationcriteria • Political • Technical • Cultural • Environmental • Social • Economic • Social andculturalinstruments • Economic andﬁ nancial • Rights-based instrumentsand instruments customary norms Degradation processes (proximate causes) (forms/severity) Direct drivers responses focusontherecovery ofanecosystemthat the landanditsfunctions.Reversingorrestoration reduce orhaltongoingdegradationandstartimproving or mitigatingresponses are interventionsintendedto environmental andproductive functions,whereas reducing refer toconservationmeasures thatmaintainlandandits land degradation.Avoidance orpreventive responses Direct responses mayseektoeitheravoidorreduce public sector)levels. and decision-making(household,community, privatesector, organizational (local,national,regional, global/international), of responses -temporal(past, present), spatialand degradation andneedresponse actions;andthescale indirect); land-usecategories thatare affected byland applied tothedriversandprocesses (bothdirect and that initiatetheresponses; typesofresponses thatare processes thatneedtobehaltedorreversed; institutions degradation driversthatneedtobecontrolled; degradation needs .Responsetypologiescanbedevelopedbasedon: grouped intodifferent typologiesbasedonassessment Land degradationandrestoration responses canbe THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION • Responseoptions • Responsetypologies restoration responses Land degradationand (forms, extent,state) Land degradation • Waterconservationtechniques • Sustainable soilmanagement • Sustainable landmanagement Nature’s contributiontopeople techniques practices and technicalresponses (ecosystem services) Direct: biophysical • Decision-making • Organisational • Temporal • Spatial Good qualityoflife (human well-being) Scale 441 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 442 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND types STK4SD, 2015).Examplesofsynergisticresponse effectiveness ofsuchresponses (Reed&Stringer, 2015; helptofullyevaluatethe perspectives which,inturn, 2008) -usinginterdisciplinary andtransdisciplinary simultaneously andinacoordinated fashion(Thomas, land degradationresponses needtobeimplemented Critchley, 2007).Inpractice,toachievedesired outcomes, technical responses (Liniger etal.,2002;Liniger& instrumental responses aswellbiophysicaland numerous optionsare availablebetweenenablingand of degradationandrestoration strategies.Therefore, sensitive tobothsocio-economicandbiophysicalaspects and extentofdegradation.Responseoptionsmustbe response strategiesdependingontheform,severity Each response categoryhasarangeofappropriate management biophysical andtechnicalresponses (i.e,land landholders, orotherstakeholders,tooperationalize behaviour bycreating aconducive environment for These responses seektochangeorencouragehuman and rights-basedinstrumentscustomarynorms. and financialinstruments;socialcultural policy, mechanisms;economic institutionandgovernance responses include:legalandregulatory instruments; 2005; UKNEA,2014).Theenablingandinstrumental and instrumental,biophysicaltechnical(MA, are broadly grouped intotwocategories:enabling processes inassessingtheresponses .Theresponses types (biomes)orcomplexdegradationdriversand/or degraded land.Specificemphasisisgiventoland-use responses tohaltlanddegradationandrestore This chapterevaluatestheeffectiveness ofvarious offsets isillustratedincolumn (column 5).Thelanddegradationneutralityscenariowith so) toascenariothatincludesallformsofresponses if alllandsnotyetdegradedare prevented from becoming current state(column1,whichissameasthefuture state the Figure represents auniquescenario,rangingfrom the range ofresponses outlinedinthelegend.Eachcolumn degradation andrestoration scenarios,basedonthe becomes essential.Figure 6.2showsplausibleland where degradedlandcannotbefullyrestored, offsetting of theimpactedland(tenKateetal.,2004).Incases services, resulting inno-netlosstheecologicalvalue residual degradationofbiodiversityandecosystem 2004) .Offset refers toactivitiesthatcompensatefor has beendegraded,damagedordestroyed (SERI, THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION re-establishment offunctionalecosystems. protection ofvegetation,ecologicalengineering,andthe through, forexample,conservationofsoilandwater, restoration) thataimtohaltandremedy degradation Corrective methods(landrehabilitation andecosystem include: practices) . 3 . options -forinstancewhethera given strategybelongs of response hierarchy isalsousedtoevaluateresponse sophistication involved.Fordirect responses, theconcept knowledge requirements aswellthetechnological a response wouldbeevaluatedonthebasisofskilland objectives .Similarly, from atechnicalfeasibilityperspective, anditspotentialtoaddressexternalities) widersustainability ecosystem functions,generateancillarybenefits(positive a response wouldbeevaluated foritssuitabilitytoimprove example, from anenvironmental sustainabilityperspective, cultural, technicalandpoliticalmeasures (Table 6.2)For include arangeofeconomic,social,environmental, of individualresponse options .Suchassessmentcriteria a setofassessmentcriteriatoevaluatetheeffectiveness options .Theresponse evaluationframework considers framework isoutlinedinTable 6.2fordirect response conceptual framework(Figure 6 .1),aresponse evaluation restoration responses .Basedonthechapter-specific evaluating theeffectiveness oflanddegradationand of naturalsystemsare fundamental considerationswhen Motivations ofhumanbehaviourandresilience capacity extent towhichanactivityaccomplishesitsobjectives. Here, effectiveness isunderstoodasameasure ofthe framework 6.2.2 technologies outlinedabove. or response optionsillustratingtheapproaches and Table 6.1,wepresent asetofland managementstrategies in WOCAT publications (e.g,Liniger&Critchley, 2007).In (WOCAT) website: https://qcat.wocatnet/en/wocat/and Overview ofConservationApproaches andTechnologies approaches andtechnologiesisavailableontheWorld A detailedcatalogueofsustainablelandmanagement

and development. as wellparticipatoryapproaches inresearch land management,research andpolicycommunities, Cooperation andknowledgeexchangebetween credit; trainingforfarmers;andinsurancesystems. ecosystem services;landownershiprights;accessto zones; diversificationofruraleconomies;paymentfor access tomarketsandsaleofproducts from dry and politicalmechanisms.Thesemayinclude: Implementation offavourableinstitutional,economic national organizations. resource managementsystemsbetweenlocaland Development ofmodelsandintegratednatural and othersustainableagriculturalpractices. as agroecology, agroforestry, conservationagriculture Techniques toimprove landuseandmanagementsuch Response evaluation options canalsobeviewedon the basisoftheirspeed a combinationofthem.Theeffectiveness ofresponse degradation orreversing (restoration) degradedland,or to avoiding(prevention) orreducing (mitigation)land

PERCENTAGE LAND COVER (NOT TO SCALE) Figure *NB sameasfuture stateif alllandsnotyetdegradedbecomeprotected 6

2 Transformed transformed Current State* Protected

Land not focussed onnaturalcapital–ecosystemservices. baseline. ThisisthestartofaRestorationresponseandmayincludeconservationagriculture/agro-ecologicalapproachesthose Previously transformedlandwhichhavesomeelementsofbiodiversityandecosystem services restoredinthedirectionofnatural Rehabilitated baseline. ThisistheRestorationresponse. Previously transformedlandwhichhasallelementsofbiodiversityandecosystemservices restoredinthedirectionofnatural Restored response. Land beingtransformed,butusingapproacheswhichreduceimpactonbiodiversityandecosystemservices.Thisisthe Mitigated transformation. ThisisthePreventativeresponse. Land notdirectlytransformedbyhumanactivity,andprotectedregional,nationalorinternationalagreementfromfurther Protected mining (grey)orindirectlybyclimatechange,invasivespecies(green,includesdesertiﬁ cation) Land transformedtovaryingdegreesby:agriculture,livestockgrazing,plantationforestry(brown)with:urbanisation,infrastructure, Transformed land Land notdirectlytransformedbyhumanactivity. Land nottransformed response scenarios. Land covertype(nottoscale)underdifferent landdegradationandrestoration land Transformed usual scenario Business as Protected LAND DEGRADATIONANDRESTORATIONRESPONSESCENARIOS land Offsetting response Rehabilitated Transformed Transformed LDN Scenario Protected Restored land land (USAID, 2008). capacity, scaleof benefitsornumberofbeneficiaries local stakeholders,endorsement byexperts,institutional and easeofimplementation,time frame,acceptanceby THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION restoration scenario

Best management Transformed practices plus Protected Mitigated Restored land halting plusmitigation & restorationscenario Rehabilitated Transformed Protected Protection/ Restored Mitigation land 443 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 444 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Institutional andpolicyreform Anthropogenic assets Integrated landscapeplanning Climate changeadaptationplanning Protected areas Social andculturalinstruments Economic andfinancialinstruments customary norms Rights-based instrumentsand Legal andregulatory instruments migration globalisation, demographicchange, Responses totheadverseeffects of ENABLING ANDINSTRUMENTAL RESPONSES Water qualitychange Soil qualitychange Mineral extraction Invasive species Wetland degradation Urban landdegradation Rangeland degradation Forest landdegradation Cropland degradation DIRECT BIOPHYSICALANDTECHNICALRESPONSES Table RESPONSE CATEGORY 6

degradation andrestoration. Biophysical andtechnical(direct) andenablinginstrumentalresponses toland Local KnowledgeandPractices(ILKP); improving mechanisms multi-level governance Establishment ofnewinstitutions;strengthening existinginstitutions;mainstreaming Indigenousand development; extension;humanresource development;infrastructure andfacilities Capacity-building including:skillsand knowledgedevelopment;research andtechnological Sustainable landmanagement;integratedplanningandzoning adaptation measures mangroves); land-usespecificmeasures to reduce netgreenhouse gasemissions;land-use specific Conservation ofnaturalareas withhighcarbon stores (e.g.,peatlands,old-growth forests, Legal protection; privateandcommunity-basedconservation;promotion ofILK-basedtraditionaluse practices; eco-certification;promotion ofcorporatesocial responsibility; Participatory naturalresource supportforILK-basedtraditionaluse managementandgovernance; tenure security;clarification ofnatural resource-use rights;naturalcapitalaccounting Policy-induced pricechanges;paymentsforecosystemservices;biodiversityoffsets; improved land traditional usepractices Improved landtenure security;clarificationofnatural resource-use rights;supportforILK-based incentives forsustainableland-usepractices;establishmentofprotected areas Land-use planning(national,regional, local);socialandenvironmental impactassessments; population policiesthatinteractwithlandsuchasresettlement, fertilityrate,ruralurban-migration Trade andconsumption;linkingtradeenvironmental protection; voluntaryproduct certification; desalination wastewatertreatment; constructedwetlands Integrated landandwatermanagement;rainwaterharvesting;soilconservation practices; atmospheric pollutants agrochemical useefficiency; improved irrigationandwateruseefficiency; reducedepositionof production systems;integrated crop, livestockandforestry systems;improved fertilizerand Improved agronomic practices;reduced tillage;increase diversityandvegetativecoverin functioning grassland,forest andwetlandecosystems conservation andearlyreplacement oftopsoil;passiveandactiverestoration measures torecreate On-site managementofminingwastes(soilsandwater);reclamation ofminesitetopography; mechanical, cultural,biological,andchemicalcontrol Identification andmonitoringofinvasionpathways;quarantinemeasures; eradicationmeasures; restore hydrology, biodiversityandecosystemfunction;constructedwetlands Protected areas; control ofpointandnon-pointpollutionsources; passiveandactivemeasures to soils; sewageandwastewatertreatment; riverchannelrestoration Improved planning;green infrastructure development;ameliorationofcontaminatedsoilsandsealed and foragecrop improvement; silvopastoralmanagement;weedandpestmanagement Land capabilityandconditionassessmentmonitoring;grazingpressure management;pasture practices; fire management;passiveandactive restoration Protected areas; restrictions onforest conversion;promotion ofsustainableforest management enhanced plantgenetics;agroforestry; agroecology Landscape approach; conservationagriculture; integratedcrop, livestockandforestry systems; MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ANDPOLICYOPTIONS i . or processes, thefollowing discussionwill: responses tothemanyland-use degradationdriversand/ land degradationandrestoration .To evaluatespecific of theeffectiveness ofpast andcurrent responses to and processes (seeSection 6.32)toprovide anoverview land-use types(seeSection6.31)andselecteddrivers factors .Useofcase-specificanalysesbasedonmajor may dependoneconomic,social,culturalandtechnical system .Inaddition,on-the-ground restoration responses well asspecificbiophysicalcharacteristicsoftheplaceor the extentandseverityofdriversprocesses, as context specificandsuch responses varydependingon Land degradationandrestoration responses are inherently AND RESTORATION TO LANDDEGRADATION TECHNICAL RESPONSES BIOPHYSICAL AND 6.3 DEGRADATION MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT FOREST LAND LAND USE OR LAND USEOR CROPLAND Table degradation; degradation; local knowledgeandpractice(ILKP) thatcanhaltland based onbothWesternscience and indigenous Identify specificlandandsoilmanagement actions, DRIVER …… DIRECT 6

…… …… 2. 1. …… 2. 1. RESPONSE RESPONSE use typesanddegradationdrivers. Template forassessmentoftheeffectiveness ofvariousresponse optionsbyland- OPTIONS Reduce (Rd), Reverse (Rv) NATURE OF RESPONSE Avoid (Av), Av/Rd/Rv …… …… direct/ indirect, future), equity effectiveness distribution, (on/off-site, L-M/M-H/

[feasibility, Economic efficiency, H/M/L or -process, spill-over present/ effect] …… …… L-H [High effectiveness (H),Moderateeffectiveness (M),Loweffectiveness (L), RESPONSE EVALUATION CRITERIAANDEFFECTIVENESSRANKING participatory, potential to L-M/M-H/ inclusivity, H/M/L or [equity, adopt] Social …… …… L-H v iv iii . ii . genetics; and(vi)integratedwatershed management. and forestry systems;(iv)agroforestry; (v)enhanced plant (ii) conservationagriculture; (iii)integratedcrop, livestock to degradationincludeusing:(i) a landscapeapproach; physically, chemically and/orbiologically Cropland soildegradation is verysitespecificandcanoccur degradation 6.3.1.1 specific responses 6.3.1 . . or anycombinations:LtoM,MH,H] THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION responses . stakeholders regarding theeffectiveness ofthese Discuss whatmessagesshouldbegiventokey Provide examplesoftheireffectiveness; and cultural settings); cultural settings); where (i.e,underwhatgeographic,socio-economicand Examine howwellthoseresponses are workingand lands); and reversing, rehabilitating and/orrestoring degraded mitigation (i.e,focusedonreducing landdegradation of avoidinglanddegradation)andwhichare specificto Specify whichresponses are preventive (i.e,capable Environmental environmental service provi- conservation, - watersecu sustainability rity, climate change, bi- ecosystem L-M/M-H/ to address H/M/L or odiversity concerns concerns [potential sions] …… Assessment ofland-use …… L-H Responses tocropland practice, local values, ILK] [customary L-M/M-H/ norms and H/M/L or Cultural …… …… L-H sophistication] technology, knowledge, L-M/M-H/ H/M/L or Technical [skills/ …… …… L-H .Potentialresponses

cal acceptability/ cal acceptability/ structure, politi- institutional provisions, L-M/M-H/ feasibility] H/M/L or Political [legal …… …… L-H 445 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 446 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND high dependenceonglyphosates andgeneticallymodified Two perceived conservationagricultureare concerns the regarding adoption(Jat etal., technology, appropriately scaledincentives andinformation climatic factors,accesstoconservationagriculture agriculture includemarket pressure formonocrop production, The primarylimitationsfortheimplementationofconservation growth ofalmost32million ha(26%)withinthelastfiveyears. agriculture .However, theFAO (2015)estimatesaglobal cropland) are nowbeingmanagedusingconservation shows approximately 125 million hectares (8.8%ofarable Reicosky, 2015)asdocumentedbyanFAO databasethat increasing steadily(Friedrich etal.,2012;Jat2014; Global adoptionofconservationagriculture hasbeen they donotinterfere withordisruptbiologicalsoilprocesses . agrochemical orplantnutrientapplications,are optimized so 2010) .Interventionssuchasmechanicalsoildisturbance,and and belowground (Forest PeopleProgram &Program, ILKP), biodiversityandnaturalbiologicalprocesses above emphasize theuseoflocally-adaptedpractices(basedon to allagriculturallandscapesandlanduses,becausethey conservation agriculture principlesare universallyapplicable species grown insequencesand/orassociations.Ingeneral, permanent organicsoilcover;and(iii)diversificationofcrop continuous minimummechanicalsoildisturbance;(ii) characterized bythree specificactionsincluding:(i) Conservation agriculture, asdefinedbythe FAO, is agriculture Conservation land degradation. political complexitiesencountered whenresponding to ecosystem servicesinlieuofecological,economicand 2014; Norgaard,againstblindlyfocusingon 2010)warn all crucialforsuccess.Otherstudies(eg,Bakeretal., and effective economicinstrumentsandincentiveswere local knowledge,aclearandtransparent legalenvironment community outreach, capacity-building,incorporationof technology improvement, on-goingteachingand approach (seeBox6.3)Itdemonstratedthatcontinuous in Brazilprovides anexcellentexampleofthelandscape The AtlanticForest RestorationPact(Meloetal.,2013) modify theentire landscape. solution, becauseinteractionsofallthesefactorsultimately The criticalpointforthisresponse isthatthere isnosingle of theconnectionsalllivingthings(Walsh etal.,2013). interactions across thelandscapeandunderstandings approach astheirconnectionstothelandincorporate 2012) .Indigenouspeoplesinstinctivelyadoptalandscape other factorsaffect ecosystemprocesses (Kosmas&Kelly, practices, marketdevelopment,communitypreferences and cropping management systems,weatherpatterns, A landscapeapproach examineshowsoilresources, Landscape approach THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 2014) .

Although thisisimpressive, itaccountsforonly32-34% million haascompared to57millionhaofnativepasture . the amountofcultivatedpasture inBraziltonearly101 integrated crop, livestockandforestry -haveincreased Peyraud Brazil, UruguayandArgentina(Franzluebbersetal.,2014; degraded croplands inNorth America,Western Europe, Integrated crop andlivestockhasbeenusedtorestore Lindenmayer, 2017). services (Carvalhoetal.,2017;Salton2014;Sato& farm andregional levels,but alsoimproved manyecosystem systems notonlyincreased foodandfeedproduction at integrated crop, livestockand forestry systems.These the developmentofintegratedcrop andlivestock (mostly Nellore) andgrasses suchasbrachiarialedto became more extensive.Adaptationofnewcattlebreeds native grassandbushlandswithintropical savannahs began slowlyduringthe1970s,ascattleproduction on production systems.InBrazil,sustainableintensification incorporate perennials andcattleintotraditionalrow-crop (sometimes referred toassustainableintensification) isto Another strategyforrestoring degradedcropland systems Integrated crop,livestockandforestry cropland degradation. preventive andmitigationstrategyforaddressing global that adoptionofconservationagriculture canbeaneffective a 1500haincrease inconservationagriculture .We concur was notpreviously reported (Jatetal.,2014)-accountedfor countries (Table 6.4)Furthermore, dataforIndia-which during thelast5yearsisaccountedforbydatafrom six of adoptionat74%,and90%the32millionhaincrease agriculture practices.Argentinacurrently hasthe highestrate of theirarablecropland beingmanagedusingconservation Table 6 .3whichshowsseveralcountrieswithatleast14% The impactofconservationagriculture isillustratedin and diversityincrops mechanical soildisturbance,permanentorganiccover use ofgeneticallymodifiedplants,butratherminimum conservation agriculture practicesdoesnotrequire the Regulatory Agency, 2017).Also,implementing human healthortheenvironment (PestManagement products containingglyphosateareto notaconcern determined thatwhenusedaccording tolabeldirections, Cancer, 2015).Nonetheless,HealthCanadarecently AgencyforResearchhumans in2015(International on classified glyphosateas“probably carcinogenic” to cancer agencyoftheWorld HealthOrganization,which Agency forResearch onCancer(IARC),thespecialized (Vandenberg persistamongsomepublichealthresearchersconcerns etal.,2000),althoughenvironmental health(Williams have generallynotindicatedseriousrisksforhumanor plants .Regarding glyphosate,current safetyevaluations et al.,2014).Integratedcrop andlivestock- 2017) as well as the International et al.,2017)aswelltheInternational grown .

knowledge, havebeendevelopedandusedworldwideby 2 .4)Suchsystems,basedlargelyonindigenousandlocal et al.,2003)(seealsoChapter2,Section2.43andBox land degradation(Altieri,2002;Gliessman,2014;Pretty environmental andeconomicrisks,avoidagricultural security bydiversifyingcrop production andmanaging and efficiency offarmingsystems,enhancefood reduce off-farm inputuseandtoimprove theproductivity processes andbeneficialon-farminteractionsinorder to agricultural technologiesthattakeadvantageofnatural Agroecological practicesencompassabroad arrayof Agroecology (Strassburg without anyadditionalconversionofnaturalecosystems products andbiofuelfeedstocksuntilatleast2040, to readily meethumandemandformeat,crops, wood restoration ofdegradedcroplands, butalsoenableBrazil for fulladoptionwouldnotonlyresult insubstantial be produced inBrazil(Strassburgetal.,2014).Striving of theestimated274-293millionanimalunitsthatcould Kazakhstan Uruguay Paraguay Australia India China Argentina Canada Brazil United StatesofAmerica Country Table Table Chile United StatesofAmerica New Zealand Australia Canada Brazil Uruguay Paraguay Argentina Country 6 6

4 3 et al.,

Countries withlargestrecent increases inconservationagriculture. Calculatedfrom Countries withatleast10%ofarablecropland withinconservationagriculture. Source: (FAO, 2016). values presented byJatetal.(2014)andFAO (2015). 2014) . Conservation Agriculture (1000 ha) Conservation Area Change(1000ha) 35,613 17,695 18,313 31,811 29,181 1,072 3,000 180 162 +1500 +3570 +3628 +4832 +6309 +9113 +400 +417 +600 +695 2003; Pretty etal., policies(Markweietal.,2008;Pretty etal., government credit andincomegeneratingactivities,supportive participatory methodsaswellaccesstomarkets, and communityempowerment-through trainingand been foundtodependonhumancapitalenhancement 5 .31andBox5)Successofsuchinitiativeshas 2003; Pretty etal.,2011)(seealsoChapter5,Section (Altieri had ademonstrablypositiveimpactonfarmers’livelihoods Asia andLatinAmerica-oftenpromoted byNGOs-have 2014) .Agroecological initiativesinmanycountriesAfrica, synergisms betweencomponents(Altieri,2002;Gliessman, and generalenhancementsofagrobiodiversity and conservation andregeneration (soil,water, germplasm), biocontrol ofinsects,weedinterference), resource natural control mechanisms(diseasesuppression, accumulation andnutrientcycling,soilbiologicalactivity, and crop-livestock mixtures thatpromote organicmatter as covercrops, green manures, intercropping, agroforestry farmers .Theytypicallyinvolvemanagementpracticessuch THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Percent ofArable et al.,2012;Altieri&Toledo, 2011;Pretty etal., Cropland 23 38 40 44 74 14 32 44 63 2011) . 2013, noneprevious Data Years 2013, 2011 2013, 2008 2013, 2008 2014, 2008 2013, 2011 2013, 2009 2013, 2006 2012, 2006 2009, 2007 Data Year 2009 2014 2013 2012 2013 2008 2008 2013 2013

447 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 448 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 300 thousandhaofseverely degradedfarmlandhavebeen also Chapter4,Section4.262)InBurkinaFaso,200to agropastoral livelihoods(Behnke&Mortimore, 2016) (see seeking toreverse desertificationandpreserve their techniques developedandappliedbyinnovativefarmers In theSahel,degradedlandshavebeenrestored using ILK Suárez et al.,2012;McLean,2010;Parrotta &Trosper, 2012; been usedsuccessfullyinmanypartsoftheworld(Lahmar A widerangeofILK-basedagroforestry approaches have agroforestry (Nairetal.,2009;Zomer as many500millionpeoplepracticesomeformof Brondízio, 2008)anditisestimatedthat,worldwide, on successfulILK-basedpractices(Altieri&Toledo, 2011; Innovative agroecosystem designshavebeenmodelled organizations (Lemenih,2004;SRC,2016b,2016c). varieties andanimalbreeds, aswellnativesocio-cultural and emphasizethepreservation ofknowledge,localcrop Agroforestry practicesare forthemostpartrooted inILK social, culturalandaestheticbenefits(Murthyetal.,2016). help adapttoclimatechange,andprovide economic, reliance onfossilfuelsandnativeforests forfuelwood, also conservebiodiversity, improve airquality, reduce increased infiltrationand reduced surfacerunoff .Itcan and (iii)conservingwater(quantityquality)through nitrogen fixationandnutrientcycling;(ii) reducing erosion; maintaining soilfertilitythrough increased carboninputs, Agroforestry canreduce orreverse landdegradationby:(i) Agroforestry THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION • • • arrangement oftree andnon-tree components).Theyinclude: their structure (i.e,thenature andspatialand/ortemporal Agroforestry systemsare typicallyclassifiedonthebasisof Box standard grazingareas . which produce concentrated,protein-rich tree fodderoutside animals grazingpasture orrangelandandprotein banks Silvopastoral -systemswhichincludeplantationcrops, gardens andfishponds; and multipurposewoodlotsincombinationswithhome multipurpose woodyhedgerows, apiculture, aqua-forestry Agrosilvopastoral -whichusesdomesticatedanimals, and fuelwood,butalsoasfruittrees withinhome plantation crop combinationsthatare usednotonlyfortimber tree gardens andalleycropping .Theyalsoincludedifferent fallow (inshiftingcultivationandrotational cropping), multilayer with agriculturalcrops, these subsystemsincludeimproved for foodand/ornon-fooduses.Generally, incombination involving cultivationandmanagementoftrees and/orshrubs Agrisilvicultural -encompassesadiversearrayofpractices et al.,2012;Uprety etal.,2009). etal.,2012;Vieira 6

Agroforestry responses tocropland degradation(adaptedfrom Nair, 1993). 2014) . gardens;

3 .5 MgCha carbon sequestrationratesgenerallyrangefrom 1.5to (Albrecht &Kandji,2003).Forsmallholders,potential and international policyobjectivesrelatedand international tolandscape are relevant fortheplanningand/ormonitoringofnational In summary, agroforestry-based landrestoration initiatives rotation (Nairetal.,2010). including plantingdensity, specieschoiceandlengthof on theclimaticzoneconditionsandsilviculturalpractices of agroforestry toserveasacarbonsink,however, depends at 12to228Mg ha density oftypicaltropical agroforestry systemsisestimated 2003), becausetheabove-andbelow-ground carbon potential forcarbonsequestration(Albrecht &Kandji, al., 2014;Mbowet2014).Italsohasconsiderable to increase productivity andfoodsecurity(Lascoet because itprovidespathways poorfarmerswithalternative 2014; Parrotta &Agnoletti,2012;Verchot etal.,2007), degradation andfoodsecuritychallenges(Mbowetal., adapting toclimatechangeinregions facingbothland Agroforestry canbeveryimportantformitigatingand tree species(Reijetal., farmer-managed naturalregeneration ofavarietynative increased significantlyacross nearly5millionhathrough Niger,in southern traditionalagroforestry parklandshave al., 2005;Reijet2009;Tougiani etal.,2009).Similarly, and protecting on-farmtrees (Botoni&Reij,2009;Reijet rehabilitated bycombiningILKsoilconservationmeasures • • • practiced in: Agroforestry systemsare globallydiverseandare widely capacity ofnativeforests andpastures . climatic changeandincreasing populationsexceedthe Semi-arid andaridregions where lackofprecipitation, fuelwood; and forest degradation,as peopleseekfodderand insufficient fallowperiods, overgrazing,deforestation and foodsecurityisoftenconstrainedbysoilerosion, America, theCaribbean,andAndes,where productivity Southeast Asia,highlandsofeastandcentralAfrica,Central regions Indiaand intheHimalayans, partsofsouthern Tropical andsub-tropical highlands,humidandsub-humid low soilfertilityandhighratesoferosion; poorly managedshiftingcultivation,overgrazing,soilacidity, degradation causedbyunsustainableforest management, these areas, theyovercome productivity constraintsofsoil can helpreduce deforestation andforest degradation.In Humid andsub-humidtropical lowlandregions, where they and -1 yr -1 (Montagnini&Nair, 2004).Thepotential -1 , withamedianvalueof95Mgha 2009) . -1

(Box successfully demonstratedatthewatershedscale two mitigation/restoration strategiesthathavebeen with restoring orincreasing soilorganiccarbonare Decreasing tillagefrequency andintensitycoupled billion peoplebythemiddleoftwenty-firstcentury strategy tomeetglobaldemandsofmore than9 Integrated watershedmanagementprovides another Integrated Watershed Management mitigation (Lal, soil organiccarbon,butcontributetoclimatechange of fertilizerandirrigationwatercannotonlyincrease plant geneticswithdecreased tillageandefficient use (West &Marland,2003).Therefore, combiningimproved sequestration, whilealsoreducing carbonemissions management canincrease productivity andcarbon Werf is particularlyimportantforforest ecosystemsthatare still Avoiding deforestation andreducing forest fragmentation forest degradation Avoiding deforestation,forest fragmentationand strategies . restored degradedlandsbasedononeormore ofthese rates haveeithermanagedtheirforests sustainablyor restoration .Countrieswithlowornegativedeforestation agroforestry, naturalandplantedforest management)and production withconservation objectives(through include preventive measures, theintegrationof Responses todeforestation andforest degradation degradation 6.3.1.2 anthropogenic CO Implementation ofsuchpracticescouldreduce global nutrient cyclingwere improved (Valentin etal.,2008). in mixedcropping systems,water-use efficiency and (Fisher in severalAfricancountrieshasbeenquitesuccessful farmers toadaptclimatechangeandsoildegradation The useofdrought-resistant crop varietiesbysmallholder Use ofEnhancedPlantGenetics & Macdonald,1995). et al.,2014;Parrotta etal.,2015;Powell2013;Walker Chirwa &Mala,2016;Nair, 2007;Norton,1998;Ouédraogo and research institutions(Altieri,2004;Altieri&Toledo, 2011; agencies,NGOs,universities communities, governmental and (iii)fosteringcross-sectoral collaborationbetweenlocal and ecologicalconservationrestoration objectives; and localknowledge;(ii)combiningsocialdevelopment potential for:(i)recognising andincorporatingindigenous restoration andbiodiversityconservation,duetotheir et al.,2010);confirmingthatgoodagricultural 6 .2) et al.,2010;Tschakert, 2007).Byincludingpulses Responses toforest land

