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University Microfilms International 300 N. ZEES ROAD. ANN ARBOR, Ml 48106 18 BEDFORD ROW, LONDON WC1R 4EJ, ENGLAND 8015941

U m s t a e d t , M o n ic a Jo h a n n a

THE EARLY ORGAN PRELUDES, FUGUES, TOCCATAS AND FANTASIAS OF JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH AS A CULMINATION OF ITALIAN AND GERMAN ORGAN LITERATURE OF THE 15TH TO 17TH CENTURIES

The Ohio Stale University D.MA. 1980

University Microfilms

Intern St io n s! 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor. MI 48106 18 Bedford Row, London WCIR 4EJ, England THE EAELY ORGAN PRELUDES, FUGUES, TOCCATAS AND FANTASIAS

OF JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH AS A CULMINATION OF

ITALIAN AND GERMAN ORGAN LITERATURE OF THE 15th to l? th CENTURIES

DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Monica Johanna Umstaedt, B.M., M.M.

*****

The Ohio State University

1980

Reading Committee; Approved By

Marshall Barnes

Maurice Casey

Gordon J. Wilson

Adv^Æor Schooiof Music VITA

February 3. 1953« Bom - Cleveland, Ohio

1974 ...... B.M., Baldwin-Wallace College, Conservatory of Music, Berea, Ohio

1975-1978. . . . Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Music (Performance D ivision), The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1976 ...... M.M., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1978-present. . , Lecturer in Organ and Church Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field; Music; organ

Studies in organ, organ literature. Professor Gordon J. Wilson

Studies in church music, organ peda-gogy. Professor Wilbur Held

Studies in music history. Professors Richard Hoppin, Herbert Livingston, Martha Maas, Alexander Main, Keith Mixter

Studies in music theory. Professors Marshall Bam es, Gertmde Kuehefuhs, Norman Phelps, Charles Vedder

Studies in composition. Professor Marshall Bames

Studies in choral conducting, choral repertoire. Professor Maurice Casey

XI Graduating Recital Series, 1977-78 Monday, May 1, 1978, 8:00 p.m. Mershon Auditorium

MONICA JOHANNA UMSTAEHT, organ

This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the req.uirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts

PROGRAM

Premier Livre d'Orgue (Suite du premier ton) P ie rre Du Mage P lein .leu (ca. 1676- 1751) Fugue Trio Tierce en Taille Basse de Trompette R écit Duo Grand .jeu

Méditations sur le Mystère de la Sainte Trinité Olivier Messiaen VI. Dedicated to th e Son ( t . 1908) IX. "I am who I am" - Exodus 3 :l4

Prélude et Fugue sur le nom d'Alain, Op. 7 Maurice Duruflé (b. 1902) INTERMISSION

Choral-Improvisation sur le "Victimae paschali Charles Toumemire (1870-1939) Recon. hy Maurice Duruflé

Choral No. 2 in h minor césar Franck ( 1822- 1890)

P asto rale Jean-Jules Roger-Ducasse ( 1873- 1954)

Variations sur un Noël, Op. 20 Marcel Dupré (1886-1971)

XXI Graduating Recital Series, 1978-79 Wednesday, January 24, 1979, 8:00 p.m. Mershon Auditorium

MONICA JOHANITA UIBTAEDT, o rg a n ist

This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts

PROGRAM

Prelude and Fugue in C Major, BVJV 5^7 J. S. Bach

Partite diverse sopra J . S . Bach "Christ, der du hist der helle Tag", BWV 766

Prelude and Fugue in E Minor, BWV 548 J . S . Bach

INTERMISSION

Concerto in A Minor, BWV 593 Vivaldi-J. S. Bach A llegro Adagio A llegro

Sonata V in C Major, BWV 529 J . S . Bach A lleg ro Largo A lleg ro

Toccata in F Major, BWV 540 J . S . Bach

XV MUSIC FOR ORGAN, BRASS AND PERCUSSION

June 3 , 1979 7:30 P.M. Worthington United Methodist Church Worthington, Ohio

Monica Johanna Umstaedt, organ Maurice Casey, conducting

This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts

SACRAE SYMPHONIAE (l597) Giovanni Gahrieli Sonata pian’e forte Canzon noni toni

CONCERTANTE FOR ORGAN, BRASS, PERCUSSION (1966) Daniel Pinkham I. Canzona 11. Procession i n . P la in t

PHANTASY ON THE CHORALE "COME, HOLY GHOST, GOD Jan Bender AND LORD" FOR ORGAN AND BRASS CHOIR ( 1960)

***1NTERM1SSION***

JUBILATE, ORGAN AND BRASS (1970) John Weeks

KONZERT FUR ORGEL UND BLASER ( 1961) Joseph Ahrens 1. Allegro maestoso 11. Andante 111. Allegro

Tjrumpets Trombones Tom Battenherg Joe Duchi Robert Birch Jeff Keller Rick Burkaxt Patrick Lewis

French Horns B arito n e Susan Rankin Albert Adcock Kent Larmee Percussion Beverly Stoltz James Moore Lecture Recital Sunday, February 24, 1980 4:00 p.m. St. James Episcopal Church

MONICA JOHANNA UMSTAEDT, organ

This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Musical Arts

PROGRAM

Lecture - Recital

"EARLY KEYBOARD FINGERING AND ARTICULATION"

WITH EXAMPLES DRAWN FROM THE WORKS OF HANS KOTTER, HANS BUCHNER, JOHN BULL, ORLANDO GIBBONS, SAMUEL SCHELDT, J . P . SWEELINCK, JEAN FRANÇOIS DANDRIEU, FRANCOIS COUPERIN, J . S. BACH, AND C. P.' E. BACH

VI TASLE OF CONTENTS

Page VITA ...... i i

PROGRAMS...... i i i

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES...... v i i i

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

C hapter

I . PRELUDE, TOCCATA, RICERCAR, AND FANTASIA .... 8

I I . FREE ORGAN FORMS IN ITALY...... 28

Italian Influence on the German Regions . .

I I I . FREE ORGAN FORMS IN GERMANY...... 58

The Southern and Middle Regions ...... 58 North Germany ...... 8 l

IV . THE EARLY FREE ORGAN WORKS OF J . S. BACH .... 105

Sum m ary...... 1^1

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 156

V ll LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

Example Page

1. TaLlatiore of Adam IleLorgh, Praeamtulmm super d a f at g ...... 9

2. Buxheim Organ Book, Praeamtulum super G ...... 10

3. Buxheim Organ Book, Praeamhulum super C, ms. 26 to e n d ...... 11

4. John Bull, Prelude (No. Il8, Musica Britannica XIX) 12

5. Kleher, Fantasÿ in fa. ms. 1 - 4...... 19

6. Kleher, Fantasy in fa, "coloration" of the final c h o r d ...... 20

7. Andrea Gahrieli, Fantasia allegra, ms. 24 - 23. . . 21

8. Recerchare di Jacoho fogliano da modena, ms. 35 - ^ 8 ...... 29

9. Recerchare di Julio [Segnôl da modena musica f i ( c ) t a p e r l a v ia d i G s o l r e u t , ms. 1-6. ... 30

10. Girolamo Cavazsoni, Canzon sopra I le hel e hon, ms. 1 - 8 ...... 31

11. Andrea Gahrieli, Ricercar Quinto Tono. ms. 38-43» 32

12. Girolamo Frescohaldi, Toccata Prima, ms. 1 - 3 • • 37

13. Frescohaldi, Toccata Prima., last 2 ms ...... 38

14. Michelangelo Rossi, Toccata secunda. ms. 1 - 2 . . ^

15. J. J. Froherger, Toccata (from Diverse ingegnosissime e rarissime. . .Partite. . .di cimhali organi e instrumenti, 1693), ms. 13-1^ and 4 1 - 4 2 ...... 59

V lll Example Page

16. Hans Leo Hassler, Ricercar. subject ...... 6l

17. Johann Speth, Toccata tertia, ms. 31 - 38 . . . • 63

18. J. P. Sweelinck, Toccata, ms. 1 - 7 ...... 82

19. J. P. Sweelinck, Toccata No. l4, ms. 4l - 4-3 . . . 82

20. Heinrich Scheidemann, opening 3 ms. of three P ra e a m h u la ...... 83

21. Heinrich Scheidemann, Praeamhulum. ms, 32 - 4-2 . . 84-

22. Heinrich Scheidemann, closing measur-es of three P ra e a m h u la ...... 83

2 3 . Franz Tunder, Praeludium (No. l), ms. 24-23; Praeludium (No. 2), ms. 24-23; Praeludium (No. 3)» ms. 2 2 - 2 3 ...... 91

24. M atth ias Weckmann, Canzone (No. 7)» su b je c t .... 92

2 3 . M atth ias Weckmann, Canzone (No. 4 ), i n i t i a l th e m e ...... 92

26. Jan Adam Reincken, Fuga. subject ...... 93

2 7. Dietrich Buxtehude, Toccata (Hedar, Vol. II, No. 17), ms. 3 2 - 3 3 ...... 95

28. Buxtehude, Prâludium und Fuga (Hedar, II, No. 4), ms. 2 1 - 2 3 ...... 95

29. Buxtehude, Prâludium und Fuga (Hedar, II, No. 24), ms. 21-24, ms.. 78-82 ...... 95

IX INTRODUCTION

Organ preludes, fugues, toccatas, and fantasias of Johann

Sebastian Bach—the so-called "free" organ works^—form a substantial

segment of th e e x is tin g Baroq_ue organ l i t e r a t u r e . The e a r ly f r e e organ

works (up to ca. 171?) were to a great extent influenced by Italian and

German traditions of the two centuries immediately preceding them.

This is not a new idea, nor is it surprising. To say, for example,

that some of the youthful Bach preludes or toccatas are almost inter­

changeable, stylistically, with similar works of Dietrich Buxtehude is not an extreme statement, and it in no way detracts from the creative

genius that belonged to Bach. However, since Bach's early works are,

with few exceptions, less well-known and less often performed than the

later works, the extent of outside influences on these early works may

come as a s u r p r is e even to o rg a n is ts .

Friedrich Wilhelm Eiedel has pointed out the importance of viewing the works of any artist in their proper historical context:

Das Werk eines einzelnen Meisters wird erst dann im rechten L ich t e rs c h e in e n , wenn es in m itten s e in e r Umgebung gesehen wird, wenn man seine Wurzeln kennt und seine Ausstrahlung nachweisen kann. Hierbei wird sich herausstellen, ob der betreffende M eister "Epoche gemacht" hat, ob er eine râumlich und zeitlich begrenzte Bedeutung besass, ob er erst auf spâtere Geschlechter einen Einfluss ausübte, in welcher Weise seine Werke zu denen anderer M eister in Beziehung standen u.a.m.

It is, therefore, the purpose of the present study to show, in the 1 l i g h t o f 15t h - to 17th-century keyboard, developments in Italy and 2

Germany, that Bach's early free organ works are, for the most part, an extension and, in some cases, a culmination of these developments.

In any such investigation, one is confronted almost immediately with problems of terminology: the title s of free organ works— praeludium. toccata, fantasia, ricercar. etc.—seem to have been applied haphazardly in numerous cases. Why, for example, are certain of Buxtehude's compositions entitled "Praeludium" or "Praeludium und

Fuga" while others of the same structure are called "Toccata"? Or, to point out another problematic case, why is the same term—ricercar— used as a title for the non-imitative pieces (1523) of Marco Antonio

Cavazzoni and also for the later im itative works (15^2/43) of Girolamo

Cavazzoni?

The following are Johann Gottfried Walther’s definitions of

"Toccata", "Fantasia", "Capriccio", and "Eicercare":^

Toccata, pi. Toccate [~ital^ vom Verbo: toccare, anrUhren; ist eine auf die Orgel, oder auch Clavicymbel gesetzte lange Pièce, in welcher entweder beyde Hânde mit Verânderung abwecteeln, so da.B bald die rechte, bald aber die lincke ihr Lauffwerck machet; oder das Pedal hat lang anhaltende No ten, worîlber beyde H&ide das ihrige verrichten.

Fantasia [ital^ Fantaisie ^gall^ Phantasia flat*^ ist der effect eines guten Naturells so auch theils ex tempore sich âussert, da einer nach seinem Sinn etwas spielet, oder setzet, wie es ihm einfâllt, ohne sich an gewisse Schrancken und Beschaffenheit des Tacts zu binden. . . .

Capriccio ^ita l^ Caprice F gall H subitus. fortuit us animi impetus flatTj xst ebendas, was die Fantaisie und Boutade, darinn einer seinem Sinn folget, und nach seiner caprice etwas hinsetzet oder herspielet; welches jedoch manchesmahl weit artiger zu hdren ist, als was regulierbes und studirtes: wenn es aus einem freyen Geiste kommt. . .Mr. Brossards Beschreibung lautet folgender massen: "es sey Capricio ein "seiches Stück, worinn der Componist, "ohne sich an eine ge­ wisse Anzahl Tâcte, "Tact-Art, oder aber vorher überlegten "Entwurff zu binden, der Hitze seines "naturels den freyen Ijauff lasse," Kxirtz: ein Einfall, worauf vorher nicht meditirt worden. Daher werden auch die vors Clavier gesetzte, aher nicht sonderlich ausgearheitete Fugen also t i t u l i r e t .

Eicercare, pi. Eicercari ^ita l^ dieses Wort hrauchet so wohl G alilei in seinem Dialogo della Musica antica e modema, f . 37. Tevo in seinem Musico Testore, p. 267, als Penna lih. 3» c.l delle Alhori Musicali: Joh. Krieger in seiner Clavier-Uhung, und Praetorius T. 3» c .8 Syntagm. als ein Suhstantivum, und diese letztem heyde unsonderheit von einer künstlichen Fuga; sonsten aher ist ricercare ein Yerhum, und heisset so viel, als investigare. quaerere, exquirere, mit FleiB suchen, als welches hey Ausarheitung einer guten Fuge allerdings ndthig is t,. . .Andere hrauchen und setzen davor: Eicercata j^ital^ Eecherche fgalll woven Brossard schreihet: es sey eine Praeludien-oder Fantaisie-Art, so auf der Orgel, ClavicjTnhel, Theorhe, u.d.g. gespielt werde, wohey es scheine, oh suche der Componist die Harmonischen Gânge oder Entwüxffe, so er hemach in den einzurichtenden Pieces anwenden wolle. Solches geschehe ordinairement ex tempore und ohne praeparation, und erfordere folglich einen starcken hahitum Mich deucht, man künne heyde termines gar füglich also von einander unterscheiden; daB man d a sje n ig e , so noch gesucht w ird , e in E ic e rc a re ; hingegen das, so hereits gesucht und kdnstlich durch starckes Nachsinnen aufgesetzt worden, alsdenn mit gutem Eecht eine Eicercata nenne.

As W. F. Eiedel points out, a terminology that is connected with any kind of formal principles does not yet exist in the keyboard music o f th e 17t h and l 8th centuries, and attempts at establishing a satisfac­ tory systematic arrangement after the fact have been, to the present time, unsuccessful.^ Eiedel criticizes the practice of classifying compositions solely on the basis of their given titles, whether it he for the purposes of scholarly research or for the publications of new practical editions of the music. As examples, he cites Erich Valentin's study. Die Entwicklung der Tokkata im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert. and also the complete works editions of Buxtehude and Bach.^ Equally misleading, according to Eiedel, is the opposite approach, namely the practice of replacing the original title s with new ones which perhaps came about in a later time period and which do not correspond to the structure of the older compositions Hans Heinrich Eggehrecht, in his significant study of musical terminology, also warns against the idea of imposing present- 7 day concepts on historical fonr3.

That title s were sometimes interchangeable and rather indiscrim­ inately applied is evident in the following examples from the literature

Q (beginning already in the 15th century); The title of Adam Ileborg’s

Tabulatur (l448) begins "Incipiunt praeludia"; the pieces themselves are titled praeamhula./ The Index of H. Hotter*s Tabulatur (Hs. F. IX.22 of

U.B. Basel) calls No. 5^ praeamhulum, but in the body of the manuscript, this piece is titled prooemium; No. 6l, entitled praeludium, the Index lists as Anabole (original, Greek, meaning "beginning") ; for pieces entitled harmonia and fantasia, the Index lists carmen./ H. Neusiedler's

Lautenbuch (l53^) contains "Preambel oder Fantasey". M. Mersenne

(Harmonie universelle. I 636) regards Fantasia and Ricercar as the same thing, and still in the dictionaries of S. Brossard ( 1703) , J . G. W alther

( 1732), and J. J. Rousseau (l7&7), the Ricercar is described as "eine

Prâludien- oder Fantasie-Art" (a prelude or fantasy type)./ Four of the

Intonazioni d'organo of A. and G. Gabrieli (l593) are indicated in the text as Toccatas and, in B. Schmid the Younger's intabulation ( 1607) of the same Gabrieli pieces, they are called Modi vel Toni, which are to be used "ane statt der Praeludien" (instead of preludes)./ In A.

Gabrieli's Canzoni alia Francese. , . con uno Capriccio. . .(l605, II), the latter is nevertheless called Ricercar in the music book.

The free organ compositions from the Liineburg Tablatures (mid-

17th century) ^ also include a variety of title s such as Praeamhulum,

Toccata oder Praeamhulum, Praeludium, Toccata. Praelude oder Applikatio,

Praelude. Cantzoem, and Praeam. The brief histories of the prelude, toccata, ricercar, and fantasia which follow in Chapter One are not meant to he complete in scope, nor are they intended to serve as rigid classifications of types. They are designed, rather, to serve as background references for the discussions of the free organ works of Italy and Germany in the following chapters.

The reader is asked to bear in mind the flexible interchange of titles in the keyboard music of the 15th to the l8th centuries. FOOTNOTES

INTRODUCTION

1. "A free organ form may be defined as a form depending for its organization neither upon a cantus firmus nor on the rhythmically binding stm oture of the dance." John R, Shannon, "Editor's Preface" of his ed. of The Free Organ Compositions from the Lueneburg Organ Tablatures. 2 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1958). '

2. "The work of an individual master will appear in the correct light only when it Is seen in the midst of its surroundings, when one knows its roots and can establish the extent of its influence. Throu^ investigations of this sort will come to li^ t -vdiether the particular art is I was 'epoch-making', whether he possessed a signifi­ cance bound by space and time lim itations, whether he exerted an influence only on later generations, in what relationship his works stood with those of other artists, etc." (writer's transi.) Friedrich WilhPlm Riedel, Quellenktlndliche Beitrâge zur Geschichte der Musik ftir Tasv-eninstrumente in der zweiten Hâlfte des 17. Jahrhunderts (vornehmlich in Deutschland). Vol. X of Schriften des Landesinstituts ffe Musikforschung, Kiel (Kassel und Basel: BSrenreiter, I960), 115.

3* "Toccata. . .from the verb toccare. to touch; is a long piece for organ or Clavicymbel, in which either the two hands alternate, so that the right and. then also the lef hand play the passagework ; or a piece in which the pedal has long sustained notes, above which the hanus do their work."

"Fantasia. , .is the effect of a good natural way of playing, which also in part is done ex tempore. in that someone plays or writes something according to his taste, as it occurs to him, without binding himself to certain lim its and conditions of the Tact."

"Capriccio. . ..is like the Fantaisie and Boutade, in that one follows one's taste and sets down or plays something according to one's caprice; which is sometimes far more artful to listen to than that which is regulated and studied: when it comes out of a free sp irit. . .Nr. Brossa7.'d's desczription is as follows : "Capri cio is a type of piece in which the composer, without binding himself to a certain tj'pe c-f beat, or any pre-planned design, gives free reign to the heat ...or passion) of his natural talent." In short, an idea which has not been meditated upon. From this the not very strictly worked--out fugues set for keyboard are also titled Capriccio. " . .usually, however, Ricercare is a verh and means to investigate, to inquire, to search diligently, all of which is of course neces­ sary in the working out of a good fugue. Others use it or describe it as Eicercata. . .Recherche, about which Brossard writes: it is a type of prelude or fantasie played on the organ, Clavicymbel, theorbe, etc., in which it seems as though the composer is search­ ing for the harmonic progressions or designs, which he would then like to use in the following pieces. This usually is done ex. tempore and without preparation. . . .methinks one could easily distinguish between the two terms; so that one calls the type which is searched-out a ricercare; as opposed to it, the type which is searched-out and, after careful thinking, artfully written down, could well be called a Eicercata." (writer's translations)

Johann G ottfried Walther, Musikalisches Lexikon oder Musikalische Bibliothek (l732), facs. ed. by Richard Schaal in Documenta MusicoloRica; Erste Reihe: Druckschriften-Faksimiles III; Internationale Gesellschaft fiir Musikwissenschaft (Kassel und Basel: Bârenreiter, 1953)» 610, 239» l 4 l , 525-26.

4. Riedel, op. cit., 25.

5 . I b i d .

6. Ibid. An example is the often mis-applied term Praeludium und Fuge, which Riedel here attempts to put into proper perspective.

7. Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht, Studien zur musikalischen Terminologie, "Historisch echte und wissenschaftlich gemachte Terminologie," No. 10 of Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur; Abhand- lungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse (Wiesbaden; Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften. . in Mainz, 1955), 82 f f .

8. I b i d . , 88- 89. See also pp. 93-96 for a list (with references) of titles with examples of their use. The list includes Praeludium (Praeamhulum, Prlamel) , Prooemium, Anabole, Intonazio, Modus and Tonus, Introitus, Intrada, Fantasia, Harmonia, Carmen, Ricercar, Tiento, Toccata, Taner, Arpeggiata, Tastar (Tastata), etc.

9. Ratsbiicherei, liineburg. See The Free Organ Compositions from the Lueneburg Organ Tablatures, transcribed and ed. John R. Shannon, 2 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia, 1958). See also; Die Llineburger Orgeltabulatur KN 208^, ed. by Margarete Reimann as Band 40 of Das Erbe Peuts cher Musik; Abteilung Orgel/ Klavier/ Laute, Band 4 (Frankfurt: Henry L itolff's Verlag, 1968). CHATTER ONE

PRELUDE, TOCCATA, RICERCAR, AND FANTASIA

The fifteenth century introduced •what is considered to he the first type of idiomatic keyboard music conceived without reference to pre­ existent forms—the prelude or praeamhulum. The Adam Ilehorgh tahlature of 1448 ^ contains preludes which are tho'ught to he the earliest examples 2 of authentic, original keyboard writing. Designed as they are -with chords or slow-moving single notes in the lower part contrasted -with running diatonic figuration in the upper part, these pieces foreshadow the Venetian intonations and toccatas found in several keyboard collec­ tions of the late l6th and early l?th centuries. Although in some ways the Ilehorgh preludes resemble liturgical cantus firmus settings,^ they are not based on a cantus firmus. and the high degree of metric freedom as well as the figurations in the upper voice are not paralleled in the liturgical cantus firmus settings, llebor^ called for the use of pedals in some of the pieces, indicating an established fam iliarity with pedal use. The purpose of these preludes -was probably to introduce a poly­ phonic work of some sort (a motet or portion of the Mass) that was sung during the service. The fact that the Ilehorgh preludes were also meant to be transposed into various keys (i.e . , Praeamhulum super D, A, F et g ) further attests to their usefulness in the church service. Yvonne

Rokseth suggests that the preludes had a double function: "In church they filled the intervals between liturgical actions or accompanied 8 processions, while on secular occasions they showed off the player's skill and perhaps gave singers their notes for the opening of a vocal ,.4 p ie c e .

W illi Apel is of the opinion that these free forms may have heen consciously intended to he revolutionary in nature, a claim that is supported by the free, flourishing style of some of the passages :

Example 1. Tablature of Adam Ilehorgh, Praeamhulum super d a f et g ma i I

The improvisational quality of the pieces is, according to F. E. Kirby, an identifying characteristic that marks them as the earliest extant 7 idiomatic keyboard compositions. Rokseth gives an alternate opinion:

Yet, in spite of the ingenuity of his [ilehorghpatterns, many of which are attractive and lie easily under the organist's fingers, his tablature shows little more than gropings after an independent organ style. However, it is preferable in this respect to many a later collection of greater renown where invention is stifled by the didactic purpose and by the neces­ sity of transcribing popular songs of the day. 10 In spite of the absence of any similar pieces in maniiscripts of the

same period, it seems logical to assume that pieces similar to the

preludes in the Ilehorgh tahlature were not a rarity, hut were rather commonly improvised.

In Conrad Paumann's Fundamentum organisandi of ^ and in the

Buxheimer Orgelhuch (ca. l46o-70) , the prelude form is expanded to

include also chordal sections (in note-against-note style).

r +- -C-)—1------— M— L . - r — i/I - —- ~ -Â

As Kirhy remarks, "the parallel between this and the Notre Dame organum, with its alternation between sustained-tone and melismatic style, on one hand, and the clausulae in discantus style, on the other, may he noted.

Of th e 258 compositions in Buxheim, 15 are preambles. No. 232

(Praeamhulum super C) shows th e c h a ra c te ris tic use of q^uick, mostly scalewise passages in the upper part, sometimes with little or no har­ monic support from the slow-moving lower parts. This prelude contains only one brief chordal section, and shows the tendency, evident in other preludes in this collection, toward a gradual speeding-up of the 11

lower part or parts. On occasion, as in the last section of No. 232,

the lower parts participate in a contrapuntal interplay with the

upper voice.

Example 3* Buxheim Organ Book, Praeamhulum super C, ms. 26 to end.^^ y ______. f " ' . ^ . ^ . 0 ______/ A

Apel comments on the importance of these preludes:

Mit ihrer Mischung von improvisât oris chen Passagen, schnellem Laufwerk und akkordischen Bildungen fassen die Buxheimer Praeamhula in iiherzeugender Weise zusammen, was in der vor- angegangenen Zeit sich in Norden und im Süden Deutschlands herausgehildet hatte. Auch kann man nicht umhin, in ihnen eine Vorahnung eines weit spâteren Typus der Orgelmusik zu erkennen, in dem sich die gleichen Stil-elements in grandieserer Art entfalteten und verhanden: der norddeutschen Tokkata des B a ro c k s.l^

Examples of preamhle-type pieces from the group of German organists surrounding Paul Hofhaimer^^ are numerous, with eighteen such pieces found in Kleher's tahlature (1320-24).^^ As Rokseth points out, "th e organ's special powers are better exploited, especially in the long scale passages and dreamy chords which give a rhapsodical air to his fantasias (particularly the Preamhalon in re and the Praeamhulum in sol

Ü moll). In all these characteristics Kleher's preludes belong to the 17 Adam Ilehorgh tradition." Similar pieces are found in the tablatures of Hans Kotter (ça. 1520)“^ and other representatives of this group. 12 William Young is of the opinion that Kotter's "free instrumental music

* represents an advancement over the preludes included in the Buxheimer

Orgel'buch or those mritten by Ileborgh and Baumann. . , . Musical ideas fit neatly into measures or short periods and thereby promote a clarity of structure absent in the free compositions of the previous century. «19

Of K otter's Preludium in la . Young states: "Here in embryonic form 20 exist the baroque toccatas of Merulo. "

The importance of these early examples of the keyboard prelude lies mainly in the fact that they represent the oldest keyboard music that is fully independent of vocal tradition. As Apel states :

Here for the first time we become aware of a music for which a keyboard instrument seems to have provided the inspiration. There is the special kind of originality such an inspiration would have produced and the characteristic atmosphere that envelops all genuine keyboard music. And, although there appears to be a hiatus after Kleber and Kotter, we feel justified in regarding these old pieces as the first links in a graduated chain that had, as its consummating pendants, the toccatas of Buxtehude and Bach.^^

John null (I5b3“l628), toward the end of the l6th century, wrote 22 a number of preludes of virtuoso character. Some of Bull's preludes are extremely brief and consist of little more than scale passages and broken chords:

Example 4. John Bull, Prelude (No. 118, Musica Britannica. XIX)

^ J — J—f. j *— ;

- ...... Example 4. (con't) John Bull, Prelude 13

At least three compositions among B ull's keyboard woiks are entitled

"Prelude and Fantasia". The prelude, in these pieces, is also quite

brief, serving as an introduction to the much more extensive Fantasia.

Thomas Mace, in h is M usick's Monument ( 1676), described the prelude

as "a piece of confused - ra-ld - shapeless - kind of intricate play . . . 23 in which no perfect Form, Shape, or uniformity can be perceived."

Beginning at about the mid-17th century, preludes began to be

combined with a special composition. Both Louis Couperin (ca. 1626- 61)

and Jean Henri D'Anglebert (ca. 1628- 9I), for example, used the prelude

as an introduction to suites or to a suite-like series of pieces. These pieces are unique in the prelude literature in that they are of a very free design, characterized by great metric freedom. They are probably 24 meant to resemble actual improvisations. Louis Couperin's preludes are

in two parts ; the first is like that described above and is followed by

a fugal section designated changement de mouvement. 26

Handel's preludes to his suites are of a free, improvisatory nature

and are treated "in full accordance with the tradition of the genre,"

In most of these preludes keyboard figurations such as arpeggios and 27 scale-passagework predominate. A term often interchangeable -with "prelude", the toccata is i k described by Apel as a "composition in free, idiomatic keyboard style, employing fu ll chords and running passages, with or without the inclusion 28 of sections in imitative style."

Although "toccata" referred originally to brass fanfares, and only toward the end of the l6th century came to be used in connection with 29 certain keyboard compositions, the term itself still referred to a number of different kinds of music. The "toccata ligature e durezze", for example, made famous by Frescobaldi, is a special type characterized by syncopation and dissonance and by a strongly-chromatic style with occasional points of imitation. Nevertheless, the type of piece that most readily comes to mind when the term "toccata" is used fits Apel's definition quite precisely. One thinks, for example, of the pieces by

Claudio Merulo (l533-l604), who is credited with establishing the five- part toccata structure, or the large sectional works of Dietrich Buxtehude

(1637-1707). 30 Murray C. Bradshaw, in his important study of the toccata, has proposed some new ideas concerning the origin of the keyboard toccata.

