land Article People-Centric Nature-Based Land Restoration through Agroforestry: A Typology Meine van Noordwijk 1,2,3,* , Vincent Gitz 4, Peter A. Minang 5, Sonya Dewi 1, Beria Leimona 1, Lalisa Duguma 5, Nathanaël Pingault 4 and Alexandre Meybeck 4 1 World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Bogor 16155, Indonesia; [email protected] (S.D.); [email protected] (B.L.) 2 Plant Production Systems, Wageningen University & Research, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands 3 Agroforestry Research Group, Brawijaya University, Malang 65145, Indonesia 4 Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor 16115, Indonesia; [email protected] (V.G.); [email protected] (N.P.); [email protected] (A.M.) 5 World Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi 00100, Kenya; [email protected] (P.A.M.); [email protected] (L.D.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 30 June 2020; Accepted: 28 July 2020; Published: 29 July 2020 Abstract: Restoration depends on purpose and context. At the core it entails innovation to halt ongoing and reverse past degradation. It aims for increased functionality, not necessarily recovering past system states. Location-specific interventions in social-ecological systems reducing proximate pressures, need to synergize with transforming generic drivers of unsustainable land use. After reviewing pantropical international research on forests, trees, and agroforestry, we developed an options-by-context typology. Four intensities of land restoration interact: R.I. Ecological intensification within a land use system, R.II. Recovery/regeneration, within a local social-ecological system, R.III. Reparation/recuperation, requiring a national policy context, R.IV. Remediation, requiring international support and investment. Relevant interventions start from core values of human identity while addressing five potential bottlenecks: Rights, Know-how, Markets (inputs, outputs, credit), Local Ecosystem Services (including water, agrobiodiversity, micro/mesoclimate) and Teleconnections (global climate change, biodiversity). Six stages of forest transition (from closed old-growth forest to open-field agriculture and re-treed (peri)urban landscapes) can contextualize interventions, with six special places: water towers, riparian zone and wetlands, peat landscapes, small islands and mangroves, transport infrastructure, and mining scars. The typology can help to link knowledge with action in people-centric restoration in which external stakeholders coinvest, reflecting shared responsibility for historical degradation and benefits from environmental stewardship. Keywords: assisted natural regeneration (ANR); co-investment; ecosystem services; environmental stewardship; equity; forest and landscape restoration (FLR); landscape approach; rights-based approach; tree planting; water 1. Introduction With the Bonn Challenge (2011) [1], the New York Declaration on Forests (2014) [2] and the UN Decade on ecosystem restoration [3] launched in March 2019, forest and landscape restoration (FLR) is gaining traction on the global political agenda. Within the goal of reversing centuries of damage to forests, wetlands, and other ecosystems, getting it right will be key to putting the planet back on a sustainable course. However, despite the high level of political engagement; despite the number and diversity of actors and institutions involved, from public and private sectors, civil society and local communities, research, and academia, at all levels, from local to global; and beyond some success Land 2020, 9, 251; doi:10.3390/land9080251 www.mdpi.com/journal/land Land 2020, 9, 251 2 of 29 stories, restoration is not happening at scale. As agriculture is a major driver of degradation but remains a primary source of rural livelihoods, international agricultural research can be part of the solution, contributing to the design of successful restoration approaches to be implemented at scale in the coming years. As part of the international agricultural research consortium (CGIAR) as food security-oriented international agricultural research body [4], the partners in the Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA) program, building on many decades of research, identified the need to uncover the diverse understandings and perspectives about ‘restoration’ and to construct a typology that can help to clarify contrasts, similarities and possible synergies across the many starting points for targeted interventions that are currently propagated and implemented under the common heading of ‘restoration’ of forests, landscapes and/or land. The aim of such typology is to better describe links between evolving knowledge, stakeholder-driven action, and achievement of Sustainable Development Goals. As a first step toward such a typology of restoration as part of international agricultural research, three Common Research Programs (CRPs) of the CGIAR—Forests, Trees and Agroforestry (FTA), Policies, Institutions and Markets (PIM) and Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE)—conducted a joint stocktaking of CGIAR work on forest and landscape restoration [5]. They covered a wide range of field projects and case studies, decision making supporting tools, modeling, mapping, conceptual approaches, and frameworks across the geographical area of interest of the CGIAR, i.e., the tropics and sub-tropics in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. They covered a broad range of issues directly or indirectly related to restoration, including sustainable land and water management; seed supply systems and genetic diversity; climate change adaptation and mitigation: land tenure security and land governance reform. They showed how restoration efforts could contribute to SDG2 by supporting smallholder farmers’ ability to increase food production, while also addressing SDG15 “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems” and “halt and reverse land degradation”, contingent on SDG16 “peace, justice and strong institutions”, assist with SDG6 “availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for al”, and most, if not all the 17 sustainable development goals [6]. They unveiled the many drivers of land degradation, not only biophysical, but also socio-economic, political, and institutional and the variety of actors involved. They suggest different ways to categorize restoration interventions. Building on the results of this survey, the main objective of this paper is to elaborate a typology of restoration options by context applicable in a wide range of situations across the tropics and sub-tropics. We adopt here a people-centric nature-based perspective focusing on land restoration through agroforestry. For that purpose, Section2 discusses the underlying concepts and definitions and presents our approach. Section3 focuses on land degradation, its symptoms, drivers, and indicators. Section4 suggests and discusses a possible typology of restoration options by context. 2. Underlying Concepts, Definitions and Approach 2.1. Beyond Tree Planting, the Various Aspects of Restoration Tree planting as a way to restore local ecosystems appeals to many farmers, local communities, national policymakers, and private companies, for a variety of reasons. Tree planting ceremonies as a symbol of peace and commitment to stability and prosperity have an important place in the diplomatic world and national policy agendas for post-disaster contexts [7]. The ‘tree planter hero’ portrayal has strong emotional appeal [8–10]. Claims of the millions, billions [11,12] or trillions [13] of trees planted capture the public imagination and get news headlines. More than seven billion humans share the planet with approximately three trillion trees [14] 46% less trees than at the start of human history. Approximately 1.36 trillion of these trees exist in tropical and subtropical regions 0.84 trillion in temperate regions and 0.84 trillion in the boreal region; overall nearly one-third are outside forests [15]. Tree diversity in agroforestry landscapes varies over three orders of magnitude, from 1–1000 [16]. Land 2020, 9, 251 3 of 29 Enthusiasm for tree planting only partially aligns with the focus of thousands of experts around the world who have dedicated their professional lives to the protection and restoration of ecosystems [17]. Guidelines for restoration include recommendations to first consider and deal with root causes of degradation, to work with nature, rather than against it with technical means, and to work with people. The guidelines suggest that experts can provide advice on where and how tree planting can be helpful. The idea, however, that planting trees is at the core of restoration ignores the expertise of millions of agroforesters (practitioners) around the world who learned that people-centric and nature-based land restoration through agroforestry can be as simple as ‘assisted natural regeneration’, with selective retention of the right trees growing in the right places [18,19]. While the practice may be as old as agriculture, agroforestry as a branch of applied science started four decades ago. ‘Restoration’ was and still is one of its main motivators [20–23]. Where it is ecologically and socially feasible [24–27], approaches such as assisted natural regeneration need to be upfront part of a ‘restoration typology’ message and list of options to be considered for any given context. In a more comprehensive ‘options by context’ typology for restoration a wider spectrum of activities beyond ‘tree planting’ is needed, as we will explore in this contribution. The growing consensus on the relevance of