2002) . 2 emissionsby6to17%(Van Der

Cullen areas surrounding intact forests (Chazdonetal., 2009; promoting agriculturalpracticessuchasagroforestry in through restoration (Brancalion etal.,2013);and new fragmentsorexpandingthe sizeofexistingones in riparianvegetation(Naimanetal.,1993);establishing landscapes include:maintenanceofvegetationcorridors delivery ofecosystemserviceswithinfragmentedforest increase connectivity, conservebiodiversityandenhance et al.,2014).Effective andwidely-used measures to restoration measures (Banks-Leiteetal.,2014;Tambosi fragmentation impactsandthrough conservationand to avoidfurtherdeforestation and/orameliorateforest is animportanttoolfordevelopingeffective actions Landscape planning(discussedfurtherinSection6.43) embedded (Collinge, heterogeneity) andtheland-use matrixinwhichtheyare size, shape,degree ofisolation, andhabitatquality and attributesofremaining forest remnants (i.e,their forest fragmentationrequire evaluationofthecondition measures toaddress thenegativebiodiversityimpactsof avoid furtherspeciesloss(Fahrig,2003).Effective (Rappaport to dis-connectivityamongremaining forest patches is oftenaccompaniedwithdeclinesinbiodiversitydue have significantlymodifiedlandscapestructure .This (Melo areas are embeddedwithinhuman-modifiedlandscapes Many intact(formallyorinformallyprotected) forest be the Braziliansavannahsandothercountrieshaveyetto and potentialleakageeffects oftheSoyMoratoriumon pastures andcleared landincreased (Gibbsetal.,2015), 1% after2006-althoughexpansionofsoycultivationinto annual soyexpansionintoforested areas from 30%to 2006 intheBrazilianAmazon,resulted inadecrease in not topurchase soyfrom landsdeforested afterJuly the SoyMoratoriuminBrazil,whichtradersagreed loss anddegradation(Macedoetal.,2012).Forexample, the supplychainfortheseproducts contributestoforest marketsforagriculturalproductsand international where Deforestation canbeavoidedwithcontrols overdomestic Lambin &Meyfroidt, 2011). geomorphologically stableareas (Chazdonetal.,2009; hotspots, andintensificationofagriculture infertileand expansion inecologically-fragileareas andbiodiversity avoiding deforestation, includingrestrictions ofagricultural landscape-planning strategiesthathavebeeneffective in the onlymeantoconservelargeintactforest areas, other the establishmentofprotected areas hasfrequently been least inthemediumterm(Benayasetal.,2009).While more biodiversitythanispossiblethrough restoration, at largely intact.Itisbothmore cost-effective andconserves THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION assessed . et al.,2013),where agriculture andurbanization et al., et al.,2015)andwithlimitedpotentialto 2001) . 1996) . 449 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 450 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION were performedover35,000km region ofInnerMongolia.Rehabilitationsphysicalactivities Shanxi, ShaanxiandGansuprovinces, andtheautonomous Rehabilitation Projects were implementedin48counties inthe From 1994to2005,twoLoessPlateauWatershed been (Luo eutrophication problems (Wang etal.,2006),duststorms (Fu, 1989).Inadditiontodownstream sedimentationand 2007) -withsoilerosion ratesamongthehighestinworld soil erosion, 58%ofwhichisextremely severe (Chenetal., 2002; Liu&Ni,2002)and70%oftheplateauisaffected by down to7–10%,from historicalestimatesof50%(Cai, al., 2001;Shi,2002).Theplateau’s forest coverdropped land useandclimatechange(Ren&Zhu,1994;Saitoet changes inthePlateauincludedualeffects ofhuman that havedrivenlandscape,vegetationandhydrological (Peng &Coster, 2007;Wang etal.,2006).Theforces The plateauhasbeeninhabitedformore than8,000years feature inthemiddlereaches oftheYellow Riverbasin. approximately 640,000km The LoessPlateauinNorthwestChinaoccupies Box enable re-establishment oflocalvegetation). slopes, cuttingtrees andallowingfree rangegrazing(allto Adoption ofnewpolicies-includingbansonplantingsteep land lefttoregenerate naturally. Land-use mapping-tooptimizeselectionofcropland versus ecological healthoftheenvironment. economic andsocialwell-beingofthepeoplewith Project planning-whichspannedover3years,integrating success 2013). Specifi c actionsthatcontributedtotheproject’s hectare for twotoeightyears(Buckingham&Hanson as wellannualpaymentsforecosystemservicesof$49/ subsidies included$122/hectare forseedsandseedlings farmland byplantingtrees andothervegetation.The subsidies forfarmersenablingthemtorestore degraded expenditures andWorld Bankloans.Thisfi nancing provided investment thatincludeddirect Chinesegovernment activities (EEMP, 2013).Another, wasthesignifi cant fi nancial reforestation, grasslandregeneration andagroforestry crucial forcontinuousvegetativecoverinthelarge-scale created effective waterharvestingstructures. Theywere Program wastheintegratedwatershedmanagementthat A keyfactorleadingtosuccessintheGrainforGreen $550 million. et al.,2003)andlandslides(Zhou2002)havealso 6 problematic.

included: 2

Source: Liu&Hiller(2016); World Bank(2007). Restoration ofDegradedWatersheds: anexample from China’s LoessPlateau. 2 andisthedominantgeological 2 andwithatotalinvestmentof

(2012); Tsunekawa etal.(2014);andWang etal.(2016). reported byChengetal.(2016);Deng et al.(2014);Liang Additional benefi ts oftheGrainforGreen Program havebeen Establishmentof~290,000hashrubandeconomically • rehabilitation programmes. Community participation-emphasizinglocalinputinto Increased percapitagrainoutputfrom 365to591kgha • benefi tsincluding: Buckingham &Hanson(2013)summarizedseveralpositive cash and plantingsofgrasses,bushes,trees andperennial Greening activities-whichstabilizeddunesusingstraw of lifeanddiscouragedthemfrom plantingonsteepslopes. rich productive croplands thatincreased farmerincome,quality continued untiltheentire gullybottomconsistedoffl at fi elds and valleys forerosion andsedimentcontrol. Damconstructionwas water management,terracinganddamconstructionindeep Technical -includinghard andsoftengineeringforsustainable developments. water, electricity, schools,hospitals,newhousingandtownship facilities, infrastructure and amenities,includingroads, clean in avarietyofways.Localcommunitiesnowenjoybetter changes andhasbenefi ted manybenefi ts forlocalpeople, The GrainforGreen Program hasresulted inprofound lifestyle A99%decrease insediment(~300milliontonsyr • Adecrease infarmingofunstableslopedlandsfrom 451,000 • Terracing of~86,600hanewfarmland • Newinfrastructure anddevelopmentopportunities • A 159%increase incommunityincome • A 95%conversionofslopinglandtoimproved landuses • valuable trees deposited intotheYellow River to 278,000ha crops. -1 ) -1 yr -1 and programme interventionshavefailedtoeffectively deal combination ofthetwo.Formostpart,thesepolicy wood fueldemandand/orincrease supplies,orsome interventions inmanydeveloping countriestoreduce shortages haveprompted policy andprogramme extraction intropical deforestation andthewoodfuel over theroleOver thelast40years,concerns offirewood 2015; Chidumayo&Gumbo,2013). products from commercial timberharvests(Bailisetal., demand isinsomecasesmetthrough theuseofby- can andoftenare managed sustainably, andfirewood Sections 4.3and5)Thatsaid,forests andwoodlands (also seeChapter3,Section3.42and4, a significantdriverofforest degradationinmanycountries demand (Guoetal.,2015).Excessivefirewood harvestis people (Bailisetal.,2015)and11.3%oftheglobalenergy 55% ofglobalwoodharvest,whichsupplies2.8billion Firewood andcharcoal forcookingandheatingrepresents al., 2016;Lundet2017;Parrotta etal.,2012). market fundstopayfortheecosystemservices(Cadmanet community rights;independencefrom funding;andfinding economic, socialandculturalservicesprovided byforests; sequestration andmanyoftheotherenvironmental, among stakeholdersregarding trade-offs betweencarbon resolution ofanumberissuesrelated to:localconflicts of REDD+andotherPESprogrammes hingesonthe Lund etal.,2017).However, theeffective implementation researchers andcommunities(Corbera&Schroeder, 2011; - involvingdonors,consultants,experts,policymakers, which hasgeneratedinnumerableprogrammes worldwide Emissions from Deforestation andforest Degradation), particularly through theREDD+mechanism(Reducing also promote sustainableforest managementpractices, Payments forecosystemservices(seeSection6.423)can Figure A 6

Photo Credits: Liu&Hiller(2016). The HoFamilyGullyontheChinaLoessPlateaubefore [ and after[ B lateAugust2009]the“GrainforGreen” conservationprogram. B forests asproductive agroforestry systemscanbeused palms andbamboos(ITTO,2002) .Managingsecondary early production species,suchasannualcrops, fruittrees, non-timber products through enrichmentplantingswith short-term economicbenefits,butalsoforfoodandother multiple-use management,notonlyfortimbertoprovide Secondary forests are oftenmanagedunderadaptiveand restore forests atsmallestcosts(Bongersetal.,2015). al., 2016;Poorteret2016),aswelltheirabilityto needs tobeconsidered in publicpolicies(Chazdonet livelihood needs.Theirhighpotentialtosequestercarbon to balanceconservation,production andsustainable as istheneedtoincorporatethemintoland-useplanning goods andservices(Bongersetal.,2015;ITTO,2002), are increasingly recognized asimportantcontributorsof landscapes (Aideetal.,2013;Hurtt2006)and Secondary forests are amajorpartofmanyrural forests andmanagingsecondary Conserving 2011; SaezdeBikuñaetal.,2017;Whalen2017). et al.,2008;Hasenheit2016;Lambin&Meyfroidt the subjectofconsiderabledebate(Daietal.2011;Fargione associated withincreased production andotherbiofuels are social andeconomicimpactsofland-usechanges bioethanol andbiogas(Guoetal.,2015).Theenvironmental, and healthierenergysources, includinglignocellulosic In someregions, woodfuelsare beingreplaced bycleaner income (Chidumayo&Gumbo,2013). (and potentiallyrenewable) resource andcangeneratelocal sustainable production, especiallygiventhatitutilizesalocal source ofenergy-havesoughttoregulate andstimulate its the importanceoffirewood andcharcoal asaprincipal -havingrecognized2013) .Nonetheless,somegovernments associated environmental(Chidumayo&Gumbo, concerns with theproblem ofcharcoal-based deforestation andits THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION A lateAugust1995] 451 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 452 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND species and/ortheirpestsand diseases(ITTO, planted forest standsandavoidintroducing invasivetree to silviculturalpracticesfavour localbiodiversityin use ofnativespeciesinplanted forests; andadjustments further developingsilvicultural knowledge toexpandthe reserves withinlarge-scale plantationareas; utilizingor habitats alongwatercourses andestablishingbiodiversity biodiversity design andmanagementmeasures thathelptoprotect in biodiversityandecosystemservices,aswell rigorous impactassessments thatconsiderthechanges positive effects ofestablishing plantedforests requires Reducing potentialnegativeeffects and/orenhancing 7% oftheworld’s totalforest area (Paynetal.,2015) . industrial roundwood production, whileoccupying only (Paquette &Messier, 2010)andsupplyaquarter ofglobal 40 timesmore timberyieldthancertifiednaturalforests &Zhu,2014).Theycurrently(Buongiorno produce 5to reduced harvestingfrom naturalforests globallyby26% on degradedlands.Infact,plantedforests have measure toconservenaturalforests whenestablished planted forests havebecomeacomplementary However, withthegrowing demandforwoodproducts, et al.,2008)(alsoseeChapter4,Section4.34) particularly when they replace natural forests (Brockerhoff Planted forests are seenasadegradationdriver, Commercial andnon-commercialplantedforests 2014 (MacDickenetal., permanent forests inthetropics havebeencertifiedupto and temperateclimaticdomains,whereas only6%of certification is intheborealof internationally-verified in LatinAmerica(UNECE/FAO, 2016).Ninetypercent and only1.2%were inAfrica,3.1%Oceaniaand19% 87% ofcertifiedforests wereHemisphere intheNorthern represented 11%oftheworld’s forest coverin2016,but sustainably-produced timber extensively appliedbecauseoflowconsumerdemandfor would beparticularlyuseful,thesetoolshavenotbeen (see Section6.424)However, incountrieswhere they aimed atpromoting sustainableforest management also usedinforest certification,amarket-basedinitiative 2009; ITTO,2016).Thesecriteriaandindicatorsare sustainable managementoftropical forests (ITTO, comprehensive guideforreduced impactloggingand & Prabhu,2003;Pearce etal.,2003),includinga to guidesustainableforest management(Mendoza Many criteriaandindicatorshavebeendeveloped Sustainable logging (Parrotta etal.,2015). and localknowledge,canbefoundthroughout theworld management practices,relying heavilyonindigenous benefits tolocallivelihoods(Mukul&Saha,2017).Such vegetation, integratingecosystemservicesschemeswith to conservebiodiversity, limitingmodificationofthenative THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION .Suchmeasures include: setting asidenatural 2015) . .Globallycertifiedforest areas 2009) .

These include: al., 2005). circumstances andmanagementobjectives(Lambet in degradedlandscapes,dependingonecological techniques are usedtovaryingextentsrestore forests A varietyofeffective reforestation andforest management (Minnemeyer etal.,2011). are suitableforwide-scalerestoration ofclosedforests settlements -anduptoabouthalfabillionhectares uses suchasagroforestry, smallholderagriculture and in whichforests andtrees are combinedwithotherland 1 .5billionhaconsidered best-suitedformosaicrestoration, hectares couldpotentiallyberestored worldwide-including on Forest LandscapeRestoration,more thantwobillion World Resources InstituteandtheGlobalPartnership et al.,2009).According toananalysisconductedbythe degraded landsandabandonedagriculturalsites(Benayas biodiversity andecosystemservicesonformerlyforested Significant opportunitiesexistto restore forest cover, Forest restoration provision offorest ecosystem services,restoration efforts To optimizebiodiversityconservation andenhancethe

seed with nearbynaturalforests thatmayserveas natural regrowth, applicabletositesandlandscapes small numberofshort-livednursetrees toaccelerate Restoration plantings(ordirect seeding)usinga forest and otherstressors inhibitingsecondary Protection ofnaturalregrowth from fire, grazing species . Tree plantationmonoculture ofnon-invasiveexotic Tree plantationmonoculture ofnative tree species;and establish atthesite; plantings ofnativespeciesnototherwiseableto Tree plantationusedasanursecrop withunder- Tree plantationmixtures ofnativespecies; desired forest structure andspeciescomposition; nearby naturalforest seedsources and/ortopromote from latersuccessionalstages,usefulforsiteslacking Restoration plantingsusinglargenumberofspecies these forests; species toimprove theeconomicandsocialvalueof commercially, sociallyorecologicallyvaluabletree Protection ofnaturalregrowth andenrichmentwith sources; development; For Chapter 3,Section3.46and4,25)For indigenous communities(Parrotta &Trosper, 2012)(alsosee grassland ecosystemmanagement,particularlybylocaland but itisalsousedasamanagementtoolinforest and Fire ismostcommonlyviewedasadriverofforest degradation, Responses toforestfire Yamada, contributing tolandrestoration (Dubeetal.,2014;Sugiyama& coal orelectricitycanreduce forest degradation,thereby in ruralareas thatfacilitatethetransitionfrom firewood to al., 2009;Chazdonet2009).Livelihoodimprovements while enhancingtheirbenefitstopeople(Calvo-Alvaradoet havecontributedtoforest governments conservationefforts timber forest products, shadedcrops andecotourism-some economy -through commercialization oftimberandnon- and restoration) .Byenhancingtheprofitability ofaforest-based Youn, 2017)(seealsoSection6.41ondemographicchanges assisted byrural-urbanmigration(Baeetal.,2012;Park& energy sectorstoreplace firewood withfossilfuels,aprocess and policycoordination, particularlybetweentheforestry and approach includedacombinationofeconomicincentives approximately 35%to65%between1955and1980.Their and succeededinincreasing thecountry’s forest area from of Korea workedinclosecollaborationwithcommunities oftheRepublic lands .Forexample,thecentralgovernment development ofplantedforests onpreviously degraded restoration byproviding financialandpolicysupportfor caneffectively supportforestGovernments ecosystem Jackson, 2003;McGuire, 2014). should beplannedatthelandscapelevel(Maginnis& through paymentsforecosystemservices,offset schemesfor budgetsandODAaswellprivatefundsobtained government 17 Brazilianstates.Itmanagesbothpublicfundsallocated by aims tofacilitateandimplementrestoration projects across restoration, aswellinputs andtechnicalassistance.ThePact sharing andconnectsthoseoffering orrequesting sitesfor 2016; Meloetal.,2013).Itlinkskeystakeholdersforknowledge coordinate efforts andobjectivesforrestoration (Brancalionetal., agenciesto institutions, theprivatesectorandgovernment regional, multi-stakeholder platformformedbyNGOs,research The AtlanticForest Restoration Pact,initiatedin2009,isa restoration intheworld. et al.,2014),makingitoneofthehighestpriorityregions for disappeared, largelydueto deforestation andagriculture (Pinto population .However, more than88%oftheoriginalforest has services includingdrinkingwaterformore than60%ofBrazil’s hotspots (Laurance,2009),providing arangeofecosystem The Atlanticforest isamongthetopfiveglobalbiodiversity Box 2015) . 6

Restoration oftheBrazilianAtlanticRainForest.

(Jones without managingforest forlong-termfire risksand resilience Managing forests forothervalueswillbefutileinthelongterm low tomoderateintensityfire regimes (Stephensetal., 2013). of muchmore damagingfires, especiallyinforests adaptedto small-scale fires, suchanapproach canincrease thefuture risk While fire suppression isoftencosteffective forcontaining management across privateandpubliclands(FAO, fire management,communityandvolunteerinvolvementinfire and politicalinteractions(Myers,2006).Itinvolveslocal-scale considers biological,environmental, cultural,social,economic comprehensive approach toaddress fire issuesthat economic elements,atmultiplelevels,andprovides a of scienceandfire managementapproaches withsocio- Community-based fire managementincludestheintegration related tofire management(FAO, 2011). response andrecovery) andthusintegratingallactivities five essentialelements(research, risk reduction, readiness, for long-termandsustainablesolutions,incorporatingthe fire managementfocusesonaddressing underlyingcauses community-based fire management(FAO, 2011).Integrated commonly used,namelyintegratedfire managementand Two complementaryapproaches tofire managementare etal., 2011; Russell-Smithetal.,2003;Vigilante large wildfires, butalsofortraditionalpeople(Leggeetal., and assistrestoration bymakinglandscapeslessprone to benefits, notonlyfortheenvironment to reduce degradation Australiahavebeenshowntoyieldmultiple in northern example, theutilizationoftraditionalfire managementpractices Pinto zones toimprove theconnectivityoflandscapes(Holl,2017; owned fragmentsandrestore smallareas around protected being usedtoconservesmall-andmedium-sized,privately- of activeandpassiverestoration approaches andmethodsare sustainable harvestoftimberandnon-timberproducts .Avariety isolated forest fragments;and re-establishing forests topromote and enhancingdeliveryofecosystemservices;reconnecting ha .Restorationgoalsinclude:conservingforest biodiversity 15 millionhaoutofthetotalAtlanticForest area of132million have already beenrestored, withalong-termtargetofrestoring Under thePacttensofthousandshectares offorest areas income forlocalcommunities,especiallyinlessdevelopedareas . activity -generatingopportunitiesforbusiness,employmentand The Pactaimstomakeecosystemrestoration aneconomic sourcesalternative ofincome(Sewelletal., payments forrestoration, grantsandmicroloans forestablishing Brazilian infrastructure mitigation,wateruserfees,compensation THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION et al.,2014;Rodrigues et al.,2016;Stephens2013;Tempel etal., 2011) . 2016) . 2004) . 2011) . 2015) .

453 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 454 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND rangeland managementplanninginclude: and waterconservation.Keyconsiderationsforeffective (e .g,slopes,waterpoints,riparianstrips)andforsoil degradation inparticularlysensitivepartsofthelandscape is anefficient response toavoidand reduce rangeland Developing andimplementinggrazingmanagementplans (Gibson &Marks, 2014), andhuntingtomitigateovergrazingbywildlivestock sustainable landuse(Haregeweyn etal.,2012;Kong community coordination andcooperation,integrated can alsobeachieved.Successfulstrategiesincludetribaland pastoral projects indicatedthatgrazingmanagementsystems 2017; Reid&Swiderska,2008).Inaddition,severalindigenous intercropping andremoval ofwoodyplants(Latawiecetal., fencingandpastureburning, developmentthrough replanting, – tolocalapproaches involvingrotation ofpastures, controlled control ofstockingrates,livestocktypesandwaterallocation regional planningandimplementation–through governmental applied atdifferent spatialscales,from globaltransboundary Strategies toimprove grazinglandmanagementhavebeen smallholder farmers(e.g,Bestelmeyeretal.,2011) poor grazingmanagementbynomadicpastoralistsand mainly causedbyoverstockingoflivestockcombinedwith Section 4.32)Rangelanddegradationandspecieslossis 2009) (seealsoChapter3,Section3.1and4, is affected bydegradationofsoilsandvegetation(WOCAT, An estimated73%oftheworld’s 3.4billionhaofrangeland degradation 6.3.1.3 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION types typicallyconsistsof: (Lambin etal.,2014).Effective toolsfordifferent pasture for specificgrazingandpasture managementscenarios may involveacombinationofexisting toolsappropriate Implementation ofgrazinglandmanagement strategies

pasture species(Fisheries&Forestry, 2013). product, through herbagequality, legumecontentand Diet gateway-conversionofpasture intoanimal type (Undersanderetal.,2014);and stocking rateinfluence,grazingsystemandlivestock Grazing levelanddistribution-pasture utilization, (Undersander etal.,2014); local practices,stakeholdersandlandtenure rights regulatoryof governmental capabilities,indigenousand level ofagriculture andmunicipal infrastructures, level Anthropogenic communitystructure-development feedstock andlivestock)(Bartleyetal.,2010); soil fertilityandhealthpasture biodiversity(both Land condition-rainfallandnaturalrunoff pattern, Responses torangeland 1995) .

management, wildfire prevention andfire control . legislative responsibilities, tree-grass balance management, biodiversityconservationmeasures, land type,fencing,waterpoints,frontages, wetland grazing andpasture developmentparameters,namely Land resourceandusecharacterization-including Section 4.32) potential carryingcapacityandmore (seeChapter4, improving landconditions,current carryingcapacity, capability, landconditions,meansofsustainingand should includekeyfeatures, suchasspecificland field surveyswhendatabasesare insufficient .These Land capabilityandconditionassessments-through al., for effective weedandpestmanagement(Enset management practicesprovide additionalapproaches peoples’ traditionalknowledge and rangeland and otherpests.Theincorporationofindigenous management andcontrol of invasiveplants,insects Weed andpestmanagement -through monitoring, fertility (Undersanderetal.,2014). enhancement techniquesisneededtopreserve their rangeland, replanting using rangelandvegetation grown incultivatedareas, ifgrazingexhaustsnatural tools .Althoughmostpasture andforagecrops are pasture degradationanddevelopmentofmonitoring crops, silvopastoralpractices, prevention ofsown development andmanagementofpasture andforage Pasture andforagecrop,enhancement-through (Latawiec other keystakeholders(i.e,pastoralistsandfarmers) coordination andregulation amongauthoritiesand such toolsisoftendifficult asittypically requires (Bartley zones andmaintainmore uniformpasture pressure livestock growth, herd sizes,grazingmanagement and regulatory meansto control stockingrates,timing Grazing pressuremanagement-involvingeconomic management (Prince,2016). and otherphysicalparametersessentialforrangeland such asvegetationcover, desertification,landuses temporal andspatialanalyses,canindicatetrends 2010) .Utilizationofsuchavailabledatabases,and slopes, particularlyindrierregions (Bartleyetal., rangeland degradation,duetoovergrazingalong tool forregions thatare prone tosoilerosion and land useandmore .Spatialmonitoringisaneffective such asproperty mapping,paddocksize,landtypes, remote sensingresources toassesskeyfeatures, national andregionaldataarchives governmental and Spatial informationmonitoring-whichcanutilize 2015) . et al.,2010).Effective applicationof et al., 2017) . increased ontheIsraelisidecompared totheEgyptian sideof to grazingherds and,asaresult, thevegetationdensity (Figure 6.4),since1982theclosedborder hasbeenabarrier the yearswhenborder wasopen(mainlyduringthe1970s) (Warren, 2002).Whilevegetationdensitywassimilarduring shift invegetationdensityacross theEgypt-Israelborder nature oftheprocess iswelldemonstratedbythetemporal rangeland developmentactionsare required. Thedynamic livestock demands(seealsoChapter4,Section4.3.2), Once naturalpasture carryingcapacityisexceededby both sidesoftheEgypt-Israelborder (Figure 6.4). & Tsoar, 1996),manifestedinthealbedodifference between degraded therangelandowingtochronic overgrazing(Meir Western SinaiDesert.Thispasture landrestriction gradually of newStates-severaltribeswere restricted totheNorth- through treaties aseriesofinternational andtheestablishment van derSteen,2001).Untilthe20 tribes ofpastoralnomads,knownasBedouin(Bienkowski& During thelastcoupleofcenturiesmostherds were drivenby through thesaleoftheirmeat,dairyorhairandwoolproducts. played amajorroleMediterraneaneconomies, inEastern Throughout history, thecultivationofcamels,sheepandgoats Box Figure traditional pastoralresources; butsincetheearly20 Ottoman empire thesenomadshadaccesstotransboundary 1972 6

6 4

4 Grazing control anddesertiﬁ cationinaridzones(Egypt-Israel-Jordan).

in 1972,1988and2012respectively. Comparative satelliteview(GoogleEarth)oftheEgypt-Israel-Jordan borderlines th century, bypermitofthe 1988 th century- Martínez-Navarro the fi rst evidenceoflivestockfarming(Luetal.,2017; locations withdocumentedhumansettlementsandprobably over-burden. Inaddition,theJordan Valley isoneofthefi rst suffi cient rangelandresources, preventing thepasture (the Jordan RiftValley) theJordan Riverfl oodplain supplied and humanhabitats,alongtheIsraeli-Jordanian border grazing pastoralpracticehadledtodeteriorationofnatural While alongtheEgyptian-Israeliborder thedisruptionof storms resilience againstnaturalphenomenasuchaslarge-scaledust to thedevelopmentofsoilcrusts,contributeslandscape the border (Seifan,2009).Thedesertdunes’stability, owing political regimes improved theirresilience toclimatechangeand or semi-systematicgrazingandrangelanddevelopment stationary pastoralruralcommunitiestomaintainsystematic prevented theovergrazingofpasture land.Theability ofthe stationary nature oftheJordan valleyshepherds community setting, isbettermanagementofrangelandresources. The round livestockhusbandryinpastoralfarmandvillage grazing typicaltotheEgypt-Israelborder, andtheyear- One ofthedifferences betweenthenomadicpastoral THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION (Figure 6.4)(Kidron etal., issues. et al., 2012 2012). 2017). 455 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 456 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND seek to:maintainorimprove thehealthandsustainability Responses toreduce theseimpactsincludethosethat ecosystems insurrounding landscapes. their boundaries-leadingtoimpactsonawiderangeof and theextensionoftheirecologicalfootprintsbeyond within establishedandexpandingcitiessuburbanareas outside ofurbanareas -through itsdirect impactsonlands urbanization results inlanddegradationbothwithinand Amongst themostsevere formsoflandtransformation, degradation 6.3.1.4 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION (Weber &Horst,2011). of thestrategyonphysicalparametersgrazingland regulatory managementcapabilitiesand,aboveall,effects and theireconomicbenefits,theleveloflocalauthorities’ financial andtechnologicalcapabilitiesoflocalfarmers strategies shouldconsidereffects ofeachstrategyon Finally, theassessmentofgrazinglandmanagement

B A Figure et al.,2015). for therelevant community(Latawiecetal.,2017;Reed actions(e.g,taxation,law-enforcement)governmental evaluations ofthemagnitudeandeffectiveness of the integrationoflandusesinlocaltraditionsand well asculturalaspectssuchcattlesanctity(India), systems (e.g,farms,nomadic,ruralsettlements),as practices, includinglandtenure typesandcultivation adoption ofmore sustainablepasture management Evaluation ofsocialandeconomicpotential-forthe Responses tourbanland 6

Urban andsuburbanlandscapesinMedellin,Colombia:theplannedcity 2006. the informalcity B , andthequarries C in theplanningandmanagementofcities.Maintaining (also knownasnaturalcapital)adeterminingfactor of valuationandexplicitinclusionurbanbiodiversity ecosystems andbiodiversity gardens, openspaces,watercatchmentareas), and their existing ecologicalinfrastructure ofcities(i.e,parks, Response measures includedevelopingandenhancing urbanization, biodiversityandecosystemservices. urban landdegradationbyutilizingthelinkagesbetween of theCBD(2012)highlightsopportunitiestoreduce On green responses, theCitiesandBiodiversityOutlook (amongst efficiency, urban resilience andenvironmental sustainability management andnaturalresources byenhancingresource and designinstrumentstosupportsustainableland-use to achievethesecommitmentsincludeurbanplanning to socialandeconomicproblems .Specific“grey” responses resilience factor;and43totechnicalpoliticalresponses green publicspace,withemphasisonitssocialfunctionand management, mainlyasaneconomicresource; 3tothe contain responses toecological-ruralfunctionality;3water et al.,2017;Watson, 2016).Outofthesecommitments,3 56 sustainableurbandevelopmentcommitments(Caprotti agenda/) incorporatessustainabilityasitsthird principleand the NewUrbanAgenda(http://habitat3.org/the-new-urban- “grey” and“green” responses .Regarding “grey” responses, Responses tourbanlanddegradationfallintotwocategories, Preventive responsestourbanlanddegradation urban fabric. well-being andsafetyofurbandweller;toimprove the of ecosystemswithintheirzonesinfluence;thehealth, C . Source: MedellinPlanningDepartment, others) . .Itemphasizestheimportance A ,

(Figure 6.7) effects andfloodingriskfrom altered catchmenthydrology contamination, invasivespeciesimpact,heatisland such assoilcontaminationandinstability, water the mainissuesorprocesses thatneedtobeaddressed, Specific responses tourbanlanddegradationdependon Restoration practicesinurbanandbuiltenvironments (McKinney, habitat fornativeplants,insects,animalsandsoilbiota retaining corridorsofnon-developedland.Theseprovide natural openspace,plantingnativeplantspeciesand materials thatallowinfiltrationofprecipitation protected (“green roofs”, Figure 6.),raingardens, pavingwith - usingtechniquessuchasplantingvegetationonroofs some places,widelyimplemented(Hostetleretal.,2011) 2011) .“Green infrastructure” iswidelyproposed and,in conservation (Aronson etal.,2017;Müller&Kamada, includes managinganddesigningforbiodiversity adaptation (CBD,2012).Sustainableurbandevelopment as wellcontributetoclimatechangemitigationand also significantlyenhancehumanhealthandwell-being problems associatedwithurbanlanddegradation,butcan functioning urbanecosystemsnotonlyaddresses the licensed underCCBY2.0. Among themanytechniquesusedtocreate“greeninfrastructure”inurbanareas,rooftopgardensareone.Photo:JimmyTan Figure 6 2002) .