The evidence he has gathered in support of his theories is strong enough to shatter, in some respects, our comforta' e definition of the term

"toccata". Bradshaw’s findings concerning the origin of the Venetian keyboard toccata are best summarized in the following remarks;

The toccata derived from the intonation and like its fore­ runner was modelled harmonically after the psalm tone, ideally present in the soprano. What has been unanimously regarded as one of the first examples of idiomatic keyboard writing now stands revealed as an instrumental work based on a vocal model. Its entire structura and chief elements—harmonic sections and florid passage work—have their analogue in the embellished vocal falsobordone, . . . ^compositions that originated in Italy or Spain shortly before 1480 and became very popular in the l6th centtiry; most often used in the part singing of Vesper psalmsj 15 that most immediately affected the keyboard toccata. These conclusions, then, alter considerably the traditional view of the genre. It is not a "free" composition, since it has a cantus firmus and is based on a vocal model. It is not an improvisational composition, either, because the performer was following prescribed harmonies and m e l o d i e s31 .

Eggebrecht, in his aforementioned book on musical terrdnology, criticizes those studies of the toccata that attempt to separate its 32 development from those of other free forms. It is Eggebrecht's con­ tention that an approach in terms of "the history of the toccata" is unjustified, since the term is one of those that cannot suitably be treated as an isolated form.

In the l6th century, titles of pieces did not yet imply specific forms. Even in the l?th and l8th centuries, as mentioned earlier, a wide realm of possibilities still existed, as the following descriptions of 33 the toccata w ill shows

Michael Praetorius, Syntagma musicum (Pt. Ill) (l6l9):

The toccata is like a praeambulum or praeludium, which an organist, starting to play on the organ or the harpsichord, improvises out of his head before he commences a motet or fugue, consisting of simple single chords and coloratura passages etc. The one plays in one way, the other in another; to expatiate on that is unnecessary here, and furthermore I consider myself too humble to prescribe any one manner to anyone. And although I have collected many splendid toccatas by the most eminent Italian and Dutch organists, and have added some myself, humble and simple as I am, with a view to publishing Them, up to now I have n o t c a rrie d t h i s ou t f o r c e r ta in reaso n s. It is however my opinion that they are named "toccata" by the Italians because "toccare" means "tangere, attingere" and "toccata" "tactus" ; in like manner the Italians say; "Toccate un poco" which means: "Strike the instrument" or "Touch the clavichord a little." Thus a toccata may be named a touching or handling of the clavichord.

Christoph Demantius, Isagoge artis musicae (8th impression, 1632):

A toccata is a praeludium which an organist improvises out of h is head b e fo re he commences a m otet o r fu g u e. Johaxin Mattheson, Kem melodischer Wissenschaft (1737): l6

Yet another kind, shall I say of melody or of musical whim, is to he found among the forms of instrumental music, one which, unlike all the others, is indefinite: the so-called Fantasias or Fantaisies, of which the various kinds are houtades, capricci, toccatas, preludes, ritom elli, etc. Althou^. all are intended to make the impression of heing played impromptu, most of them have heen properly written down; hut they pay so little heed to keeping to order and within hounds, that it is difficult to append any other name to them than that of good ideas. Whence imagination is their symbol.

Johann Mattheson, Per vollkommene Kapellmeister (1739):

The principle and suhsidiary sections may not he properly connected with one another, much less properly developed; there­ fore those composers who introduce formal fugues into their toccatas and fantasias have no conception of the style in hand, to which nothing is more opposed than order and constraint. The most successful is he who can insert the most artistic ornaments and the most unusual ideas.

Jacoh Adlung, Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit (1758):

[Here, "toccata" becomes a mere category; Adlung mentions it in h is 17th chapter as a possibility for improvisation^

Can and should the art of improvisation also he extended to this manner of developing a fugue impromptu? To this I would again answer: Yes, whether it he a choral or any other kind of fugue. I will say more: if the great toccatas consist of nothing hut fantasias or preludes and various fugal sections, these toccatas can also he performed off-hand.

Individual terms, such as ricercar, fantasie. canzona, capriccio,

and fuga, do not always convey a particular style. Sixteenth-century prints and manuscripts often present the term "ricercar" interchange­

ably with fantasia. tiento. and preamble.

The term "ricercar" was first applied to lute music, especially the

Petrucci prints of lute hooks by Francesco Spinacino (1507)> Jean

Ambrosia Dalza (I 508), and Franciscus Bossinensis (1509), then to "ill keyboard and ensemble music. Generally, the term "ricercar" came to

he used for compositions in the stilus gravis. namely, fugues in white 17 notation and often -written with an alla-hreve tempo indication. How­

ever, the pieces called "ricercar" in Marco Antonio Cavazzoni's

Hecerchari. m otetti, canzoni (1523) are entirely different from the later ricercars in that they are non-imitative. Marco Antonio's works are long compositions containing a mixture of chordal elements, passage- work, and occasional imitation of short motifs.

Apel has sho-wn that the meaning of the term "ricercar" is related to its English cognate "research", and that its use designated a work 35 which functioned as an essay or a study on a musical problem.

Eggebrecht is of the opinion that the original musical significance of the ricercar, as he established in an earlier study,corresponds most closely to that of the intonation. As he states;

Ricercare hi ess Wiedersuchen, Uberprüfen der Stimmung, prâambelartiges Einstimmen des (Lauten-) Instruments, An- stimmen (Aufsuchen) der Tonart eines folgenden St-ückes, intonieren, was den frühen, ni cht -im iti erenden Ricercaren von F. Spinaccino (l50?), J. A. Dalza (.1508), F. Bossinensis ( 1509)» Marco Antonio da Bologna (1523), F. da Milano (1538), V. Galilei (I 583) entspricht . . . noch J. G. Walther definiert: . . ."'Ricercar' uno stromento, un Liuto, Violino, ein Instrument, Laute, Geige, versuchen, ob's gestimmt sey."^'

Praetorius (Syntagma musicum. Ill, l6l9, I, VII - X), speaking of free instrumental forms, places all under the general classification

"Von den Praeludiis. " These are then divided into Praeludia vor sich selbst (Fantasia and Capriccio. Fuga and Ricercar, Sinfonia, Sonata),

Praeludia zum Tantz (intradas) and Praeludia zur Motetten oder Madrigalien)

(T occatas)

The "searching" of the keyboard eventually became a "searching" of motives in the imitative ricercar. The first imitative ricercars specifically intended for the organ appear in Girolamo Cavazzoni's Intavolatxira cioe recercaxi canzoni himni magnificati ( 1^2/43). 18

In the l6th and 17th centuries, the term "fantasia" was sometimes used interchangeably with ricercar, tiento, praeambulum, and other terms. W illi Apel remarks that various music historians have tried to explain the term "fantasia" in connection with the ricercar, whether as a counterpart or as a companion piece to it. However, as Apel explains:

We can come close to the meaning only by interpreting the term in a literal sense, the same procedure that served to clarify the term ricercar. While the ricercar always relates to "examination" or "study," the fantasy is just what its name implies—a free or freer handling of musical invention or inspiration. This definition is as true of the fantasies from the l6th century as it is of Bach's Chromatic Fantasy, Mozart's D minor Fantasy. Beethoven's Sonata quasi una fantasia, or Liszt's Don Juan Fantasie. It does not preclude the possibility of a fantasy's occasionally assuming more definite contours, as in those by various 17th-century composers: Sweelinck, Frescobaldi, Froberger, etc. But even in these instances the term by no means indicates a unified type; instead, each of these masters creates a type o f h is own, quite different from those of the others.39

Peter Schleuning lists the following as general characteristics iU) of the fantasia;

(1) deviations in design from the formal, stylistic, and structural norms current in any given period, attained partly by modifications and interminglings of the latter;

(2) enigmatic, concealed methods of organisation, Tdiich do not affect the external aural impression of "disorder", but, by means of underlying processes of interrelationship, to be comprehended intellectually rather than aesthetically, create an impression of formal unity which is vague and has no definite connections with anything;

(3 ) individual shades of feeling, drawn from experience and of personal significance, which give unity to the work through an all-embracing overall mood (concentrated mainly on the spheres of melancholy meditation, fear, and despair from the 18th century onwards);

(4) an esoteric character, its designation being only for the initiated experts, who assess the fantasia as the peak of artistic skill. Schleming also remarks on the attitude toward the fantasia. 19 from its beginnings in the l6th century:

The attempt to bypass the artistic norms current at any time and, independently of them, to allow the creation of a musical work to depend exclusively on the inventive powers (fantasy) of the artist appears thus: Such an attitude—not only in music—is possible for the first time with the new self-confi­ dence of the European artist from the time of the Renaissance, and from the period around 1500 in music . . . It is based on a change in the understanding of musical composition: It signifies an escape from the specialised theoretical systems and rules of the music of the Middle Ages.^1

To the Renaissance musician, according to Margarete Reimann,

Fantasia meint also nichts anderes als der Erf indungs gabe des Autors verpflichtet, fixierte Instrumentalkomposition, nicht aus irgendeiner Absicht und su irgendeinera Zweck auf- geschriebene, Improvisation, nur um ihrer selbst willen existierend. 42

The term "fantasia" first appears in the keyboard tablatures of

Hans Kotter and Leonhard Kleber. Apel considers Kotter's Fantasia in 43 ut to be of special interest since it unmistakably represents a type whose actual development began one hundred years later, reaching its high 44 point two hundred years later, namely, the prelude and fugue. Kleber's

Fantasy in fa begins with a section built on three-part chords decorated with scale passages.

Example 5» Kleber, Fantasy in fa . ms. 1 -4 . 45

f F

' h e f t l i t A longer imitative section (52 measures), featuring free imitation, 20 paired im itation, and sequential treatment foUo'ws. The piece closes with highly decorative figuration in the upper part over an F - C - F pedalpoint in the left hand part.

Example 6. Kleher, Fantasy in fa , "coloration" of the final chord.

1

Apel therefore characterises this fantasia as "a type of keyboard 46 canzona with prelude and postlude."

The great majority of 16th-century fantasias are for lute, vihuela, guitar, and other stringed instruments. Representative of this literature are works by Luys Milan from Valencia (d. after 15&1), Hans Newsidler from

Nürnberg (1508-63), and Francesco da Milano (ça. 1497-1543), active in

Mantua, Florence, and Rome. Both Milan and Newsidler stressed the inde­ pendence with which their pieces were conceived; Milan, in the "Declara- cion" of his El Maestro (1535), points out the necessity of calling the practical examples contained therein "fantasia", since this music

"solo procédé de la fantasia y industria de auctor que la hizo" (is 47 entirely the product of the fantasy and industry of the composer.) 21

According to Thomas Morley's A plaine and Easie Introduction to practicall Musicke (London, 1597f pt. Ill, p. 293) i the fantasia player 48 may "quick motions, slow motions . . . use at your pleasure."

Schleuning remarks that

the imitative type of structure remained the fantasia's principal field of activity, not in the standardised and stereotyped form employed in the ricercar, canzona, and also the capriccio in some cases, however, hut with the freedom, characteristic of the fantasia, to modify the contrapuntal process at will, to make it more elaborate and intricate, and to interrupt it with freer sections. "

Morley gave the following definition of the fantasy;

The most principal and chief est Kind of Music which is made without a ditty is the Fantasy, that is when a musician taketh a point at his pleasure and wretcheth and tumeth it as he list, making either much or little of it according as shall seem test in his own conceit. In this may more art he shown than in any other music because the composer is tied to nothing, hut that he may add, diminish and alter at his pleasure. And this kind will hear any allowances whatsoever tolerable in other music.

Andrea G abrieli's Fantasia allegra from his Terzo lihro de recercari

( 1596) is basically a ricercar with two canzona-like themes, and employs decorative keyboard figurations throughout.

Example 7* Andrea Gabrieli, Fantasia allegra, ms. 24-25."^^ CO 2 2 The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book contains mmerous examples of keyboard fantasias from ça. 160O, among them foiir by W illiam Byrd, ten by Giles Famaby, and two each by John Bull, John Munday, and Peter

Philipps. Most of these works are sectional in structure, often begin­ ning with contrapuntal material and continuing with passagework, figura­ tions, and short imitations.

Inconsistency in the application of the terms prelude, toccata, ricercar. and fantasia, among others, continued into the l 8th century.

As we have seen, certain elements are common to a ll free keyboard forms at particular stages in their development. At no point in the pre-Bach period do we find the consistent use of titles to represent specific forms. One must consider the probability that overlapping of style characteristics among coiiçositions called "prelude", "toccata",

"ricercar", or "fantasia" and inconsistency in the use of these terms did not show a lack of understanding on the part of pre-Bach composers.

What is quite evident, on the contrary, is that keyboard composers of th e 15t h to 17th centuries were extremely aware of the potentials of their instruments, just as they were, for the most part, flexible and receptive to new developments in their art.

As the following chapters w ill show, composers in some cases took pains to make certain that free organ works remained precisely that— free. This is as true of Bach's early work as it is of Frescobaldi's and Buxtehude's. Boundaries never became too rigid, and the creative genius of an artist always had space in which to expand. 23

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER ONE

1. Philadelphia, Curtis Institute of Music. See: Keyboard Music of the l4th and 15th Centuries, ed. by W illi Apel as Vol. I of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music, general ed., W illi Apel (Dallas: American Institute of Musicology, I 963) • This is a transcription of all known sources, except the Codex Faenza and the Buxheim Organ Book.

2. The title of the Ileborgh tablature states, "Here begin preludes in various modes written in the modem style skillfully and care­ fully compiled with various mensurae added by Brother Adam Ileborgh. . ." (incipient praeludia diversarum notarum secundum modemum modum subtiliter et diligenter collectae cum mensuris diversis hie inferius annexis per fratrem Adam Ileborgh^ i .) According to F. E. Kirby, "the qualification 'modem style' (modemum modum) refers to the use of a ll the meters commonly employed in the polyphony of the time." F. E, Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music (New York: The Free Press; London: Collier-Macmillan Ltd., I 966) , 37*

3 . Such as the Mass movements and Magnificat settings in the Sagan Manuscript, the Wilkin tablature, and the Buxheim Organ Book. I b i d . . 3 6.

4. Yvonne Rokseth, "The Instrumental Music of the Middle Ages and Early Sixteenth Century," Ars Nova and the Renaissance 1300-1540, ed. by Dom Anselm Hughes and Gerald Abraham as Vol. I ll of The New Oxford History of Music, 8 vols, to date, ed. J. A. Westrup et a l. (London: Oxford University Press, 195^-)» H I, 413.

5 . W illi Apel, Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik bis 1700 Kassel: Bârenreiter, 19&7),

6. Corpus of Early Keyboard Music, Vol. I, op. c it., 28.

7. Kirby, op, cit.. 3 8.

8. Rokseth, op. cit., 428.

9. Lochamer-Liederbuch; Fundamentum organisandi M agistri Conradi Paumanns Ceci de Nürenberga anno 1452. Staatsbibliothek der Stiftung Preu^. Kulturbesitz, Berlin-Dahlem, Mus. ms. 4o6l3 (olim Wemigerode, Kod. Zb. l4 ). 9. (con't) See also: facsimile ed.: Lochamer-Liederbuch und das r Fundamentum organisandi von Conrad Paumann. ed. Konrad Ameln, Vol. Ill of Documenta MusicoloRica, Zweite Reihe: Handschriften Faksimiles (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1972). For a transcription and study of this ms. see Wilhelm Friedrich Arnold, Das Locheimer Liederbuch nebst der Ars Organisandi von Conrad Paumann als Dokumente des Deutschen Liedes sowie des frühesten geregelten Kontrapunktes und der âltesten Instrimentalmusik (Leipzig: B re itk o p f & Hërtel, 1926), reprint (Wiesbaden: SSndig, I 969).

10. Buxheimer Orgelbuch. München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cim. 352b (formerly Mus. ms. 3723). Facsimile ed.: Das Buxheimer Orgelbuch; Handschrift mus. 3725 der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek, München, facsimile ed. Bertha Wallner, Vol. I of Documenta Musico- logica, Zweite Beihe: Handschriften Faksimiles (Kassel: Bâren­ r e i t e r , 1955) • A modem edition is Das Buxheimer Orgelbuch. ed. Bertha Wallner, Vols. 37-39 of Das Erbe Deutscher Musik (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1958-39). Some of the pieces from Paumann's Fundamentum are also included in Buxheim. See also: Eileen Southern, The Buxheim Organ Book. Vol. VI of Musicological Studies (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 1963).

11. Das Buxheimer Orgelbuch, ed. Bertha Wallner, Vols. 37-39 of Das Erbe Deutscher Musik. Vol. 37» PP* 38-39.

12. Kirby, op. c it., 3 8.

13. Das Buxheimer Orgelbuch. ed. Wallner, Vol. 39, p. 301.

14. "With their mixture of improvisatory passages, quick passagework, and chordal elements, the Buxheim Praeambula in a most convincing manner gather together what had developed in the north and south of Germany in earlier times. One also cannot fail to recognize in them a foreshadowing of a much later type of organ music, in which the same style elements enfolded and came together in a more grandiose fashion: the North German toccata of the Baroque." (w riter's transi.) Willi Apel, "Der Anfang des Prâludiums in Deutschland und Polen," The Book of the First International Musicological Congress devoted to the Works of Frederick Chopin ( i 9 6 0), ed. Zofia Lissa (Warsaw: Polish Scientific Publishers, 196317 4 9 8.

13. Hofhaimer exerted wide influence as a teacher. His students, known as the "Paulomimes", held important posts in several German c i t i e s and re p re se n te d th e b e s t o f German organ com position at the time of the Reformation. Four organists whose musical training can be traced directly or indirectly to Hofhaimer are Hans Buchner (Hans von Constance), Hans Kotter, Fridolin Sicher, and Leonhard Kleber.

16, State Library, Berlin, Mus. ms. Z 26.

17, Rokseth, op. cit.. 438 18. Univ. B itl. Easel, 7 . IX. 22 & F. IX. 58. 25

19. William Young, "Keyboard. Music to l600 - I," Musica Disciplina X7I ( 1962) , 133.

20. I b i d .

21. W illi Apel, "Early German Keyboard Music," The Musical Quarterly XXIII ( 1937) , 228-29.

22. John Bull, John Bull, Keyboard Music l / l l , ed, by John Steele and Francis Cameron, with introductory material by Thurston Dart (l),- ed. by Thurston Dart (ll) as Vols. XIV and XIX of Musica Britannica; A National Collection of Music (London; Stainer & Bell, for the Royal Musical Association, i 960 ( l ) , 1963 ( H ) . See also: Hu^ M. M iller, "Join Bull's Organ Works," Music and Letters XXVIIl/4 (Oct. 194?), 25-35.

2 3 . Thomas Mace, M ustek's Monument ( 1676), facs. ed. (Paris: Editions national du Centre de la recherche scientifique, 1958). Quoted by F. E. Kirby, op. cit., 5 8.

24. See Historical Anthology of Music, 2 vols., ed. W illi Apel and Archibald Davison (Cambridge?. Harvard University Press, 1946-50) , I I , No. 2 3 2 .

2 5 . Kirby, op. cit., 82.

2 6. Ibid., 147.

2 7. See, for example, the Prelude to Suite III in D Minor, pp. 22-23 of Kompositionen filr Klavier von G. F. Hgndel. Vol. I, ed. Adolf Ruthardt (New York, London, Frankfurt: C. F. Peters, n.d.).

28. W illi Apel, "Toccata," Harvard Dictionary of Music. 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2969) , 8 5 3.

2 9. Murray C. Bradshaw, The Origin of the Toccata. Vol. 28 of Musicological Studies and Documents (Dallas: American Institute of Musicology, 1972), 13.

3 0 . I b i d .

31. I b i d .

3 2 . Eggebrecht, op. cit.. 90-91. Eggebrecht cites studies such as Leo Schrade's "Ein Beitrag sur Geschichte der Tokliata," Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft VIII (1925/26) ; Erich Valentin’s Die Bitwick- lung der Tokkata im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert (bis J. S. Bach) (Münster i. W., 1930) ; and Otto Gombosi's "Zur Vorgeschichte der Tokkate," Acta musicologica VI (1934). 33* Erich Valentin, The Toccata. Vol. 17 of Anthology of Music; A ^6 Collection of Complete Musical Examples illiistrating the History of Music, ed. K. G. Fellerer (KSln; Amo Volk Verlag, 1958). 3.

34. William Yoimg, "Keyhoard Music to l600 - II," Musica Disciplina XVII ( 1963) , 169.

35* W illi Apel, "The Early Development of the Organ Ricercar," Musica Disciplina III (1949), 139-50.

3 6. Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht, "Terminus 'R icercar'," Archiv für Musikwissenschaft IX (1952), 137-4?.

3 7. "Ricercare meant to search, to test the tuning, a prelude-like playing of the (lute) instrument, an intonation (finding) of the key for a piece that followed, an intoning, which suits the early, non-imitative ricercars of . . . J. G. Walther still defines it . . . ja^ trying out [an instrumeniQ to see if it is in tune." (writer's transi.) Eggebrecht, Studien zur musika­ lischen Terminologie, 97-98. Eggebrecht proposes a sim ilar line of development for the Spanish tiento.

38. Ibid.. 9 9.

3 9. W illi Apel, The History of Keyboard Music to 1700. transi, and rev. by Hans Tischler (Bloomington, London; Indiana University P r e s s , 1972) , 204.

40. Peter Schleuning, The Fantasia I; l6th to l8th Centuries, transi, by A. C. Howie, Vol. 42 of Anthology of Music, ed. K. G. Fellerer (KSln; Arno Volk Verlag Hans Gerig, 197l) , 6.

41. I b i d .

42. "Fantasia therefore means nothing else but a fixed instrumental composition, wholly dependent upon the creative talent of the composer, an improvisation which exists not for any particular intention, or written down for any special purpose, but one which exists solely for its own sake." (writer's transi.) Margarete Reimann, "Zur Deutung des Degriffs Fantasia," Archiv für Musik­ wissenschaft X/4 ( 1953) » 2 5 4 .

4 3 . Wilhelm Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen TabulaturbVichem (Leipzig; Breitkopf & HSrtel, 1927), reprint (Hildesheim: Georg 01ms; Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & HSrtel, 1988), 58.

44. Apel, Geschichte der Orgel- und Klaviermusik, 199*

4 5 . Schleuning, op. cit.. 25.

46. Apel, Geschichte. 200. 4?. Schleuning, on. cit., 8.

48. Ihid.. 9.

49. I~bid.

50. Ihid. (from Thomas Morley, A nlaine ^ d Easie Introduction to nracticall Musicke. Part III, 193• )

51. Schleuning, op. cit.. 39.

52. Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum 32 G 29. CHAPTER TWO

FREE ORGAN FORMS IN ITALY

The earliest source of keyhoard ricercars is Marco Antonio

Cavazzoni's (ça. l490-ca. 1559) 1523 publication, Recercharl. motetti,

canzoni,^ which contains two ricercars, two motet transcriptions, and

four French chanson transcriptions. This source represents the earliest known use of the term "ricercar" as the title of an organ piece and is

a landmark also in that it marks the first appearance of the term

"canzone" in connection with keyhoard music. The ricercars are fairly

lengthy compositions in a free, improvisatory design, consisting of

alternating sections of different character (scale figurations contrast­

ing with chordal passages), and containing relatively little imitative

m aterial. William Young observes that "melodic resemblances between the

ricercari and the motet arrangements invite speculation that the former 2 were intended as preludes tc the latter." Stylistically similar to the ricercars, Marco Antonio's four canzonas have French title s (Perdone

[probably Pardonne^ moi sie fo lie . Madame vous aves mon cuor. Plus ne

regres, and Lautre yor per un matin) , and are probably arrangements of

vocal chansons, although no vocal models for the pieces have yet been

fo u n d .^

The C astell' Arquato manuscripts (ça. 1530-50) provide additional

material important for the early history of the ricercar. These manu­

scripts contain a ricercar by Marco Antonio, four by Jacobo Fo^iano 28 (1468-15^8), two "by "Jaches" (most protatly Jacques Brumel, organist in

Ferrara from 1533 im til 1564), one by Julio da Modena (Julio Segni,

1498- 1561, a student of Fogliano), two anonymous ricercars, and some 4 by Claudio Veggio.

Jacobo Fogliano and Julio Segni are among the composers represent­ ing a transitional phase in the development of the ricercar in that their pieces'^ are already in a somewhat contrapuntal style. Fogliano's ricercars are written in a free-voiced manner. Themes are usually intro­ duced im itatively, but dissolve, after a few statements, into a toccata style of writing with sequential treatment of motives.

Example 8. Recerchare di Jacobo fogliano da modena, ms. 33-48.^

W

f\i\ g 1 m i

g The few surviving ricercari by Segni resemble, in most respects, 30

Fogliano*s works. Again, free-voice writing predominates, showi in the chordal opening of the Recerchare di Julio da modena musica fi(c)ta per la via di G sol re nt;

Example 9• Recerchare di Jnlio TSegncH da modena musica fi(c)ta per la via di G sol re ut, ms. 1-6. 7

The first truly imitative ricercars to appear are included in

Girolamo Cavazzoni's Intavolatura cioe recercari canzoni himni Magnificat! g per organo (15^2/43; 2 volumes), a collection containing four sectional, im itative ricercars. Each ricercar is made up of anywhere from five to nine sections, each of which treats its own theme in imitation. (Non- im itative passages are sometimes included between sections.) Stretto imitation is common and some of the ricercars close with a free passage using scale figuration.

In summary, general characteristics of the ricercar of this time are: (l) the theme is of enough length to insure extended development;

( 2) imitative entries of the voices; ( 3) voices are spread in range to make thematic entries clear; (4) alteration of the theme in successive points of imitation ; ( 5 ) frequent reference to the theme; and (6) use of t%o different themes if the voices start together. 31

Cavazzoni's canzonas are a lighter counterpart to the ricercars.

They, too, are imitative, sectional works and, although hased on chanson melodies, the canzonas were not intahulations of chansons, tut were newly-compos ed.

Example 10. Girolamo Cavazzoni, Canzon sopra I le t e l e to n , ms. 1-8. 10 f

The foremost leaders of organ playing in northern Italy were those associated with the cathedral of St. Mark in Venice. Jacques Buus

(d. 1565)» a Flemish composer, was organist at St. Mark's from 15^1 until

1550, and composed a numher of ric e rc a rs , most of which were issued in part-book collections (15^7-^9). Buus' Intabolatura d*Organo di Ricer­

cari. Libro primo ( 15^9) shows how keyboard coloration was added to make ricercars suitable for performance on the organ. 12

Annibale Padovano (ça. 1527-1575) > first organist at St. Mark's from

1552 to 1566, composed toccatas and ricercars which are preserved in a posthumous publication from l6o4, Toccate et ricercari d'organo del

eccellentissimo Annibal Padoano. 13 Some four-part ricercars were pub­ lished as part-books in 155^ and 1567. 32 Andrea Gabrieli (ça. 1520-1586), second organist at St. Mark's from

1564 o r 1566, and first organist from 1584 onward, contributed much to the development of both the ricercar and the toccata. A. Gabrieli's keyboard works were published in Venice in six books (1571-l805)•

Four of the title s indicate that the compositions contained therein are

"for all kinds of keyboard instruments the remainder were issued as part-books for ensemble playing. Among the seventeen examples of ricer­ cars (from Ricer­cari - Libro secondo, 1595» - libro terzo. 159&) , seven are monothematic, and even the polytheraatic ricercars employ only two or three themes. All the essentials of the later fugue are already present here: the contrapuntal procedures are more complex now, for

Gabrieli employed devices such as inversion, diminution, and augmenta­ tion of the theme, as well as stretto and fragmentation of the subject.

Quite prominent, s till, is the use of idiomatic keyboard figuration.

A. G abrieli's works show a greater use of ornamentation than is to be seen in the works of Cavazzoni. Written-out ornamentation appears not only at cadences, but tliroughout, showing the practice of adding diminu­ tions as specified by Ortiz and Ganassi.^'^

16 Example 11. Andrea Gabrieli, Ricercar Quinto Tono. ms. 38-43. ; I ifTwm ,m?-i mm mnrn: $ À 11 / 1' 1'

~2r 0 . * § U(i ( r Example 11. (con't) Andrea Gabrieli, Ricercar Quinto Tono 33 I'

A. G abrieli's toccatas were published, together with some by

Giovanni Gabrieli, in Intonazioni d*organo di Andrea Gabrieli et di

Gio. suo neuote (1593) ("Organ Intonations of A. Gabrieli and of His

Nephew, Giovanni"). Some of these pieces are in three sections, the first and last being free and improvisatory, the middle in strict counter­ point. The publication contains e i^ t intonationi by A. Gabrieli, one

for each of the e i^ t church modes, and eleven by Giovanni Gabrieli,

one for each of the twelve modes (under Glareanus ' enlarged system,

Dodecachordon, 15^7), except for modes three and four, which are repre­

sented together in the Intonatio del terzo et quarto tono. (Each of

Giovanni's intonationi is also transposed to the fourth or fifth.) Apel notes that:

Andrea G abrieli’s eight intonations present a remarkably unified type. Within a frame of twelve to sixteen measures we hear a series of sustained chords ; in the first two or three measures they are presented as pure block chords, but thereafter they are connected by continuous chains of fast passages played by either the right or the left hand, while the other hand plays three-part chords. . . . In the earlier pieces passage work provided inter­ ludes for the purpose of expansion, but here it takes on the character of a continuous connection and enchainment, like a garland suspended between the columns of the chords. . . . Like the polychoral motets of the Venetian school, these preludes reflect the aura of magnificence of the city and period in which they were written.