Aerial viewoftherooftop garden ofamulti-storey carparkinSingapore. past pollutioninbrownfields canbeanobstacletotheir re- 2015) .However, thecostsassociatedwithremediation of functions andtheirimperviousnessisreduced (Huotetal., or textiles.Inthisway, thepastindustrialsoilsrecover new brownfields toproduce non-alimentarycrops forenergy (Siebielec etal.,2010),itissometimespossibletouse Section 4.22)Whilesoilcontaminationisrarely reversible contaminants tosurrounding areas (seealsoChapter 4, that containheavymetals,organicpollutantsandother development incitiesthrough factoriesreleasing wastes properties of soils are changed, occurs mainly from industrial Soil contamination,aprocess bywhichthechemical structural component). of plantsinbio-technicalslopestabilizationasthemain such asretaining walls,orsoilbio-engineering(theuse Myers, 1993).Thesemayincludenon-vegetatedstructures, elements toavoidsevere erosion (Buchholz&Madary, 2016; Bio-technical stabilizationusesstructuralandbiological establishment ofvegetationforlong-termerosion control . term erosion control practicesare generallyfollowedby phase toprevent pollutionofstreams andrivers.Short- to erosion andsedimentcontrol duringtheconstruction In-built environments restoration practicesare closelyrelated THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 457 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 458 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND include developingormaintaining “green infrastructure,” Section 4.310)Responsestoreduce heatislandeffects intensify heatislandeffects incities(alsoseeChapter4, Increasing urbanpopulationsandimpervioussurfaces since 1980(Acton,1989;Daley&Layton,2004). contaminated withhazardous substancesandpollutants whichhasfundeddecontaminationofsites government, such asthe“Superfund”programme oftheUSFederal approaches canalsohelp restore contaminatedland, other environmental purposes (EC,2012).Somefinancial soil sealingactivities,tobeusedforprotection or development certificates;and(iv)collectionoffeeson for sealingelsewhere; (iii)use ofeco-accountsandtrading de-sealing ofcertainareas (soilrecovery) tocompensate infrastructure developmentinotherurbanlocations;(ii) of topsoilexcavatedduringbuildingconstructionand Measures tocompensateforsoilsealinginclude:(i)re-use and temperature regimes inurbanareas (EEA,2011). on thearea includingregulation concerned, ofhydrology prevents naturalsoilfunctionsandecosystemservices Chapter 3,Section3.6)Sealingreduces orcompletely roads, parkinglotsandotherurbaninfrastructure (see also concrete andstoneare usedtoconstructbuildings, Soil sealingisprevalent where materialssuchasasphalt, restore orimprove thefunctionofthosesoils. the pastpollutersorfuture developersisanapproach to use (EC,2012).Insuchcases,financialcompensationfrom THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Figure DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 6

and toolsmethodologies. Land degradationandrestoration related policychallenges,goals,instruments Solid wastedisposal DEGRADATION PROCESS Land artiﬁLand cialization Fragmentation Deforestation Soil pollution Wetland loss Soil sealing … Myers, 1993;Shen,2015). & Madary, 2016; Halletal.,2014;Kjellstrom etal.,2006; also effective waystoalleviatewaterpollution(Buchholz filtration ofwastewaterbefore dischargeandeducationare part ofbrownfields projects -althoughlawenforcement, services .Water contaminationcanoftenbehandledas severe impactsonenvironmental qualityanditsrelated from industrialwastewater ordomesticsewagecanhave Shen, 2015).Inaddition,watercontaminationandpollution better land-useplanningisessential(Halletal.,2014; As thisprocess islargelyirreversible andoftenverycostly, example, canalterflow regimes andincrease floodrisk. rivers andlakestodevelopreal estateorinfrastructure, for Water systemdegradationcanthreaten manycities.Filling planning tool(Bulletal., (Szulczewska Areaal., 2017),thePolandRatioofBiologicallyVital & Stiles,2010),theSeattleGreen Factor(Giordano et Biotope Area Factor, theMalmoGreen Factor(Hagen greening toolshavebeendeveloped,suchastheBerlin cities havemadeurbangreening apriority (Pandit &Laband,2010;Panditetal.,2014)andmany andcitizensworldwideplanners, municipalgovernments multiple benefitsisincreasingly recognized byurban The importanceofstreet trees, urbanforests andtheir (Gill initiatives thatincludetree plantingandmanagement such asurbanopenspacesandforestry et al.,2007;Miller2015;Roy2012). National policyandprograms,e.g.Forestcode,REDD+, Integrated coastalzonemanagement(ICZM), Environmental regulationandlaw,Action French billtheFutureofAgriculture,FoodandForestry Monitoring environmentalindicators,ﬁ eld observations Urban landusezoning,Spatialplanning,Policies,e.g., River BasinManagement(IRBM),RamsarConvention et al.,2014)andapublicopenspace and EnvironmentalManagementPlan(EMP) Public participation,consultandconcert Environmental impactassessment(EIA) Plan, e.g.USEPASuperfundprogram “Grain forGreenprogram” 2013) . and remotesensing multi-stakeholders RESPONSES .Manyurban

declined by64-71%inthe20 Worldwide, theextentofwetlandsisestimatedtohave degradation 6.3.1.5 degraded urban effectiveness ofdifferent responses tohaltorrestore responses . or politicalcapacitiestoappropriate selectrestoration contexts mustconsidertheirfinancial,technological issues andprocesses,indifferent andgovernments There are nopanaceasfortheurbanlanddegradation urban residents orthelocalauthoritiestorestore degraded benefit), thusproviding additionalincentivesforurban such asbetterhabitatsforplantsandanimals(apublic (private economicbenefit)andtheecologicaloutcomes stream” inPerthsimultaneouslyincreased property price aiming toconverta“conventionaldrain”into“living Polyakov of green infrastructure inurbanareas .Forexample, can alsopromote restoration activitiesormaintenance Quantifying theeconomicvalueofgreen infrastructure avoid agriculturalsoilconsumption(Rokiaetal.,2014). can alsobedevelopedtocreate soilfrom wasteandthus through canopyinterception .Newsoilmediaforcities Urban forestry canalsoaidinhydrologic management transportation corridors,andinstallationofraingardens . of technologiestoimprove infiltrationinparkinglotsand impervious surfacesthrough thereduction andadoption include riverchannelrestoration andmanagementof Methods torespond toaltered catchmenthydrology yr current globalarea rateoflossbetween0.7and3% losses havebeenashigh35%since1980,witha types, suchastropical andsubtropical mangroves, recent Gardner of thestressors orpressures thatlimitthewise useof (Finlayson between peopleandtheirsurrounding wetlands and degradationrequires theincorporationoflinkages it buildsonthepremise thatrestricting wetlandloss management (Maltby, 2009).Adoptedby169countries, is considered globallyasa centraltenetofwetland The “wiseuse”approach of theRamsarConvention Chapter 4,Section between 1970and2010(Gardner etal.,2015)(seealso The Freshwater LivingPlant Indexhasdeclinedby76% status ofwetland-dependentspeciesremains alarming. services (Costanzaetal.,2014).Consequently, the in more than$20trillionin annual lossesofecosystem and coastalecosystemshavebeenestimatedtoresult -1 (Pendletonetal.,2012).Thelossofthesefreshwater drains . et al.,2015;Hu2017).Forseveralwetland et al.(2017)report thatrestoration practices Responses towetland et al.,2011;Finlayson,2012)).Theremoval Table 6.5givesanoverviewofthe land . 4 .252) th century(Davidson,2014;

of nutrients(McCrackinetal.,2017) . respectively, decadesafterthecessationor partialreduction of baselineconditionsbyanaverage of34%and24%, that lakesandcoastalmarineareas achievedarecovery A studyfocusedonrecovery from eutrophication showed recovery washighlycontext dependent(Melietal.,2014). increased some ecosystem services and biodiversity, but the time .Compared todegradedwetlands, however, restoration 75% ofthelevelinundisturbedreference wetlandsafterthat recovery ofbiodiversityand functionsincreasing toabout the first50to100years(Moreno-Mateos etal.,2012)with remediation efforts hadfailedtofullyrecover wetlandsover in agriculturalareas .Thisstudyalsoconcludedthat plant assemblageincoldclimatesandwetlandsrestored effects ofrevegetation measures ontherecovery ofthe were revegetated ornot.Italsofoundpotentialdetrimental similar recovery trajectories,regardless ofwhetherthey modification orflow re-establishmentwere usedfollowed restored wetlands-foundthatthosewhere eithersurface (Moreno-Mateos etal.,2012)-involvingover600 A recent meta-analysisofglobalwetlandrestoration USDA, 2014). supported coveringabout15,000ha(Smithetal.,2015; Wetland ReserveProgram, 168wetlandprojects were Conservation EasementProgram, whichreplaced the (USDA, 2014).In2014,thefirstyearofAgricultural enhance wetlands,resulting innearly1millionhaenrolled voluntary programme forlandownerstoprotect, restore and Until 2014,theWetland ReserveProgram intheUSA wasa effort directed toward wetlandrestoration insomeregions . (through surfacemodification).There hasbeenconsiderable establishment), orreconstructing thewetlandstopography reconnecting thewetlandtotidesorriverflow(flow re- Restoring thehydrological dynamicsusuallyinvolveseither removing invasivespeciesandmanagingsoilprofiles . include recovering thehydrological dynamics,revegetating, The mostcommonly-usedresponses torestore wetlands reduced oreliminated(SERI,2004). in whichthedriversofwetlanddegradationhavebeen and functionalgroups) thatare partofawiderlandscape dominated bynativespecies(incharacteristicassemblages wetlands results inself-sustainingandresilient ecosystems 2012; Aronson &Alexander, 2013).Successfulrestoration of sustainable developmentgoals(Alexander&McInnes, priority foraddressing andreconciling conservationand Ecological restoration ofdegradedwetlandsisaglobal (Ramsar, mitigating andcompensatingforwetlandlosses restoration, includingaspecific resolution onavoiding, also developedasuiteofguidancetosupportwetland wetland lossanddegradation.TheConventionhas the bestpracticeresponse optionforaddressing wetlands (oradverselyaffect theirecology)isconsidered THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 2012) . 459 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 460 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION DEGRADATION DEGRADATION LAND USE OR LAND USEOR Table DRIVER

URBAN LAND MANAGEMENT RANGELAND MANAGEMENT FOREST LAND MANAGEMENT CROPLAND MANAGEMENT 6

Summary ofdirect biophysicalandtechnicalresponses, theirnature andrelative River channel/beachsiterestoration Sewage andwastewatertreatment and sealedsoils Amelioration ofcontaminatedsoils Green infrastructuredevelopment Removal ofinvasivespecies Brownﬁrestoration eld Street treeplanting Green spacemanagement Weed andpestcontrol Intercropping Replanting Fencing Controlled burning Pasture rotation Grazing management Restoration (activeandpassive) Landscape approach Reduced impactlogging Sustainable forestmanagement Protected areas Agroforestry Landscape approach Agroecology Enhanced plantgenetics forestry systems Integrated crop,livestockand Agroforestry Conservation agriculture land, rangeland,urbanlandandwetland. effectiveness inavoiding, reducing orreversing degradationofcropland, forest RESPONSE OPTIONS Reduce (Rd), Reverse (Rv) NATURE OF NATURE OF RESPONSE Avoid (Av), Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Rd, Rv Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Rd Rd Rv Rv Rv Rv Rv Rv Rv Av Av Economic feasibility RESPONSE EVALUATION CRITERIA AND EFFECTIVENESS RANKING RESPONSE EVALUATIONCRITERIAANDEFFECTIVENESSRANKING accepta- Social bility desirability Environ- mental (COLOUR-CODED) accepta- Cultural bility Technical feasibility accepta- Political bility nature-based solutionshasshownpromising results .For spatial issues.Recentresearch on economicefficiency of marine protected areas havebeenestablishedtoaddress management approaches), marinespatialplanningand in coastalplanning(basedonintegrated coastalzone wetlands (Zhaoetal.,2016).Complementaryprogrammes hydrological connectivity;or incertaincases,thecreation of to enhanceecohydrological processes andimprove of invasivespecies);passiverestoration approaches channelling waterflow, mangrove plantingandcontrol include: activerestoration measures (reshaping topography, & Mitsch,2015).Methodsforrestoring suchwetlandsmay services suchasbuffering againstextreme events(Marois been madetorestore theircapacitytoprovide ecosystem 2007; LewisIII,2000;Orthetal.,2012).Efforts havealso losses resulting from managementactivities(Hogarth, made inmanypartsoftheworldtocompensateormitigate (mangroves, tidalmarshesandseagrassbeds)havebeen In recent decades,efforts torestore coastalwetlands pollination, dispersal). major roles inecosystemfunctioning(e.gdecomposition, recovering ecologicalnetworks(Ankeretal.,2013)with abiotic environment, forexample, through measuringand to evaluateinteractionsamongorganismsandwiththe ecosystems, there isaneedtodevelopanduseindicators carbon storage),anddonotencapsulatethecomplexityof recovery afterrestoration tendtobeverysimplistic(e .g, to restore them.Ascommonlyusedindicatorsofwetland (20 years orlonger)andwhatactionsare mostappropriate understand howwetlandsrecover overthelongterm These results indicatethatthere isanurgentneedto DEGRADATION DEGRADATION LAND USE OR LAND USEOR DRIVER

WETLAND MANAGEMENT effectiveness High EFFECTIVENESS RANKINGOFRESPONSEOPTIONS Constructed wetlands revegetation, invasioncontrol) reshaping topographyandhydrology, Active restorationmeasures(e.g., livestock pressures) recovery (e.g.,controlofhuman/ Passive measurestoallownatural sources Control ofnon-pointpollution Control ofpointpollutionsources Protected areas RESPONSE OPTIONS effectiveness Moderate tohigh Reduce (Rd), Reverse (Rv) NATURE OF NATURE OF effectiveness Moderate RESPONSE Avoid (Av), Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Av, Rd Av, Rd Rv Av Economic feasibility for treating wastewaterhavebeenusedwithgoodresults in habitat replacement (Mitschetal.,1998).Wetlands created mine drainage,agriculturalrunoff), floodminimizationand enhancement (treatment ofwastewater, stormwater, acid – iscarriedoutforvariouspurposes suchaswater-quality their associatedmicrobial assemblages (Aberetal.,2012) and utilizenaturalprocesses torestore vegetation,soilsand Wetland creation –where landsare artificially inundated and degradationonaglobalscale(Mitschetal.,1998). common activitiesinresponse tosignificantwetlandloss Wetland creation andrewetting ofdrainedsoilsare al., 2017;ChimneretGraham2017). have beenusedindifferent partsoftheworld(Andersenet evapotranspiration) andcatchmentmanagementpractices rewetting, dammingandinfillingofditches, reducing species), peatlandhydrology (e.g,increasing natural availability, basesaturation,introduction ofnative for improving habitatconditions (e.g,regulating nutrient example seeHooijeretal.,2010).Arangeofmeasures significantly toglobalemissionsofgreenhouse gases(for soil carbonstores .Degradationofpeatlandscontributes in theworldandaccountforamajorproportion ofglobal Peatlands formamajorproportion oftotalwetlandarea reductions incoastalstructure costs(Narayanetal., 2016). report benefitsrangingfrom reductions instormdamageto at greater depths.Nature-based defenceprojects also metre and,withintheirlimits,becomemore cost-effective a submergedbreakwater forwaveheightsuptohalfa have beenobservedtobetwofivetimescheaperthan example, maintenanceofsalt-marshesandmangroves (low tohigh) effectiveness Variable RESPONSE EVALUATION CRITERIA AND EFFECTIVENESS RANKING RESPONSE EVALUATIONCRITERIAANDEFFECTIVENESSRANKING THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION accepta- Social bility effectiveness Low tomoderate desirability Environ- mental (COLOUR-CODED) accepta- Cultural bility effectiveness Low Technical feasibility accepta- Political bility 461 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 462 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND et al., restoration agendaandactions(Kumaretal.,2017;Russi stakeholder engagementinmainstreaming wetland of multiplevalueswetlandscangreatly strengthen Acreman, 2011;Ramsar, 2012).Enhancedunderstanding and theirbenefitsare sustainedinthelongrun(Maltby & and managementofwetlandscanensure thatwetlands basins andcoastalzones,integratedland-useplanning and decision-making.Consideringtheirrole inlargerriver et al.,2016),are increasingly gainingtractioninpolicy for disasterriskreduction (Montyetal.,2016;Renaud or wetlandsrestoration withinnature-based approaches as settingsforhumanhealth(Horwitz&Finlayson,2011), 2013) .Similarmainstreaming approaches, aswetlands change adaptation(Pittocketal.,2015;Russi objectives suchaswaterandfoodsecurityclimate water infrastructure canhelpmeetawiderangeofpolicy policy anddecision-making.Treating wetlands asnatural ecosystem servicesandbiodiversityvalueswithinsectoral wetlands, ormainstreaming thefullrangeofwetland policy-level changes,intheformofnationalpolicieson Addressing theindirect driversofchangeoftenrequires did notexperienceinundation(Yang etal.,2012). dams) results inperiodicinundationoflandsthatpreviously when theregulation ofriverflows(i.e,installationlarge et al.,2015).Wetlands mayalsobecreated unintentionally have greatly increased contaminantremoval efficiencies (Wu advances inthedesignandoperationofthesewetlands (IPCC, 2014;Landetal.,2016;Vymazal, 2011).Recent many countries,includingCuba,China,USAandThailand THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION aims ofrestoration (D’Antonioetal.,2016). eradication orcontrol ofinvasivespeciesisoftenonethe (Rai etal.,2012;Shackleton 2011).Nevertheless, disproportionately affect lessadvantagedsocialgroups particularly where socio-economicimpactsofinvasion species managementstrategiesexceedavailableresources, (Gaertner etal.,2017).Typically, thecostsofinvasivealien services ordisservicesgeneratedbyinvasivespecies varying perceptions among stakeholdersonecosystem systems (e.g,urbanlandversusagriculturalland),and invasion processes, variable effects ondifferent land-use challenging, primarilybecauseofthedynamicnature of context .Managinginvasivespeciesiscomplexand strategies thatinteractinvariouswaysbasedonspatial tools,aswellmanagement policy andgovernance Responses toinvasionincludeinstitutionalarrangements, 6.3.2.1 impacts to selecteddirect drivers and 6.3.2 2013) . Assessment ofresponses Responses toinvasivespecies well asquarantinemeasures toblockorrestrict incursions. search andseizure procedures atfirstpointsofentry, as biosecurity departmentstocarry outactivitiessuchas 2013),includingtheestablishmentofenvironmental Witt, second componenttoprevention isinterception (Boy& threat tobiodiversityposed byinvasivealienspecies.The awareness campaignstoeducate thepublicabout (e .g,categoriesofinvasivealienspecies)andundertake the IUCNare useful.Manycountrieslistprohibited species such astheGlobalInvasiveSpeciesDatabase(GISD)of etal.,2014). Thisiswheretheir impacts(Blackburn tools the identificationofinvadersthemselvesandmeasuring being acommonproduct (Buckley, 2008).Linkedtothisis risk mapsthathighlightinghotspotsofinvasionlikelihood Pathway riskassessmentrelies heavilyonspatialdata,with the frontline intheprevention ofinvasions(Hulme,2009) . networks haveledtopathwayriskassessmentsbecoming introductions) .Trade globalizationandexpandedtransport biological invasionpathways(e.g,intentionalandaccidental measures focusonidentifyingandmonitoringcommon invasive speciesthrough eradicationandcontrol .Preventive Leung etal.,2002);duetothehighcostofmanaging establishment (Allendorf&Lundquist,2003;Hulme,2006; introductions ofpotentiallyinvasivespeciesbefore their In general,themosteffective strategyistoprevent steps -prevention, eradicationandcontrol (seeFigure 6 .8) at localandnationallevels,involvesthree successive The implementationofpracticalstrategiesusuallyoccurs Species Committee,2015). restoration (Fisher, 2015;SriLankaNationalInvasiveAlien across policy, strategy, actionplanning,managementand atthenationallevel andincorporated Lankan Government to tacklinginvasivespecieshasbeenadoptedbytheSri 2016; Gaertneretal.,2012).Suchanecosystemapproach replacement withindigenousspecies(Fisher, 2011;Fisher, with focusontheremoval ofallinvasivespeciesandtheir restored urbanenvironments resilient tochangingclimates functioning ecosystems.Long-termoutcomesinclude estuaries -hasproven tobehighlysuccessfulinrestoring - includingcoastal,woodlands,wetlands,riversand driven bylocalcommunities,indiffering urbanlandscapes management usingaholisticecosystemapproach and landscape andtheecosystemasawhole.Invasivespecies communities understandtheimportanceofmanaging (Fisher, 2011;Fisher, 2016;Gaertneretal.,2012).Local restore urbanlandscapesdegradedbyinvasivespecies innovative approaches andframeworkstomanage those whocontinuetoliveinlandscape-provides and invasionecology, butledbylocalknowledgeand local communities-alongwithexpertsinbothrestoration and restoration ofinvadedurbanlandscapes,engagingwith environment .To establishapproaches tothemanagement environment andtheirvaluesperceptions oftheirlocal of theimpactsinvasivespeciesonbiodiversity, theirlocal Local communitiesinurbanareas havedetailedknowledge invasive animaleradicationiscontroversial duetoethical al., 2013;Keittet2011).Socialacceptabilityof species thanplant(Genovesi,2005;Glenet more examplesofsuccessfuleradicationvertebrate achieved, notablyinislandsettings,withsubstantially 2013).Eradicationhasbeenin anarea (Boy&Witt, individuals, viableseedsorotherpropagules remain the invadingspeciesuntilitcanbeascertainedthatno continuum andentailsthesystematiceliminationof Eradication isthenextoptioninpracticalresponse constrained settings. feasible oreffective inresource- and/orinfrastructure- Such quarantinemeasures are, however, notnecessarily Animal andPlantHealthInspectionServiceintheUSA. Department ofAgriculture andWater Resources andthe Examples ofsuchbodiesare theAustralianGovernment’s

DATA NEEDED DECISION SUPPORT MANAGEMENT FOCUS OF POLICY Figure TOOLS AIM AND MANAGEMENT of invadingandhavingasgniﬁ cant impact. sensitive tointroductions,speciesthatposeahighrisk Identify highestriskpathways,sitesmostexposedand 6 country; origin;currentdistribution;

PATHWAYS E.G. Alienspeciespresentin 8

Source: McGeochetal.(2016). of invasivealienspecies,topreventing theirspread, toeradicationorcontainment. making atnearlyeverystageoftheinvasionprocess, from preventing introduction Prioritization tosupportcost-effective allocationofresources ispartofdecision- evidence ofimpact… AND ESTABLISHMENTINCOUNTRY SPECIES PREVENT INTRODUCTION E.G. ARTIFICIALNEURALNETWORKS,SPECIESDISTRIBUTIONMODELS,RISKMAPS, HEATMAPS PRE-INVASION (PRE-BORDER) E.G. Countryrelevant,realisedand potential pahtways;purposeof introduction; pathwayloads… PRIORITIZATION TASKS PATHWAYS SPECIES January on invasivealienspecieswhichcameintoeffect in mechanismintheEURegulationformalized earlywarning Similarly, theEuropean Commissionhasproposed a Rapid Responseprogramme (Ntshotshoetal.,2015a). Institute intheimplementationofEarlyDetectionand collaborated withtheSouthAfricanNationalBiodiversity the NationalDepartmentofEnvironmental Affairs has authorities (EEA,2011).InSouthAfrica,forexample, reporting ofrelevant informationtothecompetent invaders, assessingrelated risksandensuringimmediate new incursionsandcorrect taxonomicidentificationof rapid response systemsenhanceprompt detectionof 2002;Simberloff, andPitcairn, 2009)asearlywarning are crucialforsuccess(Pluessetal.,2012;Rejmánek& Simberloff, 2009).Earlydetectionanddecisiveaction 2002;issues (Cowanetal.,2011;Rejmánek&Pitcairn, THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION in needofprotection. impact, andareasathighestriskofinvasionmost Identify speciesmostlikelytobeinvasive,withgreatest 2015 . ERADICATE, CONTAIN,CONTROLONCE ESTABLISHED INCOUNTRY POST-INVASION (POST-BORDER) conservation andservicevalue; sites exposedtoinvasion… E.G. Lists/mapsofsites SITES SITES

463 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 464 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND measures are inuseforinvasiveplants:mechanicaland/or individual measures .Generally, fourtypesofcontrol control incaseswhere invasiveplantsare abletosurvive (Adkins &Shabbir, 2014),maybeeffective forlong-term management, whichinvolvesacombinationofmeasures et al.,2000).Forinvasiveplantspecies,integratedweed strategy ratherthanafocusonindividualinvaders(Mack themselves, aswelltheadoptionofanecosystem-wide sustained diligencethanontheefficacy ofspecifictools Successful control dependsmore oncommitmentand and densityinorder tominimizeadverseimpacts. with theprimarygoalbeingreduction ofabundance Control ofestablishedinvadersisthelastlinedefence, THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION expenditure, billion yr (approx. $88million/yr)in2013/14(WfWhistorical R25 million/yr(approx. $1.7million/yr)in1995,toR1.28 funding totheprogramme increased from aninitialf marginalized people(Ntshotshoetal.,2015a).Government etal.,2002)whilegeneratingemploymentfor van Wilgen to increase watersupply(Marais&Wannenburgh, 2008; with theprimaryaimtoclearinvasiveplantspeciesinorder largest nationwideconservationproject, wasinitiatedin1995 The Working forWater programme ,arguablySouthAfrica’s 1998). Forawater-scarce countrythisisasubstantialimpact. etal.,2012;Versfeldmean annualrunoff (vanWilgen etal., umbrella they nowallfallundertheNaturalResources Management has grown anddiversifi ed intoother programmes and,together, its positivesocietalandenvironmental impacts,theprogramme are provided toapprox. 20,000individualsannually. Becauseof been cleared sincethebeginning andemploymentopportunities research (Ntshotshoetal.,2015a).More thanamillion hahave the research communityandhasbeen infl uenced byscientifi c its inception,theprogramme hasmaintainedcloselinkswith Biodiversity ActNo.10of2004,andtheirRegulations.Since 43 of1983andtheNationalEnvironmental Management: primarily theConservationofAgriculturalResources ActNo. programme isstrongly supportedbyseveralpiecesoflegislation, manual andchemicalmeasures togetherwithbiocontrol. The integrated approach toinvasivealienplantcontrol, combining The Working forWater programme hasalwaysadoptedan were responsible foratotalreduction of1.44millionm the 1.5millionhaoflanddominatedbyinvasivealienplants etal.,2001).Forexample,itwasestimatedthat (van Wilgen provision ofecosystemservicessuchaswaterandgrazing pose athreat tohumanwell-beingbynegativelyimpactingthe etal.,2002).Theseinvasions 2004;vanWilgen & vanWilgen, & Wannenburgh, 2008; Ntshotshoetal.,2015a;Richardson plant speciesandmanagementofbiologicalinvasions(Marais South Africahasalonghistoryofproblems withinvasivealien Box 6

programme. 5

The SouthAfricanWorking forWater programme. http://sites.google.com/site/wfwplanning). 3 /yr in

al., 1999;Raiet2012). success dependsonitstimingandfrequency (Benefieldet for annualsandsomeperennials (Benefieldetal.,1999), infestations (Sheleyetal.,1998).Mowingismosteffective be effective inlooseandmoistsoils,tocontrol small Activities likehand-pullingandhoeingare sitespecific,can available, manualcontrol isfeasible(Raietal.,2012). communities manageland,andaffordable labouris species are oftenlabourintensive,butincountrieswhere Mechanical and/ormanualcontrol ofinvasiveplant use” hasalsobeenconsidered asacontrol measure . manual, cultural,biological,andchemical;but“control by 9.0 and12.7millionm 12,000 ha,hasresulted inestimatedwatergainsofbetween River Dam(Figure 6.9),whichcoversanarea ofapproximately Modelling showsthatclearingoftheuppercatchmentBerg demonstrated signiﬁ cant watergains(Ntshotshoetal.,2015b). At alocallevel,recent assessmentofonetheprojects has the successofprogramme atnationallevel. arecommitment offundsbygovernment equallyimportantfor et al.,2015b).Inaddition,politicalbuy-inand long-term strategic planningandtheconsideration ofcontext(Ntshotsho interconnected factorsatproject level:commitment,passion, of theWorking forWater programme canbeattributedtofour million (~$89,300)forthe63householdsinvolved.Thesuccess in twoauctionsthatgeneratedrevenue totallingjustoverR1.3 assisted toselltheirstockcommercial butchersinthearea the physicalconditionofcattle.Thecattleownerswere then seasons post-clearing,there improvement wasdiscernible in the programme torestore communalland.Aftertwogrowing of SouthAfricawere trained, guidedandsupported,through stewardship approach. Indigentcommunitiesinaruralpart of invasivealienplantspecies(Acaciaspp.)andtakesaland Working forWater project whichlooksbeyondjusttheclearing et al.,2015b).Thishasbeendemonstratedinyetanother improved humanwell-beingatthehouseholdlevel(Ntshotsho positive impactonlivestockconditionandthiscanleadto sites, respectively. Improved pasture conditionhasadirect livestock unit(ha/LSU)onuninvadedanddenselyinvaded translates to28hectares required tosupportonelarge reverse theselossesby66%within5years(Yapi, 2013).This densely invadedsitesrespectively, whereas clearingcan can reduce grazingcapacityby56%and72%onlightly rangeland impactsofinvasionhasshownthatAcaciamearnsii invasive alienplanteradication.Anotherproject lookingatthe Improved watersupplyisnottheonlypotentialbeneﬁ t of second mostimportantsource ofwaterforCape 50% ofthecountry’s surfacewater)(Neletal.,2013)andisthe areas thatoccupy8%ofSouthAfrica’s landarea andsupply one ofSouthAfrica’s 21strategicwatersource areas (theseare capacity ofthe126.4millionm 3 /yr. Thisgainrepresents 7to10%ofthe 3 dam. The dam is located within dam.Thedamislocatedwithin Town. measure (Schlaepferetal., 2005). to beacost-effective, long-term andself-sustainingcontrol (Delfosse, 2005;Messing&Wright, 2006)-isconsidered to predict riskandminimize adverseenvironmental impacts based onextensivetestingandvalidationforhost-specificity Dinoor, 2000;Ghosheh,2005).Itseffective implementation- abundance, ratherthaneradicatethem(Charudattan& using theseorganisms’naturalenemiestoreduce their pests suchasinsects,mites,weedsandplantdiseases Biological control (orbiocontrol) isameansforcontrolling risk ofpromoting theirproliferation (Fine,2002;Moore, established indisturbedhabitats,culturalpracticesdoposea However, consideringthatinvasiveplantsare likelytobecome globe andthelandscape(Ensetal.,2016;Ens2010). opportunities foreffective responses andvaryacross the practices forresponding toinvasivespeciesprovide important species (DiTomaso etal.,2006;Keeley, 2006).Indigenous tocontrolburning invasionofannualbroadleaf andgrass Lantana camara(Duggin&Gentle,1998);andprescribed manipulating shadingbyoverstorey tohinderthegrowth of solstitialis (Adkins&Shabbir, 2014;DiTomaso, 2000); grazing tocontrol Partheniumhysterphorusand several examplesofsuchpractices,forinstance:controlled andphysicalmanipulationofhabitat.Thereburning, are Cultural practicesincludecontrolled grazing,prescribed Of concern isthegrowing 2014) .Ofconcern global incidenceofherbicide roadsides, publicparksoronsmallareas (Adkins&Shabbir, feasible undercertainconditions such ashigh-valuecrops, at Khan &Law, etal.,2000).Itisfinancially 2005;Williams environment andhumanhealthimpacts(Giesyetal.,2000; impacts onothernon-targetspeciesinthesurrounding It isalsotheleastdesirableduetounintendedadverse adopted measure tocontrol invasiveplantandinsectspecies. Chemical control (useofbiocides)isprobably themostwidely- Figure 6

by on-sitemanagement. the generationofacidminedrainage, needtobeminimized (Harris etal.,1989).Potentialoff-site impacts,particularly quickly re-establishing ecosystemstructure andfunction stockpiling duringminingremains amajorlimitationto 3, Section3.473)Theuseofheavyequipmentandsoil and re-instatement (Harris et al.,1996)(seealsoChapter and degradationofsoilresources duringremoval, storage complete removal ofecosystems,hydrological disruption The significanteffects of mining surfacelandsinclude 6.3.2.2 2012; vanKlinkenetal.,2003). bottimeri andNeltumiusarizonensiswere used(vanKlinken, Africa where three seed-feedingbeetles:A.prosopis, Evippe species,andProsopidopsyllaflavathaninSouth biological control agents: Algarobiusbottimeri,A.prosopis, been foundmore effective inAustraliawiththeuseof four et al.,2006).Biologicalcontrol tomanageprosopishas without anynoticeableimpactsoninvasions(Zimmermann (e .g,firewood, producing electricityforlocaluse),but has alsobeenmanagedthrough “control byuse”method Shackleton etal.,2014).InKenyaandEthiopia,prosopis found lesseffective toreduce theinvasions(FAO, 2006; al., 2012).Buttheselattercontrol measures havebeen biological and“control et byuse”measures (vanWilgen mechanical andchemicalmeasures are costlierthan of Prosopisspp.,invasivespecieswithglobalreach, In termsoftheeffectiveness forcontrolling invasion management (Kohlietal.,2006;Shabbir2013). and, consequently, underscores theneedforintegrated Herbicide resistance threatens tounderminecontrol efforts resistance inagriculturalweeds(Heap,2014;Preston, 2004). THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Responses tomineralextraction

465 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 466 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND shortgrass prairiescouldbeachieved fasterthancomplex Frouz etal.(2013)demonstratedthatrestoration tosimple al., 2014;Jones&Schmitz,2009;Spake etal.,2015). resources andoff-site recruitment potential(Curranet degradation anddisturbancetype, sitetopology, on-site characteristics recover atdifferent rates,dependingon is inpracticedifficult todetermine, asdifferent ecosystem 10 to1000years.Predicting timeforecosystem recovery intractable problem, withestimates ofrecovery varyingfrom been carriedout,therestoration ofminedlandsremains an plant reintroduction andfungalpropagule inoculationhas physical management,organicandinorganicadditions, a majorreview onthis).Althoughsignificant research into animal speciesreintroduction (seeStanturfetal.2014for regeneration”, through direct seedingandplanting,to range ofresponses isavailable,rangingfrom “spontaneous an acidicpH,whichisusuallyaddressed byliming.Awide surface mining,despitethefactthatsomesitessuffer from covers asignificantportionofthetotalarea affected by materials havebeenextracted,especiallycoal,which However, thisisnotimportantwhennon-metalliferous mining sites(Ginocchio&Baker2004;Whitingetal.2010). fixing legumes),isapriorityfor restoration ofcontaminated others capableofrapidsoildevelopment(e.g,nitrogen- species toleranttoheavymetals(metallophytes),and &Kirmer,et al.,2014;Tischew 2007).Theuseofnative soils (Gardner &Bell,2007;KochHobbs,Skirycz natural processes ofsuccessionandtodevelopfunctioning On minedlands,activerestoration isrequired totrigger may beneglected. mitigationplans economies withweakmininggovernance, and economicfeasibility and canhavesignificantimpactsontheiroperationalcosts rehabilitation yieldnocapitalreturnstominingoperations & Knowles,2001).However, activitiesrelated tosite and landscapereformation (Harris&Birch, 1989;Parrotta course critical,butonlyafterareplacement ofoverburden of mines(Adiansyahetal.,2008).Topsoil managementisof elements inenvironmental restoration followingtheclosure Sound wastemanagementandrehabilitation plansare key systems toagriculture (Howiesonetal.,2017). with avarietyofpossiblepost-miningusesfrom natural 2013; Šebelíkováetal.,2016;Walker &DelMoral,2009), redevelopment” (Parrotta &Knowles,2001;Prachetal., inoculation, animalre-introduction and“spontaneous such asre-contouring, planting,soilamendment, Hiers etal.,2016).Approaches includeactiveintervention spontaneity intherestored ecosystem(Brudvigetal.,2017; restoration, withthedangerthatthislimitsvariabilityand optimal conditionshasoftenledtoprescriptive targetsfor (Hobbs &Harris,2001).Anoveremphasis onidealized barriers orlimitationstoestablishingfunctioningecosystems a varietyofend-usesentailsovercoming abioticandbiotic Reclamation, rehabilitation andrestoration ofthesesitesto THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION .Therefore, inlessdeveloped Šebelíková etal.(2016)demonstratedthatwhile the species contoured butnotplantedandcaneffectively regenerate . on post-coalopencast(strip)mines .Here, sitesare re- Europe,used extensivelyinCentralandEastern principally “Spontaneous regeneration” isanapproach whichhasbeen community inpost-miningsites(Kumaresan etal.,2017). a more completeandfunctionally-capable soilmicrobial combined withon-sitewastemineralresources -canensure 2011) .Moreover, there-use ofstockpiled soil materials- ground invertebrates,especially earthworms(Boyeretal., transfer, secures bothbetterplantestablishmentandbelow- “direct replacement” involvingcareful handlingofsoilsduring Moving from stockpilingsoilsduringminingoperations,to “desired” plantcommunity configuration(Wubs etal.,2016). control theassemblyofvegetationcommunitiestoreach the sites (vanderBijetal.,2017)andtheseamendmentscan characteristics recover ondrasticallydisturbedpost-mined state sitecanenhancetherateatwhichecosystem post-mining soilswith“live”from adesired reference 2009; Józefowskaetal.,2017).Furthermore, byamending biota aswellchemicalandcarboncycling(Harris, 2015), caninfluencetheeventualcompositionofsoil Plant speciesadditions,especiallytrees (Chodaketal., practices usedintheJarrahrestoration programme . direct soilreplacement andmultipletree speciesplanting species andsoilstockpilingwere used;asopposedtothe less intensiveprogrammes ofrestoration where fewerplant progress towards a“reference” wasmore rapidthanin of carbonsubstratesthanthereference sites.Nonetheless, microbial communitieswere notabletousethesame range 26 yearsafterminerestoration intheserestored forests, 2017) .However, Banningetal.(2011)demonstratedthat vegetation (Grant&Koch,2007)andfauna(Craigetal., considered alargelysuccessful caseintermsofrestoring restoration intheJarrahforest ofWesternAustraliahas been Wratten, 2010),butonlywhere theyare natives.Minesite effect onecosystemservicere-establishment (Boyer& (Harris, 2003).Earthwormreintroduction hasapositive the changesinsitessubjecttorestoration programmes Soil ecologyresearch hasbeenusedextensivelytotrack al., 2016;Hoeksemaet2010). fungi) canaidtree establishmentandsurvival(Asmelashet soil withappropriate mycobionts(especiallymycorrhizal and tree establishment(Howelletal.,2016),andinoculating fertilizers andsoilamendmentscanenhancenutrientcycling fauna (Cristescuetal.,2013).Activeinterventionwith establishment ofvegetation(Spargo&Doley, 2016)and the additionoftopsoilandcompostscangreatly aid for reclamation and/orrestoration aftermineralextraction, When onlysub-soilsandoverburden materialsare available same post-miningsubstrates. communities intallgrassprairieandforest, onessentiallythe patterns; andultimatelyyield.Oneofthemostimportantsoil patterns; nutrient cycling;crop emergence,growth androoting influence on:waterentry, retention and release toplants; land degradationorrestoring degradedlandsduetotheir profitability and,asaguideline,foravoidingand reducing Soil healthandqualityhavebecomeessentialforevaluating Rice, 2015). imperative insomesituations(Chaseketal.,2015;Karlen& and socialgoals,butscience-basedregulations maybe combination ofpracticestomeeteconomic,environmental Ideally, producers voluntarilyselectthemostappropriate farm, tothelandscapelevel(Egan&Mortensen,2012). species richnessacross a continuum from thefield,to (Birkhofer etal.,2008;Roger-Estrade etal.,2010);and et al.,2015);increased soilbiodiversity andfunction biomass growth, developmentandproductivity (Ponisio health and/orsoilqualityindicatorshavebeenidentified: To monitortheeffects ofanyresponse strategy, severalsoil including climatechange,acidificationandsalinization. specific decisionswhichalso recognize inherent constraints agrichemicals .Thesemustbebalancedthrough site- intensities, effects onbiodiversityandlevelsofreliance on forestry systems.Allofthesestrategieshavedifferent energy integrated crop livestockandintegratedcrop livestock farming, ecologicalintensification,conservationagriculture, Other response strategiesincludeagroecology, organic practices collectivelyreferred toas“agronomic practices”. crop rotation, nutrientmanagement,covercrops andother been developed-includingvariouscombinationsoftillage, several soilandcrop managementresponse strategies have while sustainingorimproving soilhealthorquality, fibre andenergyneeds(FAO, 2015).To meetthoseneeds, Healthy soilsare aprerequisite formeetingglobalfood,feed, changes 6.3.2.3 processes maytakemuchlonger to reach thesesitesbynaturalmeans,suchsuccessional available source ofseedsandfungalspores thatare able al., 2015).Anessentialcaveathere isthatwithoutareadily than thosesiteswhichare deliberatelyplanted(Frouz et provide bettercoverforestablishingclimaxwoodyspecies Tropek etal., 2010).Spontaneouslyregenerated sites sites are more variableintheirprogress (Prachetal.,2013; after just20yearsonpreviously forested sites,butwetland successional trajectorythrough spontaneousregeneration cases, woodlandvegetationmaybecomeestablishedona opposed to4IUCNRedListspecies).Further, inmany diverse intermsofspeciesconservationinterest (11as were after20-35yearspost-mining,theytendedtobemore different thanthatofsitesreclaimed byactiveforest planting richness ofsuchspontaneouslyregenerated siteswere no Responses tosoilquality . that 24,000km 2014) .ForChina,Canadell&Raupach(2008)estimated 2007; Harrisetal.,2006;Liu&Hiller, 2016;Valatin &Price, further promote carbonsequestration (Bird &Boysen, land, aswellharvestingforests more frequently, could 2100 .Afforestation ofunused,marginalandabandoned et al.,2015;GünalKoch et al.,2015)andhas both naturalandanthropogenic processes (Bhattacharya Cropland acidification(seeSection4.21)iscausedby Acidification capacity (Liuetal.,2016;Pilli2016)andsoilhealth. disturbances canfurtherincrease forest carbonstorage harvest managementandprevention offorest fire orother estimated 21%ofChina’s 2000fossilfuelemissions.Better capacity from 0.16to1PgCy of 231millionhacouldleadtoanincrease incarbonsink Canadell &Raupach(2008)concludedthatreforestation emissions by161GtCbetween1961and2005,while site-specific combinationsofthosepractices reduced GHG etal.(2010)concludedthatappropriate,emissions .Burney helping tomitigateatmosphericgreenhouse gas(GHG) health andquality, whilereducing production costsand planting schedulesandcrop rotations canimprove soil improved pestandpathogenmanagement,optimizing the adoptionofreduced- orno-tillfarmingpractices, A combinationofhigh-yielding,water-efficient plantvarieties, degradation drivers Soil healthand/orqualityresponsestoselected establish auniversal“SoilsFramework”were unsuccessful. European CommunityPolicies(Toth, 2010),sinceefforts to has beendonebyintegratingsoilprotection intoseveral (vii) archive ofgeologicalandarchaeological heritage .This source ofrawmaterials;(vi)actingasacarbonpool;and (iv) physicalandculturalenvironment forhumankind;(v) of materials;(iii)habitatandgenepoollivingorganisms; biomass production; (ii)storing,filteringandtransformation soils canprovide sevencriticalfunctions:(i)foodandother and qualitylanddegradationbystrivingtoensure that Thematic StrategyforSoilProtection addresses soilhealth Health protocol (Moebius-Cluneetal.,2016).TheEU et al.,2016)andtheComprehensive AssessmentofSoil Assessment Framework(Andrews etal.,2004;Cherubin catchment, orlargerareas -includetheSoilManagement on soilhealthandquality-atlevelofthefield,farm, Tools forassessingtheeffects ofvariousresponse strategies aggregation anddecreasing windandwatererosion . and clay-sizeparticles),decreasing compaction,increasing porosity, enhancing soilstructure (i.e,bindingofsand-,silt-, can improve soilhealthandqualitybyincreasing soil processes .Forexample,applyinganimalorgreen manures it directly influencesamultitudeofsoilproperties and strategy, isanincrease soilorganiccarbon,because health andqualitychanges,associatedwithanyresponse THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 2 ofnewforest wasplanted -offsetting an -1 , betweennowand 467 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 468 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND (2008) reported influencesoilacidityasfollows:(NH amount andtypeofnitrogen fertilizerwhichChenetal. et al.,2014).Anotherresponse strategyistochangethe through topsoilbefore itcanneutralizetheacidity(Johnson for acidifiedsubsoil,astimeis required forlimetopenetrate Johnson etal.,2014).Unfortunately, limingislesseffective stimulates recovery ofbioticresources (Battlesetal.,2014; the acid-basestatusofstreams drainingthearea and aluminium, magnesiumandothercontaminants,improves increases basesaturation,decreases concentrationsof is toapplylime(CaCO3)orotherbasicmaterials.This Therefore, themostdirect approach tomanageacidification and severalheavymetalsthatare toxictomostplants. and increases concentrationsofaluminium,magnesium potassium andsodium),decreases soilbuffering capacity exchangeable basecations(calcium,magnesium, Acidification increases themobilityandleachingof mitigate acidification(Tully etal.,2015). without organicinputs,inAfrica,hasbeenrecommended to rate nitrogen fertilizerapplicationsandcontinuouscropping anhydrous ammonia.Transitioning from long-term,high- deposition anduseofacidifyingsoilamendmentssuchas 2015) .Responsestrategiesincludereducing atmospheric $400 millionperannumthrough lostproduction (Kochetal., been calculatedtoreduce farmgatereturnsinAustraliaby THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION NH deposits enrichedinsodium,calcium, magnesium,SO to depressions where thewaterevaporatesandleaves substrata toimpermeablelayers, andeventuallyflows by plants,movesbelowtheroot zonethrough salt-laden seeps .Thesalineformwhensoil water, notused crop selection,fallowlands andsoon)havecreated saline andcultural practices(tillage, conditions, climatepatterns the USAandWesternEurope, acombinationofgeological In humidregionsGreat suchasCanada, Northern Plainsin et al.,2014). estimated $27.3billioninlostcrop production, alone(Qadir decisions, havebeendevelopedinresponse toan recharge; and(iv)improving landandwatermanagement only where there isproper drainage,(iii)increasing aquifer groundwater withdrawalandseawaterintrusion,(ii)irrigating 2014) .Responsestrategiessuchas:(i)preventing excessive Globally, 23%ofallirrigatedlandisclassifiedas saline(FAO, impairing productivity andseveralecosystemfunctions. Salinization negativelyaffects soilhealthandqualityby Salinization base saturation. magnesium concentrationsmore rapidlythanitincreases simply reducing acidinputdecreases aluminiumand al., 2015),butforest recovery remains limitedbecause because ofincreased airqualityregulations et (Virto This hasbeenoccurringinWesternEurope since1980, also bereduced bydecreasing atmosphericaciddeposition . 4 Cl >NH 4 NO 3 >anhydrous NH 3 >urea .Acidificationcan 4 ) 2 SO 4 -S 4 > and NO can enhancesoilhealthand/orquality, reduce destruction Agroecological andecologicalintensificationapproaches reductions insoilfunctionalcapacity(Chaseketal.,2015). practice” approaches toavoidfurtherdegradationand are currently verylimited;relying insteadonindustry“best- Finally, policychangesandespeciallynationalregulations, monitoring toavoid,reduce orreverse landdegradation. therefore thebasisforrecommending soilhealthandquality - alsorequire timetobedetectable.Thistemporaleffect is and/or compostapplicationsandsite-specificmanagement cover crops, animalorgreen manure applications,biochar and qualitychanges-inresponse tofertilizermanagement, high tolowimpactactivitiescantakeadecade.Soilhealth cycling -althoughresponse timewhenconvertingfrom structure andstability, aeration,waterbalanceandnutrient alsoaffectsbelow ground soil (Lehmanetal.,2015).Tillage size, compositionandactivityofthebiologicalcommunity et al.,2016),becauseitaffects surfacecoverandthe and biodiversity or reverse landdegradationbyincreasing biomasscontent etal.2015;Veum(Wingeyer etal.2015)andavoid,reduce and agroforestry canimprove soilhealthand/orquality green manure application,covercropping, grazingintensity frequency andintensity,Tillage crop rotation, animaland/or and/or qualityandmitigatedegradation Soil managementstrategiestoenhancesoilhealth prevent distribution andsaltbalance,thushelpingtoreduce oreven DRAINMOD-S orSAHYSMODthatcanpredict water are severalagro-hydro-salinity modelssuchasSALTMOD, erosion, whilealsodecreasing surfacecrusting.Finally, there aggregates thatimprove infiltrationand resistance towind because theygenerallysupporttheformationofstablesoil crops oftenhaveanaddedsoilhealthand/orqualitybenefit, or dipaquifers(Schaible&Aillery, 2012).Growing salt-tolerant quantities thatdrainintoterminalreservoirs asoceans,saline approach istorestrict theuseofnaturalwaterresources to and increasing organicmatter(FAO-ITPS, 2015).Another harvesting them;addingcalciumsulfateorstrong acids; phytoremediation withhalophytesandsubsequently root zone;plantingofsalttolerantcultivars;implementing sufficient irrigationwatertoleachsolublesaltsbelowtheplant quality (lowelectricalconductivity)irrigationwater;applying (Virto of FranceandPortugal),oftentheresult ofimproper irrigation Mediterranean climate(i.e,Spain,Greece andcoastalparts In Europe, mostsalineareas are locatedinareas witha precipitation (MAFRI,2008). areas andintensifyingcropping systemstofullyutilize strategies includedivertingsurfacedrainagefrom recharge arid andsemi-aridregions (Ankeretal.2009).Response et al.,1981).Thislatterprocess ismuchmore severe in et al.2015).Suggestedresponses include:usinghigh- 3 salinization . -N whichsubsequentlyretard plantgrowth (Black Tillage isespeciallyimportant(Hammac .Tillage conservation agriculture practices canimprove soil Farooq &Siddique,2015;Lal,2015a,2015b).Implementing reduce andevenreverse landdegradation(Dumanski, 2015; many different practicesthat,incombination,canavoid, Conservation agriculture (see Section6.311)encompasses often citedasbeingsignificant. tillage forweedcontrol andpossibleyieldreductions, are still help advanceorganicfarming,butcostsofproduction, rotations .Nationalregulation and/orpolicychangesmay of foragelegumesandgreen manures andextended crop include theapplicationofcompostedanimalmanure, use (Cambardella etal.,2015).Typical organicfarmingpractices quantity associatedwithintensiveagriculturalpractices consequences suchasimpaired waterqualityand/or reduce cropland soildegradationandavoidunintended enhance carbonsequestration(Gattingeretal.,2012), Many haveadvocated“organic”farmingpracticesto these management practicesare essentialforawin-winoutcomein available water the covercrop canuseaconsiderableportionoftheplant- been suggestedbecauseitreduces soilerosion .However, and quality, plantingagreen coverbetweencrop rows has cropland degradationandmaintainingorimproving soilhealth use conversion.Asapracticeforpreventing ormitigating reliance onagrochemicals andthusavoidfurtherland- landscape scales,toenhanceagriculturalproductivity, reduce smart useofecosystemfunctionsandservicesatfield and agroecology (seeSection6.311)emphasizesmaking 2014).Bothecologicalintensification al., 2013;Tittonell, regulation, nutrientcyclingandpollination(Bommarco et that supportproduction, includingbetterbioticpest actively managingfarmlandtoincrease naturalprocesses 5, Section5.32)Ecologicalintensificationinvolves landscape structure (Dumanski,2015)(seealsoChapter or degradationofsemi-naturalecosystemsandhomogenize millet) thatexploitdifferent growth habitsandrooting. patterns traditional practicestogrow variousannualcrops (including diversified cropping systems.Inrainfedareas, farmersuse One examplefocusedonsoilhealth is theuseofmixedand configurations, are influenced byILK(Mishra, recharging groundwater, optimizingtillageandusingdifferent land applying soilamendments,harvestingwater, controlling seepage, conditions, manyagronomic practicesincludingterracing, practices are implemented underavarietyofagroecological countries .InIndia,where traditionalsoil andwaterconservation natural resource conservationandmanagementexistsinmost An extensiveindigenousandlocalknowledge(ILK)basefor Box practices . 6

6 Hence good, data-driven and science-based .Hencegood,data-drivenandscience-based

Use offarmers’knowledgetoenhancesoilhealthin India. 2002) . ILK usetoenhancesoilhealth). degradation (seeBox6.foranexampleofhighlyeffective inputs canbeaneffective response toreduce orreverse soil Use ofindigenousandlocalknowledge(ILK)withscientific land degradation. used toenhancesoilhealthandqualityavoidfurther efficient, economicalandsustainablemethodsare being important strategymaybetoadoptpoliciesthatensure countries .Regardless ofthespecificpractice,most changes andmanycanbeimplementedindeveloping be usedtoavoidormitigatesoilhealthand/orquality In summary, severaldifferent management strategiescan poor surrogate forcharacterizingsoilbiodiversity crop, livestockandforestry integration(Toth, 2010),itisa monitoring effects oftheland-usepoliciesandoptimizing soil organicmattercontentiseffective forassessingand or qualityproperties andprocesses .However, eventhough because oftheinfluenceithasonseveralsoilhealthand/ evaluation schemesfocusedonsoilorganicmatter, 2005) .Thepracticescanbeoptimizedbyimplementing land ismanagedsustainablyornot(Nielsen&Adriansen, areas, nationalgrazingregulations caninfluencewhether success verymuchdependsonthebiometype.Insome arid orsemi-aridecosystemsandhumidareas, and and quality practices provides amultitudeofbenefitsforsoilhealth of soilorganicmatter, integratedcrop, livestockandforestry decreasing windandwatererosion andavoidingdepletion ensuring thatcrop residue removal isnotexcessive, By preventing excessiveoruncontrolled livestockgrazing, ensure orenhancesoilmicrobial biomass. soil organiccarboncontent,conservestructure and pollution .Conservationagriculture canalsohelpincrease environmental benefitsandprotecting againstwater health andqualitybyintensifyingproduction, enhancing economic returns to thefarmers. improveswhich inturn soilhealth,crop nutritionalstatusand farmyard manure helpssustainthesoilorganicmattercontent, of residual root biomass, crop residue, animalexcreta and support grazingofcrop residues byanimals.Thecombination crops tobeharvestedbefore theunderground crops andto crops isselectedinamanner thatenablestheabove-ground rainfall whenitdoesoccur crops, aswelltheerosive impactofintensive(monsoon) which reduces weedgrowth andcompetitionwiththeannual efficiencies thisresults .Inturn, inmore rapidcanopyclosure water from different soillayers,thusincreasing resource-use Those differences enablethecrops tousenutrientsandsoil THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION .Optimalresponse strategieswilldiffer between .Furthermore, thesequence of . 469 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 470 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND processing real-time dataonwaterlevel,rainfall,runoff, for rapid,reliable decisionsonmonitoring,acquiringand 2003) .Theuseofmobile-basednetworks andappsallows to landholdersandcommunities (Brunette&Germain, land managementpracticesand theprovision ofincentives use ofsoilandwaterconservationtechniques,judicious Responses tohydrological regime changesincludethe Kemp etal.,2005). and marineecosystems(Goesch,2001;Hagyetal.,2004; eutrophication andhypoxia oftheregion’s rivers,estuaries runoff thathave,sincethe 1950s,resulted inextensive - particularlynitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural pollutants andnutrientsfrom upstream land-based sources policies whichsupportthegoalofreducing theamountof local watershedorganizations.Theaimistobuildandadopt coordinates efforts ofvariousstate,federal,academic and and the2014ChesapeakeBayWatershed Agreement, Bay inthemid-Atlanticregion oftheUSA.ThisProgram, directs andconductstherestoration oftheChesapeake Program: aregional partnershipestablishedin1983 that quality andecosystemhealthistheChesapeakeBay programme thathashadsomesuccessinimproving water intensification (FAO, 2011).Anexampleofamanagement managing environmental risksassociatedwithagricultural systems andimproving on-farmwaterproductivity; and moisture inrainfedareas; increasing efficiency ofirrigation varieties); managingsoilhealthandfertility; for example,increased useofdrought-resistant crop improvements inrainfedagriculturalproductivity (through, management (seeSections6.31and24)include: on people.Otherresponses appliedtoagriculturalland hydrological events(floodsanddrought) andtheirimpacts balance andtominimizetheoccurrence ofextreme response toensure catchment-scalehydrological Integrated landandwatermanagementisaneffective (CGIAR, 2016). development ofadvancedwatermanagementtechnologies wastewater treatment; riverandstream rehabilitation; and of largeorsmalldams,reservoirs andirrigationsystems; water managementapproaches suchas:construction and management.Theyalsoincludeavarietyofother and 6.324)aswellILKrelated towaterconservation improved crop andsoilmanagement(seeSections6.21 climate changeimpactsinmanyregions -focusprimarilyon responses towaterresources pressures -exacerbatedby (see Chapter5,Sections5.32,81and2)Local water security, humanhealthandexposure tofloodrisk Chapter 4,Sections4.2and5),aswellfood health ofaquatic,coastalandmarineecosystems(see and coastalecosystemshaveimplicationsforboththe Land-based pollutionanddegradationoffreshwater changes 6.3.2.4 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Responses towaterquality used almostanywhere (Mekdaschi-Studer&Liniger, often energyneutralandincludelow-cost practicesthatcanbe resources .Rainwaterandrunoff harvestingtechniquesare reducing waterconsumption,theydecrease pressure onwater management strategiestendtobe relatively lowcost,andby accessibility andenergyefficiency Effective watermanagement solutionsrangeintheircost, potable water(IWA 2015). small-scale systems,thattogethercansavevastamountsof friendly mayhelppromote widespread implementationof these systemsmore automated, lowmaintenanceanduser- and developingcountries(IWA, 2015;SIWI2010).Making Section 6.315)hasbeenusedeffectively inbothdeveloped Wastewater treatment usingconstructedwetlands(see & Berube,2012). washing andmixing(Levidowetal.,2016;Thoren, Atwater, reclaimed waterincludeevaporativecooling,boilerfeed, non-drinking purposes.Industrialprocesses thatutilize spaces, thereby reducing theuseofpotablewaterfor suburban landscapemaintenanceandothernon-agricultural 2010) .Reclaimedwateralsohaspotentialusesinurbanand contaminants before itisappliedtocrops (Travis etal., some treatment toremove oil,surfactantsandother organic be usedforirrigationbut,likewastewater, itmustundergo washing, toiletflushingandlandscaping.Greywater canalso include agriculturalirrigation,industrialprocesses, street potable reclaimed waterthatare more widelyacceptable reclaimed water(Brown &Davies,2007).Usesofnon- many peopleare inherently aversetodrinkingorusing potable reuse) liesincommunityacceptance,because of .Oneprominent challengeinwaterreuse (particularly expensive and/orproduce effluents thatmustbedisposed wastewater treatment are energyintensiveandmay be Water qualitytechnologiessuchasdesalinationand smart technologies. such aswatertrading,cloudstimulationandclimate- for appropriate waterbalancehavebeendevised, countries withrelative watershortages.Newsolutions natural resource-use efficiency, whichisessentialfor development policiescanpromote practicesthatimprove The coordination ofenvironmental, economic,tradeand (IWA 2015). consumption bytheState’s largeagriculturalproducers using sensorsforsmartirrigationcontrol toreduce water water useatthehouseholdlevel.Atsametime,theyare install smartwatermetersthatdetectleaksandoptimize of historicseverity, startedapilotprogramme California to yield inagivenirrigationzone.Respondingtodrought amount ofwaternecessarytoproduce themaximum information onsoildata-allowingthemtodeterminethe farmers tooptimizeirrigationandobtain(cloud-based) water qualityandleakagedetection.Suchsystemshelp Most demand-based .Mostdemand-based 2013) . grain transport(Rancourtetal.,2014)-are takeninto that affect foodsecurity-suchaspoorroads andthecostof season (Senay&Verdin, 2003).Inadditiontowater, other factors crop yieldismodelledatthestartandend,forentire linear yield-reduction function,speciﬁ c toeachcrop. Inthisway, satisfaction index-whichcanberelated tocrop yieldusinga The Program usesanumericalmodel-thewaterresource 2012; GOE,2015). Productive SafetyNetProgram hasbeendeveloped(FAIS, country-wide, geographicassessmentofconditionscalledthe Since Ethiopiahasmanyinaccessibleregions, anobjective, as many7.6millionpeoplemayrequire emergencysupport. be adverselyaffected bycrop production shortfalls.Attimes, 2014). Whendroughts occur, verylargenumbersofpeoplecan dependent onthevagariesofannualrainfall(ECSA&WFP, the povertyline,hasoneofworld’s largestpopulations Ethiopia, where oneinthree peoplecurrently livebelow Box Figure index, itcanbeusedforcomparisonswithinandover Since thewaterresource satisfactionindexisanumerical D A 6