The intonatione served as a short prelude, perhaps to supply a

choir with its pitch. Bernhard Schmid the Younger states that the 3 4 intonatio "serves instead of a prelude." Sébastian Brant, in his Narren-

schiff (Shin of Fools. , states ; "A preamble on the organ is a

praecentio which is played beforehand, so that the listener is intro­

duced to the right key, before the main piece is commenced." Michael

Praetorius (Chapter 8 of Syntagma musicum, Pt. Ill), in speaking about

the manner of performing hymns, and of the "symphonia" to be struck with­

out the assistance of cantors, remarks that it "is almost to be compared

with a preamble such as an organist improvises beforehand on the organ,

regal or harpsichord, and after which the actual singing is commenced

and carried out."^®

The to c c a ta , as an outgroTvfch from th e in to n a tio n e , s t i l l fe a tu re s

alternation between sections in contrasting styles, but all the sections

have been extended, now also to include passages in im itative counter­

point. Thus, the toccata may be thought of as a combination of the 19 somewhat older intonatione and the im itative ricercar or canzona.

Claudio Merulo (l533-l6o4), second organist at St. Mark's from

1557 to 1 566, and first organist until 1584, wrote numerous toccatas,

ricercars, canzonas and other organ works. Many of his compositions

were published during his lifetim e, and some were published shortly

after his death.

Young considers Merulo's toccatas "truly inspired creations into 21 which all his talent seems to have been poured." Most of the toccatas

employ a ternary scheme, as follows;

I. Massive chords and rapid scale figuration;

II. Imitative counterpoint prominent;

III, Return of the beginning's virtuoso elements.

Merulo was innovative in his use of the five-section toccata form, which he apparently introduced, and which is structured as follows; 35

I. Virtuoso toccata elements; II. Counterpoint; III. Toccata; IV . C ounterpoint ; V. Toccata.

This five-part structure can he observed in many later free organ works of the North German school and in a numher of the early works of Bach.

It is Valentin's belief that "one may thus maintain that the history of the toccata properly speaking commences with the work of Claudio Merulo, hased on previous history embodied in the development of the intonatio and preamble on the one hand and of the ricercata (and fantasia) on the o th e r.

Merulo was especially skillful at interweaving chordal structure and florid passagework into a continuous framework. There is a tendency, in his ricercars, toward a m ultiplicity of themes and of sections; only one ricercar is monothematic.

The second part of Girolamo Diruta's (l557-l6l2) II Transilvano^^ contains twelve ricercars: two by Luzzaschi (l5^5“l607, Ferrara), four by Gabriel Fatorini (b. 1580?, organist at Faenza), two by Adriano

B an c h ie ri > and four of his orai compositions. Thirteen toccatas are appended to the first part of the II Transilvano : four by Diruta, two by A. Gabrieli, one by Merulo, and one each by G. Gabrieli,

Luzzascho Luzzaschi, Antonio Romanini, Paolo Quagliati, Vincenzo B ell' 9I4. Haver, and Gioseffo Guami. The first three toccatas, by Diruta him­ self, demonstrate three types of keyboard figurations (scalewise; "good skips"—namely those on accented beats ; and "bad skips"). Of the two toccatas by A. Gabrieli, one is built entirely on chords and scale fig­ urations, while the other contains a central ricercar section. Ascanio Mayone (d, l62?) , a Neapolitan organist of the generation 3^

follOTO.ngthe Neapolitans Antonio Valente, Eocco Rodio, and Giovanni de

Macgne, published two books of keyboard music (Primo (Secondo) libro

di diversi capricci -per sonare; l 6 0 3; l609)^^ in which, as Marilou

Kratzenstein remarks, "the Early Baroque mentality most definitely

asserts itself, with constant tension, quivering motives, sudden, un- 27 expected rhythmic movements, and audacious dissonances." Most of

Mayone*s ricercars begin with two themes simultaneously. It is inter­

esting to note that the themes are subjected to numerous rhythmic and

melodic variations and that the countezpoint throughout any given piece 28 is derived almost exclusively from thematic material.

Another Neapolitan composer, Giovanni Maria Trabaci (ça. 1373-1647),

employed basically the same principles in his ricercars as did Mayone.

Among Trabaci*s works is a very early example of a Toccata durezze e

legature ("Toccata of dissonances and tied notes")

Particularly well-known for this type of writing is Girolamo

Frescobaldi (1583-1643), organist of St. Peter's in Rome, who, accord­

ing to Apel and others, was influenced considerably by Trabaci and

Mayone;

Instead of long-held chords which move with classic dignity in their restricted and narrow modal realm, Frescobaldi offers us bold and w illful harmony with surprising changes of tonality; instead of straight, clear lines of ascending and descending scales, we find restlessly moving and abruptly terminated figura­ tion; the smoothly measured flow of movement is replaced by a nervous, pressing change of rhythm, by impatient syncopations and complicated divisions of the bars; the great arctiitectural masses and surfaces of Merulo's toccata have vanished and are superseded by a disintegration of the structure into smaller and s till smaller segments, by a m ultiplicity of the formal elements which seei^ to recognize no other law than that of change and s u r p r is e .36 31 37 Frescotaldi's two complete "books of toccatas together with the toccatas in the Fiori musical! show that, as Shannon points out, "in an even more thorou^ way than did his Southem-Italian predecessors,

Fresco"baldi destroyed the sta"ble and static Venetian toccata. With

Frescobaldi the form "becomes a fa"bric of constantly changing, ever- fluctuating musical textures. Howard Ferguson remarks that "Fresco-

"baldi's toccatas are more complex and more highly organized than those of his master, ^Luzzascc^ Luzzaschi,with whom Fresco"baldi had studied in Ferrara^ The external form of Fresco"baldi's toccatas is much like that developed "by Merulo, and the toccatas themselves are truly virtuosic display pieces in which "toccata-styie" passages alternate with sections in im itative counterpoint.

The Toccata Prima from the second "book of toccatas and canzonas

( 1637) "begins with a section featuring rapid keyboard figurations (in­ cluding written-out ornamentations) :

Example 12. Girolamo Frescobaldi, Toccata Prima, ms. 1-3. — V

A brief seven-measure interlude in triple meter follows, after which the keyboard figuration of the opening section returns. This in turn is followed by a dance-like section in 12/8 time, but the duple time signature of the beginning returns six measures from the end. This 38 toccata closes, in typical fashion, with an abundance of rapid figura­ tio n :

35 Example 13* Frescobaldi, Toccata Prima, last 2 ms.

Frescobaldi *s toccatas cannot be studied or played without regard for the important preface to his first book of toccatas, in which Fresco­ baldi states, among other things, that the toccatas should not be per­ formed in a strict fashion, but rather that the beat should be varied, as in modem madrigal practice. He also states that the individual sections of a piece may be played separately.

Frescobaldi’s twelve fantasie and sixteen ricercari, published from l6o8 to 1635» are written in a four-voiced imitative texture. In general, the subjects used in these pieces "adhere to the vocal style of the Renaissance in range, rhythmic structure, general contour, and intervallic structure.The fantasie usually fall into three sections, determined in many of the works by the alternation between duple and triple meter. In contrast to the fantasias, which rely upon the reap­ pearance of initially-stated thematic material in consistently changing guises for their extension of length, the ricercars tend to resort to 39 the introduction of new themes at various points in the pieces. Frescobaldi's canzonas (referred to as "variation canzonas") fantasias, and capriccios are more sectional and lighter in nature than his ricercars. His canzoni alia francose were based on popular secular melodies, from which certain melodic fragments were taken and treated contrapuntally, and in which thematic metamorphosis was used. These pieces consist of at least three sections, the middle one in triple m eter.

Probably the best known of Frescobaldi's published works—copied by J. S. Bach—is the Fiori musicali ( 1635)» & collection containing three organ masses (Kyrie versets, plus toccatas, canzonas, and ricer- \ 4 l c a r s .)

Italian successors of Frescobaldi include Michelangelo Rossi

(ca. l600-ca. I 670) , Fabrizio Fontana (d. I 695) , and. Bernardo P a sq u in i

( 1637- 1710). John Shannon has noted that

after Frescobaldi the history of Italian keyboard music became even more closely related to the harpsichord than it had been in the earlier part of the century ......

It does appear that their favorite instrument became more and more the harpsichord, an instrument which better suited the lif te r quality of Italian music of the period.^2

The old forms of canzona, ricercar, toccata, etc., continued to be used, however. ho Michelangelo Rossi's set of toccatas published ca. l64o unmistak­ ably show Frescobaldi's influence. However, "what is different in Rossi's toccatas is the juxtaposition of sections in blandest tonal harmony with passages in which the older harmonic freedom and surprise suddenly reap- 2)4 pear." The toccatas of Rossi show a great variety of rhythmic units and patterns—running l6th-note passages, 32nd notes, dotted notes. etc.—often following one another in gnick succession. Because of the ^ frequent key changes and the resulting accidentals, the melody itself l^K has a fluid character. Rossi's Toccata seconda shows the shifting harmonies and varied rhythmic patterns characteristic of his toccatas, and the opening is typical of these works:

46 Example l4. Michelangelo Rossi, Toccata seconda, ms. 1-2.

l i JL ± 3 Z i

Among the works of Bernardo Pasguini, the most prolific Italian . keyboard composer in the second half of the 17th century, are some 3? toccatas (sometimes called ta sta ti), and about a dozen contrapuntal works ^rp ( capricci. ricercari. etc.). One of Pasguini's ricercari is entitled con fuga in piu modi and is an extended (3^5 ms.) multi-sectional piece on a single theme. It contains a variety of textures, ranging from a chromatic ricercar section to those in lively figurative and gigue 48 style. Shannon reminds us that after Frescobaldi, "only conservative, pedantic cong>osers continued to concern themselves with canzoni and ricercari'. Pasguini's toccatas consist largely of figuration "of the most common patterns and directed by the most predictable harmonies. Italian Influence on the German Regions

Frescobaldi was in a position to have influenced not only the many people who came from all parts of Europe to hear him play, but especially those who came to study with him. Johann Jakob Froberger ( 1616-I 667) ,

one of Frescobaldi's best known students, traveled to Italy to study with

him from I 635 until March, l64l. Other contemporaries of greater or

lesser historical importance reported to have studied with Frescobaldi

are Bartholomeo Grassi, Michelangelo Rossi, Bernardino Roncagli, Roemerin

Lucia Coppi, Franz Tunder, N. Kappeler, Tanaglino, Johannes Hecklauer,

Bernardo Pasguini, Johann Kasper K erll, and Johann Adam Reincken."^^

Charlene Dorsey remarks that since several of Frescobaldi's students

were German composers, his influence was thus transferred to the German

a re a s and

the school of German organists, beginning with Franz Tunder, who learned from the Frescobaldi pupil Johannes Hecklauer, continuing with Johann Jacob Froberger, who studied with Frescobaldi for several years, and culminating in Tunder's son-in-law, Dietrich Buxtehude, is firmly based on the exploitation of Frescobaldi's keyboard style. The last and greatest member of the German school, J. S. Bach, was so impressed with the Fiori Musicali . . . (I 635) that he copied it in its entirety . . . The formative influence of that collection may s till be traced in some of Bach's earlier organ work.-^^

Riedel has also remarked on Frescobaldi's important and lasting

influence in the German regions. However, he argues that the proof of

personal student contact with Frescobaldi is of minimal significance for 41 ^2 the determination of stylistic influences. Independent thinkers, as a rule, went their own way (for example, Froterger, as a Frescobaldi student), The compositions of lesser figures are, in many cases, not available to us, so that a judgment of these works is not possible.

More important than personal student contact, since we do not even know the method used in teaching in most cases, was, without doubt, the 53 distribution of a composer's works in prints and manuscripts. ^ As

Riedel points out, the Venetian prints of Frescobaldi's woiks were widely 5Z1 disseminated in the German regions.^ By the mid-l?th century, at the latest, they had appeared on the German music market: examples are traceable not only in church libraries, but also in the private holdings of certain organists (for example, J. A. Reincken, J. S. Bach, and

P. Alexander Giessel) . Together with the comparatively large number of extant first printings, there are also in existence a considerable number of complete handwritten copies, for many of which the name of the copyist or owner is known. Geographically, Frescobaldi's direct influence into the North German region can be traced, as is unequiv­ ocally shown by the second book of Frescobaldi toccatas that was once in the possession of J. A. Reincken ( 1623-1722), organist of the

Katherinenkirche in Hamburg.Of Frescobaldi's compositional types, the canzona was the main type used by the North German organists, whereas the sectional structure—based on the principal of thematic variation—characteristic of their toccatas in many ways remind one of the structure of the Roman master's capricci.^^

In middle Germany, Frescobaldi's compositions must have been known quite early on. They are traceable to the end of the century, especially in manuscript collections, where most have been intabulated CO _ _ 4’3 for practical use. Frescobaldi's strongest and most lasting influence, however, was in the southern realm. The monastic libraries held many of the original printings, as well as copies, which can be seen from present- day library holdings or through extant inventories (i.e. , Wien, Minori- tenkonvent; Einsiedeln; St. Urban in der Schweiz.Excerpts from

Frescobaldi's toccatas and canzonas were, even into the l8th century, copied into verset books and used in liturgical service playing. Of

Frescobaldi's keyboard compositions in the strict style, pieces from the Fiori musicali were esteemed, especially in J. J. Fux's circle, as an "advanced school" of instrumental counterpoint, and took their place next to the Palestrina masses (together with which they were occasionally co p ied .

In North Germany, a strict contrapuntal style of writing was favored especially for Tombeau compositions, for example, Buxtehude's

Frled-und freudenreiche Hinfarth des alten grossgldubigen Simeons. . . in zwei Contrapuncten abgesungen (written upon the death of his father,

Lübeck, 1674), an extraordinarily solid cantus firmus setting clearly indebted to Frescobaldi's Fieri musicali. T h i s s ty le was used in th e

North primarily for "occasional" compositions. There are, of course, isolated examples of canzonas among the works of Scheidemann, Weckmann, and Buxtehude, as well as ricercar-like sections in the North German toccata compositions,^^ but these works are not written in score

(Partitur). nor do they always feature consistent use of imitation.

Riedel points out that only one North German composer, Nikolaus Adam

Strungk, left a collection of contrapuntal pieces in the style derived from Italy and southern Germany. This set contains two ricercars and seven capricci and, of these, several have been mistakenly attributed through a forgery to the Viennese organist Georg Reutter the Elder 44

(appearing under his name in the Denkmâler der Tonkunst in Oster- re ic h )

In Dresden in 163I, Johann Klemm, a pupil of Heinrich Schütz, had p u b lish e d 36 fugues in score under the title Partitura Italica. . . .

The most important center, however, for the development of imita­ tive keyboard forms in the 17th century appears to have been Vienna

(and surrounding areas) , where the style was first represented in the works of Froherger. Froherger dedicated to Kaiser Ferdinand III two handwritten codices of keyboard music, containing six fantasias, can­ zonas, ricercars, and capricci (also, six toccatas in the style of

Frescobaldi.)^^ Later, around I 65 8, Froberger dedicated to Kaiser 64 Leopold I a collection of some six ricercari and capricci.

A. Poglietti followed with his collection of twelve ricercars

( 1670). It was through Poglietti that the ricercars of Battiferri also became known in Vienna.

J. J. Fux and his pupils (among them, Gottlieb Muff at, whose cycle of 32 ricercari and 9 canzonas are representative of the strict Italian forms) possessed copies of the following Italian keyboard works :

Frescobaldi: first and second toccata books Frescobaldi: Capricci, Canzoni e Recercari ( 1628) Frescobaldi: Fiori musicali (l635) M. Rossi: Toccate e Corente (l64o) Fasolo: Annuale (l645) Battiferri: Ricercari (I 669) Fontana: Ricercari (I 677) Poglietti: Ricercare and other compositions

Wilhelm Friedemann Bach's handwritten copy of B attiferri's

Ricercari indicates that J. S. Bach m i^t have used these as instruction p ie c e s .J . S. Bach himself still used the Italian fugal style in his late keyboard works, Das Musikalisches Opfer, 17^7 (acrostic; Regis lussTi Cantio Et Reliqua Arte Canonica Resoluta—Upon the King's Demand, the Theme and Additions Resolved in Canonic Style) , Die Knnst der

Fuge. and the Clavierübnng Part

Toccata styles in the German regions were also greatly influenced by Italian composers. The eight large toccatas (ça. 1670-75) of Johann 6q Kaspar Kerll show Frescobaldi's influence. ^ The Viennese organists

Poglietti, Techelmann, and Richter, also wrote such toccatas as intro­ ductions to their partitas. Georg Muffat's Apparatus Musico-Organisticus

( 1690) contains twelve lengthy toccatas. In the preface to this work.

Muff at mentioned his indebtedness to Frescobaldi and added that, since 70 Frescobaldi's time, no "Toccatae majores" had been printed. Gottlieb

M uffat ( 1690- 1770), son of Georg, and student of Pasguini and Fux, in *71 one collection (ca. 1730) paired 24 large toccatas with 24 capricci.

Toccatas of the 17th and even the l8th centuries cannot be judged without reference to contemporary instructions regarding their perform­ ance. Sources such as Frescobaldi's introduction to his first book of toccatas (Rome, l6l5; new ed. I 637) indicate that rhythms and durations were often only schematically notated and that an improvisatory approach 72 is necessary in order to bring the music to life. Frescobaldi's5SCi pre­ face to the Fiori musicali contains sim ilar suggestions. ' 73

Frescobaldi described an important style of writing and playing that was paralleled in the vocal practices of the l6th and 17th centuries

(madrigals and monodic literature, for example) , and that later came to be called the stilus fantasticus. This concept was explained by

Athanasius Kircher in his Musurgia Universalis (Rome, 165O, page 5S5) and is most clearly represented in the toccatas of the Roman and 46 Neapolitan organists "between 1600 and I 6 3 0, a"bove a ll in th e works of

Fresco"baldi*s predecessor Ercole Pasquini, and also among the organists of the royal chapel in Naples, Giovanni Macque, Ascanio Mayone, and

Giovanni Maria Trabaci. Frescobaldi's toccata "books of I 615 and l627 were the high points of this "fantastic" instrumental style, which had clearly evolved out of the 16th-century vocal madrigal style.

The stylus fantasticus was transmitted also into Germany and became an important element especially in the large toccata structures 77 of the North Germans.

J, G. Walther, in his Musikalisches Lexikon oder Musikalische

Bi"bliothek (1732), says of this style: "Stilo Fantastico, la t.

Stylus Phantasticus, gehSret vor Instrumente, und ist gar eine freye 78 von allem Zwanck ausgenommene Art zu componiren."

Johann Mattheson's discussion of the "fantastic style" in his

D er "Vollkommene G ap ellm eister (l739) m entions p a r tic u la r composers associated with the style—among them, Fro"berger, Rossi, Corelli, Buxte­ hude, and Lübeck—and gives examples from their works. Following are 79 portions of Mattheson's description of the style:

Paragraph 91: We have stated a"bove that this fanciful style has its place in the operas, though we qualified this with MAINLY since nothing keeps it from also being heard in the churches and in the chambers. In this respect, it is peculiar in that it is ONE AND THE SAME everywhere. However, when the other principal styles are generalized, they are in many respects subject to a different arrangement. What would the organists do if they could not improvise spontaneously in their preludes and postludes? Indeed, only something awkward, memorized and inflexible would result. Paragraph 93: This style is the freest and least restricted style which one can devise for composing, singing, and playing. Sometimes one uses one idea and sometimes another. One is restricted by neither words nor melody, but only by harmony so that the singer's or player's skill can be revealed. All sorts of otherwise unusual passages, obscure omasients, ingenious tuzns and embellishments 47 are produced without close observation of the beat and pitch, although these do occur on the paper without a regular principal motif and melody or without a theme and subject. These should be performed sometimes fast, sometimes slow, sometimes with one, sometimes with many voice parts, and sometimes a little behind the beat without meter, yet not without a view to pleasing, to dazzling, to astonishing. Those are the essential characteristics of the improvisatory style. Paragraph 94: One is restricted in this style of writing only to the rules of harmony. Whoever can bring to bear the most artistic embellish­ ments and the rarest inventions does the best. If occasionally a rather fast tempo slips in, it only lasts a moment. If no other follows, the rhythm ceases. The principal motifs and melodies cannot be completely ignored just because of the improvisatory nature ; however, they may not be done in sequence, much less receive th eir usual performance. Hence those composers who work out formal fugues in their fantasias or toccatas do not preserve the proper concept of the style at hand, for nothing is so very contrary to it as order and constraint.

Murray Bradshaw has provided further evidence of the close ties

that existed between Italy and Germany. His research shows that the

psalm-tone structure of the Italian toccatas was adopted also by many

German composers. So According to Bradshaw, in southern Germany, the

toccatas and "introiti" of Adam Steigleder (1561-1633 > organist at

Ulm), Hans Leo Hassler (l564-l6l2), Jacob Hassler (1569-1622), and

Christian Erbach (1573-1635)—the last three of whom were at various

times organists in Augsburg—clearly follow Venetian models:

Southern Germany had known the Italian falsobordone from the early l6th century on and cultivated it well into the 17th century. Also, the cultural ties between that area and Venice were many; from 1566 to his death in 1575 Annibale Padovano worked at Graz as organist and chapel master at the court of Prince Charles, Archduke of Austria; A. Gabrieli was a close friend of Orlando di Lasso and the teacher of Hassler; he also had connections with the Fugger banking family of Ausburg and dedicated mahy of his publications to Bavarian and Austrian princes; Andrea‘s nephew, Giovanni, was active at the court of Munich from 1575 to 1579 and at a later date became the teacher of Heinrich Schütz. Other examples could be given, but it is c le a r t h a t German and A u stria n composers woiold he most 48 susceptible to the Italian style and technique of toccata composition.

This old Venetian technique occurs in the works of Johann Jacob

Froberger (I 616-I 667), Practically all of his 24 toccatas open with a presentation of the psalm tone, after which, through changes in 82 texture, rhythm, and melody, new and contrasting sections begin,

Froberger thus "kept the psalm tone procedure of the Venetians but placed it in a new context; he combined Venetian procedure with Fresco­ baldi's style and ornamentation."^^ Johann Kaspar Kerll ( 1627- 1683), another prominent composer of the Catholic Viennese circle, also fol- 84 lowed the Venetian structure in the opening of his eight toccatas.

Franz X. A. Murschhauser (1663-1738), in the introduction to his Octi-

Tonium novum organicum (I 696) , w rote:

By no means have I unadvisedly omitted the obligatory bond ^"obligationem'U of the cantus firmus « seeing that they can be, of course, appropriately applied not only to the Magnifi­ cat canticle but also to each of the eight psalm tones. . . . I have avoided the pretentious titles of toccatas and canzonas and, for the sake of simple uniformity, I have employed the name prelude and fugue, because I preferred to give the kernel of the matter without its shell, rather than the shell vrithout its kernel.

About the continuation of this development, Bradshaw writes :

All these compositions Treferring to Italian and Germai^ led ultimately to those by J. S. Bach. Not that, as one author has said, the development of the toccata from its beginnings to these later works is marked by an ascending line of excellence [Valentin. Die Entwicklung der Tokkata, p. 96J but simply that Bach was one of the last great composers who wrote a significant number of these pieces. . . . Yet even though none of his toccatas, nor most of those by his contemporaries, follow the ideal psalm tone structure of the Venetians, they are inconceivable without these prototypes. Through such composers as Sweelinck and Froberger, the Venetian toccata had penetrated the musical life of Europe. Many composers gave up the cantus firmus structure . . . 4$ tu t none atandoned the virtuosity and idiomatic -wxiting that were an integral part of the first toccatas. 50

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER TWO

1. Modem edition in Knud Jeppesen, Die Italienisohe Orgelmusik am Anfang des Cinquecento; Die "Recercham, M otetti, Canzoni, LiPro Primo" des Marco Antonio (Cavazzoni) da Bologna (1523) in VerDindung mit einer Auswahl aus den "Frottole IntaDulate da Sonare Organi" des Andrea Antico da Montona (1517) (Kopenhagen; Einar Munksgaard, 19^3) •

E. William Young, "Key'board Music to l600 - II," l68.

3. Apel, Geschichte. 191.

4 . I M d . . 163. Modem edition of selected pieces from Cast e ll' Arquato mss. in Knud Jeppesen, Die Italienisohe Orgelmusik am Anfang des Cinquecento. 2nd enlarged ed., 2 vols. ^Oslo, Stockholm; Norsk Musikforlag; London: J & W Chester, et a l. , i 960), Vol. II.

5 . Modem edition in Marco Antonio Cavazzoni/ Ricercari. M ottetti, Canzoni; Jacoho Fogliano/ Julio Seni ed Anonimi/ Ricercari e Ricercate, ed. hy Giacomo Benvenuti as Vol. I of I Classici Musicali Italian i. Foundazione Eugenio Bravi, 15 vols. (Milan: I Classici. . ., 1941).

6. I Classici Musicali Italiani. I, 61.

7. IM d., 74.

8. See Girolamo Cavazzoni, Orgelwerke, 2 vols., ed. Oscar Mischiati (Mainz; B. Schott's SBhne, 1959)• See also Girolamo Cavazzoni, Musica sacra, ricercari e canzoni, ed. hy Giacomo Benvenuti as Vol. VI of I Classici della musica italiana (Milan: Societa Anonima Nctari La Santa, 1919).

9. Young, "Keyboard Music - II," 170.

10. Cavazzoni, Orgelwerke. I, 17.

11. Ten ricercars appear in Recercari. . .da cantare et sonare d'organo et altri stromenti. . .lihro primo (Venice. 1547); eight ricerc^ in Recercari. . .lihro secundo (1549). 12. See Goidon Sutherland, "The Ricercari of Jacques Buus," The Musical Quarterly XXXI (19^5)> ^ 8 - 6 ^ , F o r actual music in transcription, see Otto Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier in der Musik des l6. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig; Breitkopf & Hârfcel, 1910), 2^5- 59.

13. This publication contains two organ ricercars and eight toccatas. The l6o4 publication is said to contain the earliest documented use of the pedal in Italy. The first toccata contains, in its notation, capital letters placed below the first notes (and some­ times below the third-beat notes as well) of the lower staff, indicating bass notes, no doubt to played on the pedals when these were available. See Annibale Padovano. Sperindio Bertoldo, d'Incerto: Compositions for Keyboard, ed. by Klaus Speer as Vol. 3^ of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (Dallas: American Institute of Musicology, 1969

14. Canzoni alia francese per l*organo, Libro primo (l57l); Canzoni alia francese per I'organo, Libro secundo ( 1605) ; ed. G. G a b rie li; Intonazioni d'organo (1593)» ed. G. Gabrieli (also contains four t o c c a ta s ) : Ricercari per I'organo (1595/96), ed. G. Gabrieli, 3 vols. (Title of Vol. Ill: "Terzo libro de ricercari. . .insieme uno motetto duoi madrigaletti et un capriccio" ; 1596). Five volumes of organ compositions by Andrea Gabrieli have been published in an Urtext edition. See A. Gabrieli, Orgel- und Klavierwerke, 5 vols., ed. Pierre Pidoux (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 19527-59).

15. Silvestro di Ganassi’s Opera Intitulata Fontegara (1535) the first published manual to teach the art of diminution. The first section of Diego O rtiz's Trattado de Glosas (1553) gives examples and definite rules for the making of glosas upon a composition, rules sim ilar to those of Ganassi. See Howard Mayer Brown, Embellishing Sixbeenth-Century Music, Early Music Series, No. 1 London: Oxford University Press, 1976) and Imogens Horsley, "Improvised Embellishment in the Performance of Renaissance Polyphonic Music," Journal of the American Musicological Society IV ( 1951) , 3- 19.

16. A. Gabrieli, Orgel- und Klavierwerke , op. cit.. I, 17.

17. Apel, The History of Keyboard Music. 219.

18. Valentin, The Toccata. 4-5.

19. Kirby, op. cit., 48.

2 0 . Canzoni d'intavolatura. . . .lib. I ( 1592) . . .lib. II ( 1606). . . l i b . I l l C16ÏÏT: Ricercari d'intavolatura. . .lib. I (1567); l i b . I I (1607); l i b . I l l (1608); Messe d'intavolatura d'organo. lib, TV ( 1568); Toccate d'intavolatura. . .lib. I ( 1598); lib. II (l6o4) 21. Young, "Keyboard. Music - II," 177. 52

22. Valentin, op. cit., 6.

23. The oldest Italian organ method. Issued in two parts: II Transil- vano. Dialogo soura il vero modo di sonar organi. et istromenti da penna (Venice, G. Vincenti, 1593) and II vero modo. . .d'intayolare ciascun Canto, semplice. et diminuito (Venice, G. Vincenti, I 609) . Diruta was organist in Chioggia and Guhhio. See Catharine Crosier, "The Principles of Keyboard Technique in II Transilvano by Girolamo Diruta," Eastman School of Music thesis, 1941.

24. Apel, Geschichte. 2l8.

25. See Cantantibus Organis; Sammlung von Orgelstücken Alter M eister, H eft 18: Orgelmusik der Franziskaner II (Werke von Girolamo Diruta—Antonio Mortaro). ed. Eberhard Kraus (Regensburg: Friedzich P u s te t, 1976).

26. The books include ricercars, canzon francese, toccatas, and partite. See Apel, Geschichte. 420.

27. Maxilou Kratzenstein, "A Survey of Organ Literature and Editions : Italy," The Diapason LXIIl/3 (Febr. 1972), 23.

28. Apel, Geschichte. 421.

2 9. This type of toccata appears throughout the 17th century and exploits dissonances, especially those of the suspension and appoggiatura, frequent shifts of key center, and other unusual harmonic devices. John R. Shannon, "Short Survey of the Free Organ Forms in Italy 1450 to I 65O," A. G. 0. Quarterly VI/3 (J u ly 1961) , 80. The durezze e ligature pieces of Ercole Pasquini (c. 156O-C. 1620), together with those by Giovanni de Macque (c. 1550 - l6l4), are among the earliest examples of this type of keyboard composition. See Apel, Geschichte. 4l4.