6 7

10 Population 2020 Improving foodsecurity in Ethiopiathrough agrometeorological monitoring.

1982-1991 (2005); Brown etal.(2017). value of50%orlessforsmallgrainsbetween The numberofseasonsthathaveawaterrequirement satisfaction index and D populationdensitypersquare kilometerin 2020.Source: GPWv3 CIESIN C 2002-2011inEthiopia.Thehigherthenumber, themore failedseasons; B account. 1992-2001 Warning, Warning System,FEWS;GEOGLAMCrop MonitorforEarly schemes are used(e.g.,Brown 2008,theFamineEarly early. Inmanycountriesatriskoffoodinsecurity, similar Ethiopia toanticipatefoodsecurityissuesandrespond consequent agriculturalproductivity, are keywaysfor crops. Detectingandresponding tochangingrainfall,and affecting crop yield,consideringmultipledrought-sensitive wide methodisthatitcanshowwhere rainfallanomaliesare increased evapotranspiration.Anadvantageofthecountry- changes inrainfall,aswellhighertemperatures driving year period(Funketal.,2005).Thisisduetoboththe located, hasexperienceddeclinesinrainfalloverathirty- Ethiopianregions,Southern where mostofthepopulationis most yearsincreasing totheeast.TheSouth-centraland productive -withthearea experiencingfailedseasonsin region intherainshadow, inTigray, becamedrierandless experienced increases inrainfallduringthisperiod,the Figure 6.10showsthatwhilemountainoushighlandareas the crops failedcompletelybetween1982and2011. multiple years;forexample,thenumberofseasonswhen THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION https://cropmonitor.org). A 1982-1991, C B 2002-2011 1992-2001 471 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 472 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION DEGRADATION DEGRADATION LAND USE OR LAND USEOR Table DRIVER

SOIL QUALITY IMPROVEMENT MINE SITE MANAGEMENT INVASIVE SPECIES MANAGEMENT 6

Summary ofdirect biophysicalandtechnicalresponses, theirnature andrelative Repositioning erodedsoil Phytoremediation Erosion control Provide adequatedrainage Adding compostorbiochar Adding animalorgreenmanure Fertilizer management Crop rotation Using covercrops perennials Increased cropdiversityand intensity Reduced tillagefrequencyand/or Organic farming Conservation Agriculture Agroecological management Managed orrotationgrazing and soilproﬁ les hydrological dynamics,biodiversity Active measurestorestorenatural forest andwetlandecosystems recreate functioninggrassland, Passive restorationmeasuresto of topsoil Conservation andearlyreplacement Reclamation ofminesitetopography wastes (soilsandwater) On-site managementofmining Chemical control Biological control Cultural control Mechanical control Quarantine measures invasion pathways Identiﬁ cation andmonitoringof RESPONSE OPTIONS invasive species,mineralextraction,soilqualitychangeandwaterchange. effectiveness inavoiding, reducing orreversing landdegradationcausedby Reduce (Rd), Reverse (Rv) NATURE OF NATURE OF Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Rv RESPONSE Avoid (Av), Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Rd, Rv Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Rd Rd Rd Rd Rd Rd Rv Av Av Economic feasibility RESPONSE EVALUATION CRITERIA AND EFFECTIVENESS RANKING RESPONSE EVALUATIONCRITERIAANDEFFECTIVENESSRANKING accepta- Social bility desirability Environ- mental (COLOUR-CODED) accepta- Cultural bility Technical feasibility accepta- Political bility being usedindevelopingcountries(IWA 2016)include: watermanagement technologies examples ofalternative the economicmeanstoimplementthem.Somepromising with thegreatest needformore reliable watersupplieslack UN Water 2015),butunfortunatelymanyofthecountries more advancedandincreasingly energyefficient (IWA 2016; Technologies foraddressing waterchallengesare becoming is therefore neededin decision-makingabouttechnological A comprehensive understandingofthewater-energy nexus DEGRADATION DEGRADATION LAND USE OR LAND USEOR

conserve rainwater(Nguyenetal., 2013). the villagewasabletodiversifyits watersupplyand groundwater tomeetoutdoor andnon-potableneeds, runoff .Furthermore, byusingpreviously less-trusted groundwater contamination byarsenicandsewage bottled watertosupplypotableandavoided were installed.Theyeliminatedtheneedforexpensive with calminlets,UVfiltrationandfirstflushsystems than $400)thatconsistedofscreens, settlingtanks rainwaterharvestingsystems(costingless Vietnam, In thevillageofCukhe,onoutskirtsHanoiin on humanhealth(Godfrey etal.,2010); contamination ofsoilsandwater, andnegativeimpacts 300 schoolsand1,500households,thusavoiding similar systemswere laterimplementedtoserveover reducing waterdemandandimproving sanitationthat Madhya PradeshinIndia,whichwassoeffective in Small-scale ruralgreywater reuse systemsinrural DRIVER

WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT effectiveness High EFFECTIVENESS RANKINGOFRESPONSEOPTIONS Non-point sourcepollutioncontrol Point sourcepollutioncontrol practices Soil andwaterconservation agement Integrated landandwaterman- Desalination Constructed wetlands Wastewater treatment Rainwater harvesting RESPONSE OPTIONS effectiveness Moderate tohigh Reduce (Rd), Reverse (Rv) NATURE OF NATURE OF effectiveness Moderate Av, Rd,Rv Av, Rd,Av RESPONSE Avoid (Av), Rd, Rv Av, Rd Av, Rd Av, Rd Rd Rv Economic feasibility or rehabilitating theland.Theresponses are broadly thus avoidingfurtherdegradation andultimatelyrestoring address thedirect and indirect causesofland degradation, Enabling andinstrumentalresponses are intendedto RESTORATION DEGRADATION AND RESPONSES TOLAND INSTRUMENTAL 6.4 (Mekdaschi-Studer &Liniger, 2013). experiences from throughout theworld,are alsoavailable practice guidelinesforwaterharvesting,basedon & Rentz,2004;Karavanasetal.,2009).Similarly, best primarily fortheindustrialsector(Entec,2009;Geldermann pollution prevention andcontrol havebeendeveloped, techniques aimedatoptimizingsystemsofintegrative standardized setofbestavailabletechnologiesor conditions ofagivenarea (IWA 2015).Anearlyglobally- social, economic,political,institutionalandenvironmental must togetherfindthesolutionsmostappropriate tothe applicable, watermanagersandrelevant stakeholders possible (IWA 2016).Becausenosolitarysolutionisglobally sources shouldbeincorporatedintoprojects asmuch as options andconsiderationsforclean,renewable energy (low tohigh) effectiveness Variable RESPONSE EVALUATION CRITERIA AND EFFECTIVENESS RANKING RESPONSE EVALUATIONCRITERIAANDEFFECTIVENESSRANKING THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION accepta- ENABLING AND Social bility effectiveness Low tomoderate desirability Environ- mental (COLOUR-CODED) accepta- Cultural bility effectiveness Low Technical feasibility accepta- Political bility 473 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 474 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND embracing economic,environmental andsocialissuesat on comprehensive sustainableforest managementby awareness andincreased disseminationofknowledge of biodiversityinthetropics, aswasintended,butitraised forest products inthe early1990sdidnothaltthedecline Meyfroidt, 2011).Theintroduction ofeco-certification of have beenenvironmentally effective forcoffee (Lambin& to regulateand landuse,trade andconsumptionpatterns, voluntary product certification schemeshavebeenused the useofpolicyinstruments(e.g,tariffs) .Inconjunction, local togloballevels(Lambin&Meyfroidt, 2011),with trade andenvironmental protection asacontinuumfrom tradeofcommoditiesincludelinking and international Responses tolanddegradationcausedbyglobalization Section 8.3) (Lambin etal.,2014)(alsoseeSection6.42andChapter8, sectors, andtheuseofinnovativepolicyinstruments arrangementsbetweenprivate andpublic governance raising publicawareness, multi-sectoralandcoordinated preferences indevelopedanddevelopingcountriesinvolve tradeand consumption of globalization,international 2013) .Responsestocontrol theunintendedconsequences decisions indistantplaces(Garrett etal.,2013;Liu by informationandtransporttechnology, affects land-use pointing tohowtheshorteningofsupplychains,facilitated production intheAmazon,ChacoandCerradobiomes- fuel inAsiaandEurope ledtorapidexpansionofsoybean degradation .Forexample,increased demandforfoodand they alsobringenvironmental challenges,includingland tradecanreduceinternational economicgrowth barriers, change andmigration.Althoughincreased globalizationand section focusesonthree: globalization,demographic is impractical(seeChapter3,Section3.6fordetails),this 3 .62)Ascomprehensive evaluationofallindirect drivers factors(see Chapter3,Section policy andothergovernance interacts withotherindirect drivers,thecurrent institutional, drivers willdependonwhichdriverismostinfluential,howit Sections 3.6and4)Theoptimumresponse tothose culture candegradelandinmanyways(seeChapter3, energydemand,technologyand consumption patterns, Indirect driversincludingpollution,migration,globalization, drivers: globalization,demographic 6.4.1 andinstitutionalresponsesgovernance tolanddegradation. indirect driversandthenassessingeffectiveness ofpolicy, Section 6.3bybrieflyassessingpotential responses tokey based practices)(MA,2005a).Thissectioncomplements capacity, technologyandindigenousorlocalknowledge- and anthropogenic assets(infrastructure, humanresources, grouped intopolicyinstruments,institutions,governance THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION change andmigration Responses toindirect to facilitatelandrecovery (Chenetal.,2014).From 2000to Guizhou andShannxiprovince, tootherruralorurbanareas ecologically vulnerableareas, suchasmountainareas of hasrelocatedChinese government millionsofpeoplefrom recovery (Wang, Song,&Hu,2010).Forexample,the for resettlement policiesand actionstopromote ecosystem Meyfroidt, 2011).InChina,ecologicalmigrationisadriver now happeninginmanydevelopingcountries(Lambin& occurred historicallyindeveloped countries,butare Migration-related landsparingandforest transitions have socio-economic changes(Aideetal.,2013). between 2001and2010becauseofoutward migrationand Caribbean, 362,430km trend LatinAmericaandthe (Izquierdo etal.,2011).Within will bereduced by26%in2030compared tothecurrent scenario .Iffuture emigrationratesincrease, deforestation deforestation by24%compared toa“no-migration” 2003) .InMisiones,Argentina,ruralemigration“reduced” the 2000s,asaresult ofrural-urbanmigration(Grauetal., island’s landarea inthelate1940stomore than40%in forests haverecovered from alowoflessthan10%the Argentina andPeru)(Aide&Grau,2004).InPuertoRico, deserts andAndeantundraecosystemsofBolivia, Republic) andfornon-forested ecosystems(e.g,montane Argentina, Ecuador, Mexico,HondurasandtheDominican parts ofLatinAmerica(especiallyPatagonia,Northwest following rural-urbanmigrationiswelldocumentedformany Forest ecosystemrecovery through naturalregeneration urban latter focusesonresettlement, fertilityrateandrural- Sections 6.311,2and3),whereas the through sustainableintensificationorothermeans(see agricultural activitiesonbiodiversityandlandcondition The formermayfocusonreducing negativeimpactsof interactions versuspopulationchangeare notthesame. interactions .Policyresponses toaddress human-land consideration specificpopulationandlanddegradation aligned withhigh-levelpopulationpoliciesthattakeinto and restoration actionsare more effective when affluence andbehaviour (Waggoner &Ausubel,2002),oftendueto differences in degradation perse,andtheirimpactsdiffer greatly and genderinequality)havecomplexrelations withland population structure, growth rate,migrationdynamics Population densityandotherdemographicfactors(e.g, biodiversity lossatmultiplespatialandtemporalscales. cover, butisalsoassociatedwithlanddegradationand Demographic changenotonlyaffects locallanduseand trade. international to minimizetheecologicalfootprintofglobalizationand supply chainandconsumptionpracticesisimperative social andenvironmental standards forproduction, a globallevel(Rametsteiner&Simula,2003).Maintaining migration . 2 .Responsestolanddegradation ofwoodyvegetationrecovered

to avoid,haltandreduce landdegradationorreverse/ to create, enableandimplementactionsontheground responsesInstitutional, policyandgovernance are designed responsesgovernance 6.4.2 mountain regions . contributed tolandrestoration through naturalprocesses in conditions (Blacketal.,2011;Piguet,2012).Thistrend has regions duetoclimatechangeandsocio-economic of theworldhaveexperienceddepopulationinmountain years, withtheexceptionofNorthAmerica,severalparts restoration (Gaoetal.,2014;Wang etal.,2010).Inrecent depopulation ofthecountrysidecanleadtoecological response tolanddegradation.Householdmigrationand Voluntary rural-urbanmigrationisacommonadaptation degradation (Fanetal.,2015). its associatedriskshavenotbeenalleviatedduetoland area Chinafoundthatwaterscarcity ofnorth-western and effectiveness andlong-termimpact.Astudyinaresettled (for ecosystemrecovery) requires careful assessmentofits (Tsunekawa etal.,2014).However, thiskindofrelocation were relocated toareas withinoroutsidetheirprovinces 2012, aboutsevenmillionfarmersinWesternChina,alone, Figure TYPES OFPOLICY METHODOLOGIES POLICY SUPPORT POLICY GOALS CHALLENGES INSTRUMENTS TOOLS AND Institutional, policyand POLICY 6

tools andmethodologies. Land degradation-andrestoration-related policychallenges,goals, instruments, degradation ofecosystem Legal andregulatory Prevent/avoid land Loss ofbiodiversityand Scenario analysisand Participatory planning degradation instruments SPATIAL SCALES:GLOBAL,REGIONAL,NATIONAL, SUB-NATIONAL, LOCAL services models Restore degraded customary norms instruments and Rights-based degradation drivers land and processes commitments andcontrol torestore, maintainorimprove are supportedbythosepoliciesandhavethemeans, instruments are effective onlywhenlandmanagers goals andchallenges.Land-managementpolicies combinations thatcancontributetooneormore policy and challenges.Theverticalarrows thusrepresent many relationships amongpolicysupporttools,methodologies expand thepolicydomainwhileverticalarrows show related policygoals.InFigure 6.11,thehorizontalarrows instrument canbeappliedattwodifferent spatiallevelsfor needed toachievepolicygoals-althoughthesame spatial scale(i.e,local,regional, nationalorglobal) The appropriate policyinstrumentmaydependonthe address them. policy goals,instruments,andsupporttoolsmethodsto degradation andrestoration challengesandtheassociated (also seeSection8.3)Figure 6 .11illustratesseveralland and torestore degradedlandatnationalandlocallevels decisions toavoid,haltandreduce landdegradation effectiveness ofpolicyinstrumentsforguidinglong-term capacity-building) .Thissectionfocusesontypesand and technologydevelopment,institutionalreform and used andaccesstoanthropogenic assets(e.g,research implementation, includingthetypeofpolicyinstrument responses isprimarilyassociatedwiththeirdesignand restore degradedlands.Theeffectiveness ofthese Field andremotesensing Severity of THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Deliberative tools monitoring degraded land and fiand nancial Rehabilitate instruments Economic Context-specifi city ofresponses and unevendistributionof anthropogenic assets Multi-criteria decision Cost-benefianalysis t Social andcultural analysis degradation instruments Offset land 475 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 476 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND Kløve etal.,2011),managementofcoastal land (eminent Protection oftheRamsarConvention;Dooleyetal.,2015; groundwater (e.g,Directive 2000/60/EConGroundwater indirect protection for soils,safeguarding ofwetlands and lawwhichcanprovidesubject tonationalandinternational Montanarella &Vargas, 2012).Localplanningisthus legislation (Hannam&Boer, 2001;Leibfriedetal.,2015; to soilprotection andeven compelstatestoadoptnew lawcaninfluencenational policies International related operations (Dissart,2006). or non-constructiblelands,tomaintainrelocate farming use oftaxincentives,suchasrelief fornon-waterproof through landreserve funds.Territory control alsoallowsthe e .g,coastalzones),orfreezing theuseofcertainlands rights, eminentdomain(usedinthemostsensitiveareas, as land-useorbuildingpermits,purchase ofdevelopment also useotherlegislativeandregulatory instruments,such support oflocalplanning,nationalandauthoritiesmay (Dissart, 2006;Hassan&Lee,2015;Yucer etal.,2016).In to establishlegalorcontractualconservationeasements zoning and/orobligationtobuildincontinuityareas), and limited housingdensityand/orurbangrowth areas, cluster for specificuses(e.g,natural,agricultural,orurbanareas, planning andassociatedzoningenablethedivisionofland legal response allowsauthoritiestomanagelanduse.Land authorities (Dumanski,2015;ESPON,2012).Thiskindof of subsidiarityanddivisionpowersbetweenpublic Planning isalegalresponse according totheprinciple national orregional standards . designed forindustrialandagriculturalactivitiesbasedon The secondsetofinstrumentsinvolveslegalframeworks or regional (masterplan)andlocal(zoningmap)levels. consequences ofimproper landuse-isplanningatnational avoid landdegradationandtoreduce orreverse adverse most commonly-usedlegalandregulatory instrument-to For statesthatcontrol landmanagement,thefirstand specific policysettings(Alterman,1997;Kairisetal.,2014). policy land managerstooperatewithintheprescriptions ofagiven Legal andregulatory instrumentsare usedtoencourage 6.4.2.1 socially andpoliticallyacceptable(seeSection6.22) environmentally beneficialanddesirable;culturally, instruments mustbe:economicallyandtechnicallyfeasible; (Low, 2013).Thismeansthattobeeffective, policy conformity withotherpoliciesandpoliticalpreferences monitoring, enforcement, distributionaleffects and on itsenvironmental effectiveness, costsofimplementation, management practicesorlandscaperestoration depends policy instrumentchoicetopromote sustainableland- the qualityofland(ELD,2015).Furthermore, theappropriate THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION .Theeffectiveness ofsuchinstrumentsdependson Legal andregulatory instruments requires anequivalent compensationtobepaidforthe with anobligationtorestore thesite-failingofwhich typically operateisbasedonthe “polluterpays”principle, The mechanismbywhichlegaland regulatory instruments Russi etal.,2016). 2014; DalFerro etal.,2016;Huttunen&Peltomaa, Bodiguel, 2014;Bredemeier etal.,2015;Bureau &Thoyer, and theirassociatedbiodiversity(Baylisetal.,2008; ditches andwoods;conservationofhigh-valuehabitats of landscapeandhistoricalfeatures suchashedgerows, farm managementandorganicagriculture; preservation management oflow-intensitypasture systems;integrated of managementpractices.Suchinclude:the measures (onavoluntarybasis) topursueanumber that provide paymentsto farmers whoparticipateinsuch environmental protection with“agri-environment measures” or biodiversity compaction orimpermeability, andlossoforganicmatter also beusedtoreduce soilpollutionorcontamination, Pretty etal.,2001;Singh,2015,2016).Incentivescan &Barkarson,2003;Billet,2008; Bodiguel,2014; (Arnalds to organicfarmingandorganizingshortdistributionchannels use ofpesticides,enhancingcrop diversification,converting incentives includeproviding shares infavourofreducing the adopted tominimizelanddegradation.Examplesofsuch eco-conditionality onfinancialassistancecanalsobe standards ondevelopmentactivities,incentivessuchas development activities.Inadditiontoapplyingenvironmental (Prieur, 2011)andprovision ofoffsets forresidual impactsof be mitigatedthrough environmental impactassessments land andecosystemsfrom economicactivitiescanalso approach toindustrialregulation) .Negativeimpactson known tobeassociatedwithlanddegradation(i.e,asimilar legal frameworksdesignedtoregulate economicactivities instruments usedtoavoidlanddegradationisbasedon The secondmostcommonsetoflegalandregulatory al., 2010;Vu etal.,2014). flooding andsoilcompaction(DeFriesetal.,2010;Turbé et against thelossoforganicmatterandbiodiversity, aswell etal.,2014).Indirectly,2011) anddrought (Wilhite itworks etal.,2015),impermeability(Prokopet al., McWilliam (Artmann, 2014),landencroachment (Gennaioetal.,2009; degradation, commonlyusedinresponse tourbansprawl Planning isalsoaninstrumenttoavoidandreduce land habitats andofwildfaunaflora,AlpineConvention). 2009; Directive 92/43/EContheconservationofnatural territory across stateboundaries(e.g,Cuypers&Randier, policies byconvergingwithinthesamegeographical of wildbirds)lawcanalsoimprove .International national UNCCD, CBD,Directive 2009/147/EContheconservation public domainforests andconservationofbiodiversity(e.g, degradation neutrality(Dooleyetal.,2015),managementof domain and/oreasement),establishingtargetsforland .Forexample,EUfarmpolicypromotes Units inMexico-withafocuson environmental policy Management planning processes) .InastudyofWildlife rights ofruralhouseholds(e.g,privateproperty rightsand impacts oflegalreforms implementedtostrengthen the of different legislations canreduce thepotential positive Laos, Broegaard etal.(2017)foundthatcumulativeeffects and foreign institutions.Inanother, multi-levelanalysisin localactors,aswellnational subnational governments, different landuses,andinterests amongcentraland showed thatland-useplanninghelpedtoreconcile Laos overthepastthree decades, Lestrelin etal.(2012) In astudyfocusedonthepoliticsofland-useplanningin being potentiallymore effective (Duff etal.,1991). approaches (penalties,cross-compliance, direct control) as conservation, eventhoughtheyperceived regulatory grants) toreduce soilerosion andencouragesoil Canada preferred voluntarypolicies(education,advice, For example,itwasfoundthatfarmersinSouth-western who isimpactedby, andthecontextoflanddegradation . regulatory responses candependonwhoisresponsible for, (especially fortheEU)(Paleari,2017).Theeffectiveness of considerably, raisingquestionsontheireffectiveness these measures havebeenoperationalizedinreality varies (repair ofenvironmental damage)measures .Buthow specific preventive (fearofpunishment)andcurative in principlesubstantiveanddefinitive,usuallyincluding Regulatory andlegalresponses tolanddegradationare offsets (Adugnaetal.,2015). following aresponse hierarchy ofprevention, mitigationand contract holderscanrespond toreduce soildegradation, degradation variesdependingoncontractprovisions .The of contractualarrangementsasaresponse toland & Smaling,2008;SietzVan Dijk,2015)).Theeffectiveness (Lavigne Delville,2010;Mekouar, 2006;Plançon, 2009;Reij of crops andfarmingpractices,reduction orbanon clearing of contracts,toadoptpracticesforsoilconservation,choice authorities andindigenousorlocalcommunities,intheform forest protection) .Suchplansestablishalinkbetweenpublic national plans(e.g,planagainstdesertificationor used .Theseare characterizedbytheimplementationof management authority, contractualapproaches are often For statesthateitherdonotcontrol theirlandorhave Van Calster, 2005;Vanheusden, 2007). responsibility ofpublicauthorities(Reinikainenetal.,2016; redevelopment/orphan site,restoration canbethedirect Steichen, 2010;Veenman, 2014).Inthecaseofbrownfields authorities oftenassistinrestoring sites(Lecomte,2008; soils whenproject activitiesend(Sirinaetal.,2013).Public responsible forremediating impactedsitesorcontaminated assessment) orcontaminatedsites,theproject proponent is environmental assessmentoranenvironmental impact residual effect ofdevelopment(e.g,afterastrategic damages suffered .To rehabilitate orcompensatethe 2015; Laletal.,2012;UNCCD,2012),thatcould takethe the developmentofaglobalsoil regime (Boer&Hannam, Degradation, legalandscientific literature hassuggested approach forrestoration .Inorder toachieveZero NetLand level,tooperationalizetherights-based at theinternational soft lawdocuments,itlackslegally-bindingmechanisms degradation hasbeenestablishedinacademicliterature and Although thelinkbetweenhumanrightsandland restoration ofdegradedlands . financial andhuman resource investmentstoachieve consideration asstatepartiestakepolicystepsandmake these humanrights-basedstandards are takeninto 2006) .Whatisunknownwhetherandtowhatextent rights applytolandmanagement(Cottier, 2006;Mechlem, Similarly, tradeinagriculture andrightstofoodashuman the managementofland(Seufert,2013;Windfuhr, 2016). standards,governance especiallyforhumanrights,to the ContextofNationalFoodSecurityalsoappliesexisting ofTenureGovernance ofLand,Forests andFisheriesin et al,2017).TheVoluntary GuidelinesforResponsible underpinning thevisionoflanddegradationneutrality(Orr 2017) .Protecting humanrightsisoneoftheprinciples targets toachievelanddegradationneutrality(Orretal., helping todefinenationalbaselines,measures and degradation neutralitytarget-settingprogramme, by is supportinginterested countriesinthenationalland The GlobalMechanismoftheUNCCD,forexample, levels. international land degradationandrestore degradedlandsatlocalto law strengths humanrightsandenvironmental ofinternational an importanttool,becauseitbringstogetherthelegal degradation anddesertificationhasbeen recognized as A humanrights-basedapproach inthefightagainstland norms customary 6.4.2.2 6 .425 effectiveness ofprotected areas isdiscussedinSection which oftenavoidslanddegradation.Themanagement from humanactionsisalegalandregulatory response Establishing protected areas toconservebiodiversity (McNeeley etal.,2017). policy instrumentsandunderstandingsocialvulnerabilities depends onintegratingtheneedsoflocalpopulationsin top-down managementapproaches .Theprotection ofland importance ofsimultaneouslyadoptingbottom-upand the effectiveness ofpolicyinstrumentsaswellthe local populations-Gómez-Aízaetal.(2017)highlighted and ruraldevelopmentviasustainableuseofwildlifeby instruments designedtopromote ecosystemconservation THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION .Thiscombinationoflawscanthusbeusedtocombat Rights-based instrumentsand 477 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 478 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND leads tosociallysub-optimal,inefficient results (i.e,the Desjardins inland-usepractices etal.,2011).Externalities the associatedgoodsandservices itprovides (Requier- scarce resources (Panayotou,1994)-including landand in privateandsocialcosts,resulting inunder-pricing of Institutional, marketandpolicyfailures create differences instruments 6.4.2.3 be givenahighpriority(Reed&Stringer, 2015). processes, localknowledge andcustomarypracticesshould when designingresponses tolanddegradationdriversor success oflanddegradationorrestoration responses .Thus, and/or participatoryprocesses –are instrumentaltothe basis ofarights-basedapproach, customarypractices, socio-cultural factors–whichcouldbedefinedonthe sustainable landmanagement.Understandingtheenabling do havesignificanceinhaltinglanddegradationand local and/orindigenouspractices)adoptedbypeople It isimportanttorecognize thatcustomarypractices(or that are notcurrently protected bylaw(FAO, 2012). legitimate tenure rights(includingthosebasedontenure) recognize andrespect, inaccordance withnationallaws, legal andorganizationalframeworksfortenure governance 2012; Ostrom etal.1999).Statesshouldensure thatpolicy, Program &Program, 2010;MadrigalCordero &SolisRivera, mechanisms (Agrawal&Ostrom 2001;Forest People wood, fodder)are incorporatedinresource governance local peopleandtheirrightstofulfilbasicneeds(e.g,fire possible andofteneffective whencustomarypracticesof suggest thathaltingresource (forest) degradationis Empirical evidencesfrom manydevelopingcountries for addressing underlyingsocialandgenderinequalities. greater involvementofwomeninrestoration practicesand using humanrightsinstrumentsasalegalbasistopushfor to improve it(Broeckhoven &Cliquet,2015).Theyinclude but severalrecommendations havebeenmadeonhow and benefitsofmainstreaming it remain underexplored, 2015) .Thegenderdimensionofecologicalrestoration issues are actuallyimplemented(Broeckhoven &Cliquet, be neededtomakesure thatcommitmentsongender However, additionalefforts (includingfinancialsupport)will for achievinglanddegradationneutrality(Orretal.,2017). sensitivity” -whichisnowseenasanimportantprinciple Advocacy PolicyFrameworkongenderand“gender- 2011) .Forexample,in2011theUNCCDestablishedan degradation isthegenderdimension(Lal2000;UNCCD A crucialelementofahumanrights-basedapproach toland soil conservation. Biological Diversity, oraseparateconventionfocusedon form ofaProtocol totheUNCCDand/orConventionon THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Economic andfinancial price distortionswere associatedwithlanddegradationthat degradation .WhileZhaoetal.(1991)foundthatcommodity human capital-were associatedwithreduced land defined property rights,poverty reduction andenhanced (2001) foundthatfourpolicies- namely priceincentives, degradation, inthecaseofSudan,AbdelgalilandCohen offs betweenagriculturaldevelopment policyandland benefits .Examiningthevariousinteractionsandtrade- scope forsoilconservationmeasures thatyieldlonger-term land tenure isinsecure .Inothers,higherpricescanprovide practices thatacceleratedegradation,especiallywhen commodity pricesmayencouragelandmanagement specific conditions.Insomesituations,higheragricultural degradation orrestoring degraded landdependsonsite- The effect ofpolicy-induced pricechangesonhaltingland Policy-induced pricechange degradation andrestoring degradedlands. their effectiveness inavoiding, haltingandreducing land empirical evidenceontheuseoftheseinstrumentsand Corbera, 2010).Inthefollowingparagraphs,wesynthesize of targetedactors(Beymer-Farris &Bassett,2012;Kosoy environments -includingthevaluesystemsandmotivations among broader socio-economic,institutionalandpolicy is highlycontextdependent,becauseoftheinterplay & Coria,2012).Theeffectiveness oftheseinstruments on .)(Initiative,2015;Requier-Desjardins etal.,2011;Sterner conservation banking,naturalcapitalaccountingandso (e .g,paymentforecosystemservices,biodiversityoffsets, of newmarketsbyproviding neweconomicincentives (e .g,taxes,subsidy, bondsandsoon)and/orthecreation the useofexistingmarketsbyinducingpricechanges failures related tolanddegradationandrestoration include The instrumentstocorrect institutional,marketandpolicy (Panayotou, 1994;Rodeetal.,2016). on abeneficiarypaysprincipleforpositiveexternalities various typesofpaymentforecosystemservices)are based (e.g,subsidyand incentives forpositiveexternalities .Supportive polluter paysprinciplefornegativeexternalities emission tradingandquantitystandards) are basedonthe (e.g,emissiontaxes, incentives fornegativeexternalities incentive mechanisms:restrictive andsupportive.Restrictive practices intoproduct pricemainlythrough twotypesof fromexternalities (un)sustainablelandmanagement such Economic andfinancialinstrumentsinternalize socially desiredeffects duetosuchexternal (CBD,2011). sustainable landmanagementpracticeswouldbelessthan or reduce landdegradationortofacilitatetheadoptionof 2013) .Consequently, theactionstakenbyactorstoavoid costs ofadoptingthemfallonthe“on-site”actors(Low, land managementpracticesbenefitthepublic,whereas the receive anycompensation).Conversely, manysustainable disproportionately by“off-site” borne partieswhodonot costs ofunsustainablelandmanagementpracticesare on restoration ofdegradedforest land.UnderREDD+ for ecosystemservicesscheme specifically focused degradation indevelopingcountries (REDD+)isapayment Reducing emissionsfrom deforestation andforest being more effective . temporary orpermanentmeasures, withthelattergenerally schemes alsodependsonwhetherthepaymentisfor 2010) .Theeffectiveness ofpayment forecosystemservices their effectiveness (Quillérou etal.,2011;Quillérou &Fraser, prone toadverseselection andmoralhazards, reducing 2014) .Theagri-environmental programmes intheEUare forest coverandimproving rurallivelihoods(Porrasetal., as asuccessfulcase,becauseithadtheeffect ofincreasing The well-knownCostaRicanprogramme isoftenconsidered ecosystem servicesschemes,however, variesconsiderably & Matzdorf,2013).Theeffectiveness ofpaymentfor (e .g,agri-environmental programmes intheEU;Sattler Tacconi, orpublicagencies 2012);and(ii)governments common (Milderetal.,2010;Sattler&Matzdorf,2013; individuals, organizationsorcompanies),butare less by: (i)privatebeneficiariesofecosystemsservices(i.e, al., 2015).Inpractice,theseschemeshavebeenfinanced means toachievelanddegradationneutrality(Mirzabaevet ecosystem servicesschemes-isseenasanimportant by sustainablelandmanagement-through paymentfor created someofthepositiveexternalities to internalize et al.,2008;Zabel&Roe2009).Allowinglandmanagers et al.,2008;Krause&Loft,2013;Kroeger 2013;Wunder institutional supportisprovided (Camposetal.,2005;Engel projects andcanbeeffective incaseswhere proper been usedinintegratedconservationanddevelopment environmental andsocialoutcomes.Thisinstrumenthas potentially economically-efficient wayofachievingdesired in return forotherwise“non-market”services,isa providers are financially rewarded bybeneficiaries Payment forecosystemservices,whereby services Payment forecosystemservices management practicesinagriculturalproduction . right” andtheneedtoadoptsustainablelandwater These findingsemphasizetheimportanceof“gettingprices and increasing soilorganicmatter(Sklenickaetal.,2015). effective forerosion control, ground watermanagement good agriculturalandenvironmental standards havebeen (Briones, 2010).Similarly, European farmsubsidiestomeet soil erosion inareas production marginallysuitedtocorn tariffs -hadtheeffect ofconservingsoilandreducing prices-afterremovingthe Philippines,lowercorn import slopes, butdecreased investmentonlesssteepslopes.In adopt conservationmeasures onlessproductive steep Kenya, highercommoditypricesincentivizedfarmersto soil conservationmeasures indevelopingcountries.In between pricedistortionsandfarmers’incentivestoadopt countries, Pagiola(1996)foundnosimplerelationship negatively affected agriculturalproduction in28developing . et al.,2007)andtheTasmanian Forest Conservation biodiversity andotherenvironmental benefits(Hajkowicz 2003), landscaperecovery auctionsthatinclude contracts (Eigenraametal.,2007;Stoneham et al., auction intheformofbushtender oreco-tender countries, Australiahasalsopracticedconservation benefits (Ferris&Siikamäki,2009).LikeotherOECD conservation andtheprovision ofotherecosystem contributions suchashabitatimprovements, wildlife Conservationists valuetheprogramme’s conservation some landfrom production (Ferris&Siikamäki,2009). potential forsupportingcommoditypricesbyremoving income forthelengthofcontractandhas does nottransferproperty rights,provides guaranteed Farmers viewthatitisbeneficial,becausevoluntary, by bothconservationandagriculturalcommunities. implementation -itcontinuestobeviewedpositively (2009) concludedthat-evenafterabout25yearsof In areview oftheprogramme, FerrisandSiikamaki supplied andthevalueofbid(Hanleyetal.,2012). the ratioofecologicalvalueenvironmental benefits are rankedbasedontheEnvironmental BenefitIndex: the ConservationReserveProgram landowners’bids in 1985(USDAFarmServicesAgency, 2011).Under Conservation ReserveProgram intheUSAwhichstarted The oldestconservationtenderprogramme isthe Hamsvoort, 1997;Latacz-Lohmann&Schilizzi,2007). ecosystem servicesscheme(Latacz-Lohmann&der practices, isconsidered aninnovativepaymentfor to actormanagethelandsbyadaptingconservation Conservation tenderorgreen auctionamonglandholders, implementation andmonitoring(Parrotta etal.,2012). equity issuesare addressed inREDD+programme design, rightsandsocial to whichlivelihoodneeds,governance, land managementactivitiesare implementedandtheextent social andeconomic“co-benefits”-dependsonhowits and forest degradation,biodiversitylossandproviding change mitigationbenefits-while reducing deforestation suggests thattheeffectiveness ofREDD+todeliverclimate (Phelps etal.,2010).Theavailableevidencestrongly indevelopingcountries management andgovernance reverses thepromising trend ofcommunity-basedforest rights (Poudeletal.2014;West, 2012)andslowsor access toforests, compromises localpeople’s customary fad (Lundetal.,2017;Redford etal.,2013)thatlimits 2016), whileotherscriticizeREDD+asanewconservation climate changemitigationpolicy(Komba&Muchapondwa, 2016) .SomescholarsarguethatREDD+isacost-effective degradation butnotnecessarilydeforestation (Pelletieretal., co-benefits suggeststhatREDD+islikelyto reduce forest management toachieveforest carbonbenefitsandsocial A recent review oftherole ofcommunity-basedforest deforestation andrelated climate-smartforest management. communities indevelopingcountriesforavoided ormultinationalorganizationscompensate governments THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION

479 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 480 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND Spash, 2015). and monitoringevaluation(BBOP, 2012;IUCN,2014; loss, additionality, permanence,timeframe,uncertainty, programmes) andinvolvekeyconceptssuchasnonet the ground actions)orindirect (e.g,fundingforconservation & Kiesecker, 2010;OECD,2015).Offsets canbedirect (on ecosystem servicesscheme(Bulletal.,2013;McKenney pays forrestoration, possibly through apaymentfor loss) andtradesysteminwhichthe“spoiler”ofhabitats perspective, offsetting isa combinationofacap(onhabitat ecological value(Hahnetal.,2015).From aneconomic degraded landelsewhere (on the“offset site”)ofequivalent resultant habitatlossbyfinancing habitat restoration ina development (onthe“impactsite”)-compensatingfor such asmining,housing,industrialandinfrastructural a developer-affecting landorhabitatthrough activities compensate (offset) .Onescenarioofoffsetting involves (or response) hierarchy: avoid,minimize,restore and goals .Inprinciple,itisthelaststepinmitigation economic developmentandenvironmental conservation introduced inmanycountries(OECD,2016)tohelpbalance Biodiversity offset orecologicalcompensationhasbeen Biodiversity offsets to enhancetheireffectiveness . implementation ofpaymentforecosystemservicesschemes al., 2012,2013),whichneedtobeintegratedindesignand originated from suchrelations andinteractions(Turnhout et and interactions,social,culturalspiritualvalues local knowledgeandpractices,human-nature relations and economicperspectivesignore indigenousand often promote economicvaluesfrom atechnocratic 2010) .Paymentsforecosystemservicesapproaches be more effective (Lukas,2014;vanNoordwijk &Leimona, through cost-share programmes are considered bysometo design andtheimplementationofstewardship actions landholders inpaymentforecosystemservicesprogramme 2008).To& Tisdell, avoidsuchinefficiencies, engaging ecosystem servicesschemes(Frey &Jegen,2001;Reeson reasons wouldexpectfinancialincentivesunderpaymentfor previously usedsustainableland-usepracticesforvarious Kosoy &Corbera,2010).Forexample,landholderswho irrespective ofpayments(Beymer-Farris &Bassett,2012; unnecessary rewards foractivitiesthatwouldhaveoccurred may result inmotivational“deadweight”,providing However, paymentsforecosystemservicesapproaches competitive biddingforecological efficiency gainonallocationofpublicfundingthrough & Schilizzi,2007;Pannelletal.,2001).Theyalsoclaim programmes (e.g,Connoretal.,2008;Latacz-Lohmann feasible andmore cost-effective thanfixedpayment ecologicalfunds,areto allocategovernment practical, found thatbiddingschemeforconservationcontracts, management andconservationcontexts,scholarshave Fund (BinneyandZammit2010).Inavarietyofland THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION restoration . agricultural lands are efficient ways to internalize externalities agricultural landsare efficientexternalities waystointernalize (e .g,forests andrangelands)tenure securityon Well-defined property rightsoncommonproperty resources Property rights degradation (Orretal.2017). the response hierarchy of:avoid>reduce >reverse land potential toensure equivalence inexchange,andfollow recommends thatecological compensationshoulduseland neutrality approach, theUNCCD’s Science-PolicyInterface (Turnhout etal.,2012,2013) .Underthelanddegradation through human-nature relations andinteractionsisessential diverse formsofsocialvaluescreated andperpetuated through biodiversityoffsetting, capturingandactingupon For effective conservation and managementofbiodiversity economic values(Robertson,2004;Turnhout etal.,2013). offsetting alsopromotes commodificationofnature and payments forecosystemservicesapproaches, biodiversity debatable (Maron etal.,2010,2012,2015).Similarto compensation mechanismstostopbiodiversitylossremains et al.,2013).Asaresult, theeffectiveness ofoffsets or been neglectedinpractice(Briggsetal.,2009;Coggan 2017) andecologicalcompensationguidelineshaveoften 2012; Office oftheAuditorGeneralAustralia, Western zero netlossremain inadequate(MartineMaron etal., monitoring andverificationofoffset activitiestoachieve compensate theresidual impactofdevelopment,butthe Australia, biodiversityoffsets havebeenwidelyusedto et al.,2009;Orr2017;Ruhl&Salzman,2006).In effective overthepermittee-responsible mitigation(Briggs site mitigationinrecent yearsandalsofoundtobemore wetland mitigationbanking,athird partyvariationofoff- directly bypermittees,whichhasbeensubstituted of on-siteandoff-site compensatorymitigationprovided ecosystem services.Thiscouldbeduetotheshortcomings failedtoreplace250 sitessurveyedinCalifornia keywetland Similarly, Ambrose andLee(2004)foundthat46%ofthe with thewetlandregulations (Brown &Veneman, 2001). Massachusetts showedthat54%were notincompliance example, anevaluationof391wetlandoffset projects in (Kihslinger, 2008;NationalResearch Council,2001).For 2009), resulting inapoorperformanceofthemechanism stages ofthemitigationhierarchy (Hough&Robertson, compensation (offsetting) aspectandneglectsearlier argue thattheapproach placestoomuchfocusonthe However, criticsoftheconservationbankingsystem modelled afterwetlandbanking(McKinneyetal.,2010). banking involveslegally-mandatedbiodiversityoffsets, largest offset programmes (OECD,2016).Conservation conservation bankingprogrammes are amongtheworld’s USA’s wetlandmitigation/banking,stream mitigation,and agenciesonacase-by-casebasis.The government 2000 sitesmustbecompensatedandthisisdoneby Union where, forexample,anylossofdesignatedNatura while ecologicalcompensationiscommonintheEuropean Biodiversity offsetting iscommonintheUSAandAustralia, Accounting andtheValuation ofEcosystem Services Accounting (UN,2014)andtheWorld Bank’s Wealth include theUN’s SystemofEnvironmental-Economic generated bythem(ONS,2017; TEEB,2012).Examples a countryorregion -andthediversityofflowsservices land andbiodiversitybasedassets-availableused,in renewable andnon-renewable naturalassets,including show thetype,quantitiesandqualitiesofstocks involves integratedphysicalandmonetizedaccountsthat (MA, 2005;Groot etal.,2010) .Naturalcapitalaccounting decisions madebyindividuals,businessesandgovernments of thefailure toaccountfully forthevalueofnaturalcapitalin Land degradationandlossofbiodiversityare symptomatic ecosystem degradation Natural CapitalAccountingasaresponsetolandand the decommissioningofstatefarms(Sklenicka, land fragmentationandpotentialdegradationfollowing Europeaneastern countries,after1990,helpedtoreduce example, theemergenceoflandrental marketsincentraland land couldsupportsustainablefarming(Sklenicka,2016).For 1990, 1999).Establishingalandrental marketforagricultural contexts across theworld(Agrawal&Ostrom, 2001;Ostrom, property regimes -hasbeensuccessfulinmanyplacesand community-based management-facilitatedbycommon forest andrangelanddegradationthrough theadoptionof arising from theselanduses(Panayotou,1994).Halting - cansuccessfullyaddress landdegradation. manage grazinglandsandforests -fostered bylocalinstitutions its associatedtechnologies.Inaddition,collectiveactionto important incentivesforsustainablelandmanagementand extension services,secure landtenure andmarketaccessare Gebreselassie etal.(2016)foundthataccesstoagricultural In ananalysisofnationally-representative household surveys, lower dependencyratios(AlisherMirzabaevetal.,2016). other farmers;livestockownership;lowerhouseholdsizes;and access; accesstoextension;privatelandtenure;from learning sustainable landmanagementpracticesinclude:bettermarket In CentralAsia,thekeyfactorsinpromoting theadoptionof agroforestry systems. were effective inpromoting useofnitrogen-fixing trees in al., 2016).Asanincentive,conditionalfertilizersubsidies the provision ofappropriate incentiveschemes(Nkonya et access andadvisoryextensionservices)alongwith requires improvement inmarketinfrastructure (i.e,market that adoptionofsoilfertilityenhancingpractices,asasolution, (rangeland tocropland) (Nkonyaetal.,2016).Resultsshow to beamajorcauseoflanddegradationandconversion In Sub-SaharanAfrica,lowlivestockproductivity wasfound Box 6

Case studiesoneconomicsoflanddegradationandimprovement. 2016) . al., 2017)andbiodiversityloss(UNEP-WCMC, 2016a). Graves etal.,2015;Robinson 2014;Robinsonet 2013), landandsoildegradation (EEA,2016;EU,2014; with afocusonlanduseandconversion (EEA,2016;EU, valuation (Guerryetal.,2015;UNDESA,2017),usually asset stocksandserviceflowsasabasisforsubsequent been madeinthedevelopmentofphysicalaccounts To date,mostprogress innaturalcapitalaccountinghas social responsibility) . impacts (TEEB,2012)(seeSection6.42oncorporate including themanagementoflandandbiodiversity to environmental pressures andcorporateresponsibilities, also beenusedtodesignandjustifybusinessresponses Partnership (WAVES, 2017).Naturalcapitalaccountinghas land degradation. and appropriate incentivestructure tohaltorreverse for secure landtenure, informationandmarketaccess, economics oflanddegradationandhighlightstheneed et al.,2016).Box68presents variousexamplesofthe inexistent -especiallyforprivatelandholders(Mirzabaev appropriate effective incentivestructures are virtually sustainable landmanagementoftenpersists,because (Giger etal.,2015),asevere lackofinvestmentson degradation almostalwaysoutweighthecostsofactions Although thecostsofinactioninfacegloballand households (Kirui,2016;Mulingeetal.,2016). on sustainablelandmanagementpracticesamongagricultural land tenure, improved marketaccessandextensionservices and Malawifoundthathaltinglanddegradationinvolvessecured subsidies isnecessary - suggestingthatreform ofenvironmentally-harmful input are twomajordeterminantsoflanddegradationatstatelevels agricultural inputsubsidiesand“decreasing land-manratios” degradation inIndia,MythiliandGoedecke,2016foundthat In atotaleconomicvalue-basedstudyonthedriversofland human simultaneous improvements inlandmanagementand benefit from theirinvestment-playedakey role in realizing to managenaturalresources andincentivizinglandusersto effectivenessgovernment -bygivingcommunitiesamandate In Niger, Moussaetal.(2016)foundthatenhancing (Ouyang very littleeffect onhabitatlossandenvironmental pollution ecosystem servicesatthenationallevel,althoughwith of naturalcapitalhasimproved theprovision ofmajor reported thatinvestmentinrestoration andpreservation The Chinesenationalecosystemassessment(2000-2010) THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION welfare . et al., 2016) . .Asimilarstudyfrom Kenya,Tanzania 481 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 482 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND (Ruckelshaus etal.,2015). economic consequencesofchange, maybemore effective indicators oflandandbiodiversity condition,aswellthe 2015), astaged,interactiveapproach focusedonkey assessments ofland-basedecosystems (Bartelmus, to devisecomprehensive natural capitalaccounting accounting .Inafirstinstance,ratherthanattempting progress inadoptionofnaturalcapitalandecosystem lack ofpoliticalsupportandleadership-haveconstrained that dataavailabilityandinstitutionalbarriers-including respondents from etal.,2018)showed 17countries(Virto countries (Edens&Graveland,2014).Asurveyof42 decisions remains relatively low, especiallyindeveloping 2015), theuseofnaturalcapitalaccountingforactualpolicy pilot projects, andtheawareness itraises(Guerryetal., Despite numerous naturalcapitalaccountinginitiativesand Latin America(Box for ecosystemservicesandinvestmentplanningprojects in “promise topractice”,includingitsuseinover30payment experience ofmovingfrom naturalcapitalaccounting’s and scenicviews.Ruckelshausetal.(2015)review with, forexample,soilorganiccarbon,timberharvesting future capacitytosupplyecosystemservicesassociated from Europe andNorthAmericatovalueexisting likely Hein Republic ofPalau,Micronesia (Weatherdon etal.,2015). protection ofcoastalbiodiversity–forexample,inthe introduction ofaGreen Departure Tax ontouriststofund tourism, informedthe capital values,forinternational plantations .InthecontextofSmallIslandStates,natural - especiallywhenthere ispressure toconvertland carbon sequestration,wildlifeandrecreation services understanding oftrade-offs betweenagriculture, forestry, accounting supportsland-useplanningthrough improved et al.(2015),showhownaturalcapitalandecosystem choice .UsingthecaseofKalimantan,Indonesia,Sumarga (Remme the integrationofphysicalandeconomicassessments The potentialofnaturalcapitalaccountingrests on (UNEP-WCMC, 2016b). products, simultaneouslymaintainingspeciesrichness identified forsustainableharvestingofnon-timberforest tourism .Largeareas ofpotentiallynaturalvegetationwere ecosystems andsecuringbenefitsofmanagedwildlife designations performedwellbyavoidingthelossofnatural perspective, theaccountsshowthatprotected area moist savannahs(32%remaining) .From apolicyresponse to agriculture, particularlyforforests (29%remaining) and natural ecosystemswere associatedwithlandconversion timber forest products andiconicmammals.Lossesof on spatially-specificlandcover, ecosystemextent,non- degraded ecosystems(UNEP-WCMC,2016b)-focusing in theUgandaNationalDevelopmentPlanIItorestore For example,naturalcapitalaccountingsupportedactions THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION et al.(2016)usecasesofnaturalcapitalaccounting et al.,2014,2015)inorder toinformpolicy 6 .9)

mechanisms (Anderssonetal.,2011). ofthese market-based despite unevenaccessandfairness new sources offundingforlanddegradationremedies; payment forecosystemservices-haspotentialmobilizing resource management-suchasnaturalcapitalaccounting and for monetizationandmarket-basedmechanismsinnatural al., 2013;Cashore &Howlett2007).Thecurrent enthusiasm evolved institutionsforenvironmental(Bartonet governance than substitute,legalandregulatory instrumentsandlocally economic instrumentsare oftenusedtocomplement,rather marketforcesBy harnessing toachieveintendedoutcomes, practices knowntoresult inunacceptableenvironmental risk. to defineminimumenvironmental standards and restrictions on practice, amixofpoliciesandregulations are usuallyrequired before usingthemingivensocialandculturalcontexts.Inpolicy the limitationsandsuitabilityoftheseinstrumentsisneeded and ecosystemservices.However, acareful assessmentof avenues toassessandavoiddegradationofland,biodiversity provide NGOsandtheprivatesectoradditional governments, These economicvaluationandincentive-basedinstruments NeBhoever etal.,2011;UNCCD,2017;Verdone &Seidl, Bullock etal.,2011;Daily, 1995; DeGroot et al.,2013; and restoration methodsused(Aronson etal.,2010; considered, thedegree ofdegradation,ecosystemtype that restoration costsvarywithrestoration aims,timescales information (NeBhoeveretal.,2011).Nevertheless,itisclear in costingmethodsandbreadth andqualityofcost-related provided meaningfulcostdata, withsignificantvariations of EcosystemandBiodiversityinitiative,only96studies restoration casestudiesexamined byTheEconomics (De Groot etal.,2013).Forexample,outofover20,000 for orthebenefitstosocietyare notexaminedindetail et al.,2011):eitherrestoration costs are notfullyaccounted restoration projects isscarce (Aronson etal., 2010;Bullock et al.,2015).Theliterature onfullcost-benefit analysesof make optimalrestoration investmentdecisions(BenDor term costsandbenefitsof restoration activitiesinorder to investors needtounderstandtheimmediateandlong- andprivate Landowners, communities,governments Benefits andcostsofecologicalrestoration approach isusedtoincorporateculturalandsocial businesses -provided thataninclusiveandcollaborative and an evaluationtooltosupportdecisionsbygovernments capital (land,biodiversityandecosystemservices)as to assesschangesinthephysicalstateandvalueofnatural natural capitalaccountingcanserveasamonitoringresponse and economicimperatives(Robbins,2012).Nonetheless, worldviews, entitlementsandpracticesdominatedbypolitical measure (Robertson,2006);andservetoreinforce established 2014); beconfinedtothe“thenature thatcapitalcansee”or marginalize otherculturally-resonant evaluativecriteria(Sullivan, 2015), thecapitalisationoflandandbiodiversityvaluescan: (Daily While mainstreaming naturalcapitalhasitssupporters et al.,2011;Remme2015;Ruckelshaus

values .

al., 2006).Someecosystemservicevalues cannotbe affects netestimatedbenefitsof restoration (Farberet value offuture benefits,anunresolved issueintheliterature, the useandchoiceofdiscountrates toassesspresent restoration projects (Verdone &Seidl,2017).Inaddition, al., 2013)-discouragespublicandprivateinvestmentin and otherecosystemservices(Barbier, 2007;DeGroot et as theprovision ofwildlife habitat, climatechangemitigation a broader setofnon-marketed valuesofrestoration -such (Barbier, 2007;DeGroot etal.,2013).Failure toincorporate often onlyconsidered financial benefitsorprivate 2017) .Similarly, onthebenefitsend,mostavailablestudies restoration ofdegradedland.Working withavailabledata, for grazingcontrol, silvopastoralism,reforestation and Investment portfolioswere drawnup,includingoptions options wasusedtoexplore preferred watershedoutcomes. combination ofsimplescenariomodellingandranking and drawingonbiophysicaldatalocalknowledge,a Conservancy andlocalNGOs.Working withstakeholders including sugargrowers andproducers, TheNature Colombia. Theprogramme wasfundedbywaterusers, the Water forLifeandSustainabilityprogramme inCali, priorities andpaymentsforwatershedservicesunder Natural capitalaccountingwasusedtoguideinvestment Box Figure 6

6 9

(Source: Ruckelshausetal., 2015). Natural Capital,EcosystemAccountingandWatershed ManagementinColombia

Photo: courtesyofJamesAndersonunderCCBY-NC-SA 2.0 Mixed land-usemosaicandforest restoration intheCaliRiverWatershed, Colombia. annual lossesfrom desertificationat8-14%ofagricultural A studyoffourteenLatinAmerican countriesestimated Verdone &Seidl,2017). being economicallybeneficial(De Groot etal.,2013; restoration projects, stillpointtorestoration investments range ofsocialdiscountratesincost-benefitanalyses and subsequentincorporationofsuchvaluesawider in valuingnon-marketedbenefitsofecological restoration, valuation toestimatetheirvalue.However, recent advances and hencerequire adifferent approach thanmonetary monetized (e.g,culturalservicesthatreflect spiritualvalues) Ruckelshaus new watershedfundsinLatinAmerica(Guerryetal.,2015; experience are beingusedtosupportinitiativesonover30 participants’ generalwillingnesstofund.Lessonsfrom this for sedimentretention compared withinvestmentsbasedon gave anestimatedthreefold increase inreturn oninvestment ‘”data andresource intensive”,yetbettertargetedapproach, and thenselecteduptothelimitofavailablefunds.Thismore on theirrelative costeffectiveness todelivertargetoutcomes loss and/orretention andwateryield.Optionswere assessed to explore the effect of land-use change on erosion, sediment biophysical modelscontainedintheINvestmodelwere used THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION et al., 2015). 483 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 484 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND non-wood andcarbonsequestration)naturalforests considered onlythevaluesofmanagedforests (forwood, $4 .3to$202trillionperyear lost duetolanddegradationandconversionrangesfrom found that,across allbiomes,theecosystemservicevalues Using thebenefittransfermethod,Costanzaetal.(2014) 1-10% ofagriculturalgross domesticproducts (Low, 2013). study estimatedtheannualglobalcostofdesertificationat gross domesticproducts (Moralesetal.,2011),whileanother THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Box hectares ofdegradedforest andagriculturallandby2030- initiative initiatedin2011withtheaim torestore 350million A recent cost-benefitanalysisoftheBonnChallenge-aglobal wetlands) withmostofthebiomesatabout10onaverage. varies between0.4(forcoastalsystems)and110 Blignaut (20 yearsand30years)scenariosforthesame9biomes, costs), discountrate(-2%,2%and5%),two-timehorizons economic value),costs(100%and130%oftypicalrestoration considering aslightlymodifiedbenefits(100%and60%oftotal restoration costs,30%benefits and8%discountrate).While and coastalwetlandsunderaworst-casescenario(100% discount rate),andlessthan1forcoastalsystems,freshwater, best-case scenario(75%restoration costs,75%benefitsat-2% grassland biomes–withthehighest(35)forgrasslandsundera wetlands, tropical forests, temperateforest, woodlandsand scenarios, thebenefit-costratioswere greater than 1 .0forinland benefit values)and2discountratescenarios.Underallpossible under 3benefitscenarios(75%,60%and30%ofthemean (-2% and8%);6basedon75%maximumrestoration costs 30% ofthemeanbenefitvalues)and2discountratescenarios restoration costsunder3benefitscenarios(75%,60%and scenarios:6basedon100%maximum 12 alternatives waters) (Neßhöveretal.,2011).DeGroot etal.(2013)considered rangelands andforests) toseveraltensofthousands(inland between severalhundreds tothousandsof$/ha(forgrasslands, form oftotaleconomicvalueestimates.Theproject costsvary sum ofthemonetaryvalues22ecosystemservicesin coastal andwetlandsystems-whilstthebenefitsincluded the financialcostsofcapitalfrom year2onwards and 2.5%for original restoration costs,5%peryearmaintenancecostsas $3013, $2588,$2871,respectively estimated at$28,917,$193,845,$25,682,$4,267,$5264, 2007 $/ha/yr)ofallecosystemservicesfrom thesebiomeswere woodlands andgrasslands.Themeantotaleconomicvalue(in freshwater riversand/orlakes,tropical forests, temperateforests, including coastalsystems,wetlands,inland of ecologicalrestoration were foundacross 9majorbiomes, that only94estimatesoncostsand225benefits not otherindirect benefits),DeGroot etal.(2013)reported opportunity costs)andknownbenefits(ecosystemservices, management costsofrestoration process, butnotthe that considered costs(i.e,direct costs,capitalcostsand In ameta-analysisofrestoration projects inover200studies 6

et al.(2014)reported thattheaverage benefit-costratio 10

Cost-benefit analysesof restoration. In a study that specifically .Inastudythatspecifically Cost estimates included .Costestimatesincluded