30 . Apel, "Neapolitan Links between Cabezon and Frescobaldi," Musical Quarterly (1938), 49. Quoted by Shannon, "Short Survey," 79.

31. Toccate e partite d'intavolatura di cimbalo, Libro primo (Rome, 1615; contains 12 toccatas. 4 partitas, etc.); Toccate d'intavola­ tura di cimbalo et organo. partite di diverse arie e corrente. ^ lle tti. ciaccone. passaghagli (Rome. 1637; new edition of the 1615 book, with some additions); 11 secondo libro di toccate canzone versi d'hinni Magnificat gagliarde corrente et altre partite d'intavolatura di cimbalo et organo (Rome. 1627; contains 11 toccatas, 6 canzonas, 4 hymns, 3 Magnificats, 2 arias, 5 galliards, 6 Corrente, 1 intabulation, 2 partitas.)

32 . John R. Shannon, Orgyi Literature of the Seventeenth Century; A Study of Its Styles (Raleigh: The Sunbury Press, 1978), 71. 33» Howard Ferguson, Early Italian Keyboard Music; An AntholOisy. 53 2 vols. (London, N.Y.: Oxford, 1968), I, 59»

3 4 . Frescobaldi, Orgel- und Klavierwerke. TV, 3» See note 72 below.

35* Frescobaldi, IV, 6.

3 6. See p . 45 below .

37. II primo libro delle fantasie a quattro (Milan, 1608; contains 12 fantasies); Recercari et canzoni franzese fatte sopra diversi oblighi in nartitura (Rome, l6l5; 10 ricercars, 5 canzonas). Other ricercars are included in the Fiori musicali ( I 635) •

3 8. Charlene Polivka Dorsey, "The Fantasie and R icerc^i of Girolamo Frescobaldi," A. G. 0. Quarterly XII/3 (July 1967) , 104.

3 9. I b i d . , 105.

40. The most common way of providing unity to as diversified a structure as the canzone lay in binding the sections together by use of thematic variation. The five-section format (duple - triple - duple - triple - duple) favored in Frescobaldi's early canzoni was eventually abandoned in favor of a three-section format (duple - triple - duple) . His later canzoni also show a more consistent use of variation procedure. See Shannon, Organ L it. , 65- 70.

41. The Fiori musicali contains compositions for the Messa della Domenica. Messa delli Apostoli. and Messa della Madonna. The Messa delli Apostoli, for example, contains an opening toccata (Toccata avanti la Messa. . .) ; a set of Kyrie versets (3 Kyries, 2 Christ es, 3 Kyries) based on the Kyrie Cunctipotens genitor Deus; a canzona after the Eîpistle (Canzon dopo la Pistola) ; at the Credo: a toccata before the ricercar (Toccata avanti il Recercar), a chromatic ricercar after the Credo (Recercar Cromaticho post il Credo), and another ricercar (Altro recercar); a toccata for the Elevation (Toccata per le levâtione Recercar con oblige del Basso come appare) ; and a canzona after the Communion (Canzon Quarti Toni dopo i l Post-Comune).

42. Shannon, Organ Literature. 79-80.

4 3 . Michelangelo Rossi, Works for Keyboard, ed. by John R. White as V ol. 15 of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (American Institute of Musicology, 1966).

44. Shannon, Organ Literature. 81.

4 5 . Gloria Rose, "Purcell, Michelangelo Rossi and J. S. Bach: Problems of Authorship," Acta Musicologica XL/4 ( 1968) , 207•

46. Rossi, Works for Keyboard. 3. 47. Shannon, Organ Literattire. 84. See also, Bernardo Pasquini, 54 Collected Works for Keyboard, 7 vols., ed. by Maurice Brooks Haynes as Part V of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (American Institute of Musicology, 1968).

48. Shannon, Organ Literature. 85.

49. Ibid.. 86.

50. Ibid.. 85.

51. Dorsey, op. cit., 102.

52. Dorsey, ibid. , 102-03, quoting Hans Redlich, "Girolamo Fresco­ baldi," The Music Review XIV (Nov. 1953) , 262, and Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era from Monteverdi to Bach ^îew Yoik: W. Norton, 1947) , 48.

53» Riedel, Quellehkündliche Beitrâge. 119.

54. I b i d .

55. IM d .

56. I b i d .

57. For example, in the MS. Leipzig, Stâdtische Musikbibl. II.2.51. Ibid., 120. "Intabulation" in this case refers to the transference into German tablature notation.

58. I b i d .

59. Ibid. See also; Rudolf Walter, "Beziehungen zwischen süddeutscher und italien is cher Orgelkunst vom Trident inis chen Konzil bis zum Ausgang des Barock," Acta Organologica V. ed. Alfred Reichling, im Auftrag der Gesellschaft der Orgelfreunde (Berlin; Merseburger, 1970) , 160- 205.

60. Friedrich W. Riedel, "Strenger und freier S til in der nord- und süddeutschen Musik ftlr Tasteninstrumente des 17. Jahr­ hunderts," Norddeutsche und norde-uropâische Musik, Vol. I 6 of Kieler Schriften zur Musikwissenschaft. ed. Carl Dahlhaus and Walter Wiora (Kassel, Basel, Paris 3 London, N.Y. ; Bârenreiter, 1965) , 66.

61. As, for example, the first fugue in Buxtehude's Praeludium und Fuga. G Minor (No. 24 in Hedar ed. of Buxtehude Sâmtliche Orgelwerke. Vol. II). See p. I 03 below.

62. Riedel, "Strenger und freier Stil," 67. 63. Vienna, Osterreichische National 'bibliothek, Cod. I 8706/ 07. 5 5 Published in J. J. Froberger, Johann Jakob Froberger, Orgel- und Klavierwerke. I, ed. by Girido Adler as Jahrg. IV/1, Band 8 of Denkmâler der Tonkunst in Ssterreich (Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1959; unaltered reprint of Vienna; Artaria, 1897). Siedel, "Der Einfluss der Italienischen Klaviermusik des 17. Jahrhunderts auf die Entwicklung der Musik fUr Tasteninstrumente in Deutschland wâhrend der erst en Hâlfte des 18. Jahrhunderts," Analecta Musicologica V ( 1968) , 23.

64. Ibid., 28.

65. Biedel, "Strenger und freier Stil," 65.

66. Riedel, "Der Einfluss der Italienischen," 21.

67. I b i d . , 22.

68. The Fugue in E-flat ("St. Anne" fugue) which, together with the E-flat prelude frames the ClavierHbung III, begins with a five- part ricercar - like fugue (in the old "white" notation) and is, as Peter Williams suggests, "a splendid example of the old cumulative fugue whose sections are based either on different versions of the same subject or on secondary subjects which combine with the first." Peter Williams, Bach Organ Music. BBC Music Guides series (Seattle; University of Washington P r e s s , 1972) , 53* B ied el claim s t h a t t h i s fugue may have been modeled after one by Gottlieb Muffat. He also points out that dance elements (such as appear in the gigue-like rhythm of the final section of Bach's E-flat fugue) appear already in some of Frescobaldi's and Fro berger's fugues, and that it was still common, in the l8th century, to close a fugue with a section employing gigue rhythm. Riedel, "Der Einfluss," 31.

69. Riedel, ibid.. 23.

70. Riedel, "Der Einfluss," 23. The toccata major of Frescobaldi show an improvisatory, recitative-like style, full of virtuosic expressiveness. Sectional in structure, they are full of contrasts, and include some imitative entrances, but no fully worked-out fugal sections as in some of the North German toccatas.

7 1. Riedel, ibid., 24. See also Gottlieb Muffat, 12 Toccaten und 72 Versetl (Vienna, 1726), facsimile ed., Monuments of Music and Music Literature in Facsimile; First Series—Music, XVIII (New York: Broude Brothers, 1967).

7 2. Some important suggestions on the manner of performance, with which Frescobaldi prefaced his work, are as follows : 1. This kind of playing, just as in modem madrigal practice, should not stress the beat. Although these madrigals 72. ( c o n 't) 56 are difficult, they will he made easier hy taking the heat some­ times slowly, sometimes quickly, or even pausing, depending on the expression or the sense of the words. 3 . The commencement of the Toccatas should he played slowly and 'arpeggiando.' In suspensions and dissonances however, as well as in the middle of the piece, the notes of the chord should he struck simultaneously. If this gives rise to a feeling of emptiness in the instrument, the chords may he struck anew, according to the player's taste. 4. In trills as well as in passage-work (whether hy leap or hy scale steps) , the last note should he held hack, even if this note is a quaver, semi-quaver, or different from the following note. By observing this, confusion between one passage and another w ill he avoided. 5 . The tempo should he strongly retarded in the cadences, although written in small note-values, and equally, when the conclusion is near, the passage or cadence should he played slo w er. 9. It will he well to choose a broad tempo for the Partitas, in which are to he found passage-work and expressive figures. One should also observe this in the Toccatas. But the Partitas which contain no passage-work should he played fairly quickly. It should he left to the good taste and judgment of the player to select the ri^ t tempo which is best suited to the spirit of the movement and the style of playing. Pierre Pidoux, "Preface" to his edition of Girolamo Frescobaldi Orgel- und Klavierwerke; Gesamtausgahe nach dem Urtext heraus- egehen, 5 vols.. Preface transi, into En^ish hy L. Swinyard Kassel; Bârenreiter, I 961), III: The first hook of Toccatas, P a r t i t a s , e tc . 1637.

73* Frescobaldi's advice to the reader includes the following: ■ _ 1. If in the Toccata, one comes across a passage with trills or expressive melismata, one should play it adagio; quaver passages in both hands together somewhat quicker. With trills one should slow down the tempo. (l mention this, although the Toccatas are to he played according to the judgment and taste of the player.) 2. The beginnings of the Toccatas, if they are written in quavers, should he played slowly, in order afterwards to increase the tempo according to their character. Pierre Pidoux, "Preface" to his edition of Girolamo Frescobaldi, Fiori musicali (I 635) » Orgel- und Klavierwerke. 5 vols. (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1959), V. 74. Friedrich Riedel, "Manier und. Manierismus in der Musik filr 57 Tasteninstrumente um I600. Üher die Anfânge des instrument al en Stilus fantasticus," Orgel und Oreelsuiel im I 6. Jahrhundert, ed, hy Walter Salmen as Band II of Innshrucker Beitrâge zur MusikTO-Ssenschaft (Neu-Rum bei Innsbruck: Helbling, 1978), 117-18.

75. I b id . . 118.

7 6. See also Reimann, "Zur Deutung des Begriffs Fantasia," ou. c it.. 264.

7 7. The Italian free style was passed into North Germany from Italy v ia M atthias Weckmann. In D resden, Weckmann took p a r t in a competition with Froberger, who was so impressed with Weckmann *s playing that he gave him copies of some of his pieces. (Accord­ in g to H arald Vogel le c tu r e . Summer Organ I n s t i t u t e , O berlin Conservatory of Music, July 2, 1979*) According to Mattheson's Ehrenpforfce. "the two artists continued an intimate correspondence afterwards, and Froberger sent Weckmann a suite in his [Froberger'^ own hand, in which he set a ll the ornaments, so that Weckmann became fam iliar with Froberger's manner of playing." (Quoted in Apel, History of Kevboard Music. 598.)

78. "The fantastic style belongs to instruments, and is a completely free manner of composition." (writer's transi.) J. G. Walther, Musikalisches Lexikon. 584.

79. Taken from lecture material distributed by Harald Vogel, Summer Organ Institute, Oberlin Conservatory, 1979. See Johann Mattheson, Der Vollkommene Cauellmeister (1739)i facsim ile ed. by Margarete Reimann in Documenta Musicologica; Erste Reihe Druckschriften-Faksimiles. V (Kassel; Bârenreiter, 1954).

80. Bradshaw, op. cit., 67 f f .

81. I b id . . 72- 73.

82. Ibid.. 79.

83. I b id . , 80-81.

84. Ibid.. 81.

85. Ibid.. 82.

86. Ibid.. 84-85. CHAPTER THREE

FREE ORGAN FORîfB IN GERMANY

The Southern and Middle Regions

Johann Jakoh Froherger ( 1616- 1667) was one of the most well-known

students of Frescobaldi. Bom in Stuttgart, Froherger was in Vienna hy th e y e a r 1637 and in the same year went to Rome, where he studied with

Frescobaldi until l64l. Thereafter, he returned to Vienna, and continued

to travel. Apel remarks that "the cosmopolitan character of Froherger's life is reflected in his works, which represent a happy synthesis of

German, Italian, and French elements."^

Froherger's works include 24 toccatas, I 8 capriccios, o canzonas, 2 8 fantasies, and 15 ricercars. His toccatas are usually thou^t to imitate those of Frescobaldi, hut they differ from those of the latter in some essential details of form and style. However, in those very details, they are quite similar to the toccatas of Michelangelo Rossi, 3 another Frescobaldi student. According to Apel:

They differ from Frescobaldi's [toccatas) in that the rhapsodic structure of the many brief, abruptly ending sections is replaced by an articulation in a few extended sections, which alternate between improvisational and fugal writing. Thus in form these toccatas represent a return to the principles of Merulo, thou^ the contents are completely different.

Most of the toccatas consist of two fugal and three toccata-like sections, the second and third of which are often just very brief flourishes. A few toccatas have only one fugal section, while others have three, and 58 in still others there are none at all. For the fugal sections, Fro- 59 herger used short, lively subjects. Quite often the first fugal section is followed by a second in compound time, based on a variant of the original theme;

Example 15. J. J. Froberger, Toccata (from Diverse ingegnosissime e 1693 ), ms. 15-14 an d 41-42. ^ * ...... , -K / y n 'r— b h — i—

— - f f : ^ — g # ' ^ Ml___ - ___ ^ - ... -

The fugal sections have a thin, free-voiced texture. Froberger's two toccatas marked Da scnarsi alia Levatione contain opening material in the Italian free-fantasia style, and they include no fugal sections.

There is no difference in style between Froberger's capriccios and his canzonas, whereas Frescobaldi made a distinction between the two.^

The capriccios carry the process of thematic manipulation and variation even further than the im itative toccata sections and, as Gwilym Beechey states, "they are probably Fro berger‘s finest and most important works and constitute his most significant contribution to the organist's 7 repertoire." Eberhard Kraus, speaking about two particular Froberger capriccios, remarks that- they are to be distinguished from his ricercars g mainly by their quicker motion. Froberger"s canzonas (like Fresco­ baldi *s, also variation canzonas), according to Apel, "flow more evenly and have a more melodious approach than Frescobaldi's, and his transitions and concluding passages in toccata style, which are usually limited 6o 9 to just a few measure^ appear less regularly. ' Beechey adds that

"the same thematic fragment or melodic outline may appear in these pieces as the basis of as many as five different themes in various rhythms and they w ill usually be subjected to . . . varied and resource­ ful contrapuntal treatment.

Froberger's ricercars and fantasies are very much alike—in both types, slow subjects without much individual character are employed.

This type of subject is appropriate for various contrapuntal treatments and for use in combination with other subjects. All of the ricercars and fantasies are monothematic, and some contain two sections, one devoted to the main subject, and one in which it is combined with a countersubject. In a number of these pieces, the subject appears varied in one or more sections. Apel notes that "good workmanship combines with refined taste, and neither intrusive 1earnedness nor empty figura­ tions disturb the total impression.

Just as Frescobaldi's style was emulated by German organists of th e 17th century, the Venetian style had exerted great influence over

South German organists of the l6th century. Although the majority of pieces in the South German keyboard tablatures from the late l6th and early 17th centuries, including those of Bernhard Schmid the Younger

( 15^8- 1625?) and Johann Woltz (d. I 618) , are intabulations, there are, as Kratzenstein states, "enough original organ works . . . to show that 12 an interest in original organ music was increasing."

The Schmid tablature of I 607 includes a group of pieces entitled

Fuga which, according to Schmid, are identical with that which the Ita li­ ans call Canzona alia francese. T h e sizeable Woltz tablature ( 1617) contains "auch schGnen lietlichen Fugen, und Canzoni alia 6l

Francese,. . .

The earliest South German composers whose organ works present what Kratzenstein calls "the clear markings of the Italian, or more particularly, of the Venetian school"^^ are Hans Leo Hassler and

Christian Ertach.

Hans Leo Hassler (lj64-l6l2) was one of the first Germans to go to Venice, where he studied with Andrea Gabrieli in 1^84. Known pri­ marily as a composer of vocal music, Hassler's role as a keyboard

composer was considered only secondary until the discovery of numerous 17 Hassler organ works in the Turin tablatures. At the present time, therefore, more than 110 keyboard works by Hassler, including 24

ricercars, 29 canzonas, 12 fugues, and l6 toccatas are known.Most

of his ricercars are lengthy, sectional compositions, employing several

subjects. In spite of their length, these pieces are in what Apel calls

a "lively and captivating" style which may be attributed at least in

part to the presence of subjects that are different from the usual 19 ricercar subjects, and perhaps more lively:

20 Example l6. Hans Leo Hassler, Ricercar. subject.

Christian Erbach (l5?3~l635) 'wrote over 150 organ con^ositions, 21 including 35 ricercars, 10 fugues, 38 canzonas, and 43 toccatas.

The ricercars, which vary considerably in length, usually conclude with a few measures in toccata style. Most employ two subjects of a ^2 highly contrasted nature and, as Apel states, "the total impression is

actually determined not so much hy the sustained main subject as by the vivacious second one, so that Erbach's ricercars are often playful and 22 gay, rather like canzonas." Of Erbach's toccatas, some are written in toccata-style throu^out, while other include a fugal middle section.

Johann Ulrich Steigleder (l593~1^33) » " th e f i r s t South German organ master of the Baroque, comparable to his contemporaries in the North,

Scheidt and Scheidemann"^^ le ft two important monuments of organ music, a Ricercar Tabulatura ( 1624) and a Tabulaturbuch darinnen das Vatter unser 40 mal variiert wird. . .(1627) ("Tablature book in which the 'Our oh. Father* is varied 4-0 times"). His Ricercar Tabulatura was printed in prr keyboard score notation (notes instead of letter notation). In this

collection, Steigleder also used key designations—the first six ricer­ cars are "in D, in E, in F, in G, in A, in C"—instead of the old modal designations (urimi, secundi. etc.).^^ Apel notes that "perhaps the most remarkable thing about this collection is its attempt to avoid conventional methods and all fixed schemes, i.e., not only to render the various pieces in a new manner but also to make them individually different.The result is that the ricercars are all different from one another not only in length, but in texture, figuration, and in

"novelty and individuality of subjects.

In the l?th century, the line of Italian influence was extended into South Germany not only through Froberger, but also through Johann

Kaspar Kerll (l62?-l693)» Georg Muffat (1645-170^), and others.

Among the keyboard works of K erll, who had studied in Rome with

Carissimi and probably also with Frescobaldi, are toccatas, canzonas. 29 versets, and sioites. The chromaticism in much of K erll's •writing is 63

reminiscent of Frescohaldi. K erll's toccatas in general esdiihit the

stylistic traits of key'board music of the middle Baroque; rapid figura­

tions, often assuming a virtuosic character, and considera'ble use of

•written-out trills , often even dou'ble trills , executed "by both hands.

Bernardo Pasquini, as mentioned earlier, was one of the links join­

ing Frescobaldi and the South Germans around 1700. Among Pasquini's students was Georg Muffat, whose Ap^paratus musico-organisticus ( 1690) includes twelve toccatas sho^wing the influence of Pasquini, Frescobaldi, 30 Lully, and even Corelli. The toccatas consist of five or six sections

of varying length, which often cany tempo designations such as grave. adagio. allegro, vivace, and presto;

i C •%. -% % Chordal Fast; Slow Fast Slow Gigue; (homophonie) fugal _ Fugal _____ (thematic relations)

Within this sectional structure, Muffat made use of toccata-like running passages with sustained chords, fugatos based on short motives, and occasionally even complete fugues, usually fading into other textures.

Extensive use of the pedal is indicated (even for an independent melodic line in the final section of the first toccata): Muffat indicated obbli­ gato pedals by the terms Pedale. Ped., or P .s. (i.e . , pedale solum), and ad. lib , doublings of the left hand part, by the abbreviations P.m.

(pedale ad manuale). Double trills occur frequently, and toccata-like introductions are often repeated by exchanging the materials of the two hands. Other features of the toccatas include introductions modeled after Lully's overtures, sections showing the influence of Corelli's trio sonatas, and sections in the style of the violin sonata, the aria, 64 31 or the recitative accomnagnat o.

The Operum musicomm secimdm (l664) of Sebastian Anton Scherer

( 1631- 1712) consists of two parts, a Tahulatnra in Cymbalo et organo

Intonationum brevium per octo tonos and a Partitura octo Toccatarum 32 usui apta cum vel sine pedali. Part One, the Tabulatura, is a collec­

tion of organ versets for each psalm tone. In each group, the first

verset is a brief toccata (with some use of the pedal in pedalpoints) ,

the second a fugue (based on lively, canzona-like subjects), the third

toccata-like (without pedals) , and the fourth again fugal. Scherer's

toccatas for keyboard alone contain passages in durezza style, Lombard

rhythms, and are in a "serious mood suggestive of the Elevation toccata," 33 all characteristics showing the influence of Frescobaldi. Part Two,

the Partitura, 34 contains e i^ t toccatas, each of which is built on a

series of pedalpoints outlining the principal harmonic scheme of the

piece. Scale fragments, trills, dotted rhythms, chromatic passages, and

im itative motives are contained in the figurations which are spread over

these pedalpoints. Although, as Shannon states, "there is no doubt that

the length of these compositions and the persistent use of this particu­

lar technique [pedalpoin-^ strain acceptance by modem ears, Apel

believes that one must look at these works from the musician's viewpoint

and "at least . . . admit that Scherer shows much more imagination in

his treatment of sustained pedal points in his toccatas than, e.g.,

P a c h e lb e l.

Among the most extensive compositions of the South German school 37 are the ten toccatas which open the Ars Consoni et Dissoni ( 1693) of

Johann Speth (l664-?). The majority of these pieces are organized in a three-part structure (toccata style—fugal section—toccata style). ^5

Shannon points out evidence of North German influence in the opening of

the Toccata quarta, especially in its full-voiced chords, halting rests,

and use of echo. Shannon is of the opinion that "the success of

Speth's toccatas lies more in the composer's well-developed sense of

the implications of tonal harmony than in any other one element.

Diminished seventh chords, which Bach employed so often in his early

organ woiks, appear as striking harmonic elements in passages such as

the following:

4o Example 17. Johann Speth, Toccata te rtia , ms. 31-38.

W

A compendium of styles appears in Franz Xaver Anton Murschhauser's

( 1663- 1738) Octi-Tonium novum organicum ( 1696) and in his Prototypon

Longo-Breve Organicum (1703 and 1707)» in which all historical forms of

the prelude, intonatio. and toccata in liturgical organ music are pre-

5anted. The Octi-Tonium contains a prelude, five fughette. and a

finale in each of the church tones, while the Prototypon includes several preludes, intonations, and fugues, again in each of the church tones. Models for the Octi-Tonium were K eril's Modulatio organica

( 1686), which Murschhauser mentioned in his preface to the Octi-Tonium. and Speth's Magnificat versets from his Ars magna Consoni et Dissoni

(1693).^^ Alessandro Poglietti (d. 1683) > an organist of the court chapel of

En^eror Leopold I in Vienna, is known primarily for harpsichord works

such as the Rossignolo suite, which includes, among other things, a

toccata and canzona (grouped together) followed "by a suite. Poglietti's

most important organ works are twelve ricercars ■which, hecaTJBe they

com tine 16th-century contrapuntal features with 17th-century harmonic

innovations, were copied over and over again and used to teach strict )\J\. counterpoint until the 19th century. In Poglietti's Praeludia,

Cadenzen. und Fugen ü~ber die acht Choral Ton ( 1676)^-^ each mode i s

represented "by a prelude (sometimes called toccatina), a cadenza (a

series of chords protaoly designed to he embellished in performance),

and a fughetta.

Johann Kaspar Ferdinand Fischer's (1665/70-17^6) Blumen Strauss^^

consists of e i^ t preludes, each in a different church mode, and each

followed hy six brief fugues and a finale (closely related to the pre­

lu d e ) . H is A riadne Musica (l7 0 2 (?) ; 1715)^*^ co n tain s 20 s h o rt p relu d es

and fugues in 19 different keys, the organization foreshadowing Bach's

Wohltemperiertes Clavier.

Gottlieb Muffat ( 169O-I770), son of Georg, was one of the last of

the South German Baroque organ composers. In his works, free forms

predominate: ricercars, canzonas, fugues, toccatas, preludes, and

liturgical versets. Like that of his father, Gottlieb Muffat's approach to composition was cosmopolitan. 67

The keyboard collections of Scherer, Poglietti, Kerll, Speth,

Mnrschhanser, Fischer, and Muffat clearly have much in common. With the exception of the lengthier toccatas in the Speth, Scherer, and Muffat collections, short verset-length pieces make up the majority of their contents. Because these pieces are arranged in order of the modes, their function as service music for the Roman Catholic liturgy is a p p a re n t.

During the last half of the 17th century. South German composers in general wrote several different kinds of toccatas: (l) toccatas of sectional structure; ( 2) shorter, introductory toccatas (all of a single musical character); and (3) toccatas making extensive use of pedalpoints

(as in the works of Scherer). Short, introductory pieces have their models in Frescobaldi's "toccatas before the Mass"—both are followed by versets—just as the sectional pieces grew out of sim ilar works by

Frescobaldi, Froberger, Merulo, and others.

Toccatas with extensive pedalpoints were cultivated especially by the Middle German organist Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706). Most of his works, though not all, make use of long pedalpoints, simple slow-moving harmonies, and brilliant figurations (usually with only one part moving at a time). The style and technique of Pachelbel's free works are thus rooted in the South German-Italian tradition. At the same time, Pachel­ bel may be thou^t of as a link between South and North German organ style. The fact that he dedicated his Hexachordum Apollinis in part to

D ietrich Buxtehude shoi-zs that Pachelbel was acquainted with North German music. According to Manfred Bukofzer: Pachelbel transmitted the vixt-uoso style of the keyboard playing 68 that prevailed in the Austrian school of central Germany and thus brou^t about the rappro chement between the Catholic and Protestant organists. . . . A less profound musician than Buxtehude, he was concerned with playfully, ingenious rhythmic patterns rather than with stirring harmonies.

Pachelbel studied in Regensburg and in Vienna, where he formed an

acquaintance with J. K. Kerll and became organist of St. Stephen's

cathedral. During his career Pachelbel also worked in Eisenach, Erfurt,

Stuttgart, and Nürnberg (St. Sebaldus Kirche). Pachelbel's free organ

works include preludes, fantasias, toccatas, fugues, and ricercars.

The preludes, fantasias, and toccatas fall into the following

categoric types: (l) a rhapsodic type similar to a single section in

a Frescobaldi toccata and to the opening section of a Froberger capric-

cio or canzona; (2) the pedalpoint toccata; and (3) a new type which

reflects late 17th-century ensemble instrumental practice and is always

designated by the composer as fantasia.P a c h e lb e l's pedalpoint toc­

catas are modeled after those by Scherer and others, although Pachelbel's works in this style are considerably shorter. His figurations in these toccatas borrow from what may be called a "common fund" of idiomatic keyboard figurations and patterns that extends through almost the entire history of keyboard literature.Shannon judges Pachelbel "particularly

guilty of writing endless passages in which the two florid voices move 53 in continuous thirds and sixths." Pachelbel's toccatas differ from those in the North in part because they do not include incorporated fugato sections. The Praeambulum in d represents an attempt to blend the northern style with the southern pedalpoint toccata. Although this piece contains two pedal solos and other traits characteristic of the

North, Shannon is of the opinion that "the Northern elements seem an inappropriate intrusion into the static style of the pedal-point toccata."'^ ^9

Pedalpoints are also common in Pacheltel's fantasias. The free interchange of titles is again otvioiis here:

One gains the impression . . . that Pachelhel used, the name "Fantasy" when he did not know exactly what designation to use. His fantasies are really somewhat hybrid in character; while from the standpoint of musical form they are free, they are by no means formless, aimless, or chaotic. They often have little in common with fantasies by other composers and are really in a class by themselves.

Pachelbel's large output of fugal compositions (including 94-

Magnificat fugues designed for altem atim use)-^^ provides examples of almost every type of fugue subject that was used by the pre-Bach genera­ tion, Pachelbel's fugue subjects include the following types (not necessarily ind^endent of one another) : ( l) ricercar subjects ;

(2 ) chromatic subjects ; ( 3 ) canzone-style subjects (often sequential);

(4) gigue subjects; ( 5) repeated-note subjects; (6) subjects built on specific harmonic movements and; (?) subjects dependent upon particular keyboard patterns (such as scales).Pachelbel's fugues usually open with what appeals to be a four-voice exposition, but a three-voiced texture often results because one voice drops out before the fourth voice enters. Continuous presentation of the subject is characteristic

(as also in the early organ fugues of Bach). There are a few examples among Pachelbel's ricercars and Magnificat fugues of m ulti-sectional, double fugues. In these pieces, the opening section is always in ricercar style and is followed by a section with a livelier theme. In the concluding section, the themes are combined.(This procedure is borrowed directly from Froberger.) 70 U ntil Pacheltel, the Middle German school had not produced any figure in organ composition comparable to a Froberger in the South or a Buxtehude in the North, In spite of the provincial atmosphere of the

Middle German tradition, however—into which Bach was bom—an environ­ ment of small court- and town-churches, the musical culture was rich.