costs attheglobal local andnationalscalesremains achallengeforquantifying many challengesinestimatingthecostoflanddegradationat indications ofthemagnitudelanddegradationcosts, period (2000-2050).Whilethesestudiesprovide useful $1,180 trillioninforest ecosystemservices,overa50-year projected degradationandland-usechangewouldcost sequestration values),Chiabaietal.(2011)estimatedthat (for recreational values,passiveusevaluesandcarbon $911/ha (alsoseeChapter5,Section 5.234) landowners atotalsubsidyofapproximately $139billionor Challenge restoration wouldhavetoprovide targetgovernments 197 millionhacouldbeprofitably restored, andtomeetBonn 2017) .Inthecaseofa“privatebenefitsonly”scenario,only and publicbenefitsata1.3%discountrate)(Verdone &Seidl, $9 .245trillion(benefit-costratio3092,consideringbothprivate considering onlyprivatebenefitsata4.3%discountrate)and a 4.3%discountrate),$0565trillion(benefit-costratio188, considering bothprivateandpublicbenefitsfrom forests at value ofbenefits$2.254trillion(benefit-costratio754, forests wouldcosts$0.299trillion-providing anet present 46% oftheworld’s currently degraded(managedandnatural) suggest thatachievingtheBonnChallengetargetofrestoring ($43 .46/ton)(Nordhaus, 2014) .Theresults ofthisanalysis benefits from astudyonsocial costsofcarbonsequestration of 59and27studies,respectively, andcarbonsequestration and passiveusebenefits-were derivedfrom ameta-analysis levels) (Daily, 1995).Benefitsforservices-including recreation 100% forlight,moderate,severe andextreme degradation wood products duetodegradation(i.e,10%,25%,50%and (2011) -withadjustmentsforexpectedproductivity lossesof (including woodfuel),were derivedfollowingChiabaietal. benefits offorest restoration, intermsofwoodproducts org/projects andteebweb.orgformore information). Estimated respectively (Verdone &Seidl,2017)(cf.http://www light, moderate,severe andextreme degradationcategories, of degradation:$389,$1276,$2163,and$3051/hainthe expect, theaveragerestoration costsincreased with theextent and extreme(mean+2standard deviations).Asonewould moderate (mean);severe(mean+onestandard deviation); four degradationlevels:light(mean-onestandard deviation); from aWorld Bankproject databaseandTEEBreports for ha (mean:$1276±$887/ha);basedoncomprehensive data analysis, averagecostsofrestoration rangedfrom $214-3790/ Nordhaus, 2007).Inthis 2014and1.3%followingStern, types (naturalormanaged)anddiscountrates(4.3%following (light, moderate,extreme orsevere), forest management benefit types(private,publicorboth),landdegradation 12 worldregions (Verdone &Seidl,2017).Itconsidered different managed andnaturalforests ineachforest biomeandacross (GLASOD), calibratedtodetermineareas ofdegraded, area wasbasedontheGlobalAssessmentofSoilDegradation (Verdone &Seidl,2017).Inthisanalysis,theextentofdegraded provides newinsightsonthevalueofinvestinginrestoration level . .worldbank national surveyofbusinessesthat participateinrestoration 2 .33,334and197,respectively (BenDoretal.,2015).Ina recreation industry- withemploymentmultipliersof3.0, Coopers, 2011),agriculture, livestockandoutdoor including theoilandgasindustry (PriceWaterhouse restoration projects iscomparabletothatofotherindustries, 1 .60and259,respectively & Wagner, 2009)andcorresponding outputmultipliersare ranged from 1.48(Edwards et al.,2013)to2.87(Shropshire The employmentmultiplierfortherestoration industry Economics Inc.,2012) $1million investedfortidalcreek recreation (Industrial wetland restoration (withdamremoval) to12.9jobsper investment supportedabout9.jobsper$1millionfor for allprojects .InMassachusetts,ecologicalrestoration and economicoutputmultipliersrangedfrom 1.9to24 2010) .Theemploymentmultiplierrangedfrom 2.7to38 invested forriparianrestoration (Nielsen-Pincus&Moseley invested forin-stream restoration to23.1jobsper$1million projects rangedfrom anestimated14.7jobs/$1million of Oregon, thenumberofjobssupportedbyrestoration million investedforinvasivespeciesremoval .IntheState million investedforhydrologic reconnection, to33.3per$1 supported bytheseprojects rangedfrom 14.6per$1 Moreover, thenumberofdirect, indirect andinducedjobs forest, landandwatershedrestoration (Pollinetal.2008) . (Department oftheInterior, 2012)to39.7onnationallevel range from 6.8wetlandrestoration atcountylevel created per$1millioninvestedinrestoration programmes million .Theiranalysisindicatedthatthenumberofjobs programmes withanaverageprogramme costof$44 .4 the USA,BenDoretal.(2015)analyzed45restoration spending) impactsofrestoration ontheeconomyin indirect (businesstobusiness)andinduced(household jobs .Usinganinput-outputmodeltoestimatethedirect, Investments inrestoration havealsobeenfoundtocreate equivalent toavalueof$428.8/ha/year benefits foreverydollarinvested(atadiscountrateof5%), agroforestry andreforestation optionsyieldupto$13.6of carbon sequestrationisintegratedintheanalysis,practicing 2 .5%,and10%overatimehorizonof25yearsWhen ranging between$17.8and$62/ha/yrwhendiscountedat $5 .9foreverydollarinvestedandwithnetpresent values providing localbenefitstofarmersintherangeof$5.2 economically beneficialatthelocalandgloballevels; Sidibé etal.(2014)foundthatadaptingagroforestry is in astudyoflarge-scalelandscaperestoration inMali, (Blignaut etal.,2014;Bullock2011).Forexample, that bringsmultiplebenefitsandcanoutweighcosts restoration ofdegradedlandsisaworthwhileinvestment the availableevidencestrongly supportstheviewthat tangible, beneficial (Bullocketal.,2011).However,returns a costtobepaid,ratherthananinvestmentthathas Conventionally, restoration isviewedbycountriesas .Theemploymentmultiplierof . been effective (Hilletal.,2013;Pert2015).InNepal, involving indigenouscommunities insuchapproaches has 2001; Ostrom etal.,1999);includingAustralia,where water inmanypartsoftheworld (Agrawal&Ostrom, in restoring degradedforests andconservingsoils community-based approaches havebeenproven effective theseresourcesto manageandgovern .Decentralized devolution ofauthorityto local userstoexercise theirrights prevalentand governance inmanycountries.Itallows participatory approach for naturalresource management Community-based naturalresource management is a governance approachinresourcemanagementand Participatory Shiferaw etal.,2009). and valuesfrom publicandprivatesectors(Scherr, 2000; which embraceadiversityofsocialandculturalknowledge requires flexibleapproaches tohaltlanddegradation– dynamic nature oflanddegradationdriversandprocesses voluntary agreements, amongstothers.Thecomplexand and/or training);corporatesocialresponsibility; and awareness-raising (eco-labelling,certification,education in landrestoration andreclamation; publicengagementand the integrationofindigenouslocalknowledgeandpractices (participatory) approaches innaturalresource management; and restore degradedlandsinclude:community-based Social andculturalinstrumentsusedtohaltlanddegradation 6.4.2.4 degraded landscapes. values ofrestoring degradedland,particularlyinseverely encourage landownerstorecognize andcapture public (e .g,paymentsforecosystemservicesandREDD+)that goals requires creating economicincentivesandschemes term societalbenefits.Fulfillinglarge-scale restoration restoration, itdiscouragesinvestmentdespitethelong- public valuesandtheintergenerationalnature offorest is viewedfrom afinancialaccountinglensthatignores economic analyses.Forexample,whenforest restoration land-use decisions,includinglowdiscountratesappliedin typically shorttimehorizonofprivateinvestmentand lands -investmentsinrestoration are hampered bythe benefits tobederivedfrom rehabilitating degraded services -aswellthesocial,economicandecological lands, inconservingbiodiversityandproviding ecosystem natural ecosystemsandsustainablymanagedworking Despite theincreasing awareness oftheimportance billion ineconomicoutput(BenDoretal.,2015). investment -accountsfor95,000additionaljobsand$15 increased householdspending-through restoration-related economic output(sales)annually employment of126,000workersgenerates$9.5billionin work intheUSA,BenDoretal.(2015)estimatedthatdirect THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Social andculturalinstruments .Theindirect linkagesand 485 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 486 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 3, Section Trosper, 2012)(seeChapter 2,Section2.andChapter 2000; Hartmannetal.,2014;Ostrom, 1990;Parrotta & knowledge (Agrawal,2002;Berkes, Colding,&Folke, of place-basedindigenousand traditionalecological loss ofculturalidentities;andrelevance perspective include:changingculturalcontextofland; frames .Thedriversoflanddegradationfrom acultural regarding land-usepractices,inbothlongandshorttime Cultural contextinfluencesthechoicesthatpeoplemake Cultural considerationsonlanduseandmanagement the participants. programmes andself-esteemof enhancesocial learning Galatowitsch (1999)foundthatknowledgetransfersinthese forest managementorrestoration programmes, Geistand community-based (Agrawal, 2002;Ostrom, 1990) .Within land, hasbeenamajorcauseofunsustainablelanduse insecure landtenure, involvingbothfamilyandcommunal farmers .Ontheotherhand,scholarsalsonotethatarisein land productivity andprovide aformofsafetynetfor helptomaintain conservation (Briones,2010),whichinturn the Philippineshasbeenassociatedwitheffective soil & Dougill,2008).Forinstance,improved land tenure in to haltlanddegradationorrestore degradedlands(Reed policies –caneffectively facilitateinterventionsdesigned –supportedbyinstitutional structuresgovernance and Stakeholder participationinresource managementand 2007; Pagdeeetal.,2006). monitoring andclarityregarding property rights(Nagendra, effectiveness includeforest area perperson,levelof rules (Robinsonetal.,2014),andthemainfactorsaffecting greatly withspecificcontexts,rightsandmanagement al., 2012).Theeffectiveness ofcommunityforestry varies other indicatorsofglobalenvironmental benefits(Bowleret (i .e,greater tree densityandbasalarea), butnotwith management wasassociatedwithimproved forest condition and livelihoods)foundthatcommunity-basedforest (forest conditionandlandcover, resource extraction and CentralAmericafocusingonthree typesofoutcomes analysis of41studiesfrom 13countriesinAsia,Africa community-based resource management,ameta- Despite anecdotalevidenceonthesuccessesof Box 37 .4%in1985-86to402015(DFRS,2015)(see estimated thattheforest area inNepalhasincreased from forest usergroups” (Acharya,2002).Asaresult, itis authority tolocalforest usersorganisedinto“community devolution offorest managementandgovernance 1976; Pandit&Bevilacqua,2011).Thishasinvolved erosion andlandslides,prevalent in1960-70s(Eckholm, deforestation andreduce theseverityofassociatedsoil the late1970shasbeenasuccessfulresponse tohalt the developmentandpracticeofcommunityforestry since THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 6 .13) 3 .21) ILK andassociatednaturalresource management halting andreversing landdegradation.However, since 2013) hasbeenfoundtoyield positive outcomesfor Kittinger ILK-based culturalpractices(Hartmann etal.,2014; to-value” culturalaspectssuchastherevitalization of A deliberatefocusonotherwise“hidden”or“hard- beneficial outcomes(Shiferaw&Holden,2000). (Bewket, 2007),witheconomically-andenvironmentally- in promoting theadoption of soilconservationmeasures participatory approaches have beenfoundtobeeffective & Nagel,2010;Wauters etal.,2010).Insuchcontexts, measures (Mbaga-Semgalawe&Folmer, 2000;Sattler a challengefortheadoptionofvoluntarysoilconservation 2003; Lahmar, 2010)andchangingfarmers’practicesis (role ofsubsidies,quotas,costsavings)(Boardman etal., decisions are strongly influencedbysocio-economic factors to globallevels(Knowler&Bradshaw, 2007).Farmer a costtolocalfarmers,whilebenefitsaccrueat regional cultural barrierswhentheirimplementationisperceived as The adoptionofsoilconservationmeasures oftenfaces resources (Haglundetal., through innovativepracticesaround theirland-based and transformedtheiridentitiesworlds(Poirier, 2010) lands, manyindigenousgroups havealsoreproduced opposing miningandloggingoperationsontheirtraditional and guidancefordecision-making.Insuccessfully a visionforrestoration; asenseofplaceandcommunity; action neededforsuccessfulrestoration workbyproviding passing onofculturaltraditionssustainingthecollective way topromote: restoration inmore subtleways;the teach youthshowtocare fortheirland–isaneffective describes howyouthecologycamps–where tribaladults Trosper, 2017;Ramakrishnan,2002).Longetal.(2003) 2012; Dublinetal.,2014;Parrotta &Trosper, 2012; &Bryce, (Berkes, 2017;Berkesetal.,2001;Corntassel practices toavoiddegradationinmanypartsoftheworld resurgence andimprovements inlandmanagement indigenous land-usepractices–havebeenkeytocultural preservation orrevival ofILK–andassociatedlocal (Hartmann conservation measures thatexcludetraditionaluses exploitation anddegradationoflands,aswell has beenamajorfactorbehindboththecommercial as indivisible(Clausetal.,2015;Hartmann2014), communities thatviewnature/land andculture/values and perspectivesoftraditional(particularlyindigenous) that thedisparagementofepistemologicalvalues on forestry practices).There isconsiderableevidence Sections 6.31onagriculturalpracticesand2 which commonlyunderpinsthesepractices(alsosee use practicesandsupportfortraditionalknowledge restoration includethemaintenanceoftraditionalland- Effective culturalresponses tolanddegradationand et al.,2016)andfaith-basedbeliefs (Cochrane, et al.,2014;Parrotta &Trosper, 2012).The 2011) . regional differences .In2016,Canada(>50billionha) and area isontheriseatglobalandregional levels,withsome Certification schemes–indicating thatcertifiedforest FSC andtheProgram fortheEndorsementofForest Figure 6 .13showsthearea ofcertifiedforests under across participatinghouseholds (Mitevaetal.,2015). infections by32%,andmalnutrition1%onaverage FSC reduced firewood dependenceby33%, respiratory aggregate deforestation by5%.Inaddition,theynotethat estimated thatbetween2000and2008,FSCreduced certified loggingconcessions(Mitevaetal.,2015).They between FSC-certifiedtimberconcessionsandnon- outcomes wasevaluatedusingmatchingtechnique the effectiveness ofFSCon socialandenvironmental Malaysia andIndonesia(Durstetal.,2006).InIndonesia, positive localimpactshavebeendocumentedinBrazil, certification, atthegloballevel(Dauvergne&Lister, 2010), environmental orsocio-economicimpactsofforest product sustainable forestry social, economic,culturalandethicaldimensionsof of criticalecosystemservices;andthepromotion of with respect to:biodiversityconservation;theprotection managed forest (natural,semi-naturalandplantations) assurance thattheseproducts are from aresponsibly the EndorsementofForest Certification–provides some the Forest Stewardship Council(FSC)ortheProgram for certification offorest products –through, forexample, coffee farmsinMexico(Mas&Dietsch,2004).Eco- (Rueda &Lambin,2013)andtheyhadahigherbiodiverse adopting environmental-friendly practicesinColombia practices, certifiedcoffee growers were foundtobe and non-certifiedcoffee growers andtheirland-use social andenvironmental benefits.Incomparingcertified limited economicbenefitsofcertification,butsignificant the impactsofeco-certificationschemeshavefound instruments alone(Lambinetal.,2014).Studiesexamining for producers, otherwisedifficult tohandlewith regulatory associated withproduction ofgoodsbycreating incentives market, whichcanaddress theenvironmental problems the goodandpurchase theminaprice-differentiated enables consumerswhoprefer “green goods”toidentify (e .g,coffee andtimber).Inprinciple,eco-certification that hasbeenappliedtocertaincrops andforest products Eco-certification (oreco-labelling)isavoluntaryinstrument Certification ownership (Ngendakumana&Bachange, agencies, localelites)tomaintainadominanceoverland vested interest ofthedominantactors(e.g,government also anextremely contentiousissuegiventheinevitable described howthematterofcommunitytenure rightsis literature produced around theREDD+programme has amongst participants(Shepherd, 2010).Forinstance,the restoration efforts canalsotriggerdissatisfaction locally, theirrepresentations withincollaborativeland practices are influencedbyhistoryandcontested .Whilethere islittleevidenceofpositive 2013) . and prevention oflanddegradationare scarce . direct correlation between corporatesocialresponsibility efforts, systematicreviews oftheempiricalevidenceon substitute materialsandprocesses .Despitethesenotable the useofnatural,lessenvironmentally-burdensome provenance inthesupplychain fortheirproducts, including The assessmentisbeingusedtopromote environmental processes dominatedenvironmental costsforfootwear capital impactsfortheclothingsector, whiletanning farming accountedforlargeshares ofmonetizednatural et al.,2016).Intheircase,cottoncultivationandsheep for theircotton,woolandleatherfashiongoods(Zeller the effects onecosystems servicesofthesupplychains used thenaturalcapitalaccountingframeworktoassess Responsibility programme .Inasimilarvein,HugoBoss and Environmental AccountingsystemanditsCorporate has beenintegratedintothecompany’s FinancialSocial biodiversity andwatershedprotection .Theapproach positive benefitsthrough carbonsequestration,increased offset thecompany’s environmental footprint)generatednet contributions toforestry projects (prompted bythedesire to that alongsideinitiativestoimprove energyandmaterialuse, 2016) .ForNovartisoperationsinArgentina,itwasshown Novartis Group anditssupplychain(reported inNCC, to assessthemonetizedimpactonnaturalcapitalfor a multinationalpharmaceuticalcompany, usedthe Protocol beyond thoselinkedtowaterconservationalone.Novartis, that wetlandrestoration provided particularlyhighbenefits options fortheCocaColaCompanyshowing,example, The NaturalCapitalProtocol toreview waterreplenishment for useelsewhere .Forexample,Denkstatt(2016)used Many containdataandmethodsthatmaybeapplicable covering topic-andlocation-specificcases(NCC,2016). half ofwhichcoverspecificcorporateapplicationsand of naturalcapitalaccountingassessmentsandresponses, capital .TheCoalitionhasassembledover60casesstudies value impactsanddependenciesofbusinessesonnatural framework supportedbyatoolkittoidentify, measure and has produced TheNaturalCapitalProtocol: astandardized comprising over250collaboratingorganizations,which interest istheNaturalCapitalCoalition(NCC,2016), exposure tonaturalcapitalrisk(Trucost, 2013).Ofparticular natural assetsandserviceflows respectively, aswell of balancesheetsandprofit andlossaccountsto reflect accounting broadly followstheaccountingconventions land andbiodiversityimpacts(TEEB,2012).Naturalcapital and corporateresponsibilities, includingthemanagementof and justifybusinessresponses toenvironmental pressures natural capitalaccountinghasalsobeenusedtodesign Among otherformsofcorporatesocialresponsibility, Corporate socialresponsibility respectively (IPBES, for theEndorsementofForest Certificationschemes, forests, atthecountrylevel,underFSCandProgram Finland (17billionha)hadthegreatest areas ofcertified THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 2017) . . 487 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 488 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND area managementeffectiveness .Thedatabaseincludes records ofalmost18000 assessmentsofprotected Protected Area Management Effectiveness which contains have nowbeencollatedintheGlobal Databasefor effectiveness .Assessmentdatafrom allovertheworld developed forassessingprotected area management Since the mid-1990s,beenhave methodologies various Biodiversity Target 11(Pringle,2017;SCBD,2014). protect 17%ofterrestrial areas by2020,inlinewithAichi of biodiversity successful measures implemented fortheconservation Protected areas are widelyregarded asoneofthemost 6.4.2.5 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION

PEFC Certiﬁ ed Forest Area - Average (ha) FSC Certiﬁ ed Forest Area - Average (ha) Figure 0e+00 5e+07 1e+08 0e+00 2e+07 4e+07 6e+07 Protected areas 6 2008 2006

.Theglobalcommunityhascommittedto Figures prepared bytheIPBESTask Group onIndicatorsandthenowledgeDataTechnical SupportUnit-Indicatordatasource: Programme fortheEndorsementofForest Certifi cation. Figures prepared bytheIPBESTask Group onIndicatorsandthenowledgeDataTechnical SupportUnit-Indicatordatasource: Forest Stewardship Council. 13 Panel C Panel A

schemes atglobalandregional levels. (Panel Annual certiﬁ ed forest areas managedunderForest Stewardship Council 2010 2009 A and GLOBAL GLOBAL 2012 B 2012 ) andEndorsementofForest Certiﬁ cation (Panel 2014 LOESS span=0.5 LOESS span=0.6 [Area-corrected] [Area-corrected] 2015 2016 indicator formeasuringeffectiveness, (Coadetal.,2015) impact evaluationpapersthatused acomposite-single effectiveness ismixed.Asystematicliterature review of Empirical evidenceonprotected area management and BinFigure effectiveness, bycountryand region, are giveninPanelA differences inproportion ofprotected area assessedfor effectiveness of60%their protected areas .The Some 17.5%ofcountrieshavealready assessedthe areas, with3,666siteshaving multipleassessments. collated inthedatabase,representing over9000protected January 2015,nearly18,000oftheassessmentshadbeen and records detailsofindividualassessments.As information aboutthemethodologiesandindicatorsused,

PEFC Certifi ed Forest Area - Average (ha) FSC Certifi ed Forest Area - Average (ha) Africa Americas 0e+00 2e+07 4e+07 6e+07 0e+00 5e+07 1e+08 2008 2006 Americas Panel B Panel C AsiaandthePacifi c 6 .14 2010 2009 AsiaandthePacifi c REGIONS REGIONS 2012 EuropeandC.Asia 2012 C and EuropeandC.Asia 2014 LOESS span=0.6 LOESS span=0.5 [Area-corrected] [Area-corrected] D 2015 )

2016 some studiesisreal, meaningeitherthatprotected area of correlation withtheimpactofprotected areas in et al.,2010,2012).Itremains unclearwhetherthislack 9 reviewed finalstudies(Henscheletal.,2014;Zimsky performance score andbiodiversityoutcomesfor5ofthe found apositivecorrelation betweenoverallmanagement Figure Available at: Protected AreasManagementEffectiveness(GD-PAME)[On-line],[Oct2016],Cambridge,UK:UNEP-WCMCandIUCN. Technical SupportUnit-Indicatordatasource:UNEP-WCMCandIUCN(2016),ProtectedPlanet:TheGlobalDatabaseon. Source PanelA:Coadetal.(2015);B:FigurespreparedbyTaskGrouponIndicatorsandKnowledgeData

PA Assessed on Management Effectiveness (%) B A 0 25 50 75 100 % OFPAESTATEASSESSEDFORPAME 6 0%

(Panel Proportion ofprotected area assessedformanagementeffectiveness bycountry < 10% Africa A 10-30% ) andregion (Panel 30-60% < 60% Americas B ). REGIONS GLOBAL 2015 conservation (Carranzaetal., is necessarybutnotsufficient toensure effective by protected area management effectiveness scores) or more plausiblythatgoodmanagement(asmeasured management hasnoimpactonbiodiversityoutcomes THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Asia andthePaciﬁ c 2014) . Europe andCentralAsia [Not area-corrected] 489 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 490 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND Within the18%,10%isownedbyindigenous communities .Within owned by, ordesignated for, indigenouspeoplesandlocal Globally, 18%of landisformallyrecognized aseither Indigenous protectedareasas aresponse and managementactivities. involvement oflocalpopulationsandstaff inconservation strengthening thescientific foundationforgreater strategies inthecommunalareas andrecommended lack oflong-termadaptivemanagementandconservation agricultural lands.Theyconcludedthatthiswasduetothe to conversionofwoodlandandwoodedsavannahs vegetation coverwasreduced overa29-yearperioddue that despitetheclassificationoftwoprotected areas, of Bontioli(BurkinaFaso),Dimobeetal.(2015)found Reserve land degradationanddeforestation intheWildlife and well-managed.Focusingonunderstandingcausesof protected areas thatare large,connected,well-funded found thatconservationwouldbeeffective byestablishing the historyandeffectiveness ofprotected areas and those outsidethereserve .Watson etal.(2014)reviewed increased tolevelsthatwere similartoorhigherthan and fragmentationinsidethereserve hadunexpectedly China toprotect pandas)andfoundthathabitatloss the Wolong Nature Reserve(establishedinsouth-western remotely-sensed databefore andaftertheestablishmentof in haltinglanddegradation.Liuetal.(2001)examined On theotherhand,protected areas are notalwayseffective 2000) . development (Schneider&Burnett, livelihoodoptionsthroughalternative ecotourismandcraft to reduce stockingdensityofgoatsby50%andproviding partially reversed byagreeing withlocalfarmersand herders al., 2001).InDanaReserve,Jordan, degradationhasbeen by mitigatinglogging,hunting,fire andgrazing(Bruneret biodiversity bystoppinglandclearing,andtoalesserdegree parks were foundtobeaneffective meantoprotect tropical threats to93protected areas in22tropical countries,the Based onanassessmentoftheimpactsanthropogenic would havebeendeforested hadtheynotbeenprotected . argued thatapproximately 10%oftheprotected forests 1997) andfoundthatprotection reduced deforestation .They Rica’s renowned protected area system(between1960and et al.(2008)evaluatedtheimpactondeforestation ofCosta 147 countries.Usingthesamematchingtechnique,Andam protection hadreduced landscapeconversionin75%of unprotected areas –JoppaandPfaff (2011)foundthatlegal areas globally–bymatchinganalysisofprotected and in protected areas .Examiningtheimpactofprotected indicates thattherateofconversionlandscapeislower tropical biodiversity(Bruneretal.,2001).Furtherevidence directly increase theabilityofdesignatedparkstoprotect – suggestingthatevenmodestincreases infundingwould demarcation anddirect compensationforlocalcommunities management activitiessuchasenforcement, boundary Protected area effectiveness correlates withbasic THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION measures (Füssel,2007).To enhanceeffectiveness of of themeasures; andincentivesforimplementingthese resources toimplement themeasures; cultural acceptability measures; informationaboutthemeasures; availabilityof awareness oftheproblem; availabilityofadaptation for effective climatechange adaptationplanninginclude: identified (Moser&Ekstrom, 2010).Suchpre-conditions 2007) andadaptionbarriersneedtobesystematically measures, certainpre-conditions shouldbefulfilled(Füssel, To design,planandimplementeffective adaptation change adaptationmeasures (Füssel,2007). approach forassessing,planning andimplementingclimate economic, politicalandcultural).Thusthere isnosinglebest private organizations);andgeneralcontext(environmental, different hierarchy levelsfrom farmerstomanypublicand legal, educationaland/orbehavioural);actors(peopleat and measures ofadaptation (i.e,technical,institutional, adaptation purpose,timingandplannedhorizon;form depends onavarietyoffactorsincluding:land-usedomains; and conservation(Lawler, 2009).Climatechangeadaption has importantimplicationsforlandresource management ecological systems,climatechangeadaptationplanning Given thepervasiveinfluenceofclimatechangeonsocio- itself (Füssel,2007). difficult partlyduetohighuncertaintyaround climate change its effectiveness intermsofavoidancefuture impacts is change adaptationplanning,notinghoweverthatassessing in Section6.312)Thefocusthissectionisonclimate sections (suchascropland inSection6.31andforests based onland-usetypeshavebeendiscussedinearlier responses toclimatechangemitigationandadaption rangelands, urbanlands,wetlandsandsoon).Specific to land-basedresource management(ofcroplands, forests, change toavoidlanddegradationimpactsiscloselylinked a threat multiplier(seealsoChapter3),adaptingtoclimate Even thoughclimatechangeisathreat initselfaswell planning 6.4.2.6 Council, 2010). for indigenouspeople(TheNaturalResource Management provide employment,educationandtrainingopportunities – whichprotect biodiversityandculturalheritage more than40%ofthearea oftheNationalReserveSystem Protected Areas across 65millionhectares –accountingfor of thousandsyears.There are 70dedicatedIndigenous indigenous Australianshavemanagedtheircountryfortens part oftheNationalReserveSystem,inrecognition that Australia hasincludedIndigenousProtected Areas asakey (Rights andResources Initiative,2015).Forexample, “controlled by”)indigenouspeoplesandlocalcommunities peoples andlocalcommunities8%isdesignatedfor(or Climate changeadaptation et al.,2013)ortheNationalAdaptation Program ofAction part ofbilateralormultilateralassistance schemes(Leary developing countrieshaveusually beenconductedasa & Furlow, 2001),whileadaptationassessments in USA andCanada)(Lemmen&Warren, 2004;Scheraga comprehensive nationaladaptation assessments(e.g,the Many industrializedcountrieshavedeveloped composition) maybeapreferred process (ecosystemservices) ratherthanstructure (species of changingclimate–ischallengingandthatafocuson ecosystem structure inrestoration planning–inthecontext al., 2008).Similarly, Harrisetal.(2006)arguethatafocuson restoration wouldincrease resilience ofthesystem(Juliuset restoring ecosystemfunctions ofadegradedlandthrough climate changeimpactsinforest ecosystems.Forexample, strategies shouldpromote bothresistance andresilience to the future, Millaretal.(2007)suggestthatmanagement the contextofclimatechangeandmanagingforests in of anadaptivemanagementapproach (Lawler, 2009).In enhancetheeffectiveness et al.,2003)–whichinturn managementgoalsandstrategies(Peterson alternative scenarios ofchange,foragivensystem,inorder todevelop allows managersandplannerstoevaluatemultiplepotential 2009; Petersonetal.,2003).Forexample,scenarioplanning adaption planningtomanagelandandecosystems(Lawler, scenario-based planning) has been argued for climate change or regional approach) andtemporalperspective(e.g, (Lawler, 2009).Abroader spatialapproach (e .g,landscape as acriticaladaptationstrategyforresource management adaptive management,whichhasoftenbeenreferred to in different placesandland-usesystemsnecessitates The uncertainandvaryingnature ofclimatechangeimpacts iii . ii . i . adaptation barriersinclude: (Moser &Ekstrom, 2010).Three componentstoidentify and (iv)iterativemessy, butlinearforconvenience (iii) process-focused butoutcomeand/oraction-oriented; ecologically-constrained; (ii)actor-centric butcontext-aware; underpinning theframeworkare: (i)socially-focusedbut and consistsofthree components.Thefourprinciples the barriers,whichisunderpinnedbyfourprinciples and Ekstrom (2010)proposed aframeworktodiagnose climate changeadaptationplansandstrategies,Moser Ekstrom, 2010). and/or jurisdictionalandtemporalbarriers(Moser& –spatial overcoming thebarriersthroughinterventions and (theobjectorsystemuponwhichtheyact); concern human-biophysical environment) andthesystemof andbroadercontext inwhichtheyact(governance structural elementsofadaptation–theactors,larger implementation ofadaptationoptions; planning adaptationoptionsandmanagingthe process ofadaptation–understandingthebarriers,

option . they havedifferent specific reaches . Although theyshare generalmotivationsandobjectives, and (iii)integratedlandscapeplanning andmanagement. different scales:(i)sustainable landmanagement;(ii)zoning; degradation andlandrestoration through landplanningat Three mainapproaches havebeenusedtorespond toland approach asaresponse 6.4.3 management responses (Fisher, 2013). practices andknowledgeprovide effective responses inland communities haveadaptedtochangeforcenturiesandtheir pastoral communities(Speranzaetal.,2010).Indigenous plans wouldbeeffective adaptationmeasures foragro- and embeddingindigenousknowledgeinadaptation through extensionservices,maintaininginfrastructure change .Theyconcludethatbuildingadaptivecapacity skills limitedadaptationcapacitytodroughts andclimate limited anyresponses related tomarkets,whilelack of in Kenya,Speranzaetal.(2010)foundthatpoverty example, inasurveyof127agro-pastoralist households economic contextoftheplaceorsysteminquestion.For and theireffectiveness willvarydependingonthesocio- climate change-inducedlanddegradation,adaptationplans Smaling, 2005).Ascountriesare affected differently by including severalinAfrica(Kiageetal.,2007;Koning& sector policies–hasledtopolicyfailures inmanycountries, – relevant tolanddegradationintoenvironmental or other failure tomainstream culturalandeconomicconsiderations adaptive approach involvingallaffected stakeholders .The adaptation planningrequires abroad-base integratedand Addressing landdegradationthrough climatechange vulnerable populations(Ford etal.,2011). implementation, andadaptationactionsdidnotfocuson that stakeholderengagementinadaptationplanningand (Ford etal.,2011).Inaddition,theirreview highlighted guidelines oroperatingframeworkstoguideplanning) (i .e,managementstrategies,plans,policies,regulations, sectors andbasedonnon-structuraladaptationresponses concentrated ontransportation,infrastructure andutility funded through higher-level interventionsmostly government are foundinpracticeare localized(municipalitylevel)and in developednations.Thoseadaptationinterventionsthat (2011) foundlimitedevidenceofadaptationactions,even developed countriesbetween2006and2009,Ford etal. change adaptationliterature comprisedof39studiesfrom Australia, 2013).However, inasystematicreview ofclimate adaptation strategyandactionplan;seeCommonwealthof Climatechange Australia, 2013;andtheCityofMelbourne Australia; seeConservationCommissionofWestern planning (e.g,regional forest managementplanofWestern been increasingly considered inregional- andlocal-level processes .Inaddition,adaptationtoclimatechangehas THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Integrated landscape 491 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 492 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND socio-economic, institutional and legal potentials and socio-economic, institutionalandlegalpotentials people’s needsanddemands.Itassessesthephysical, sustainable developmentoflandresources whichmeets carried outinorder tocreate anenablingenvironment for “Land-use planningisasystematicanditerativeprocedure The land-useplanning(zoning)approach private sectorsandcivilsociety coordinated andconcertedactionsinvolvinggovernments, modelling changingscenarios,andthrough thepromotion of and tools.Thisgoalcanbeachievedbydelineating using scientificevidence-basedland-useinformation while supportingsocialandeconomicdevelopment,by that improve theresilience ofsocio-ecologicalsystems, need tocombineandcomplementsectoralplanninginways to landdegradationatnational,regional andlocallevels To address theselimitations,spatialmanagementresponses unsustainable useandtransformationofland. issues canresult inoverlappingmapsandinequitable to land.Thisfractionalapproach tosocialandenvironmental has itsown“map”,withabiasedandfragmentedapproach expansion andlandavailability competitiveness; whilethehousingsectorconsidersurban focus onefficiency intermsoftechnicalfeasibilityand stocks; transportationandenergyinfrastructure sectors analyse theterritoryintermsofminingdemandsand availability andconnectivitytomarkets;miningprojects example: agriculture andgrazingconsidersoilquality, water typically haveparticularobjectiveswhenitcomestoland,for In order toachievesocio-economicalgoals,sectoralpolicies Sustainable landmanagement THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Figure 6

continuum (avoid,reduce andreverse). land usetypesfrom preserved naturalareas tourbanareas witharesponse in darkgreen colourtosubstantialtransformationindarkgrey colour)resembling A schematicdiagramshowingthedegree oflandtransformation(noneorminimum