The Bach family was one of several in this region which practiced music from generation to generation, and the craft of the cantor-organist was an honored one. As Shannon notes:

A craft-oriented tradition, which passes its techniques from parent to child, from master to apprentice, normally places a low premium on a h i^ level of individual creation. So it was with Middle-German organ music. These composers took the methods passed on to them by their teachers, continued to practice their art competently on the basis of that instruction, and produced works of u tility , sim plicity, and native charm.

The chorale was central in the organ compositions of middle Germany, and the number of chorale-based works from this region far outweighs the repertoire of free organ works.

Because of the provincial nature of this region, the origin and line of development in Middle German organ music is somewhat obscure.

Very few organists published any of their works, leaving scattered manuscript sources instead. The first major work of Middle German music is Erasmus Kindermann's Harmonica organica (l645).^^ Kindermann ( 1616-

1655)* a Nlimberg organist, opened this collection with a set of four­ teen preludes of intonation length and grouped them in order of the twelve church modes. There are two sets of six preludes each; (the second set merely transposes the six tonalities down a fifth). P relu d e s thirteen and fourteen (in modes ll/l 2 and 7/ 8, respectively) are trans­ positions up a major second. Following the preludes in Kindermann's collection are ten fugues, six of which draw their subjects from 71 chorale melodies,

Nicolaus Adam Strungk (1640-1700), a versatile and well-traveled musician who worked in Vienna, Celle, Hannover, Hamburg, Dresden, and

Leipzig, is known as a keyboard composer by his seven capriccios and two ricercars.These works usually employ two or three subjects, and all feature strict counterpoint.

Andreas Werckmeister (l645-1706), organist at Hasselfelde, Quedlin- burg, and Halberstadt, is known primarily for his books, among them the

Musicalische Temperatur (I 691). His compositions include a canzona, based on a perpetuum-mobile idea, whose final section is constructed on an unchanging arpeggio motive, a technique used by the Northerners

Reincken and Bdhm as well as by Middle Germans such as Kuhnau and

Zachow,^^ Werckmeister's Praeludium ex G und Fuga in the Mylau manu­ script is a toccata with two fugues whose themes are related. The toccata-fugue-toccata-fugue-toccata structure of this piece is typical o f many N orth German to c c a ta s .

The Mylau Tabulaturbuch ^ contains 176 keyboard compositions almost entirely by Middle German composers active during the last

quarter of the 17th century. Most of the works in this manuscript

are free compositions of modest dimensions, and relatively few of the

pieces have composer designations. As Shannon has pointed out, "from

internal evidence it appears that the manuscript was a notebook into

which some village organist copied pieces for his own use as he came

tg>on them." Among the composers represented in the Mylau manuscript

are Pachelbel, Nicolaus Vetter, Christian Witt, Gottfried Pestel (Bestel),

Andreas Kneller, and Werckmeister. It seems difficult to explain the 72 omission from the manuscript of works hy some well-known Middle German composers, especially members of the Bach family.

The Krieger brothers, Johann Philipp ( 1649-1725) and Johann ( 165I -

1735)» retained some South German style traits in their works. Only three keyboard works by Johann Philipp are extant. Far more numerous are the keyboard works of Johann Krieger, -which were printed in two collections; Sechs musicalische Parti en (N-ümberg, I 697) and Anmuthige

Olavier-Ubung (Nürnberg, I 698) . The former contains a fantasie and six suites, while the latter includes nine preludes, five ricercars, seven fugues, two toccatas, a fantasie. and a chaconne. I n addition, there exist some manuscript pieces, among them preludes, fugues, ricercars, and chorale settings.

In his ricercars, which can be clearly distinguished from the fugues by their slow-moving, typical "ricercar" subjects, Krieger was fond of using contrapuntal devices such as inversion of the theme.Numbers

11 - 15 of the Clavier-Ub-ung well represent Krieger's fugues, which are built on livelier subjects. They form a cycle, and are entitled Fuga aus C Thema I . Thema I I , Thema I I I . Thema TV, and a 4 Themati, the last piece being a quadruple fugue. Each of these fugues closes with approximately four to e i^ t measures of free, chordal material. As

Apel remarks, "Dies ist ein bezeichnendes Merkmal einer Zeit, in der die Fuge (nicht das Ricercar) ge-wissermassen noch auf schwachen Füssen stand und somit einer abschliessenden Bestâtigung von aussen her bedurfte."^^ 70 Krieger's preludes are characterized especially by passagework, full chords, short fugatos, and the interplay of complementary motives.

Of the toccatas, one is a short prelude, while two others consist of 73 preludes with fugues. Both of the toccatas in the Clavier-Uhung con-

tain elements that are unmistakably North German; one of them includes

a dramatic closing section in 32nd-note motion, with an abrupt ending, which is a common feature in the works of Buxtehude. Krieger's Toccata mit dem Pedal aus C is perhaps the only completely developed toccata 71 written in middle Germany before the time of Bach. This sectional piece begins with a pedal solo, in true North German fashion.

The keyboard works of Johann Kuhnau (l660-1722) are preserved in f o u r p r i n t s , o f which the Biblical Histories (l700) are probably the most famous. Although Kuhnau played the organ of the Thomaskirche in

Leipzig, where he was cantor from 1701 until his death, he was not very active as an organ composer. Only three organ works by Kuhnau—two no preludes and fugues, and a toccata—are preserved (in manuscript).

Kuhnau's toccata, like Krieger's C major toccata mentioned above, fol­ lows North German models in its use of virtuosic passage work, pedal solos, and other hallmarks of the North German style.

Most of Johann Gottfried W alther's ( 1684-17^8) organ works are based on chorales (288 pieces), while only eight free works and thirteen 74 organ transcriptions of Italian violin concertos are extant. 7 4

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER THREE

Southern and Middle Regions

1. Apel, History of Keyboard Music. 552.

2. See Johann Jakot Froberger, Orgel und Klavierwerke, 3 vols., ed, by Guido Adler as Band 8 (Ja h rg . IV/l), Band 13.. (Jh . V l/2 ) , and Band 21 (Jh. X/2) of DenkmS.1 er der Tonkunst in Osterreich (Graz: Akademische Druck u. Verlagsanstalt, 1959; reprints of 02:ig in a l editions, Vienna, 1897, 1899, and 1903). See also Froberger, Tocoaten. Fantasien, Ricercari, Ganzonen und Gapricci, ed. Rudolf Walter (AltStting: Alfred Goppenrath, 19&7).

3 . See p . 39 above.

4. Apel, History. 552.

5. Early German Keyboard Music (including Austria and the Netherlands); ^ Anthology. 2 vols., ed. and annotated by Howard Ferguson (London, n 7 Y., Toronto: Oxford University Press) , I, 44-47.

6. In Frescobaldi’s Gapricci of I 626, as in the 17th century’’ in general, the term designates a composition which does not fall under more conventional forms like ricercar, canzona, etc. "A composition so named may vary from a piece which is largely studious and academic in tone to one in which the music is all li^tness and gaiety." Shannon, Organ Literature, 76. The term relates more to the composer's freedom 7 ; leaving the more stereo­ typed genres, (in this regard, a relationship with the fantasia w ill be noted.) There is an unusual variety among Frescobaldi’s twelve capricci. They range from the serious tones of fantasias on the hexachord (Gapriccio sopra la. sol, fa mi, re ut, etc.) to sets of secular variations,

7. Gwilym Beechey, "Johann Jakob Froberger," The Consort; Journal of the Dolmetsch Foundation XXVII (l97l) » 36.

8. See Gantantibus Organis; Sammlung von Grgelstücken Alter M eister. Heft 13: Orgelmusik an den HBfen der Habsburger Wien zur Zeit Kaiser Leopolds I , ed. Eberhard Kraus (Regensburg; Friedrich P u s te t, 1965) , 68.

9. Apel, History. 554.

10. Beechey, op. c it., 35. 11. Apel, op. cit., 555• 7-5

12. Marilou Xratzenstein, "A Survey of Organ Literature and Editions: South Germany," The Diapason IX IIl/4 (March 1972), 19.

13. See Will?.am Young, "The Keyboard Tablatures of Bernhard.Schmid, Father and Son" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of Illinois, 1957).

14. Kratzenstein, "South Germany," 19. Schmid's tablature also contains Gabrieli intonations and Italian toccatas, showing "the ascendancy of Italian music, both vocal and instrumental." Young, "Keyboard Music - I," l48.

15. "also lovely, charming fugues, and Canzoni alia Francese,. . ." Young, ibid.. l49.

16. Kratzenstein, "South Germany," 19.

17. Apel, History. 391.

18. Sixteen of Hassler's organ pieces are published in Denkmdler der Tonkunst in Bayern. See note 20 below.

19. Apel, History. 392.

20. Hans Leo Hassler, Werke für Orgel imd Klavier, I, ed. by Ernst von Werra in Band 6 - 7 (Jahrg. IV/2) of Denkm^er der Tonkunst in Bayern (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Kartel, 1903?) » 6 1.

21. Apel, History, 39^. See Srbach, Ausgewâhlte. Werke, éd. von Werra, Denkmdler der Tonkunst in Bayern, bp. c it. See aJLso Christian Erbach, Collected Keyboard Compositions, 5 vols., ed. Clare G. Rayner as Part XXXVI of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (American Institute of Musicology, 1972-77).

22. Apel, op. cit., 394.

23. I b i d . , 398.

24. Johann Ulrich Steigleder, Compositions for Keyboard, 2 vols., ed. by W. Apel and Collaborators as Vol. XIII of Corpus of Early Keyboard Music (American Institute of Musicology, I 968) .

25. See remarks about Scheldt's Tabulâtura Nova, p. 101 below.

26. Apel, History, 398.

27. I b id .

28. I b id . 29. Eight toccatas, six canzonas, Canriccio Cucu, Battaglia. Ciacona, Fassacaglia, etc. puhlished in Johann Kaspar Kerll, A-usgeîiâhlte Werke des K urftlrstlich Bayerischen Hofkapellmeisters I . ed. hy Adolf Sandherger as Jahrg. II/2 of Denkmâler der Tonkunst in Bayern (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hâxtel). K eril's Modulatio organica ( 1686) contains <6 versets for the Magnificat, seven for each of the eight tones. See J. K. Kerll, Modulatio organica. ed. Rudolf Walter (Alt8tting: Alfred Coppen- r a t h , 1956). Two Kerll pieces are published also in Gantantibus Organis. Heft 13, op. c it.

30 . Valentin, op. c it.. 8. See Georg Muffat, Apparatus musico- organisticus; ZwSlf Tokkaten. Ciacona. Fassacaglia. ed. Rudolf Walter (Altfitting; Alfred Goppenrath, n.d.).

3 1 . Apel, History. 580-81.

32. Notated in a two-staff system of six and eight lines, respectively. See S. A. Scherer, Oeuvres d*Orgue de Sebastian Anton Scherer. ed, Alexandre Guilmant and André Firro as Vol. Ill of Archives des Maîtres de l'orgue des XVI®, XVII®, et XVIII® Siècles (Faris: Durand, 1907).

3 3 . Shannon, Organ Literature. 258.

34 . Written in a partitura of four systems, whj.ch is a method that seems ill-suited to toccata writing, although Trabaci and Mayone also used it. Apel, History. 578.

35. Shannon, loc. cit.

36. Apel, loc. cit.

37. Johann Speth, Ars Gonsoni et Dissoni. ed. Fedtke (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1973).

3 8. Shannon, Organ L i te r a tu r e . 262.

39. I b i d .

40. Speth, op. cit.. 7.

41. F. X. A. Murschhauser, Octi-Tonium novum organicum. ed. R. Walter AltBtting: A. Goppenrath, 196I).

42. Valentin, op. cit.. 7.

4 3 . Rudolf W alter's "Vorwort" to his ed. of F. X. A. Murschhauser, Octi-Tonium novum organicum . op. c i t . 44. These appear never to have published., however. See Poglietti, 77 Zwdlf Ricercare in Die Orgel. Reihe II, 5 and 6, ed. Riedel (Lippstadt; ïîïstner und Siegel, 1957)• Shannon remarks that Bach may have derived the subject of his large E-flat fugue in the Glaviertlbung Pt. Ill from the subject of No. 10 (quinti toni) of this set. Shannon, Organ Literature. 262.

4 5 . See Alessandro Poglietti, Praeludia. Cadenzen und Fugen, ed. Walter (Heidelburg: Süddeutscher Musikverlag, 1970) 7

46. J. K. F. Fischer, Musikalischer Blumenstrauss; Praeludien. Fugen und Finali in den acht Kirchentonarten. ed. Walter (Altdtting; Goppenrath, 1956) •

4 7 . J. K. F. Fischer, SSmtliche Werke filr Klavier und Orgel, ed. Ernst von Werra (Leipzig; Breitkopf & HSrtel, 1901) (reprint, New York: Broude Brothers, 1 9 ^5 )• (Gontains Pieces de Glayessin, Parnassus. Ariadne Musica. and Musikalischer Blumenstrauss.)

48. Bradshaw, "Pre-Bach Organ Toccatas: Form, Style, and Registra­ tion," The Dianason LXIIl/4 (March 1972), 27. The South German pedal division was, like the Italian, small and not equipped for playing virtuoso pedal lines. Obbligato pedal parts are very rare in the southern literature of this time, althou^ pedal was used for cantus firmus lines in some chorale settings.

4 9. Manfred Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era from Monteverdi to Bach (New York: W. W. Norton, 1947) » 266.

50. Johann Pachelbel, Klavierwerke von Johann Pachelbel, nebst bei- gefügten StUcken von W. H. Pachelbel, ed. by Max Seiffert and A.dolf Sandberger as Jahrg. II (Band l) of Dentoâler der Tonkunst in Bayern (Leipzig, Breitkopf & H ârtel, 1901?). See also: Johann Pachelbel, Ausgewâhlte Orgelwerke, 5 vols., ed. H. J. Moser, Traugott Fedtke, Karl Matthaei, and Wolfgang Stockmeier (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1958» 1969, 1970, 1972). Johann Pachelbel, Orgelwerke. 4 vols., ed. Fedtke (Frankfurt : Peters, 1972).

51. Shannon, Organ Literature. 275*

52. Gertain devices (such as broken chord figures, scale runs, arpeg­ gios, voices running in parallel sixths, tenths, etc.) work well on keyboard instruments. As a result, keyboard composers and performers have drawn from this "common fund" particularly when virtuosity of display was a desired effect. Bach, particularly in his early organ works, s till relied heavily upon such figura­ tions or "keyboard tricks", while in his later, more hi^ily- organized and structured works, this is less often the case. See Ghapter Four, pp. 137-38.

53. Shannon, Organ Literature. 276.

54 . I b i d . . 277. 5 5 - Walter E. Buszin, "Johann Pachelhel’s Contrihution to Pre-Bach ?8 Organ Literature," pp. l40-55 of The Musical Heritage of the Lutheran Church. Vol. 5» ed. Theodore Hoelty-Nickel, Valparaiso University Church Music Seminar essays (St. Louis: Concordia, 1959), 147.

5 6. An important practice especially in liturgical organ music: the psalms, the Magnificat, the Salve Regina, the hymns, and the various items of the Mass consisted of organ music alternating with plainsong. Altematim can refer, however, to any alternat­ ing scheme. The NUmherg Kirchenordnung (church order) prescribed that the Magnificat he sung in no fewer than four Vesper services each week of the church year. On the Saturdays of Advent and of the Easter cycle it was to he sung altematim (choir and organ alternating with the congregation in the presentation of the various verses) , or performed organistice (played hy the organist). See Buszin, on. c it.. 154. See Johann Pachelhel, 94 Kompositionen; Fugen üher das Magnificat für Orgel oder Klavier. ed. hy Hugo Botstiher and Max Seiffert as Jahrg. VIIl/2 (Band 1?) of UenkmSler der Tonkunst in Osterreich, general ed. Guido Adler (Vienna, 1901; reprint Graz: Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt, 1959).

5 7. Shannon, Organ Literature. 278. Fugue subject types, as we have seen in the foregoing discussions of Italian and South German literature, tended also to belong to a "common fund" from which conposers of the 15th to l?th centuries drew. This is not to deny the individuality of particular works or the inventive genius behind the construction of fugue subjects and the working-out of fugues. Bach’s fugue subjects in his early organ works s till seem consciously drawn from the "common fund" of subjects types and are largely indistinguishable from those of the Italian and German composers who preceded him. (See Chapter F o u r, pp. 138- 39.)

5 8. See Bach's C minor fugue on a theme of Legrenzi (BWV 574); see p . 124 below .

5 9. Shannon, Organ Literature. 268.

60. Erasmus Kindermann, Harmonica organica. ed. R. Walter (AltUtting: Alfred Goppenrath, 1970).

61. See p . 43 above, where Strungk is described as a North German organist. Probably because of his travels, Strung is claimed by each of the German schools. Pachelbel also is claimed some­ times as a Middle German, sometimes as a South German composer.

62. Apel, History of Keyboard Music. 627.

63. In possession of the Kirchenarchiv of the town of Mylau (located in Saxony midway between Zwickau and Plauen.) 64". John R. Shannon, "Foreword" to his edition of The Mylau 79 Tahulatnrhuch; Forty Selected Compositions, Vol. 39 of Corpus of Early Keybôard Music (Neuhausen-Stuttgart : Hânssler Verlag. 1977), p. VII. See also Shannon's doctoral dissertation, "The Mylau Tatulatur- buch, a Study of the Preludiai and Fugal Forms in the Hands of Bach's Middle-German Precursors," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. The University of North Carolina at Chapel H ill, 1962).

65. Shannon, "Foreword," op. cit.. VII.

66. Apel, Geschichte der Orgel-und Klaviermusik, 643.

67. Some of these are printed, together with the above-mentioned publications, in Johann Krieger. Franz Xaver Anton Murschhauser und Johann Philipp Krieger. Gesammelte Werke für Klavier und Orgel. ed. by Max Seiffert as Band 30 (Jahrg. XVIII) of Denkmdler der Tonkunst in Bayern (Zweite Folge of Denkmâler deutscher Ton­ kunst) (Leipzig; Breitkopf & HSrtel, 1917)• See also; Johann Krieger, Praeludien und Fugen. ed. F. Riedel, Die Orgel. Reihe II, No. 3 (Lippstadt: Kistner u. Siegel, 19&0).

68. See, for example, Krieger's Ricercar in the Historical Anthology of Music. Vol. II, No. 249.

69. "This is a characteristic feature of a time during which the fugue (not the ricercar) to a certain extent s till stood on weak ground, and thus needed a concluding confirmation from the outside." (writer's transi.) Apel, Geschichte. 64?.

70. Eleven in Denkmâler der Tonkunst in Bayem. three others in Die Orgel (see note 67) .

71. Apel, Geschichte. 648.

72. The prints are: 1. Neuer Clavier Ubung erster Theil. Best eh end in sieben Partien aus dem Ut. Re. Mi, oder Tertia majore eines .iedweden Toni. . .1689.^ 2. Neuer Clavier Ubung Andrer Theil. das ist: Sieben Partien aus dem Re. Mi, Fa, oder Tertia minore eines .iedweden Toni, benebenst einer Sonata aus dem B. . .1692. 3 . Frische Clavier Früchte oder Sieben Suonaten. . .I 696. 4. Musicalische Vorstellung einiger Biblischer Historien in 6 Sonaten. . .1700.

73* Johann Kuhnau, Zwei Praeludien mit Fugen und eine Toccata, ed. by Seiffert as No. 19 in Organum TV (Liupstadt: Kistner u. S ie g e l, n.d.). ?4. See Richard A, Carlson, "Walther's Life; Walther's Works," 80 Organ Institute Quarterly V/4 (Autumn Î955) » 29-39» See also: J. G. Walther, Johann Gottfried Walther, Gesammelte Werke für Orgel. ed. hy Max Seiffert, new ed. and critical revisions hy Hans Joachim Moser, as Band 26 and 2? of Denk­ mâler deutscher Tonkunst (l. Folge) (Wieshaden: Breitkopf & Hâxtel; Graz: Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt, 1958). N orth Germany

The work of Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck ( 1562- 1621) was th e culmination of a variety of influences that initiated North German

Baroque organ music. Associated with Amsterdam's Oude Kerk, Sweelinck has heen called the "Hamturger Organistenmacher" and the "Deutscher

Organistenmacher" because of his influence as a teacher.^ Among

Sweelinck *s students were Georg Brlicke, Ulrich Cem itz, Andreas Dtiben

ç a . 1590- 1662), Matthâus Leder, Jakob Praetorius ( 1586- 1651), Gottfried

Scheidt (l593-l66l), Melchior Schildt (ça. 1592-166?), Paul Siefert

( 1586- 1666), Michael Utrecht, Jonas Zomicht, Heinrich Scheidemann

(ç a . 1597- 1663), and Samuel Scheidt (l58?-l65^).

The North German school, which was one of the most important influ­ ences on the free organ works of J. S. Bach, was to a great extent a product of Sweelinck's teaching. Sweelinck himself did not begin an entirely new tradition, but rather combined English and Italian traits in his own works. While the formal principles of his toccatas are

Italian (derived from A. Gabrieli and Merulo) the instrumental tech­ niques and virginal characteristics found in his writing are English

(patterned scales and arpeggios, triadic figuration, crisp melodic figures, varied rhythmic designs, etc.). Sweelinck's thirteen toccatas include chordal introductions, which in nine of the toccatas are followed by sections built on keyboard figurations.^ 81 Example 18. J. P. Sweelinck, Toccata, ms. 1-7. 82

The remaining four toccatas also include im itative sections or sections with congplementaiy motives. Toccata No. l4 ^ provides an example of typical structure in the Sweelinck toccatas. In these works, imitative sections are not like those in the ricercar, hut use canzona subjects in multiple strettos.

Exargle 19. J. P. Sweelinck, Toccata No. 14, ms. 41-45.

trj t i r

The terms "ricercar" and "fantasia" are interchangeable in

Sweelinck*s works. Some fantasias are of the ostinato type in that a basic formula is continually presented against decorative counter­ points (examples are the two fantasias on Ut sol fa mi), but many of the fantasias are monothematic works in ricercar style.^ The longer pieces are structured in three sections; section one presents the original subject, section two the subject in augmentation, and in section three ^3 the subject appears in diminution (as in the Fantasia chromatica. etc.).

Sweelinck's well-known echo fantasias ("Fantasia auf die Manier von ein

Echo") make use of short motives (one or only one-half measure in length) alternating in echo-style between two keyboards. Sweelinck apparently was the first to use the organ for echo effects and, as

Walter Buszin remai&s, "we are not surprised to note that Bach, Buxte­ hude, and others of the North German School adopted the use of echo effects and thus, followed in the footsteps of Holland's eminent

'maker of organists' . Figuration is the primary element here, while contrapuntal devices are not as in^ortant, althou^ the echo fantasias show considerable use of sequential writing.

Other northern composers such as Pieter Comet (ça. 156O-1626) ,

Samuel Scheidt, and Heinrich Scheidemann, followed the style and form of Sweelinck and the Venetians in their toccatas. Scheidemann's free works include twelve Praeambeln, two fugues, two toccatas, one fantasia, g and one canzona. His Praeambulum (WV 32, Breig) is an example of this short form which served as an intonation. The first few measures are in a characteristic improvisatory style which reappears (somewhat varied) in four other Scheidemann preludes as well as in a number of

anonymous pieces of this period.

Example 20. Heinrich Scheidemann, opening 3 ms. of three Praeambula'^ Exaiaple 20. (con't) Scheidemann, opening 3 ms. of three Praeamhula 84

One of Scheidemann's toccatas includes echo sections, a technique probably derived from his teacher, Sweelinck. One of the Praeambulum pieces likewise makes use of this technique;

Example 21. Heinrich Scheidemann, Praeambulum. ms. 32-42. Extension of form in Scheidemann's pieces is achieved mainly 85

through enlargement of the middle section hy increased use of either

sequential or fugal writing. Scheidemann*s free works often conclude

with a sudden profusion of keyboard figurations and written-dut orna­

mentations, as the following examples show;

1 2 Example 22, Heinrich Scheidemann, closing measures of three Praeamhula /TV

? if .m

Samuel Scheidt, also a student of Sweelinck, and organist in

Halle, is particularly well-known for his monumental publication, the Tabulât ura Nova (published in three parts, lo24). Most important

among the free works in this collection are a number of large fantasias

(some are called fuga) similar to the fantasias of Sweelinck and, like

these, interchangeable stylistically with ricercars. Scheidt's Echo

ad manuale duplex, forte et lene fantasia clearly shows the influence of Sweelinck. His three manuscript toccatas also follow the pattern of his teacher hoth in style and in stru ctu re.T h e toccata "In te,

Domine, speravi," (from Tahulatura Nova Pt. Ill) is hased on a "brief a 2. canonical setting of Psalm 70 (the first half of verse one) - and is actually a set of variations. ^

The Lüne"burg organ ta"blatures constitute an important source of

North German organ music from the period ca. 1630- 1670.^^ These manu­ scripts are written in new German ta"blature (letters only) and appear 17 to have "been com piled "by o r under th e d ir e c tio n o f M atth ias Weckmann,

Among the free organ works in the Lüne"burg ta"blatures are a large num'oer of preludes, many toccatas and echo fantasias, and some fugues. (The manuscripts also contain chorale preludes, chorale variations, and dance pieces.) Although some of the pieces are anonymous, others are

"by well-known composers like Scheidemann, Schildt, Sweelinck, and

Weckmann. Pieces such as the Praeam"bulum Auff 2 Clavier, Pedaliter

(No. 35» K.N. 209) specify, "by their title s, o"b"bligato use of the pedals, an important feature of much North German organ music.

The North German school was centered in Hamburg and Lübeck. As

Shannon observes:

There can be no doubt that the soaring interiors of such structures as the Marienkirche in Lübeck contributed to the flamboyant organ style that developed there. . . . Block chords, startling silences, rambling pedal solos, echo effects, unusual harmonic progressions, juxta-position of thin with thick textures, inventive keyboard figurations, and rhythmic structures varying from the mechanical to the rhapsodic all contribute to this goal of tonal imagery. Many of these techniques are meaningless in an acoustically dead space. ^

The major condosers of this school, Weckmann, Reincken, Tunder, Buxtehude,

Bruhns, Bbhm, and others, were inventive in developing formal structures to encompass elements such as those mentioned above. An improvisa- 8? tional outlook toward composition is especially evident in the so- called preludes and fugues, or toccatas, of this school, most of which are m ulti-sectional and reminiscent of Merulo*s toccata forms. Shannon n o tes th a t

th e 17th-century composer tended to achieve extent hy stringing together short sections into larger organizations. While thematic relationships between sections often existed, such relationships were not necessary. . . . The 18th-century composer, who wrote under the influence of the accomplishments of Italian orchestral writing, tended to develop a single thematic idea into an extended composition. He had at his service the expanded conception of tonality . . . The North-German organists remained true to 17th- century tradition and rarely adopted the.newer procedures of tonality which became the norm for Bach. °

For the sake of clarity, the term "toccata" is applied by many scholars to the so-called "Praeludium und Fuge". There are some basic 20 formal elements common to a ll the North German toccatas;

( 1) All begin with a free section. This opening section some­ times includes several smaller parts, as in the Bruhns G major Prelude and Fugue and in his large E minor Prelude and Fugue. Cadences in the tonic key distinctly separate the opening from the following fugal section, (2) The fu g a l s e c tio n may come to a cadence o r i t may le a d directly into an interlude. Opening fugues which end conclusively are often followed by interludes of various sorts—fugato sections, recitative sections, chordal sections, etc, (Sometimes there is more than one inter­ lude in succession. Some fugues procédé directly to the next fugue.) (3) An abundance of varying interludes, a definite fugato section, or a chaconne (as in Buxtehude's Prâludium, Fuga und Ciacona) may replace the second fugue, although this i s r a r e , (4) The second fugue or second large section can lead directly into a coda, interlude, or final cadence, (This may be the end of the toccata, or it may be followed by another fugue, interlude, or coda,)

In some pieces, free sections are stressed, while in others fugal 88 material is given more emphasis, hut the idea of a constant interchange between strict and free styles is chaaracteristic.

Johann Mattheson, in his Kem Melodischer Wissenschaft (l?37) analyzes the North German toccata structure as a rhetorical concept, 21 in which the following elements are present:

(1) Exorvium ("opening" or "beginning") : The spectacular openings of pieces such as Bfihm's Praeludium und Fuge. C major, or Bach's early Praeludium und Fuge. C major (BWV 53 1) i with their extensive pedal solos, fall under this heading.

(2) Narratio ( "narrative" or background of the story, usually seen from the historical point of view) : The first fugue or im itative section of a toccata belongs here. In works by Buxtehude and others, the "historic" element usually appears in canzona-type fugues or ricercar-like fugues (stilo antico). An example of a ricercar-like fugue is +he first fugue in Buxtehude's Praeludium und Fuga. G minor—No. 24 in Hedar edition. Vol. II.

(3) ProTDOsitio ( "purpose" or "intention") : This section is also usually in fugal form, although sometimes narratio and propositio are combined into one fugue.

(4) Confutatio ("rebuttal") : Here, all "arguments" against the propositio are worked out. This section can be rather wild and free, and usually contains very interesting harmonies. (An example is the free "toccata" material separating Buxtehude's two fugues in his Praeludium und Fuga. D minor— No. 19f Hedar ed.)

(5) Oonfirmatio ("confirmation") : What has been proposed above is confirmed here. With few exceptions, this section is fugal, usually employing the same material as in the propositio. but in a different meter. An example is the relationship between the two fugues in Buxtehude’s Praelu­ dium und Fuga. G minor, mentioned above. (Quite often, the second fugue is in triple meter; the simple symbolism, implied by the "perfect three" fits very well the idea of a "confirma­ ti o n ." )

(6) Peroratio ("summing up"); The free endings of most North German toccatas fit under this heading. The "break-down" of counterpoint in the final fugue, leading into the toccata­ like ending in many of these pieces is not a defect, but rather an element of the free style. (Note Mattheson's remark, in Paragraph 94 of Der Vollkommene Capellmeister— se e p . 47 above—that "The principal motifs and melodies cannot be completely ignored just because of the improvisatory nature; however, t h e y may n o t he done in sequence, much 8$ less receive their usual performance. Hence those composers ■s^o work out formal fugues in their fantasias or toccatas do not preserve the proper concept of the style at hand, for nothing is so very contrary to it as order and constraint.")

It would he misleading to state that thematic variation of fugue subjects unifies the North German toccatas, as Kenneth Powell carefully points out. Of the thirty-three toccatas included in Powell's study, 22 only nineteen contain examples of definite thematic variation. In only one case among these same pieces (Buxtehude's Prdludium, Fuga, und Ciacona) is there a reference in the opening free section to the 23 following fugue subjects. ^

Many traces of modality are present in the overall harmonic schemes of these toccatas, since they were written during the time of transition between modality and tonality. In keeping with this survival of modal organization, many toccatas remain completely in one tonal center.

L ittle modulation occurs, especially in works of the earlier North

German composers. (The same is true of a number of J. S. Bach's early free works.) Changes in meter, ïdiich appear in most of the toccatas, almost always occur at sectional breaks.

Following are characteristics of the individual sections of a 24 typical North German toccata:

The opening free sections;

(1) The basically free formal structure usually consists of one or three sections; (2) There is an almost universal tendency to begin the toccatas with a single free line; (Example: Bruhns' large Praeludium und Fuga. E minor) (3) Virtuosi-^ is emphasized both in the manuals and in the pedals.2-5^ (Example: opening of Buxtehude's Prâludium, Fuga. und Ciacona.1 The fugues ; 90

(1) The fugues are part of a larger structure and are thus constricted in length; (2) Constriction in length means that the subjects are short, the exposition strai#itforward, and the continua­ tion a re-exposition; (3) Episodes, modulation, augmentation, diminution, etc. are usually not possible within these lim its; (4) A feeling of climax is reached not in a single fugue but in the combination of several, with the later fugues showing an increase in rhythmic activity.

The interludes;

( 1) Improvsation and freedom are basic to the form of the interludes; (Example: interludes between the two fugues in Bruhns* large Praeludium und Fuga. S minor) (2) Virtuosity and changeability characterize the mood; (3) Modulation occurs here in the toccatas, if it occurs at all, and is often just chromaticism which creates the illusion of modulation ; (4) The idea of continuing the opening free section through­ out the piece as a unifying device is important whether this continuation is a free ending to a fugue or a whole series of improvisatory sections.

The codas:

( 1) Formally, these are free endings which may or may not be independent ; ( 2) Usually they represent a return, if this is necessary, to duple meter; often this change of meter occurs at the beginning of, or during, the coda; (3) Contrast between free and fugal sections, which has occurred throughout the toccatas, continues here.

Speaking about the free organ works of Franz Tunder (l6l4-l667) and

M atth ias Weckmann ( 162I-I 674) , Shannon remarks that "these works lay the foundations of the mature North-German praeambulum, the form used most 26 characteristically by Buxtehude's generation." Tunder, organist of the Marienkirche in Lübeck and father-in-law of Buxtehude, is represented by only a small group of extant compositions (altogether about fifteen 2*7 pieces, including chorale-based works). Four praeludia by Tunder, which appear in the LtSneburg tablatures, show what Shannon calls "a more developed concept of the nraeamhnlim. Three of the four praeludia Si open -with a single-line statement, which was to become a mannerism with the North German composers of the next generation. The fugal sections are "fullfledged Jandj self-supporting"^^ and, in three of the four pieces, employ subjects containing repeated notes.

Example 23» Franz Tunder, Praeludium (No. l) , ms. 24-25; Praeludium (No. 2), ms. 24-25; Praeludium (No. 3)» ms. 22-23*

É

m A m

M atth ias Weckmann, o rg a n ist o f th e S t. Jaco b i K irche in Hamburg

( 1655- 74), was a friend of J. J. Froberger.^^ As Shannon points out,

"while it is difficult to speculate how broadly the Neckmann-Froberger friendship was responsible, in any event there is an intrusion of Italian 32 style and emotional content into North-German music at mid-century."

Weckmann*s extant free keyboard works include eight fugal pieces (a 33 fantasia, a fuga, a praeambulum. and five canzoni) and six toccatas.

The canzoni are of a " li^ t, facile keyboard style showing little of 34 the mechanistic severity of Sweelinck and his school." A new type of fugue subject, much favored in the second half of the l?th century, 92 emerges in these works:

Example 24. Matthias Weckmann, Canzone (No. subject

Subjects of this type feature long stretches of running l6th notes and considerable use of repeated notes. Some also depend for their shape on a basic harmonic motion:

Example 25- Matthias Weckmann, Canzone (No. 4),^^ in itia l theme.

Examples of this type have "many relatives in the uraeambula of the 37 next generation.

Very little of the keyboard output of Jan Adam Reincken (l623-

1722), organist of the Katharinenkirche in Hamburg beginning in 1663, OQ is preserved. Reincken*s lengthy toccata (150 measures) is a five- part structure, containing alternating toccata and fugal sections.

The subject of his G minor fuga is one that "may represent the peak 39 of the 'motoric* type so much in favor at the time." 40 Example 26. Jan Adam Reincken, Fuga, subject. 93

m m m ;

Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-170?) represents the high point of North

German organ music before Bach. Two streams of influence meet in his free woiks; (l) the Southern style of Frescobaldi and Froberger, etc.; and (2) that of North Gerrnans of the preceding generations—Sweelinck,

Scheidem ann, T under, Weckmann. 4 l Josef Eedar has classified Buxtehude's toccatas and preludes according to type as follows (some categories are ambiguous and overlap with others, showing the difficulty in trying to define what was actually meant by "toccata" or "praeludium un.d fuge" at this time) :

Toccata types: (l) Toccatenfuge: containing a single fugue subject ; this is derived from the North German "Prâambel- fuge" and Tunder's "Toccatenfuge"; (2) Toccatenvarianten- fuge: contains two or three fugatos with the initial subject varied in each succeeding fugue; (3) Toccata: contrasting free and fugal sections, with or without thematic variation or relationships. Southern (Italian) influence is especially apparent here.

Prelude types: (l) With or without motivic imitation, these are short and concise in form, in the manner of the older toccata- style. (Models are Frescobaldi's free toccatas, as in the Fieri musicali, and in Froberger's and Tunder's toccata-like introductions to some of their free works ;) (2) With fugato; (3) Sectional, usually toccata-fugue-toccata structure; (4) With ostinato characteristics (usually occurring in coda sections),

The title "Praeludium und Fuge", so often applied to works of the

North German school, can be a source of confusion unless one bears in 9^ mind the fact that most of these pieces are really toccatas and are not related to what we today define as "prelude and fugue". This designa­ tion, though s till ambiguous in the early organ works of J. S. Bach, is clearer in his later works, where the pairing usually comes closer to being one prelude and one fugue, separate but complementary pieces.

Whatever the individual structure of a work, formal balance is characteristic of Buxtehude's free works. Usually, the duple meter of an opening section returns in the concluding part. In no fewer than ten of his free works, Buxtehude resolves an "uneven" meter (3/2, 3/4,

6/4, 6/8, 12/8) to duple meter, either before or with the start of the closing section. This idea had been used considerably also by Buxtehude's 42 predecessors, especially Froberger, Weckmann, and Reincken.

Following is a summary of formal elements and other characteristics 43 of Buxtehude's free organ works:

(T= toccata; F= fugue)

The simplest toccata structure in Buxtehude's works, TFT, is found in Nos. 7, 11, 15, 18, 26, and 27. The five-part form, T F T F T, occurs in Nos. 8, 10, 17» 19, and 24. Other, less familiar stiuctures: T F F T in Nos. 4, 5, 6, 13, 22 (this concludes with an ostinato setting) T F F T F in No. 9 T F T F F in No. l4 T F T F T F T in No. 25 Introductory pedal solos occur in Nos. 1, 7, and 10. Pedal trills (Nos. l4 and 23) and skips of tenths (No. 17) are further examples of virtuosic pedal writing. Pedalpoints are common. Often, the pedal is ez^loyed for bassi ostinati or quasi-ostinati (No. 10, ms. l6ff; No. 11, ms. 77ff; No. 14, ms. 104ff; No. 19, ms. 112ff ; and No. 24, beginning.) Nos. 1 and 22 conclude with an extended ostinato movement in which the subject regularly alternates between the bass and one of the upper parts. Many of the toccatas show a tendency to stay in a secondary key (mostly the subdominant) and Tretum to the tonic only at the last moment. 95 Many k in d s o f fugue s u b je c ts appear in th e to c c a ta s . Some co n tain effective placement of rests;

Example 2?. Dietrich Buxtehude, Toccata (Hedar, Vol. II, No. 1 7 ), ms. 32-33*

tLT

others feature repeated notes:

Example 28. Buxtehude, PrSludium und Fuga (Hedar, H , No. 4), ms. 21-23-

Nos. 13 and 22 contain the striking skip of a diminished seventh, later used by Bach in some of his fugue subjects. When a work contains more than one fugue, Buxtehude sometimes used variants of the first fugue su b je c t:

Example 29. Buxtehude, Prdludium und Fuga (Hedar, II, No. 24), ms. 21-24, 78-82.

'I--J/

In Apel's opinion, fugal sections in Buxtehude's toccatas are artisti- 44 cally inferior to the free sections. Biuctehude's other free organ works include a passacaglia, two 9^

chaconnes (each hased on a four-measure subject), and nine canzonas

(canzonettas). Two of the canzonas (Nos. 5 and 12)^^ approach genuine fugue structure; a single subject is developed within a single section.

The remaining canzonas consist of two or three sections hased on dif­ ferent subjects or on variants of the main subject (and occasionally

its inversion). Numbers 4, 6, ?, 1 1 , and 12 feature subjects of the

"motoric" type. Apel is of the opinion that

the subject of the canzonetta in E Minor (No. 9) is one of the few fuf^ie subjects of the l?th century that could have been invented by Bach. It is developed in two well-wrought sections, by itself in the first one, and combined with a countersubject that is no less significant in the second . . . Hedar rightly says that with its 'elegiac subject' and its ’unified structure stressing melody and discant’ this can­ zonetta holds a 'special place not only among Buxtehude's organ compositions but also in the entire l?th century'

Following is a summary of the idiomatic keyboard and toccata

characteristics (with prototypes) in Buxtehude's organ works:

(1) Large intervallic leaps in one voice or divided between several voices. Examples are compared with Bull (Fitz- william Virginal Book I: 1, p. 9; hereafter abbreviated FVB) and Sweelinck (toccata); ( 2) Characteristic North German use of l6th-note groups in running, step-wise motion. Predecessors in this tech­ nique: Bull (FVB I: 3^, p. 125) , P h ilip s (FVB I : ?8 , p . 316), Sweelinck (Fantasia), Scheidemann, Tunder (c h o ra le p re lu d e ), Weckmann; (3 ) Broken figures, particularly those involving recurring skips of the octave, as in the English virginal technique; Gibbons (FVB I; 40, p. 148), Bull (FVB I: 1, p. 1?), Famaby (FVB II: 286, p. 464), Sweelinck ("Soil es sein" and Toccata), Scheidemann, etc.; (4) Arpeggiated broken-chord figures, also from England- Netherlands keyboard influence: (Bull, Sweelinck, Weck­ mann, Tunder, Schildt); (5) Recurring ornamental figures added to decorate a voice that 97 is moving hy step, (beginning off the heat) :

(6) Southern influence is seen in the use of a skip to the leading tone; (?) Pedalpoint entrance hy leap from the other voices (which drop out when the pedal enters) ; (8) Dramatic rests between toccata-figurations (scales, etc.); (9) Ornamental figures such as ^ or ^ ^ used imitatively

between voices. This practice is held in common with the whole North German school and also with the English and Italians (South Germans). Examples of its use occur in the works of Byrd, Famaby, Sweelinck, Frescobaldi, Kerll, F ro b e rg e r, Weckmann; (10) Use of contrary motion (often in virtuoso toccata-figura­ t i o n s ) , as in works by F re s c o b a ld i, F ro b erg er, Weckmann, e tc . ; (11) Use of hock et technique (an old device used for dramatic effect and in sequential passages). This stems from English practice, as seen in works by Parsons, Bull, Famaby, and Sweelinck, etc. The technique is used occasionally also in works of Frescobaldi and Froberger; ( 12) Fauxbourdon technique, used occasionally in short passages. This, also, derives from English practice, and occurs in pieces by Bull and Famaby, among others.

Nicolaus Bruhns ( 1665-I 697) was a keyboard, violin, and gamba virtuoso who studied organ and composition with Buxtehude, and later studied in Copenhagen, where "a man of his imaginative temperament could not but have been impressed by the city's cosmopolitan tradition. . . .

It was a center where a knowledge of English virginal music had been 49 established through the visits of English exiles." Bruhns' three organ preludes and fugues-^^ are really toccatas and provide perfect examples of the sectional toccata structure discussed above. As G. B.

Sharp observes, "the Prelude and Fugue in G is couched within the frame­ work of any number of sim ilar works by Buxtehude—the sweeping pedal 98 solos . . . double pedal . » . fugue subjects fri-th repeated notes . . . and augmentation of the subject in the 3/2 section.Of th e two preludes and fugues in E minor, the h i^ly fragmentary longer piece is certainly one of the finest works of its kind. The shorter prelude and fugue in the same key opens with an elaborate pedal solo and includes a 12/8 episode with echo indications (perhaps influenced by Sweelinck).

Vincent Lübeck ( 165^17^0) belongs to the last generation of North

German organ masters. His free organ works include six preludes and 52 fugues, of which the one in G minor is most complex in structure

(T F T F^). The first fugue is in five parts, and features double pedal parts. (Double pedal technique occurs also in the works of

Reincken and Bruhns, but not in B uxtehude.L ubeck's other toccatas have one or two fugal sections. Extensive pedal solos and occasional fast fugatos are characteristic of the free sections.

Georg Bühm ( 1661-I 733) was active as an organist in Hamburg c a . 1690, and in 1698 went to Lüneburg as organist of the Johannis- kirche there. In his six free keyboard compositions, Bdhm generally cK followed North German traditions. BBhm's Capriccio in D Major, with its three thematically related fugues connected by two short inter­ ludes, is reminiscent of Froberger's variation canzona. BOhm's

Praeludium und Fuge in C m ajor c o n tain s many ty p ic a l N orth German elements (such as a lengthy introductory pedal solo) as well as some forward-looking elements (modulation leading as far as B major; bi­ modality; the use of a deceptive cadence for dramatic effect) The

Praeludium. Fuge und Postludium in G minor is, as Apel states, "a very curious and subjective creation, pursuing the opposites of brilliance and magnificence—romantic dreaminess and meditation. French influence is shown hy the ornaments—tremblement. -pincement, coulé. 99 arpégement—B8hm used here and elsewhere in his works. 100

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER THREE

North Germany

1 . Riedel, Quellenkündliche Beitrâge, 11?. Riedel names Sweelinck as one of four main personalities who formed "schools" in the first half of the l?th century. The others were Frescobaldi in Rome, Jean Titelouze in Rouen, and Samuel Scheldt in Halle. Just as Frescobaldi in the South had an international reputation among h is conten 5>oraries, so it was with Sweelinck in the North. It is not quite clear whether Sweelinck was valued more as a player or a composer, but his influence extended mainly to North Germany.

2. According to Bradshaw, the Italian influence on Sweelinck*s toccatas is especially clear because all thirteen are built on a psalm-tone. Thus the Venetian toccata, through Sweelinck, played a significant part in the historj’" and development of German organ music. Bradshaw, Origin of the Toccata. 67, 69.

3 . See Sweelinck, Werken van Jan Pieterszn. Sweelinck; Werken voor Orgel of Klavier, ed. by Max Seiffert as Deel 1 o f De V ereeniging voor Noord-Nederlands Muziekgeschiedenis ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff; Leipzig; Breitkopf & HËrtel, 1894) (republ. by Gregg Int. Publ., England, 1968).

4. Jan Pieter Sweelinck, "Toccata in C," Ausgew^lte Werke für Orgel und Klavier. 2 vols., ed. Diet hard Hellmann (New York, London, Frankfurt: C. F. Peters, 1937), 1, 44.

5 . In Seiffert's ed., op. cit.. 63- 6 5.

6. About the fantasies and ricercars, Walter Buszin remarks that they "prepare the way for the fugal music of J. S. Bach . . . his use o f th e B-A-G-H theme in h is second fa n ta s y i s tr u l y p ro p h e tic in character." Walter Buszin's "Foreword" to Hellmann's edition of Sweelinck's Ausgewâhlte Werke, op. c it. However, Sweelinck's supposed use of the B-A-C-H theme is probably coincidental, since the notes A - C - B'' do not make up the entire theme of the fantasy, but rather occur within the context of a longer theme, thus: I j J j - g 7. Biiszin^ "Foreword," ibid. 1Ü1

8. Werner Breig, Die Orgelwerke von Heinrich Scheidemann. Vol. Ill of Beihefte znm Archiv ftlr Musikwissenschaft, ed. H. H. EggeBrecht (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 196?). See pp. 78 ff for detailed discussions of the free organ works.

9. Heinrich Scheidemann, Fifteen Preludes and Fugues for the Organ (New York: Edwin F. Kalmus, n.d.) , No. 3 (p* 5)» No. 7 (p. 10), No. 9 (?• l 6 ) .

10c Scheidemann’s composition is edited hy Margarete Reimann in Das Erhe deutscher Musik, XXXVI (Frankfurt, 1957). Bradshaw, Origin of the Toccata, 71.

11. Scheidemann, Fifteen Preludes and Fugues. No. 7, p. 11.

12. Ihid. . No. 8 (p. 15), No. 4 (p. 7), No. 10 (p. 19).

13. S. Scheldt, Samuel Scheldt Werke. Band VI: Tahulatura Nova Tell I und I I ; Band VII: Tahulatura Nova Tell III, ed. Christhard Mahrenholz (Hamburg: Ugrino, 1955, 1964). Parts I and II of the Tahulatura Nova contain secular works, fantasias, chorale variations, etc. Part III contains organ compositions on Mass sections. Magnificat settings, a set of selected hymns for the church year, and two compositions for six voices with double pedalc The title , Tahulatura Nova, refers to Scheldt's use of Italian keyboard partitura notation, new to the Germans, who customarily used letter notation. ("Old" German keyboard tablature employs notes for the upper part and letters for the lower parts, and was used prior to about 1550. "New" German tablature, written exclusively in letters, was used after 1550.) An anthology of Scheldt works is also available. See; Samuel Scheldt, Ausgewdhlte Werke ftlr Orgel und Klavier^ ed. Hermann Keller (Frankfurt, London, New York; C. F. Peters, 1940).

14. S. Scheldt, Samuel Scheldt Werke. Band V; Unedierte Kompositionen fllr Tasteninstrumente, ed. Christhard Mahrenholz and Gottlieb Harms (Hamburg; Ugrino, 1937), 12-15.

15. Bradshaw, Origin of the Toccata. 70. Bradshaw believes that Scheldt labeled this piece "toccata" because some of the variations have the artistic traits of Venetian pieces (solid chords support­ ing a decorated line) and, unlike Scheldt's usual variations, the work has a continuous rather than a sectional structure.

16. Ratsbücherei, Lüneburg, KN 207, 208, 209, etc.

17. Shannon, ’Treface" to his ed, of The Free Organ Compositions from the Lueneburg Organ Tablatures, op. c it.

18. Shannon, "North-German Organ Music; A Short Study of a Style," Music/The A.G.O./R.C.C.O. Magazine I I I /9 (Sept. 1969), 22-23. 19. I M d . . 23 . 102

20. Kenneth G. Powell, "An Analysis of the North German Organ Toccatas," The Diapason LXII /5 (April 1971)> 2?. For a list of North German organ toccatas of this period, see Powell, i h i d .

21. Lecture hy Harald Vogel, "North German Organ Literature," Oherlin Simmer Organ Institute, July 2, 1979. This concept has also heen used as a hasis for the construction of sermons, legal defenses, etc. One may draw comparisons also with the drama.

22. Powell, loc. cit.

23. And even that free fragment could he explained as a coincidence resulting from sim ilar figuration, not something planned hy the composer. Powell, ihid.

24. Summaries taken from Powell, ihid. , 28-29.

25. Already in the early part of the l?th century, the North Germans achieved an astounding pedal dexterity. Only in North Germany was the pedal organ a fully-developed division, which could he exploited for pedal solos, double pedal passages, etc.

26. Shannon, Organ Literature. 217.

27. See Franz Tunder, Sâmtliche Orgelwerke. ed. Klaus Beckmann (Wieshaden ; Breitkopf & H ârtel, 1974) .

28. Shannon, Organ L it.. 218.

29. I h i d .

30 . Tunder, op. cit.. 7, H, 13-14.

31. See note 77, page 37 ahove. See a ls o M atthias Weckmann, V ierzehn P ra e lu d ie n . Fugen und Toccaten. ed. hy M. Seiffert as No. 3 of Organum IV (K8ln: Kistner u. S iegel, n.d.).

32. Shannon, Organ L it., 219.

33 . Apel, History. 398. Shannon, Organ L it.. 219.

34 . Shannon, Organ L it,, 219-20.

3 3. Apel, History. 602.

3 6. Shannon, Organ L it.. 220.

37. I h i d . 38. Two chorale settings, a toccata, a fugue, two variation works, 103 and three suites. See Adam Reincken, Collected Keyhoard Works, ed. hy W illi Apel as Vol. l6 of Corpus of Early Keyhoard Music (American Institute of Musicology, 19&7)•

39. Apel, History. 607.

40. Reincken, op. cit.. 55.

41. Josef Hedar, Dietrich Buxtehudes Orgelwerke; Zur Geschichte des norddeutschen~Orgelstils (Frankfurt a. Main.; Wilhelmiana Musik- verlag; Stockholm; Nordiska MusikfSrlaget, 1951).

42. Froherger, toccatas I, II, XII, etc. in DenlanSler der Tonkunst in Osterreich XV/l, op. c it.

4 3 . Apel, History. 613- 15. Numbers refer to the following edition: Dietrich Buxtehude, SSmtliche Orgelwerke, 4 vols., ed. Josef Hedar (Oslo; Norsk Musikforlag; Frankfurt a. M. ; Wilhelmiana Musikverlag; London; J. & W. Chester; Stockholm; AB Nordiska MusikfSrlaget; Copenhagen; Wilhelm Hansen, 1952), II.

44. Apel, History. 616.

4 5 . Hedar ed. of Buxtehude, op. c it.. I.

46. See p. 92 ahove.

4 7 . A pel, H is to ry . 616.

48. Hedar, Dietrich Buxtehudes Orgelwerke. See pp. 345-66 for musical exam ples.

4 9. G. B. Sharp, "Nicolaus Bruhns," The Musical Times 107/l482 (A ugust 1966) , 679.

50. Nicolaus Bruhns, Orgelwerke. urtext ed. hy Fritz Stein and Martin Geek (Frankfurt, London, New York; C. F. Peters, 1939» 19&7). See Fritz Stein's "Vorwort" and Martin Geek's "Anmerkung" to the ahoye edition. See also Martin Geek, Nicolaus Bruhns. Lehen und Werk (K81n, I 968).

51. S h arp , op. c i t . . 679.

52. Vincent Liiheck, Orgelwerke. ed. Hermann Keller (Frankfurt, London, New York; C. F . P e te r s , 1941).

53. A possible exception is Buxtehude's Prâludium und Fuga. D major ^edar ed., II, No. 11). Earlier editions hy Seiffert and Spitta notate measures IO 5-IIO as a double pedal passage, Hedar's edition does not. 5^. Georg BGhm, Sâmtliche Werke; Klavier- und Orgelwerke. Band I; 104 Freie Kompositionen und Klaviersuiten. ed. Johannes wolgast, new ed. hased on Wolgast hy Gesa Wolgast (Wieshaden; Breitkopf & Hârtel, 1952?).

55* A pel, H is to r y . 63O-3I.

56. I h i d . . 631. CHAPTER FOUR

THE EARLY FREE ORGAN WORKS OF J . S. BACH

The development of free or^zi literature in Italy and Germany from the I5th throu^ the 17th centuries may he viewed, not as a series of unrelated events, hut rather as a chain of developments upon which traveled influences in hoth directions. The works of J. S. Bach may he seen as the culmination of these developments, for unmistakable traces of Italian and German influence are present, especially in Bach's early organ preludes, fug>aes, toccatas, and fantasias.^

Andre Pirro, speaking with reference to the early free organ works, makes the following observations;

It is of great interest to note the continued conquests which Bach placed to his credit ; his first productions saying little that had not heen said hy others, hut establishing, as it were, the specification of actual resources of which he m i^t avail himself......

To Buxtehude, Pachelbel, Froherger, F. Couperin, Frescobaldi, and s till others . . . belongs the proud distinction of having provided a medium for Bach; and s till their importance is not lessened hy such a fact any more than is Bach's; in any case, it is very difficult to judge a man of genius without reference to chronological successsion.2

Hans David and Arthur Mendel point out that "Bach assimilated a ll the achievements to which his time was heir as completely as if he had consciously set out to do so."^ C. P. E. Bach's letters to Johann N.

Forkel mention three Austrians whose music Bach studied and esteemed: h, J. J. Froherger, J. K. Kerll, andd J. J . Joseph Fux. C. P. E. Bach also 105 106 noted that his father, in his earlier years, had "heard and studied"

Frescobaldi, J. K. F. Fischer, Strung, "some old and good Frenchmen,"

Buxtehude, Reincken, Bruhns, Bdhm, as well as Froherger, Kerll, and

Pachelbel.-^

J. S. Bach used themes by Giovanni Legrenzi (Fuga, BWV 57^» on a theme of Legrenzi), made use of compositions by various other 17th- century Italian composers as thorough-bass exercises, and knew the music of Corelli (Fuga, BWV 579i on a theme of Corelli) as well as of the later Tomaso Albinoni, Bonporti, and Antonio Vivaldi.^

Nothing is known for certain regarding Bach's supposed early visits to Hamburg to hear Reincken play, nor is it known whether Bach s till went there after 1702 when Vincent Lübeck became organist of the 7 Nikolaikirche. As Blume reminds us :

The simple truth is that we know very little for certain about Bach's musical activities and education during the Lüneburg years ^1700-17033 and least of all about the area of keyboard music. One is tempted to assume that while in Lüneburg he studied the unique collection of organ tablatures . . . We do not know . . . whether the manuscripts were already in Lüneburg when Bach was there or when they might have arrived there.®

Of Bach's residence in Amstadt (1703-1707), the obituary

(l75^)^ states;

Here he really showed the first fruits of his application to the art of organ playing, and to composition, which he had learned chiefly by the observation of the works of the most famous and proficient composers of his day and by the fruits of his own reflection upon them. In the art of the organ he took the works of Bruhns, Reincken, Buxtehude, and several good French organists as models.^®

Regarding Bach's early development as a keyboard composer, Peter

Williams states; To a lively young organist fortunate enough to he brought up 107 in Thuringia—half-way between Munich and Lübeck—the cross­ currents must have been able to stimulate intense personal development, , . . J. G. Walther, a distant relation and organist colleague, said he was presented by Bach with two hundred compositions including works by Bdhm and Buxtehude.

Bach's journey to Lübeck during the winter of l?05/o6 brought him in contact with the work of Dietrich Buxtehude. This encounter, according 12 to Ernst Isler, manifests itself with great intensity in Bach's early organ works, in which Buxtehude style characteristics are more clearly traceable than any other influences.

The following table, compiled by Hermann Keller, attempts to illustrate a "line of descent" from the German organ schools to

J. S. Bach: 13

P e rio d S ty le - South Germany Central Germany North Germany Epoch (Frescobaldi) (Sweelinck) M. Praetorius l 600 (Wolfenbüttel) S. Scheidt to I E a rly F ro b erg er (H alle) l66o Baroque (Vienna) H. Scheidemann (Hamburg) M. Weckmann (Hamburg)

l66o K e rll Jch. Christoph J . A. Reincken High to (Munich) Bach (Hamburg) M uffat (E isenach) F. Tunder 1710 Baroque (Passau) (Lübeck) P ach elb el (Nuremberg. D. Buxtehude E r fu rt) y (Lübeck) N. Bruhns \ (Husum) I 1710 J . G. W alther Vine. Lübeck L ate J.K.F. Fischer (Weimary (stade, Hamburg) to (R a s ta tt) Baroque s y G. B8hm 1750 JOH. SEE. BACH (Lüneburg) Isler has summarized the prohahle outside influences on Bach up to 1708 as follows:

E isen ach ( 1685-I 695)! Violin study with father, Amhrosius, Church music study with uncle, Johann Christoph, in St. Georgenkirche. Ohrdruf ( 1695-1700): Keyhoard study with brother (Pachelbel's student), Johann Christoph. Bach copied compositions of Froberger, Fischer, Kerll, Pachelbel, Buxtehude, Bruhns, and B8hm. Lüneburg ( 17OO-I703) : Member o f M atins c h o ir of M ich aelis- kirche, with its rich library of Italian, South German, and North German vocal church music.. Acquaintance with organist, Georg Bdhm. Trips to Hamburg (Reincken) and Celle (French music). Arnstadt (1703-1707): Work as organist. Trip to Lübeck to hear Buxtehude. The organ as main practice area stimulates Bach to concentrate on compositions for organ. Mühlhausen (1707-1708): Work as organist. Concentration on church cantatas.