High Low Degree of transformation .Consequently, eachpolicy Preserved areas . Managed naturalforests Rangelands Planted forests Croplands Mining/Infrastructure Suburban areas Urban areas functions, asillustratedinFigure 6.15Governments to makeland-usedecisionsformultiplepurposesand transformed urbanareas –intoanintegratedapproach a givenlandscape–from pristinenaturalareas tohighly encompassing considerationofarangelandusesin strategies inruralareas (FAO, 2017).Itallowsforan for developmentofsustainableland-useandlivelihood a jointmanagementprocess (GLF, 2014)andisessential various landusesandstakeholdersbyintegratingthemin It seekstobetterunderstandtheinteractionsbetween to land-useplanningandpractice(seeSection6.421) An integratedlandscapeapproach isaregulatory response Integrated landscapeplanningandmanagement management andplanning effective andefficient coordinate stewardship, resource to biodiversityconservationisproving tobethemost of agriculture .Anintegrated,strategiclandscapeapproach increased populationlevels,urbanizationandintensification landscape andnaturalresources continuetogrow dueto using alandscape-basedapproach .Pressures onthe restoration ofdegradedhabitatsare bestaccomplished conservation, sustainableresource managementandthe landscape) .Manyjurisdictionshavefoundthatbiodiversity the distribution,extentandintensityoflandusesinagiven level -involvespatialplanningorzoning(i.e,allocationof spatial developmentframeworksatsomeadministration Land-use policies-whichare oftendevelopedunder about howtoallocatethoseresources” (FAO &UNEP, of landresources, andempowerspeopletomakedecisions constraints withrespect toanoptimalandsustainableuse

Response continuum Reverse Reduce Avoid activities . 1995) . stakeholder capacity(Sayeretal., friendly monitoring;(ix)resilience; and(x)strengthened rights andresponsibilities; (viii)participatoryanduser- and transparent changelogic;(vii)clarificationof multifunctionality; (v)multiplestakeholders;(vi)negotiated entrypoint;(iii)multiplescales;(iv)(ii) commonconcern andadaptivemanagement;include: (i)continuallearning conservation andothercompetinglanduses.They a landscapeapproach forreconciling agriculture, Sayer land-use planning,policy, andmanagement. governance toconventional,sectoraland inpractice,asanalternative philosophy hasbeenincreasingly promoted inscience, approach thatembracesanintegratedland-sharing & Mertens,2017;Phalanetal.,2011).Alandscape 2015;Mertz yield) (Collasetal.,2017;Law&Wilson, (i .e,intensificationofproduction tomaximizeagricultural wildlife-friendly farming)versuslandsparingapproaches restoration, scholarsarguethemeritsoflandsharing(i.e, thelandscapeapproach forlandconservation orWithin existing resources . a resource-constrained contexttoreap more valuefrom forestry, urban landsandsoon)ofmanagingwithin offs compared tosectoralapproaches (e.g,agriculture, environmental gains,enhancesynergiesandminimizetrade- Bank arguethatalandscapeapproach wouldbring and organizationssuchasWWF, IUCN,andtheWorld inputs .Forforest restoration, direct seedingwas deemed and farmfacilities,aswellmanpower, infrastructure and were flexibleandconsidered farmers’demands,motivations legislation (Duriganetal.,2013).Forest restoration strategies sequestration; andcompliancewithBrazilianenvironmental conservation ofwater, fruitandwoodproduction; carbon The objectivesofthisforest restoration campaignincluded: Kamaiura language)(Schwartzmanetal., campaign (YIX–“SavetheGoodWater ofXingu,”inthe andfarmersinitiated the“YIkatuXingu”governments organizations, indigenousstateandmunicipal traditional waysoflifewithintheXingubasin,civilsociety the degradationofwaterresources andthethreat tothe production about (Schwartzman et al.,2013).Concerned driven bycattleranchingandmore recently bysoybean headwaters justoutsidetheParkboundaries–mostly rates havetakenplaceinrecent decadesintheXingu is wellprotected withinthePark,highdeforestation groups (Schwartzmanetal.,2013).Whiletheriverchannel the XinguIndigenousPark,comprisingof24indigenous and ishometooneofthelargestconservationareas, Its basin,inwest-centralBrazil,has51millionhectares The XinguRiverisoneoftheAmazon’s maintributaries . Box et al.(2013)haveprovided 10principlesfor 6

Restoration ofXinguwatershedintheAmazon. 2013) . 2013) .

(http://www Initiative (http://peoplefoodandnature .org),andCommonland such astheLandscapesforPeople,FoodandNature initiatives promoted bytheprivatesector(WBCSD,2016), There are notableexamplesoflandscape-levelrestoration Kissinger etal.,2013;NaturalCapitalDeclaration,2015). deforestation andclimatechange(Goldsteinetal.,2012; actions toaddress waterscarcity, biodiversitydecline, central role toplayinsustainablesourcing andcollaborative Businesses dependentonlandscaperesources havea Role oftheprivatesector sustainable developmentofminingareas . for planningandevaluatingtheecologicalrestoration and (2016) recommend theutilizationofalandscapestrategy environmental problems inminingareas, Leiandothers al., 2017).Forexample,basedontheiranalysisofthemain linkages betweenhumansandtheirsurroundings (Artset a watershed,forexample);ortobetterunderstandthe erosion elsewhere withinthelandscape–downstream of to environmental pollution,biodiversityloss,watershortage, decisions (i.e,ofalanduseinonearea islinked the poor);considerspatialspill-overeffects ofpoliciesand sectors (suchasnature protection versuslivelihoodneedsof approaches to:sufficiently address theinterests ofother of reasons .Theycancorrect theinabilityofsectoral land resource foranumber managementandgovernance Integrated landscapeapproaches maybeeffective for and social leading toreductions inrestoration costs,incomegeneration andtechnologicalarrangements–ultimately governance large-scale restoration through lawenforcement, shared Xingu Campaignisanexampleofapracticalapproach to passive restoration (natural regeneration) .TheYIkatu seeding, 300habyplantingseedlings,and1,500 Ikatu XinguCampaignhasrestored 900hausingdirect of theYIkatuXingurestoration projects .Untilnow, theY territory store seedlotsand redistribute seedstoclients sementesdoxingu .orgbr)Fiveseedhousesthroughout the 2007 hascommercialized 137tonsofnativeseeds(www 2016) .TheNetworkproduces 225 tree speciesandsince by 420indigenousandpeasantscollectors(Urzedoetal., stimulated thefoundationofXinguSeedNetwork,formed large volumesofseeds(ca400,000/ha),thisapproach techniques andequipment.Also,sincedirect seedingrequires and familiarityoffarmersemployeeswiththeplanting restoration wasattractivetofarmers,dueitslowcost cultivation (Campos-Filhoetal.,2013).Thismethodof same tractorsandimplementsusedforcrop andpasture different successionalclasses,appliedand/orsown withthe a mixture ofgreen manure andseedsofforest speciesof the appropriate methodfortree establishment,and involved THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION mobilization . .commonlandcom/en)However, outof428 .

493 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 494 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND (see to beconservedorrestored andstakeholdersinvolved clarification ofthespatialextent(territory)landscape in viewofhaltingorreversing landdegradation–isthe A key prerequisite for– governance effectivelandscape Landscape governance Bor, 2016). crowdfunding, canacceleratethistransition(vanLeenders& Innovative financialinstruments,suchasgreen bondsand their riskswhiletakingstepstowards agreen economy in naturalcapitaltomeasure theirimpactandmanage in itsearlystages,financialinstitutionshavebeeninvesting Leenders andBor(2016)arguethatalthoughtheproject is Natural Capital,formedby15financialorganizations,van report ofCommunityPracticeFinancialInstitutionsand social capital,naturalcapitalandfinancial.Inarecent to create fourtypesofreturns from theland:inspiration, landholders forlong-term,large-scalelandscaperestoration brings togetherinvestors,companies,farmersand/or Naivasha Catchment(Shamesetal.,2014).Commonland conservation andwildlifeprotection inKenya’s Lake capital through supportforsmallfarmers,soilandwater organizations cametogethertoinvestinenhancingnatural development agenciesandlocalnon-government For example,European supermarketchains,international mechanisms forlandscapeinitiatives(Shamesetal.,2014). methods havefacilitatedmulti-partner, private-publicfunding et al.,2017).Furthermore, naturalcapitalaccounting reducing riskandstrengthening localrelationships (Scherr points formutuallybeneficialcooperation,creating value, management andnaturalcapitalaccountingoffer entry landscape restoration, sustainablefarming,watershed Nonetheless, experienceindicatesthatinitiativesfor a quarterinvolvedprivatecompanies(Scherretal.,2017). documented multi-stakeholderlandscapepartnerships,only THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION • • making: distinguish threethatsteerdecision- modesof governance Referring tolandscaperestoration, vanOostenetal.,(2014) Box Box 6.12)Severalauthorsshowthatthere has with increasing importancetoprivateactors and softlaw in whichattentionispaidtonewinstitutional interactions Landscape governanceasamulti-stakeholder process– system (generallyinawell-definedsystem). stakeholders, whocanbeconsidered co-managersofthe binding regulation .Responsibilitiescanbeshared among on acentrallocusofauthority, professional knowledgeand traditional hierarchical system ofdecision-makingbased Landscape governanceasamanagementtool–withrather 6

Landscape restoration andgovernance. . and government departmentshaveallpursuedresearchand government research institutions(e.g,universities,andresearch centres) FAO), othermultilateralagencies(e.g,WB,IFAD, WOCAT), At agloballevel,UNorganizations(e.g,UNCCD,UNEP, activities becomemore widespread . local practicesandappropriate institutionaldevelopment developed andcouldbesuccessfulifresearch, improved that appropriate landdegradationresponses canbe & Sala,1998;Taddese, 2001).Mosthaveconcluded consequences (Baietal.,2008;Bojö,1996;Conacher social, environmental andeconomicdrivers an arrayofdisciplinestostudythenumerous underlying decisions –haveattractednumerous researchers from fiscal orhuman resources, orinappropriate management degradation –duetoincreasing populations,lackof Global challengesassociatedwithchronic land development research andtechnology 6.4.4 Turpin, process of“collectivesense-making”(Couix&Gonzalo- to theirplace(vanOosten,2013)andengagesthemina (Flores-Díaz how peopleunderstandandvaluetheplacetheylivein 2014) .Thislatterapproach involvesanappreciation of et al.,2011;Petursdottir2013;vanOosten & Gonzalo-Turpin, 2015;Flores-Díaz etal.,2014;Hobbs withtherestorationstakeholders concerned site(Couix and more complexmosaicterritoryinvolvingallthe supposed toconserveand/orrestore thesite,toalarger involvement ofonlytheactorswhoare technically been ashiftinconsideringthe“territory”from arestricted • political entities. that stretch across administrativeboundaries,scalesand characteristics .Suchmodes are most adapted to landscapes hybrid institutionsadaptedtothespecific socio-ecological traditional andlocally-embeddedinstitutions,crafting create anewinstitutionalspace bycreatively combining space –inwhichactorsfrom different sectorsandscales Landscape governanceasthecreationofaninstitutional conflict mediation. and agriculturalsectorasitcanenablebetternegotiation oriented decision-making.Forexample,betweentheforest in complexmosaiclandscapeswithdelicateandpolitically- approaches, aswelllocal practices.Itismostrelevant 2015) . Responses basedon et al.,2014),encouragescitizenstoreconnect

Remote sensinghasbeenused tomonitortheprovision response optionsreduce orreverse degradation effects . also madeitpossibletomonitor theextenttowhich degradation .Enhancedremote-sensing techniqueshave the extentandeffects ofbothclimatechangeandland land capabilityassessmentscanbeusedtomonitor appropriate datasources, newtechniquesbasedon to landdegradationproblems more effectively information are significantly increasing efforts to respond Advancements intechnologyandgreater accessto Meyfroidt, 2011). of productive landwhilerestoring degradedland(Lambin& innovations (inagriculture) havepotentialtoavoidashortage since efficient landmanagement andmajortechnological 2016) .Thisagainpointstointegratedsystemsapproaches, and toinvestintherestoration ofdegradedland(UNEP, minimize theexpansionofbuilt-uplandonfertilesoils, and land-useplanningmanagementare required to concluded thatimproved land-useinformationsystems on “unlockingthesustainablepotentialoflandresources” are needed(UNEP, 2014).Arecent assessmentreport additional research andtechnologytransferinvestments stakeholders alsoneedstobeexplored todeterminewhat focused onsoildegradationperse,theadaptivecapacityof been inconsistent.Therefore, inadditiontoresearch conservation andtheiradoptionbylandmanagershas for sustainablelandmanagementorsoilandwater result, accesstoresearch knowledgeandtechnology communitiesandhouseholds) .Asa (governments, leading toanunevendistributionamongstakeholders by socio-economicandtechnologicalfactors–often knowledge andskills)technologyhavebeeninfluenced The spatialdistributionofhumancapital(information, Centre, 2016). levels between2003-05and2011-13(SpaceApplications land use,processes oflanddegradationandseverity “desertification andlanddegradationatlas”bymonitoring level (Low, 2013).Followingthis,Indiahasdevelopeda sourcing andmanagementatthenationaland/orlocal integration ofindicators;and(iii)mechanismsfordata indicators; (ii)aconceptualframeworkthatallowsthe and evaluationapproach consistingof:(i)progress UNCCD decision22/COP UNCCD inaddressing landdegradation.Forexample, conceptual frameworkformonitoringtheprogress ofthe been significantprogress towards thedevelopmentofa land resource management(UNCCD,2014).There has and infrastructure, are availableforguidingimproved degradation .Anthropogenic assets,includingtechnology or knowledgeonhowtoavoidandreduce furtherland and literature –providing excellentsources ofinformation in numerous peer-reviewed and“grey” research reports and develophumancapital.Theseactivitieshaveresulted on howtoavoidlanddegradation,restore degradedlands .11hasestablishedamonitoring With .With

and targets (Orretal,2017)(seeChapter 8,Sections8.21 currently supports110countriestosetvoluntarynational – conductedbytheGlobalMechanismofUNCCD Land DegradationNeutralityTarget SettingProgramme building toachievelanddegradationneutrality, the worldwide .Amonginitiativestosupportcapacity- support capacity-buildingtocombatlanddegradation as FAO) organizations andcountlessnon-governmental its pivotalrole,organizations(such severalinternational countries intransition(Enemark&Ahene,2003).Given infrastructures, especiallyindevelopingcountriesand land informationsystemsandsustainableinstitutional to dealwiththecomplexissuesofbuildingefficient for capacity-buildingisinlandresource management transfer; andtraining.Perhapsthemostsignificantneed makers andthegeneralpublic;technologyknowledge knowledge gaps;awareness-raising amongdecision the enhancementofscientificcapacitiestoaddress key achieve landdegradationneutralitytargets.Thisincludes: an effective meanstocombatlanddegradationand – from farmerstodecisionmakers–isrecognized as World Bank,2007).Capacity-buildingofallstakeholders farm incomes(Sureshwaran etal.,1996;Tacio, 1993; in Philippines,byconservingconservesoilandenhancing such astheLoessPlateauofChinaanddenudeduplands has beenveryeffective andpopularinmountainousareas, the slopingagriculturallandtechnologyprogramme which needed (Conway&Barbier, 2013).Onesuchexampleis technology withindigenous,traditionalknowledgeare increasing percapitafoodproduction, combinations of 1991) .Therefore, toaddress sustainabilityissueswhile resulting innegativeeffects onthefarmeconomy(Shiva, through unsustainableproduction practices–ultimately it unintentionallyencouragedecologicaldestruction productivity andincomefrom farm-basedcommunities, even thoughtherevolution successfullyenhanced increasing globalpopulation(Khush,1999).However, increased production infood,feedandfibre foranever- the Green Revolution–hassignificantlycontributedto and informationtransfer–initiatedinthe1960sthrough The combinationofresearch, technologydevelopment relationships (Reed&Stringer, accurately interpret thedataandestablishcauseeffect spatial scales,field-basedmeasurements are necessaryto be monitored cost-effectively viaremote sensingatbroad Furthermore, althoughseveralbiophysicalindicatorscan can causeanygivenchange(Reed&Stringer, 2015). assessments, becauseofthewiderangefactorsthat more detailed,field-levelbiophysicalandsocio-economic determining specificdegradationcausesgenerally requires regulating, supportingandculturalservices.However, of manyecosystemservicesincluding:provisioning, THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION 8 .43) 2015) .

495 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 496 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND restoration programmes are effective ingenerating Not allinstitutionalarrangements forreforestation or reform anddecision-makingprocesses . and thegreatest obstacletoovercome ininter-institutional of burdens andbenefitsis probably themainchallenge monitors andenforces the rules?Theequitabledistribution resources? Whoisactuallyabletomaketherules? 2011; Hayes&Persha,2010):Whoreally benefitsfrom the (Baker etal.,2014;Barr&Sayer, 2012;Bliss&Fischer, or restoration are oftenoverlookedinsucharrangements interests andpowerrelations embeddedinconservation 2010) .However, diverging asmanyauthorswarn, (seeds, fertilizersandsoon)ready markets(Lamb, including employment,accesstocredit, lowcostinputs supposed togeneratebenefitsforruralcommunities, plantations (Barr&Sayer, 2012).Suchinitiativesare in reforestation, includingpartnershipswithcommercial institutional modelstoengagelocalcommunitiesandothers sectors, anddonoragencieshaveadvancedvarious multilateraldevelopment banks,private Governments, based organizations,forexample). institutions orestablishingnewinstitution(e.g,community- participation iscomplementarytoreforming existing suggests thatsimplyunderstandingthevalueoflocal history ofcommunity-basednaturalresource management and innovativeinformalorganizations.Furthermore, the the flexibilityandopennesstocopewithmore dynamic Turpin, 2015),andbecauseformalinstitutionsusually lack of whoare theimportantstakeholders(Couix&Gonzalo- from beingsystematic,oftenbecauseofalackdefinition success (France,2016;Light,2000),inpractice,itisfar involvement isoftencitedasoneofthemainfactors (Ribot &Larson,2005).Althougheffective stakeholder accountability mechanismsandlocalparticipationinvolved more orlesssuccessfuldependingonthepowertransfer, 2008; Hayes&Persha,2010).Thisdecentralizationcanbe andnon-stateactors(Agrawaletal., local governments arrangements, withatransferofresponsibilities towards regimesled toarangeofgovernance andnewinstitutional policies beyondthetraditionaltop-downstatehas In recent years,theevolutionofconservationorrestoration 2014; Prageretal.,2012;vanOosten2014). local institutionalarrangements(Hayes&Persha,2010;He, can haveverydifferent outcomesdependingontheexisting several authorsobservethatsimilarlegislationandpolicies derive from andnationalframeworks, commoninternational studies atdifferent scales.Althoughmanyprogrammes leading toagrowing bodyofassessmentsandcomparative implemented inanumberofcountriesforseveraldecades, Land conservationandrestoration policieshavebeen institutional reforms 6.4.5 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION Responses basedon 2006; Zedleretal., networks enable,tobuildtrueadaptive capacity(Pahl-Wostl, the developmentalprocess thatsuch andsociallearning are stillfocusedonend-products andnotenoughon are articulatedandnegotiated.Too manyprogrammes (2014), there are stilllimitedstudiesinwhichtheseinterests interests atstake.However, asunderlinedbyBakeretal. advisory committeesensure therepresentation ofthedifferent Petursdottir a large-scaleframework(Adamsetal.,2016;France, arrangement canaccommodate,numerous initiativeswithin .Such corporations andvariousbranchesofgovernment natural resource citizens,private users,NGOs,concerned are network governance emergingthatbringtogether Several studiesshowthatinnovativetypesofcollaborative communities (Barr&Sayer, the principlesoffree, priorandinformedconsentofaffected relying onnationalcodes,perhapsbyatleastcommittingto land undercustomarytenure systemsandstateagencies competing claimsbetweenlocalcommunitiesmanaging points tothenecessityofdevelopinganapproach toresolve women orthe“poorest ofthepoor”(Barr&Sayer, 2012).This can excludethemore marginalizedpopulations,suchas & Kontoleon,2009).However, formalizationofprivatetenure incentives offered toengagelocalsinrestoration (Grosjean restored landwasfoundmosteffective compared toother reform thatsecured long-termproperty rightsoverthe Sloping LandConversionProgram inChina,theinstitutional systems (Vandergeest &Peluso,2006).Conversely, inthe resolve competingclaimsbetweenstateandcustomary forest resources andfewinstitutionalmechanismsexistto but thoserightsare oftensubordinate tostateclaims over forestry lawsoftenrecognize traditionaltenure systems, non-participatory decisionprocesses .Forexample,national management, theyare oftenlimitedbytenure uncertainty and Although manyprogrammes are putforward ascommunity Mansourian &Vallauri &vanTriest 2014;Williams 2009). tenure rightstolocalpopulations(Barr&Sayer2012; One ofthekeyaspectsininstitutionalreform isguaranteeing shaped bylocalpowerrelations (Barr&Sayer, 2012). common landsandwageemployment(Saxena,1997) People’s involvementcanbelimitedtohandingover farmers, canhaveverydetrimentaleffects onsmallholders. out-grower agreements, sometimesevenforced ontothe & Sayer, 2012).Inequitableland-rental contractsand with plantationcompaniesorensuringaccountability(Barr generally havelittleleverageinnegotiatingagreements plantations (Barr&Sayer, 2012).Localcommunities perverse incentivestoconvertsecondaryforests in funding towards stateelites,facilitatedcorruptionor displacement oflocalcommunities,channellinginternational led byadministrationorcorporateinterests, haveledto reforestation programmes intheAsiaPacific,whichare greater benefitsforlocalpeople.Forexample, These forums or et al.,2013;Pinto2014).Theseforumsor 2012) . 2012) .

forest-use rightsto“forest usergroups” andreconnected them “community forest usergroup”. Thisapproach transferred and participatoryapproach, nowcommonlyreferred toas institution tomanagehillforests basedonabottom-up reformedgovernment forest policyandinitiatedanew soil erosion problems inthehills,by1978Nepalese To address thedeforestation, forest degradationand Eckholm in theformof“HimalayanDegradationHypothesis”by forest degradationandsoilerosion isfamouslydescribed erosion (Pandit&Bevilacqua,2011).Thisphenomenonof of hillslopeswithincreased problems oflandslidesandsoil capacity –leadingtocontinueddeforestation anddegradation halt deforestation, butfailedduetoinadequateinstitutional adopteda“commandandcontrol”government approach to for rampantdeforestation. Duringthe1960s,Nepalese villagers inthehillsresulting inpolicyfailure andatrigger hold byrulingclass,itsentawrong signaltoordinary in 1957hadgoodintentiontoceaselargetractsofforests customary practices.Eventhoughtheforest nationalization and managedbynearbyvillagersforgenerationsbasedon were nationalized,forests inthehillsofNepalwere protected restore degradedforest lands.Until1957,before forests how institutionalreform helptoaddress deforestation and The practice offorest managementinthehillsofNepalshows Box Figure 6

6 13 (1976).

of Nepal. Community Forest User Group: Reformedinstitutiontomanageforests inthehills

behalf ofNepalSwissCommunityForestry Project (2011). Site: Dandapakhar, Sindhupalchokdistrict.Photo:CourtesyofFritzBerger on programme. Thedegradedsiteisshowcasedontheleftpanel. Restored degradedhillforest inNepal(rightpanel)through communityforestry In 1975 about 38%ofcountry’s landmass(147,181km statistics ofNepalindicatethatforest coverdecreased from deforestation, andassociatedlanddegradation.Forest productive forests andhaveeitherhaltedoratleastreduced programmes havetransformedmanydegradedhillsinto (DoF, 2015).AsshowninFigure 6.16, communityforestry forest usergroups”, beneﬁ tting nearly 2,392,755households area inNepal)havebeenmanagedby18,960“community 1,798,733 haofforests (approximately 30.85%oftotalforest a nationwideprogramme since1993.By2015,atotalof Due toitssuccessinthehills,communityforestry became were extensivelyplantedwiththemobilizationoflocalusers. institution, andreformed forest policyin1978,degradedhills theinceptionofanew (HMG/ADB/FINNIDA, 1988).With management planandshare thebeneﬁ ts amongstthemselves user group) tomanagetheforest basedonacollectiveforest groups” todeveloprules(i.e.,constitutionofcommunityforest a senseofownership(HMG/N,1993),allowing“forest user with theirnearbyforests –namedascommunityforests –with 38.3% in1995,and44.74%(covering59,624.38km to about37.4%in1985/86,whichthenincreased toabout forest, andlaterascommunity since 1978;initiallyasPanchayat,orPanchayatProtected where communityforestry programme hasbeeninoperation 2015). Mostofthisgaininforest coverhasbeeninthehills which 40.36%forests and4.38%shrublands)in2015(DFRS, THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION In 2010 forestry. 2 ) in1978/79 2 , of 497 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND 6. RESPONSES TO HALT LAND DEGRADATION 498 AND TO RESTORE DEGRADED LAND Further workisneededto: halt andreverse current landdegradationtrends . managers, plannersanddecisionmakers-isrequired to and developmentcommunities,farmersotherland areas where significantlyenhancedeffort -bythe research general public.Nonetheless,there remains anumberofkey support bydecisionmakers,landmanagersandthe this existingknowledgemore widely, givenadequate and itsdrivers.There isenormouspotentialforapplying environment foreffective responses tolanddegradation responsesand governance inproviding anenabling understanding oftheimportancepolicies,institutions and restoration practices,aswellarapidlydeveloping and soilwaterconservation,biodiversityconservation and experiencetosupportsustainablelandmanagement There currently existsadeepandbroad baseofknowledge AND RESEARCHNEEDS 6.5 THE ASSESSMENTREPORT ONLANDDEGRADATION ANDRESTORATION sharing, research anddevelopmentactivities; North-South, South-Southandtriangularknowledge- geospatial landinformationsystems,andenhanced for example,thedevelopmentofeasilyaccessible degradation andrestore degradedlands-through, land managementagenciestoeffectively haltland by landowners,communitiesandgovernmental knowledge andskills,capacityresources needed Bridge, amongandwithincountries,current gapsin based approaches, includingcitizenscience; managers andplanners-bothconventionalILK- community) onlandconditionmonitoringfor Provide knowledge,toolsandskills(bythescientific mitigating andreversing landdegradation; well ascostsandbenefitsassociatedwithavoiding, associated withbiodiversitylossanddegradation,as ecosystems), theshort-medium-andlong-rangecosts contributions topeople)peoplederivefrom land(and understand andquantifythefullrangeofvalues(nature’s Develop analyticalmethodologiesandtoolstobetter KNOWLEDGE GAPS

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