Isler warns, however, that great care must be exercised when one wishes to classify the early Bach works according to outside influences. In these youthful works, it can be impossible to separate clearly, for example, what was influenced by Pachelbel, what derives from BiJhm's style, and at which point Buxtehude becomes the primary model.One must remember to entrust certain developments, even in the early periods, to the genius of the young Bach, a creative power unique in its development.^^

While there is little question that Bach's early works were influ­ enced by his knowledge of the work of many individuals, an entirely dif­ ferent set of problems confronts the historian who aims to establish the chronology or authenticity of Bach's early organ works.

The problem of dating the organ works is as fraught with difficul­ ties as it is with fascination. David Mulbury has summarized the several kinds of evidence that can be used in attempting to establish the date 17 of an organ work; 109

(1) A critical comparison of Bach's handwriting (if autograph copies are available);

( 2 ) Watermarks on the paper

(3) The "compass" method^^ (based upon the relation of keyboard and pedal notes required in given compositions to those available on organs for which Bach may have intended the compositions);

(4) External evidence (title pages, special occasions, etc.);

(5 ) Internal evidence (stylistic)—not precise, only relative;

(6) Comparison of copies made by various copyists at different tam es•

Riedel remarks that questions of authenticity and historical inter­

relationships have been approached by many musicologists throu^ style 20 criticism. J. Hedar, for example, attempted to establish style influ­

ences and musical relationships among various composers largely on the

grounds of analagous compositional techniques and sim ilar keyboard 21 figurations. Riedel, while not wishing to deny the value of such

methods of comparison, stresses the fact that investigations based on

this approach are secondary to a critical study of the primary source 22 material. According to Riedel, only primary source material can serve

as the foundation of an investigation which attempts to expose the work

of a particular composer and its role in the overall scheme of things,

to examine and to establish the reliability of attributions to the

composer, the diffusion of the pieces, their arrangements or transcrip­

tions throu^ other musicians, their influence on the composer's contemp­

oraries and the next generation, or their significance for the develop­

ment of particular genres. Evidence of an analytical nature has secondary value and must be regarded as hypothetical so long as the finding is not substantiated in the sources.HO

Some difficult and frustrating problems may be encountered in the investigation of primary source material, however, and although, as

Gloria Rose admits, "attributions cannot . . . be decided on grounds of style alone . . . equally, style cannot be left out of consideration 24 in deciding attributions."

In the case of the early Bach organ works, primary source material is a complex problem;

The fact that a great number of the pieces we might examine survive in various versions so that one hardly knows which to consider original, which is of a later date, and which is an arrangement by Bach or someone else, is forbidding enough. More troublesome, however, is that there is, among the keyboard music that m i^t possibly be dated in the early period, not one piece handed down to us in a primary source, i.e . . in Bach's own hand­ writing or even in a copy by one of his sons. Everything that could belong to the early period comes from sources twice or thrice removed, copies by pupils or by pupil's pupils from the late l8th or even from the 19th century. . . . In the field of keyboard music the question of the authenticity and chronology of numerous scattered preludes, fantasias, toccatas, fugues, pe fu^ettas, sonatas, etc., still remains completely unsettled.

As a result of the dearth of primary source material, most attempts at placement or chronology in the early Bach organ works have been made from the standpoint of stylistic (internal) evidence. Peter Williams, for example, concludes that

the element of display, of organist's showmanship, that expresses itself in . . . pedal passages of neither immense difficulty nor harmonic subtlety, such as the G major (BWV 550) or the c minor (BWV 5^9) ; or in triadic figures for the manuals in either prelude (a major, BWV 53^) or fugue (G major. BW\'' 550) , may be taken as a relatively immature characteristic.2°

Similarly, referring to internal evidence that m i^t suggest an earlier date for what is thou^t to be an early Leipzig work, Williams offers the following thou^ts: B ach's oïna copy o f 1740 o r l a t e r may he h ased on a v e rsio n from £ , 1712. Repeated notes are s till characteristic of T-;hat seems to he a maturing Weimar style—not only the repeated notes o f th e fugue theme (an elem ent le s s e x c lu s iv e ly n o rth German than usually thought) hut the rhythmic, often homophonie repeti­ tion of notes or chords. Although not particularly characteristic of either harpsichord music or of Italian concertos, repeated notes and chords give BWV 5^1 a texture quite different from the most mature works. '

Hermann Keller, in his discussion of the authenticity and chrono- 28 logy of the Bach organ works, remarks that "a reliable chronological order for Bach w ill appear impossible, since external evidence is al- 29 most completely lacking." Keller thus draws largely on stylistic evidence and on vdiat he calls "Bach's inner development" in his attempt to establish an approximate chronological order. Albert Schweitzer also states that "as a rule we have to rely on internal chronological e v id en ces.

Other well-known attempts at chronology have adopted basically the same approach:W idor/Schweitzer, in the first four volumes of their Bach editionHarvey GraceCharles S anford T e rry H a n s

Klotz;^^ Gotthold Frotscher;^^ and Ernst Isler.Friedrich Blum e's

"Tentative chronology of the early organ works", which he compiled from Schmieder, Klotz, and Zavarsky, shows considerable divergence of opinion.The same is true of the following chronologies for the early (pre-Weimar) free organ works as established by Terry, Widor/ 39 Schweitzer, and Isler:

According to Charles Sanford Terry:

Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (ça. 1702)1702) BWV 549 Prelude and Fugue in C Major (ça. 1707)1707) BWV 566 Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (ça. 1702)1702) BWV 551 Fugue in C Minor (ça. I 702) BWV 575 Fugue in C Minor, Theme o f Legr< i (ç a . 1708) BWV 574 Fugue, Theme of C o re lli BWV 579 Fugue in D Major Fugue in G Major BWV 577 Fugue in G Major BWV 576 Fugue in G Minor BWV 131a Prelude in A Minor (ça. 1706) BWV 569 Prelude in C Major BV7V 9^3 Prelude in G Major (ça. 1702) BWV 568 Fantasie and Fugue in A Minor BWV 561 Two Fantasies in G Major BWV 572 and 571 Pastorale in F Major BWV 590

According to Widor/Schweitzer:

Fantasie in C Major BWV 570 Prelude and Fugue in C Minor BWV 5^9 Fugue in C Minor (Legrenzi) BWV 57^ Alla "breve in D Major BWV 589 Toccata in E Major BWV 566 Fantasie in G Major BWV 571 Prelude in G Major BWV 566 Fantasie in G Major BWV 572 Fugue in G Major BWV 576 Fugue in G Major BWV 577 Prelude and Fugue in G Major BWV 550 Prelude and Fugue in G Minor BWV 535 Fantasie and Fugue in A Minor BWV 561 Prelude and Fugue in A Minor BWV 551 Prelude in A Minor BWV 569 Fantasia con Imitazione in B Minor BWV 563 Fugue in B Minor (Corelli) BWV 579

According to Ernst Isler:

Fantasie in C Major BWV 570 Fugue in C Major BWV 946 Fugue in D Major Fantasie and Fugue in A Minor BWV 56I Prelude and Fugue in A Minor BWV 551 Prelude and Fugue in C Minor BWV 5^9 Fugue in C Minor BWV 575 Prelude in G Major BWV 568 Fugue in G Major BWV 576 Concerto or Fantasie in G Major BWV 571 Fugue in G Major BWV 577 Prelude and Fugue in C Major BWV 566 Prelude in A Minor BWV 569 Prelude and Fugue in E Minor BWV 533 Prelude and Fugue in G Minor BWV 535 Fugue in G Minor BWV 131a Fugue on a Theme of Legrenzi BWV 574 Fantasie in G Major BWV 572 Prelude and Fugue in C Major BWV 531 In an attempt to point out characteristics and stylistic traits 113 showing the influence of Bach's predecessors in the free organ forms, the following organ works of Bach from ahout 1700 to 1717 (Lünehurg, \ 4o A m s ta d t, M ühlhausen, Weimar) a re in c lu d e d in th e p re s e n t studj»".

BWV 531 Prelude and Fugue in G Major (Peters IV, No. l)

Bate/place of o r i ^ n : Lünehurg (H. Keller) Weimar (Spitta, etc.) Weimar, ça. 1709, or Lünehurg, 1700- 03? (Schmieder)

"Characteristics in hoth the peda.1 prelude and fugue subject . . . remind the player of Eeinken ^somewhat 'motoric' subject, with repeated note^ or BShm £the elaborate, hut simple opening pedal solo is sim ilar to the one in BShm's Prelude and Fugue in CJ." Some resemblances to Lübeck's Prelude and Fugue in. C m ajor may a ls o be n o te d . This work features considerable use of typical keyboard figurations; broken chords and octave skips are most characteristic, as are the many instances of two voices moving in parallel thirds, sixths, or tenths. Simple harmonies, often unchanging for a length of time, may be n o te d . An incomplete autograph of the piece omits the very part of the fugue (ms. 26-54) which contains the only thematic pedal entry, so that these measures probably ought to be considered a later addition, while, as Keller states, "the schoolboy-like mutilation of the subject when the pedals first enter has to be appraised as a sign of a very early origin.

BWV 532 Prelude and Fugue in D Major (Peters XV, No. 3)

Date/place of origin: I 706-O8 (K e lle r) Weimar, ça. 1709» or already in Amstadt? (Schmieder)

Williams calls this a "Buxtehudian" piece. Pirro states: "Despite the advance in technique, this prelude and fugue are s till in the earlier manner; certain characteristics, such as the division into several movements, indicate that the early influences which governed Bach are still potent. . . . in the Alla Breve a recollection of the Italian compositions of the same name is natural. . . . the subject of the fugue reveals its sim ilarity to Bujctehude in its general style, and in its movement . . . ' £Perhaps like the Buxtehude p major, Hedar, Vol. H, No. 1^ ll4 Stylistic relationships between prelude and fugue exist, yet each is complete in itself. The prelude is a three-part toccata structure, and the fugue has a toccata-like ending. A unique feature is the ascending pedal scale at the beginning of the prelude. ' (Bruhns' G minor prelude and fugue uses a descending scale.) Also prominent in the opening toccata section are forceful pedalpoints, imitative entries of voices, and very abrupt key changes (A major to F-sharp minor to D major). The prelude's Alla breve "substitutes" for a fugal section (in "normal" toccata format). Striking dissonances mark the recitative-like Adagio, which contains a double pedal part (as in Bruhns, etc.) The fugue's lengthy subject features a dramatic use of rests (also common in Buxtehude, as in the Toccata, F major, Hedar Vol. II, No. 1?). The fugue alone was especially often copied in manuscripts, as for example, in the Brussels MS, B.E. Fetis 29^0. A variant of the fugue, which presumably pre-dates the other, more fam iliar version, is 39 measures shorter, althou^ it opens exactly like the other. Perhaps the fugue is "borrowed" from (or at least shows an inner relationship with) a D major fugue of Pachelbel (Penkmâler der Tonkunst in Bayern IV/I, p. 43).^

BWV 333 Prelude and Fugue in E Minor (Peters III, No. 10)

Date/place of origin: Weimar, ça. 1709» or s till in Amstadt? (Schmieder)

According to Keller, stylistic features showing it to be an early work include "careless" doublings and the resulting parallel octaves, Buxtehudian "trilled" chords in the prelude, and thematic relations between prelude and fugue (both prelude and fugue ^ subject] employ a j motive) .4° The fugue does not close with a toccata section, however, which is unusual in the early woiks. Isler remarks that this fugue s till shows strong Pachelbel influence, and that it fluctuates between strict treatment and attempts at a freer construction.

BWV 334 Prelude and Fugue in F Minor (Peteis H , No. 3)

Date/place of origin: Weimar 1708-17 (Keller) Weimar ça. 171& (Schmieder)

T his p ie c e i s known o nly from a l a t e copy (a manu­ script by Prdbs, pupil of K ittel, who had been a student o f B a c h '. Williams states; "The prelude aims at unity of texture and theme hy means of little obsessive figures and rhythms, the whole blending into one remarkably unified piece; the fugus on the other hand aims at varying texture and, like the prelude, invents interest­ ing sequences and exploits sequential devices through­ out."^® The two main pedalpoints in the prelude (on tonic and dominant) remind one of Pachelbel, Keller compares the form of this prelude to the two-part sonata form of Scarlatti, but states that "the classical symmetry of this form . . . is completely destroyed by the rapturous concluding toccata.This feature is, however, entirely North German in character and perfectly normal when seen from this standpoint. Striking use of a powerful dimin­ ished seventh chord occurs before the final cadenza, which includes a dramatic rest before the final cadence. Five-part writing in the fugue is not consistent throughout. Keller points out a "close relationship between the end of the Prelude and that of the Fugue." (Although the fugue ends somewhat freely, its conclusion is not as obviously in "toccata" style as in some pieces.)

BWV 535 Prelude and Fugue in G Minor (Peters III, No. 5)

Date/place of origin: i?06-08 (Keller) Weimar, ç a . 1709» o r a lre a d y in A m stad t ? (S chmi ed er)

Isler agrees with the Widor/Schweitzer edition re­ garding placing this piece among Bach's youthful works. Elements pointing to an early date include the following: the technique of "Nachschlagen" used at the beginning of the prelude ; the endless sequences in 52nd notes; the repeated-note fugue subject, and the Buxtehude-like fugue ending, which reverts back to toccata style. Ac­ cording to Isler, the early date of the work cannot diminish its worth, especially as the fugue remains a worthy forerunner of the "little" G minor fugue BWV 578), which in turn foreshadows the great G minor fugue (BWV 542) .-51 Considerable chromaticism and use of enharmonic spellings (as in the "Harmonic Labyrinth") occur in the prelude. Virtuosic keyboard writing is apparent especi­ ally in the 52nd-note sequences, which descend chromat­ ically through all twelve tones. (These broken-chord figures remind one of the large E minor prelude and fugue of Bruhns, which contains an interlude in this style.) The prelude ends in five real parts. Clearly outlined in the prelude (ms. 10-ll) is the contour of the fugue subject. This subject includes written-out trills and repeated notes which remind one of Buxtehude. Some inconsistency in the nimber of voice parts is ll6 evident (for example, when the pedal—which is the fourth voice—enters, the texture thins out to three- part) . Both prelude and fugue end in five parts, and the fugue's toccata-like ending is reminiscent of the p re lu d e .

BWV 536 Prelude and Fugue in A Major (Peters II, No. 3)

There exists an earlier version (autograph; prob­ ably from Amstadt) of this piece and a later, revised version (probably from Weimar). In the revised version, the prelude shows "small changes and improvements in nearly every measure" and the fugue has been rewritten from 3 /8 to 3/^ meter. (The later ^version omits the last three measures of the fugue.)^ The opening of the prelude, which outlines the tonic chord, may be compared to the opening of Buxtehude's D major prelude (Hedar, Vol. II, No. ll). Figuration in the fugue often reminds one of that in the prelude.

BWV 537 Fantasy and Fugue in C Minor (Peters III, No. 6)

Date/place of origin; Weimar, ça, l?l6 (Keller; Schmieder)

This piece also appears in only a single manu­ script (of J. L. Krebs, 1751)• The Bach-Gesellschaft Ausgabe gives "Praeludium" instead of "Fantasia" as the t i t l e . The Fantasy consists of different points of imita­ tion and contains the so-called "grief motive" as its second theme. Pedalpoints in the Fantasy perhaps show Pachelbel's influence. An Attaca indication at the end of the Fantasy, which concludes on the dominant, requires that the fugue follow. The fugue subject emphasizes the first and fifth degrees of the scale and also outlines a diminished seventh chord. Two new subjects appear in a middle section, but these are never brought together with the main subject. The number of voice parts is increased from four to five at the end of the fugue.

BWV 5^9 Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (Peters TV, No. 5)

Date/place of origin: 1700-05 (Keller) A m s ta d t, 1703- 04 , or already LUneburg, 1700-03? (Schmieder)

Isler points out what he calls Pachelbel style traits in this piece; the quite building-up of the first section ; the manner in which the keyboard narts behave in the fugue at the pedal entrance, etc.-53 Williams contends that this is without doubt an early work, and mentions that a version in D minor, written 117 o r copied a t much th e same tim e , i s a ls o known.5^ Dramatic and surprising chromatic harmonies create tension in the prelude, which opens with a pedal solo (decorated hy mordents). The fugue subject, which grows out of motives from the prelude, is one of the longest from this period. Five entries of this subject appear in ascending order. A rather late pedal entrance marks the point at which the final toccata section begins. The piece closes with an elaborate cadenza.

BWV 550 Prelude and Fugue in G Major (Peters IV, No. 2)

Date/place of origin; Weimar (Keller) Weimar, ça. 1709, or already in Amstadt? (Schmieder)

Keller concludes that this piece is from the Weimar period because of the presence of e' in the pedal line, a note which was included in the pedal compass of Bach's organ at Weimar. Keller places it there "despite the fact that the Prelude, which is developed from a single short motive, seems rather to belong to the Amstadt period.Keller also compares the three measures (Grave) connecting the prelude and fugue with ms. 74- 76 of Buxtehude's Fantasy on the chorale "Wie schSn leuchtet der Morgenstem". A lengthy pedal solo, containing many sequences, is a prominent feature of the prelude, A meter change (from the 3/2 of the prelude) to "C" occurs at the Grave (a brief interlude, ending on the dominant). The fugue, designated Alla breve in the Peters edition, is marked Alla breve e staccato in the Bach Gesellschaft edition. Its subject, prominent even in the episodes, is sequential, and is built on broken chord figures and repeated notes. Keller points out the rela­ tionship between this fugue and Bach's 12/8 G major fugue (BWV 376) . ^

BWV 551 Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (Peters III, No. 9)

Date/place of origin: Amstadt, before 1706, or already Lüneburg, 1700-03? (Schmieder)

Keller believes this is probably the earliest, "but certainly the most imperfect and hence the most rarely played, of all Bach's free organ works. Isler notes that characteristics reminiscent of Pachelbel and B8hm are present in the free opening as well as in the free, toccata-like ending of the fugue. Williams remarks: "As in toccatas of both the 118 southern and northern composers, section seems to grow out of section, some fugal some not, but all fitting together in a common pulse or beat, a common level of intensity and perhaps even a common tempo." Williams also notes references to a "kind of counterpoint" written by Sweelinck, for example. Pirro states: [comparing the piece to works by Buxtehud^ "There is no doubt that it also dates back further than the jcumey in 1705; Bach must have sadly misconstrued the tirue significance of Buxtehude’s works to have indulged in plagiarism so unskilfully. . . . He reproduced only the faults of his model; . . . In fact, the work is little more than an omnium-gathezum of ideas picked up at random and strung together upon the mere excuse of a tonality. After a short prelude devoid of interest, we find the theme of the fugue to be of peculiar dryness, supported by equally barren counterpoint. The interlude which follows is a succession of incomrect harmonic progressions, peculiarly disagreeable in ef­ fe c t;—even as he thought to im itate Buxtehude’s freedom of movement £here Pirro compares the piece with Buxte­ hude’s prelude in F-sharp mino]3 in the restlessness of the prelude and fugue, . . The piece is in five sections : prelude, fugato. interlude, double fugue, concluding toccata. Incessant motion dominates the prelude. Seiffert traced the double fugue subject to a Sweelinck fantasy.^ Written-out trills and the use of pedalpoints characterize the concluding toccata.

BWV 581 Fantasy and Fugue in A Minor (Peters IX, No. l)

Date/place of origin: Weimar ça. 1710; authenticity doubtful (perhaps a student work) (Schmieder)

Keller lists this as a doubtful work and believes that K ittel was the composer.This piece is somewhat reminiscent of Bach's Prelude and Fugue in A Minor ^WV 5^3)• One of two extant manuscript sources marks the piece "per il Cembalo", and the entire piece does seem better suited to harpsichord than to organ. English virginal style is perhaps one of the prototypes, evidenced by the very decorative keyboard figurations, scale pas­ sages, broken chords, and simple harmonies. The fugue elides with the prelude (as in some works by Scheidemann, Buxtehude, and others), and its subject is of the sequential, "perpetual motion" type. Much of the fugue resorts to continuo-style chords set against presentations of the fugue subject (or answer). A toccata section very much like the opening fantasy "brings the fugue to a close. 119 Isler notes traits reminiscent of Pachelbel in this work: use of scale passages in parallel thirds and sixths, various hroken-chord figures divided between the hands (of which the left hand takes sometimes one, sometimes two notes), and prominent use of sequences (seen here especially in the Presto of the fantasy). Isler also remarks on northern style influences in this p ie c e ,^3

BWV 563 Fantasia con imitazione in B Minor (Peters IX, 3 rd e d ,, No. l) Date/place of origin: Lüneburg, Amstadt, ca. 1700-05 (K eller) Weimar, ça. 1710, or already in Amstadt? (Schmieder)

T his p ie c e i s a v a ila b le t h r o n g many m anuscript copies. In the Andreas Bach-Buch, the woik is titled "Fantasie ex H-moU con Imitatione di J. S. Bach ; " in at least one source, the fantasia appears i-îithout the imitazione. Peters published this piece among the clavier works, but, according to Boitzsch's "Foreword" (Peters Ed. No. 2l6), it is "more organistic than pianistic—and I would gladly have inc^ded this piece- among the organ compositions of Bach." Because of the persistent use of J~J^ rhythm in the first section, one is tempted to compare this fantasia with the Fantasy in C Major (BWV 570). Rhythmic variety and harmonic motion are somewhat lacking in the im ita­ zione , which is in triple meter and rarely leaves the tonic key area.

BVr/ 5^ Toccata in C Major (Peters III, No. 8)

Date/place of origin: Weimar, ça. 1709 (Schmieder) Weimar (Keller)

In this work, Bach transferred to the organ the forms contained in the three-movement Italian concerto. The Adagio, especially, is quite clearly an imitation of the style of a slow movement from a violin concerto. The opening of the toccata, however, with its elaborate runs and dramatic rests, is clearly reminiscent of the earlier North German style (stylus fantasticus). Especially interesting are what appear to be echo passages in the elaborate pedal solo, A section in the style of an orchestral concerto concludes the toccata. The abrupt final chord of the fugue is a rather unusual feature. For a more "final" conclusion, it is possible that the "concerto" portion of the toccata is to be repeated after the fugue. (A copy of the piece in a Celle manuscript indicates exactly such a repeat.) 120 This piece is perhaps "borrowed" from a work by Vivaldi or Buxtehude (according to S pitta). ^ Pirro speaks of Buxtehude's influence; "A short succession of chords a la Buxtehude and quasi-recita- tivo separates this Adagio from the fugue; thé rapid tempo of this latter is still of the earlier period, and recalls, in its progressions in thirds, various sub­ jects of Buxtehude. Williams remarks: "Its [referring to the piece as a wholej four sections do not follow the same plan as those of the Buxtehudian Prelude and Fugue in D (BWV 532), any more than Buxtehude's own preludes- and- fugues share a common p la n . Very short phrases are typical of the whole of BWV 564: the rests, gaps and occasional repeated notes in all three movements contrast with the sustained, chromatic flow of the ten-bar grave section, a passage easily outstripping Buxtehude's and BShm's attempts a .t^ the same thing. . . . A passage like . . . [[ms. 6? ff .J belongs ultimately to the Buxtehude style, but its idiom is nevertheless highly original and certainly not like other three-part music of the period." ^

BWV 565 Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (Peters IV, No. 4)

Date/place of origin: I 706-O8 (K e lle r) Weimar ça. 1709, or already in Amstadt? (Schmieder)

According to Williams: "The form may be conven­ tional [refeiring to toccata-fugue-toccata form, as in the North German toccatas] but the details are not. Specific devices, like the repeated notes on the same A as a violin open string, may remind us of the Italian string music with which the composer was becoming increas­ in g ly familiar.Williams also wonders whether this piece was written before, during, or after the Lübeck visit in the winter of I 705- 06. (No one has yet dis­ covered this.) Keller notes the toccata's "unprecedented concentra­ tion and hei^tening of improvisatory elements.This piece contains well-known instances of the use of dimin­ ished seventh chords for dramatic effect. Some tempo indications are found in the original manuscripts. Volker Gwinner has discovered the presence of the chorale "Wir glauben all an einen Gott" in the toccata.

BWV 566 Toccata and Fugue in E Major (or C Major) (Peters III, No. 7)

Date/place of origin: Amstadt, ça. 1707 (Schmieder) Ifhile Schmieder "believes the C major version T-ras 121 earlier, Keller considers the E major to he original. The five-part structure of this work suggests Buxtehude's influence. Various titles for the piece, such as Prâludium concertatum. Preludio con fantasia, etc., indicate that, as Keller states, "the eighteenth century no longer had a uniform designation [^was there ever a uniform designation?) for the form of the five- part toccata with two fugues, a form which was dying o u t ."72 Williams remarks on this work's four lengthy major sections, each with its own form and each (except for the penultimate) closing with a perfect cadence.73 The second fugue sulaject is related to the first, and "its shortened triple-tim e version and repeated notes are reminiscent of Frescohaldi's canzone subjects."7^ The first fugue subject's repeated notes represent a stylistic device (repercussio) taken over from violin technique around 1700.75 Isler points to the large dimensions of this piece and believes it is most closely related to the construc­ tion of Buxtehude's toccatas in E major (Hedar, Vol. 11, No. l4) and A minor (No. 4). Isler also notes the rela­ tionship with Buxtehude in the type of fugue subject used, as well as its transference into triple meter in the second fugue.7° A number of striking harmonies occur in this piece (for example, ms. 7, and the last two measures of the interlude immediately preceding the second fugue),

BWV 567 Prelude in C Major (Peters VIII, No. 8)

Date/place of origin; Weimar, ça. 1709; authenticity doubtful (perhaps a student work?) (Schmieder)

Reference to this work's doubtful authenticity is made also by Keller, who believes it may have been written by K ittel, or perhaps by another Bach pupil. Would Bach have labeled such a small work pro Organo p len o?77 Carrell also makes reference to its doubtful authenti­ c i t y . 7° The work is imitative throu^out, but sounds more "classical" in harmony and counterpoint. Except near the end, the pedal plays a minor role.

BWV 568 Prelude in G Major (Peters VIII, No. ll)

Date/place of origin: Lüneburg, Amstadt, ca. 1700-05 (K e lle r) Mühlhausen, 1708, or already in Lüneburg, I 70O-O3? (Schmieder) According to Keller, this piece was intended for 122 pedal-harpsichord, and it "betrays an early origin parti cnl^ly in its careless doublings within the chords.Keller indicates also that "the strongly pianistic style suggests Reinken and Rdhm; the rolled chord in measure six, French models." However, Keller does not place this prelude among the earliest Bach works because of its formally balanced layout in three sections. Its form, also in key relationships, approaches rounded binary structure, thus looking forward to sonata form. The middle section consists of sequences based on the circle of fifths, but using the same figuration as in the outer sections. Outstanding are the long pedalpoints, which seem to point away from pedal-harpsichord as the intended medium, since the sustaining power of that instrument would not carry them well. The virtuosic pedal writing suggests Buxtehude's influence. Although Isler sees undeniable Pachelbel-like characteristics as well, he contends that Bach's virtuosity presents itself in a much clearer and more deliberate fashion than in the A minor pieces (BWV 5^1 and 5^9)•

BWV 569 Prelude in A Minor (Peters IV, No. 13)

Date/place of origin; LUneburg, Amstadt, 1700-05 (K e lle r) Weimar, ca. 1709 1 or Amstadt "XSchmieder)

Keller interprets the use of double pedal and the elaboration of the subdominant at the end of the piece as signs of a fairly early period.82 isler finds Pachelbel's influence in the rather obvious and overly- rich use of sequences, but adds that certain bold har­ monies point to a somewhat later date of composition. The piece is quite sequential throu^out, and represents a study in the use of small motives : basically, three motives are employed. Frotscher comments: "The whole piece is developed from a four-note motive and indeed— most admirably—without true imitative work. . . . At the same time Bach creates distinctly idiomatic tech­ niques that remain permanent artistic resources for him from then on. The very beginning is characteristic; although others would have written the passage as a run, he distributes it among the voices and thereby makes it important,"

BWV 570 Fantasy in C Major (Peters VIII, No. 9)

Date/place of origin: 1700-05 (Keller) Weimar, ca. 1709, or Amstadt {Fchmieder) 123 The Peters edition prints this piece as a keyboard, piece (no pedal), -while the Bach Gesellschaft edition notates it with pedal throughout. According to Isler, this is the earliest of Bach's organ -works, showing direct influence from Bach's time spent in Ohrdruf. Bhythmic sameness is sometimes carried to the point of monotony, and certain awk-ward harmonic progressions occu r. This fantasy sho-ws the influence of Ficherger and P a c h e lb e l . 85 Particularly in its use of rhythmic motives, it is much like a Pachelbel Fantasia in G minor, Bach's piece features several long pedal- poin ts, and the simple harmonies are decorated with a TT9 rhythm, Bhythmic motion for the most part alter­ nates between two voices, while the others support the harmony. This piece is perhaps reminiscent also of French baroque organ style, as exemplified in one of François Couperin's offertoires or versets for alterna­ tion with choir.

BWV 571 Fantasy in G Major (Peters IX, No, 6)

Date/place of origin: Before 1705 (Keller) A m sta d t 1705/ 0 6; authenticity doubtful (Schmieder)

In one manuscript, this piece is labeled "Concerto", while in others it is called "Fantasia" (a manuscript of the organist Westphal, in Hamburg, calls it "Fantasia, climat in G^, di J, S, B a c h " ) ,^7 or "Partita" (as in B ru s se ls , B.E,, Fetis 2960), Bach's piece is based on a theme taken from a work by Kuhnau (from his Clavierübung. I 689, 1692),°° Its form—Fantasy, Adagio, and Chaconne—is unique among Bach's organ works. The Adagio may be seen as a "re­ placement" for the fugue in a typical Buxtehude toccata, and the chaconne as a "replacement" for the concluding toccata (although such exceptional structures are found also in Buxtehude's works, such as in the well-known Prelude, Fugue, and Chaconne in C), Isler remarks that the first movement sho-ws many Pachelbel characteristics, and points out the surprising motivic relationshm be­ tween the short Adagio and the opening movement, ^ The last section (chaconne) is built on the hexachord, and its theme is derived from an extension of the Ariagio theme. One may note the use of faster note values in the chaconne, with the result that rhythmic motion seems to increase toward the end of the piece. Some unusual chromatic progressions in the Ar^agio remind one of Frescobaldi (or Froberger), The piece may be viewed as a small version of the Italian concerto structure, which Bach is supposed to have kno-wn only later, 1 p2i BWV 572 Fantasy in G Major (Peters IV, No. ll)

Date/place of origin; Weimar (Keller) A m s ta d t 1705/ 06, o r Weimar (Schmieder)

Williams states that "its ohvioiis indebtedness to other styles has sent devotees looking for parallels in the organ music of northern and southern Germany, Prance and even Italy. The nearest parallel to the sustained section is the French plein jeu interlude. ' Spitta, Terry, and Isler speak of this fantasia in connection with the other Fantasy in G (BWV 571), its older, "sister" composition. Gri.epenkerl, in his preface to the Peters edition. Volume IV, almost feels he must apologize for the sections surrounding the Grave: "Man heurteile dieses Werk nicht nach Anfang und Schluss, sondem nach dem fünfstimmigen M ittelsatz. zu welchem die Passagen im Anfange und am Ende nur die Gegensâtze hilden s o l l e n."92 isler finds it difficult to explain why Spitta would see so much of Buxtehude's influence in the Grave section. He also points out that the opening section could well have been a transcription of a composition for violin s o l o93 . The use of French indications (Tr«s vitement, Gravement. lentement) has intrigued scholars = Keller believes these may be present as a result of Bach's study of de Grigny, whose Livre d*Orgue (l712) he co p ied . 94 Some manuscripts indicate "gayement" or "Allegro" for the middle section, instead of Grave. In the final section, stylistic features of the first two sections are combined: five-part movement is hidden behind the sparkling passages.

BWV 574 Fugue in C Minor ("Legrenzi") (Peters IV, No. 6)

Date/place of origin: 1700-05 (Keller) Weimar, 1708 o r 1709» o r Lüneburg (Schmieder)

"Thema Legrenzianum elaboratum cum su b jec to p e d a li te r ab J. S. Bach". In the Andreas Bach manuscript, it is entitled "Thema Legrenzianum elaboratum cum subjecto p e d a l i t e r,95 " while in Brussels MS, B.R., F e tis 296O, it is called Capriccio, and the indication reads "Thema Legrentianum elaborat: a G. S. Bach".9 Giovanni Legrenzi's ( 1626- 1690, Venice) theme is combined with a Bach theme—thus, a double fugue struc­ ture. (it is not yet known from which Legrenzi work this theme is borrowed.)97 isler disagrees with Spitta's placing of this fugue and the Corelli fugue into the Weimar period [ça. 1708 or 1709, as also Schmieder 125 ahove]J. Spitta points to the virtuosic ending, in Buxtehude fashion, and to the pedal simplification of the second theme, which in the fully-developed pedal virtuosity of the Weimar period, seems unnecessary and therefore out of place (and no longer occurs in later period.) Isler remarks on the importance of this double fugue for the later fugue technique of Bach.Keller states: "It would he quite natural, in fact, to include it with the rest of Bach?s studies on Italian themes. But the homhastic concluding toccata, which is attached to the fugue without any inner connection, and the type of thematic treatment, 'the frequent recurrence of a perfect cadence before a new entry of the theme, a feature making it seem somewhat fragmentary and short- breathed, ' (Spitta I, p. ^ 23) make it impossible to place the fugue on a level with the works of Bach's first master-period.The fugue concludes with a cadenza which foreshadows the toccata. A rolled diminished seventh chord (much as in the D minor toccata) occurs in the virtuosic concluding toccata, which ends (unchar­ acteristically) on a single note.

BWV 575 Fugue in C Minor (Peters IV, No. 9)

Date/place of origin: 1700-05 (Keller) Amstadt 1703/04; incorrectly ascribed to C. P. E. Bach Cby Harvey Grace and C. S. T errÿj (S chmi eder)

Isler comments that this fugue shows a manual virtuosity and a thorough technique (not a special, narrow figuration or display as in the A minor fantasia), which Bach could hardly have possessed at age 17, but only after the rich studies of the Amstadt period. Isler also points out that the toccata section shows a knowledge of Buxtehude's style, and that the harmony throughout is unusually rich. Performance on pedal-harpsichord rather than organ is suggested by the style of writing. The florid subject is related to the theme of the E minor clavier toccata.101 Keller observes that "Bach's beginning the subject on the sixth degree of the scale and the vague, swaying rhythm are bold and unusual."102 This is a very decorative, toccata-like fugue, which includes examples of dissonant "clusters" reminiscent of pas­ sages in the Scarlatti sonatas. Pedal is not required until the toccata-like ending, which features a pedal s o lo . BWV 576 Fugue in G Major (Peters IX, No. 2) 126

Date/place of origin: I 7OO-O5 (K eller) Origin and date unknown; authenticity doubtful (Schmieder)

Only one known manuscript source included this piece, and this manuscript is missing today, Keller states : "The fugue betrays its early origin in several careless paralld octaves (ms. 19/20, for example) and in the small amount of thematic work that becomes lost time and again in improvisatory f i g u r e s"1^3 . This fugue exhibits an unusual use of toccata elements; its subject is related to one by Pachelbel. Keller, who earlier expressed doubts regarding its authenticity, is now inclined to believe that Bach was indeed the composer.

BWV 577 Fugue in G Major (Peters IX, No. 4)

Date/place of origin: 17OO-05 (K e lle r) A m sta d t 1705- 06; authenticity doubtful (Schmieder)

This fugue was perhaps intended for pedal-harpsi­ chord. (Keller) Williams notes that it "may not be the work of Bach and, like 532» resembles fugues by both Pachelbel and Buxtehude . . . it contains longer episodes [than fugue of 53^3 and its sequences (derived from the subject) lead one to see strong Italian influences."^^3 Keller, who also points to Buxtehude and Pachelbel as models, states that "Bach, however, was the first and only composer to venture to write a fugue with obbligato pedal in such a tempo." 10° This piece is a good example, according to Isler, of how careful one must be in assign­ ing outside influences. Spitta does not hesitate for a moment to p o in t ou t B uxtehude's in flu e n c e , s in c e t h i s type of fugue ( l 2 / 8 rhythm) is common in Buxtehude and Pachelbel. However, simply because this type occurs in the works of Buxtehude, both singly, and as the second fugue in some of the preludes and fugues, one cannot speak of an exclusive Buxtehude "style".i07 Specific indications—through dynamic markings— are given for echoes. This, according to Keller, suggests French prototypes ; it seems even more clearly to suggest North German (especially Sweelinck) prototypes.

BWV 578 Fugue in G Minor (Peters IV, No. 7)

Date/place of origin: Weimar (Keller) Weimar, ça. 1709, or already Amstadt (Schmieder)

This piece is known as the "Little G Minor Fugue" and perhaps anticipates the subject of the great G minor fugue (BWV 5^2). The well-organized subject consists of three phrases, and this piece rarely goes beyond three-part writing. According to Keller, "its musical merits are so great that it counts justly among the fugues of Bach most frequently played,

BWV 579 Fugue in B Minor (Peters IV, No. 8)

Date/place of origin; Weimar (Keller) Weimar, ça, 1709 (Schmieder)

Spitta assigns this piece to Weimar, althou^ Terry places it in the pre-Weimar period. Spitta points out Bach's knowledge of the Corelli sonatas, and makes reference to the practice, common in Weimar, of using the church violin sonatas in the worship s e r v i c e , 1^9 Isler remarks that Bach's completion of this fugue came at a time during which, as Schweitzer states, the Italians freed him from the influence of Buxtehude, The double theme is taken from the second movement of C orelli's fourth Church Sonata for two violins and continuo. op. 3» 1689. A great deal of contrast is provided by the combination of a ricercar-like subject with a countersubject based on repeated notes. Keller points out that C orelli's double subject seems to have served, in addition, as a model for the double subject of Buxtehude's A major fugue, and Spitta traces the genealogy s till further in his Geschichte der Klavier- m usik, p . 107.111 The pedal plays an intricate part in this piece.

BWV 588 Canzona in D Minor (Peters IV, No. 10)

Date/place of origin: Weimar (Keller) Weimar, ça. 1709 (Schmieder)

As Pirro points out, this piece must have been written shortly after Bach copied Frescobaldi's Fiori musicali; there exist many relationships between Frescobaldi's work and Bach's canzona. The theme is found in the Canzon Bono la Pistola. 77 of the Fiori m u sic ali (1635 ed.), where it appears as the answer to the principal subject.Bach's chromatic counter­ subject is also found in the Fiori musicali. in the fifth verse of the Kyrie delli Apostoli (Christe, p. 38) .H ^ Pirro states; "In comparing the sixth measure of this Christe with the chromatic countersubject, we see why these two themes, . , . still are obviously the result of his study of Frescobaldi; . . . In this present case of the employment of a chromatic count ersubject Bach evidently had Frescobaldi in mind; considering, and ri^ tly , the frequent use of motives of this kind to be characteristic of the latter. But while Bach believed 1?8 himself in so fax indebted to an Italian master, he was in reality only following the traditions of Sweelinck, who had already furnished his noteworthy examples of this style. In fact, Frescobaldi acquired these resources during his stay in Flanders ; perhaps he obtained them from Sweelinck him self, whom he undoubtedly knew in Amsterdam. A Fantasie by Sweelinck . . . is written wholly upon this form of the Ionic tetrachord; . . . [Exampl^ We may compare the counterpoint which accom­ panies it with those of Frescobaldi and Bach: fExampl^ S. Scheidt . , . avails himself of them in various instances . . . we again find it [this mannerisrQ in the works of Froberger (Toccata fatto a Bruxellis Anno 1650) , and in a fugue in E-flat by Christopher Bach, . . . [Exampl^ "11^ According to Keller, "in Bach's time the canzona had already become an historic form. Of its construction it was s till known that the same theme was treated fugally twice: at first in duple meter, and then in triple, with a short h^ophonic transition between these two sec­ tions." In the 3 /2 section of Bach's canzona, the original subject is altered both rhythmically and melo- d ic a lly .

BWV 589 Allabreve (Peters VIII, No. 6)

Date/place of origin; Weimar (Keller) Weimar, ça. 1709 (Schmieder)

Pirro remarks that the Allabreve "reminds us more of the studied style, of the continuous movement of the Ricercare. with some reminiscence of a piece which Pachelbel wrote under the same title and in the same key."11° According to Williams, the piece "follows the general idiom of much Italian string and keyboard music. The contrapuntal suspensions of the Allabreve are remark­ ably like certain passages in Corelli's string sonatas and concertos, Op. I-VI. . . . Allabreve implies a style of counterpoint as much as tempo, and such a style was to find itself often in Bach's maturest music.Keller also suggests Italian prototypes for this piece, especi­ ally the Concerto Grosso in D major of Corelli (1713)• Keller notes that "here the marking Allabreve is not yet to be interpreted as an indication of tempo as Mattheson understood it . . ., but as a generic term for a piece kept in the style of the old polyphonic m usic; i.e., notated in large note values."11° 129 BWV 590 Pastorale (Peters I, p. 88)

Date/place of origin: Weimar (Keller) A m stadt, - 1703-07, or Weimar (Schmieder)

This piece shows Italian influences; the old Italian pastorali were intended to provide music of . a pious and naive nature in honor of the Christ Child. Models may he found among the works of Frescobaldi, Pasq.uini, and Zipoli, although these works are mos-fcly in the key of G major. Other German composers were also influenced hy the Italian -pastorali. The opening of Speth's Toccata sexta, for instance, is influenced hy the pastorale for keyboard instruments ; the pastoral key of F major, the pedalpoint, and the two flute-like voices in Speth's work are certainly derived from this idiom . Bach's pastorale is in four movements, of which the first, in its use of pedalpoint, 12/8 rhythm, etc., is the most "pastorale"-like=

BWV 591 Little Harmonic Labyrinth (Peters IX, No. 3)

Schmieder, Spitta, and others doubt this work's authenticity, and express the possibility that it is a work by Johann David Heinichen.^ Keller, however, states : "The extant manuscripts speak in favor of Bach and, as regards internal evidence, particularly the four reci-tative-like measures preceding the Centrum lead one to decide on Bach (the Chromatic Fantasy!) rather than on Heinichen. Whether it is by chance that the notes BACH occur in the wrong order in the fugue subject of the Centrum may be left unde­ cided. . . . over and above the documentary evidence, this well-thought-out plan, even the fugato in the Centrum, seems to me to speak in Bach's favor. Here he set foot on new harmonic territory of -which he finally took possession in the G minor Fantasy and in the Chromatic Fantasy for c la v ier."^22

BWV 9^3 Prelude in C Major (Peters VIII, No. 7)

Date/place of origin: Arnstadt, 1703-07» for Klavier (or organ) (Schmieder)

With the exception of a pedalpoint entrance near the end of this piece, a clear three-part texture pre­ vails, Because of the invention-like setting and the diatonic theme (which appears also inverted), Isler places this work in the time period of the inventions and sinfonias, when Bach was writing such pieces as studies for his students and sons. ^3 BWV 946 Fugue in C Major (Peters VHI, No. 10)

Date/place of origin; Weimar, ça. 1709, or already Arnstadt; perhaps for pedal- harpsichord (Schmieder)

Isler places this piece among the very earliest of Bach's works, and Believes it was written as a direct consequence of Bach's stav in Ohrdruf, possibly showing Froberger's influence. Keller, identifying the piece as "a study in 'tied' style on the ascending and descending hexachord," says "it is probably one of Bach's earliest experiments in the form of the fugue and, in spite of its use of pedal at the end, appears in the Bach Gesellschaft more c o r r e c tly among th e c la v ie r w orks."^^-5 The TR rhythmic figure from the subject often appears as "filler" contrapuntal material. Most of the fugue is in a three-voice texture ; four-voice texture occurs twice, but increases in the chordal ending to as many as seven p a r ts . A study of Bach's free organ works (to ca. 171?) reveals the 131 presence of recurring stylistic traits which, although they predomi­ nate in the early organ works, are not exclusive to them. In the following outline, twenty-five such stylistic features are listed, and evidence of their occurrence in the early Bach organ works is docu­ mented. An examination of Bach's use of these features, which are present also in free organ works of the preceding centuries, will test reveal Bach's indebtedness to the accomplishments of his predecessors.

Stylistic analysis and the gathering of internal evidence to dem­ onstrate particular external influences must he approached with caution.

At no point can one enter the mind of the composer, and one can only guess at his thought process. Even when a work appears to he in the style of Buxtehude or Pachelbel, for example, the possibility that it was consciously or unconsciously modeled after any particular piece remains conjectural. Even so, stylistic evidence in the youthful works provides important information about Bach's development as a composer, and about his use of established forms and practices. An analysis of stylistic evidence is necessarily somewhat subjective in nature, and can reveal almost nothing with regard to problems of chronology, dating, or even authenticity. However, as von Dadelsen states :

Wir sehen den Wert der Stilanalyse jedenfalls eher im Sinne eines bewussten Verstehens der Bachschen Kunst, eines tieferen Eindringens in ihre Elements als in dem eines Beitrags zur Chronologie und Echtheitskritik. 126 CHARACTERISTICS AND STYLISTIC TRAITS 132 SHOWING THE INFLUENCE OF BACH'S PREDECESSOiS IN THE FREE ORGAN WORKS

INTERNAL (STYLISTIC) EVIDENCE SUGGESTING THAT THESE WORKS WERE WRITTEN BEFORE CA. 171?

( l) SECTIONAL STRUCTURE

Two main sections: BWV 533 BWV 534 (toccata and fugue) BWV 536 BWV 537 BWV 550 (prelude; brief interlude that changes meter; fugue) BWV 5(^3 BWV 574

Three main sections: BWV 531 BWV 5^9 BWV 565 (T F T) BWV 571 (Fantasy; Adagio; Chaconne) BWV 572 (toccata; chordal, imitative Grave; toccata) BWV 591

Four sections: BWV 532 (toccata; Alla breve ; Adagio— toccata-recit. style; fugue) BWV 590

Five sections: BWV 535 (toccata; interlude; toccata; fugue; toccata) BWV 551 (prelude; fugato; interlude ; double fugue; toccata) BWV 561 (T T T F T) BWV 566 (t F T F T)

Six sections: BWV 564 (toccata; toccata-imitative; aria-style; interlude ; fugue; to c c a ta )

Eight sections (small): BWV 57^ (F T F T F T F T)

(2) VIRTUOSO PEDAL TREATMENT (N orth German)

531 (begins with a pedal solo) 532 (p. l6, beginning: scales; p. 2 6, end of the fugue; Adagio, p. 19: double pedal) 533 (p. 88, 89) 538 (many large leaps for pedal in the fugue) (2) VIETUQSO PEDAL TEEATMENT (c o n 't) 133

5^9 (begins with a pedal solo) 550 (p. 9» pedal solo) 564 (p. 73) 566 (p . 62, 68, 71) 568 569 (double pedal, p. 75)

(3) PEDAL IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF TEXTURE (N orth German)

531 532 533 534 (both prelude and fugue) 536 (part of prelude; all of fugue) 537 (both fantasy and fugue) 549 (toccata and part of fugue) 550 (both prelude and fugue) 551 563 (Fantasia) 564 566 567 568 569 570 (possibly) 571 572 574 576 577 578 ,579 588 589

(4) PEDAL IS NOT AN INTEGRAL PART OF TEXTURE (South German; I t a l i a n )

535 (up to the fugue) 561 563 (imitazione) 565 (first toccata) 575 (pedal becomes important only in the toccata ending) 590 (all movements except the first) 591 943 946 (5) USE OF PEDALPOINT (Italian ; South German ; especially Middle German)

531 (p* 8, ending) 532 (p . 16) 53^ (prelude opens with a long, ornamented pedalpoint on F; when the opening material returns, the pedalpoint is on the dominant; this use is reminiscent of Pachelbel’s pedal toccatas) 535 (p. 5^» end: tonic pedalpoint) 538 (prelude; p. 19, end of the fugue) 537 (fantasia contains long pedalpoints ; fugue includes a dominant pedal at the end) 549 (opening section) 550 (p. 9, second score in top voice; bottom score into p. 10, in pedal; p. 11, pedal) 551 (p . 87, end: trilled pedalpoint on tonic) 561 (much use of pedalpoint throughout) 563 (p. 1, bottom; p. 2, top score) 564 (p . 83) 565 (p . 3 2 , in the keyboard part, then in the pedal; p. 33f the keyboard part) 566 (p . 62, 71) 567 (end) 568 570 571 (p . 29, double pedalpoint) 572 (p . 67, bottom; p. 68- 69, repeated notes in the pedal are treated like pedalpoint) 574 (p . 45 ) 578 (in the manuals and pedal; often a trilled pedalpoint) 590 (first movement) 591 (p. 17)

(6) TOCCATAS BEGINNING WITH A SINGLE RECITATIVE LINE (N orth German)

531 (pedal solo) 533 549 (pedal solo) 564 565 566

(?) USE OF NOTATED CADENZAS (North German; also southern influence)

531 (p* 4, end of the prelude) 532 (middle of p. 26, end of the fugue) 534 (p . 3 1 , "bottom score) 535 (p* 48, bottom; p. 54, third score) 549 (p. 39, end) 565 (p . 3 4 , bottom, into p. 35; P* 28) 571 (p . 27, fourth score) 574 (p. 44, end of the fugue) (8) USE OF SEQUENCES (OTHER THAN IN FUGUE SUBJECTS) 135

531 (p* 3» third score; p. 7, first score; p. 8, second score) 53^ (the entire prelude is "based on motives treated sequentially; many different motives are treated in this way, resulting in a h i^ degree of interest ; p. 33» fugue, from the middle of the "bottom score) 535 (p. 49; p. 5 0 , end of third score and into fourth sco re) 536 (p. l4, second score, and elsewhere ; common through­ out the prelude) 550 (p. 9» pedal solo; p. 10, top score; p. 12, "bottom score; p. 13» end of third score and through fourth score; p. 15, "bottom score) 561 (p. 9» bottom) 563 (especially p. 3» third and fourth scores) 565 (throughout the toccata) 566 (p . 63) 568 (p . 83, the entire middle section of the piece) 569 (constant throughout) 574 (p. 42, bottom) 576 946

(9) PARALLEL MOTION BETWEEN TWO OR MORE VOICES (IN THIRLS, SIXTHS, TENTHS, ETC.)

531 (p. 3» second and third scores; some parts of the fugue) 532 (fugue, p. 21, second score, etc.; p. 25, throughout) 534 (p . 29» first score into second, and last measure of the bottom score; p. 30» second score into third; p . 34 , l a s t 3 ms. of third score and into fourth) 536 (p . 18, top score, and beginning of second score; p . 19» end of third score) 537 (the fantasy's "grief motive"^J) is often presented in thirds or sixths) 550 (p. 10, beginning at the fourth measure of top score; p. 12, second measure of third score; fourth and fifth measures of bottom score; p. l4, second measure of top score, and beginning at the fifth measure of the bottom score) 551 (section one, prelude; section five, toccata) 563 (especially in the imitazione) 565 (p . 30, third and fourth scores; p. 34» third score) 568 (constant) 569 (constant) 571 (p . 25, second sco re) 575 (p. 57» constant) 576 (p. 12, bottom score; p. 13, fourth score, etc.) 590 (first movement; last movement, p. 92, second score, fourth score, etc.) (10) BI-MODALITY I 36

531 (last score of p. 8) 53^ (p. 31: in the third score, F major suddenly appears just "before the climactic diminished chord)

( 11) LACK OF HAEMONIC MOVEMENT

531 (the entire prelude) 53^ (the prelude is short and stays, for the most part, around the tonic) 349 (the fugue stays on the tonic too much; it is h u ilt on T—D—T—D—T—T—D—T) 550 (the entire first page of the prelude is exclusively in G major) 561 (too much static harmony throughout) 563 (imitazione rarely leaves the tonic)

( 12) FBEISTIMMIGKEIT (FEES ADDITION AND SUBTEACTION OF VOICES)

532 (first part of the prelude) 333 53^ (the fugue is not consistently five-voiced) 535 (throughout the prelude. /oices added especially at the eid; p. 51, fugue; p . 5^ , end) 536 (prelude; p. 19, end of the fugue goes from four to five voices in a toccata-like texture) 537 (end of the fugue is increased to five voices) 5^9 (p* 39, first three scores contain extra notes in the form of doublings of chord members ; up to eight parts in chords) 561 (p . 10, bottom, etc.) 565 (throughout) 566 (p . 63) 569 (p . 75, increase in the number of voices) 571 590 (especially in the first three movements) 946

( 13) WETTTEN-OUT TEIIIS (Italian influence)

531 (p . 8, end of third score) 533 (p relu d e) 535 (p . 51, in the fugue subject) 550 (p . 10, double trill in the last measure of top sco re) 551 (p. 84, ms. 6 and 12—this is part of the fugato subject ; p. 87, third score contains double trills) 581 (p . 10, last two scores) 564 (p . 73, p ed al) (13) WEITTEIî-OUT TEIIIS ( c o n 't) 137

566 (p . 7 3, p ed al) 567 (penultimate measure) 57^ (p . 4 3 , toccata-ending)

( 14) DOUBLE CADENCES

531 (p* 4, end of the prelude) 532 (p . 26, end) 533 (p . 89, end of the prelude has an echo cadence) 534 (p . 3 5 » end of the fugue) 536 (p . 15, end of the prelude) 549 (p . 3 9. end) 550 (p . 11, second score—prelude leading into the Grave interlude) 551 (p . 87, end) 561 (p . 11, end)

( 15) CHARACTERISTIC (IDIOMATIC) KEYBOARD FIGURATIONS AND PATTERNS

531 (p. 3, third measure, etc., has Broken chords outlining triads) 532 (p . 16, trill-lik e 32nd-notes alternating the interval of a third in two voices; p. 17, top— quick scale; p. 19, third score—quick scale ; p . 2 5 , "figurative pedalpoint" in the manuals. Bottom score) 533 (scales, arpeggios, trilled chords, etc.) 534 (the prelude consists of many arpeggiated figures and large leaps) 535 (the prelude is filled with scales and Broken-chord figurations; the entire middle part (interlude) is Built on Broken-chord patterns in very fast notes, as in a similar section of Bruhns' large E minor to c c a ta ) 538 (the prelude contains Broken chords and scales) 549 (p. 39, Broken-chord figurations in contrary motion appear in the last toccata) 55c (the prelude is Based on a 101 motive, which is a characteristic "off-the-Beat" rhythmic keyBoard figure; p. 13, top score includes an example of h ocket) 551 (concluding toccata, p. 8 7, second and third scores— Broken chords, with one note displaced from the Beat each time throu^ rests) 581 (constant arpeggios, Broken-chord figures, scales, e t c .) 584 (p . 72) 585 (throughout) 586 (scales, arpeggios) 588 (rolled chord; scales) (15) KEYBOARD FIGURATIONS AND PATTERNS (co n ’t ) ^38

569 (p . 751 scale passages, arpeggios placed "between chords) 571 (part one contains scale fragments, repeated notes, other "string" figurations, and idiomatic writing throughout) 572 (the first and last sections of this piece consist entirely of figurations) 574 (p . 4 5 , scales and Broken chords) 575 (very florid and full of keyboard "devices") 576 (p. l4, fourth score—arpeggios; p. 15, fourth score—two voices in hocket) 577 (broken chords in repeated patterns ; also, echo effects through changing keyboards)

( 16) USE OF IMITATION IN NON-FUGAL SECTIONS:

532 (p . 17, Alla breve) 533 (prelude") 534 (the prelude is imitative) 537 (the fantasia is imitative throughout) 549 (pp. 36- 37) 550 (the prelude is im itative, constructed on a mordent figure throu^out) 564 (p . 74 and following)

571 (p . 28, Adagio is imitative) 572 (five-voiced Grave)

( 17) CHACONNES

571 (p . 28, the Allegro section is built on a chaconne theme)

( 18) FUGUE SUBJECTS WITH REPEATED-NOTE FIGURES (Canzona in flu e n c e , e tc .)

531 (p . 5) 535 (p. 51) 537 550 (p . 11) 566 (p . 64) 574 576 579 (countersubject)

( 19) RICERCAR-LIKE SUBJECTS (SLOW, EVEN NOTE VALUES) ( I t a l i a n in flu e n c e )

534 (p . 32, five-voiced fugue) (19) RICERCAR-LIKE SUBJECTS (con’t ) I 39

579 (paxtially like a riceroax' sut ject) 588 (the coimtersnhject is ricercar-like) 589 (the Allahreve combines two ricercar subjects)

(20) SEQUENTIAL FUGUE SUBJECTS

531 (p . 5) 532 (p . 20) 535 (somewhat sequential) 536 (p . 16) 550 (p . 11) 581 (p . 6) 566 (first subject)

577 ("Gigue" fugue)

(21) DOUBLE FUGUE OR USE OF TWO SUBJECTS SIMULTANEOUSLY

537 (this fugue has three subjects—one principal. and two secondary; the two secondary subjects are presented together, but never in combination with the main subject) 551 (p . 85, fuga) 574 ("Legrenzi"; double fugue) 589 (two subjects)

( 22) USE OF TOCCATA-LIKE SECTIONS IN PIECES ENTITLED "FUGUE"

575 576

(23) FUGUES EVOLVING INTO FREE SECTIONS WITH NO CLEAR CADENCE OF THEIR OWN FIRST

535 (p . 54 ) 536 (end of the fugue) 5^9 (p. 39, fuga, transition into the final toccata s e c tio n ) 561 (p . 9) 565 (the fugue includes toccata-like figurations as episodic material; p. 54, end of the fugue includes a deceptive cadâice, leading into toccata m aterial; thus, the fugue is not entirely independent) 566 (p . 69, second fugue, transition into the last to c c a ta ) 5 7 5 (24) THMATIC EELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUGAL SECTIOIK

551 (relationship "between the two fugues) 566 (the subjects employ the same material, although in different meters)

( 25) THEMATIC EELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FUGAL AND FEEE SECTIONS

532 (no actual thematic relationship exists, but stylistic sim ilarities, in figurations, are ev id en t) 533 (rhythmic patterns are repeated) 535 (near the beginning of the prelude, the fugue subject is stated once in the pedal part) 549 564 (the fugue is related to the opening of the toccata) 565 (this fugue is patterned on the toccata’s figuration) 566 (relationships between the toccata and "both fugues) Summary

There can he little doubt that J. S. Bach benefited from the fruits of two centuries of keyboard developments, and our investigation has shown that a variety of influences are apparent in his early free organ works. It was Bach's assimilation of these influences, together with his extraordinary creative genius, which eventually led him to produce the last great organ works of the Leipzig period (1723-1750).

It is known that Bach heard and studied the works of many compos­ ers, including Frescobaldi, J. K. F, Fischer, Strungk, Buxtehude,

Reincken, Biruhns, BShm, Froberger, Kerll, and Pachelbel. It is not known exactly to what extent the works of these composers affected

Bach's own writing, but it may be assumed that, as part of the learning process, Bach incorporated into his works those elements which he found admirable and useful.

While they may not prove the existence of direct lines of influ­ ence, stylistic analyses of Bach's early organ works do bring to light features held in common with pieces of the preceding centuries. The present study has focused primarily on the elements which Bach seems to have derived from Italian and German composers of the 15th through the

17th centuries. The process of derivation is evident, for example, in

Bach's adoption of a three-part or five-part structure (common in Italy and Germany) for some of the early toccatas, or preludes and fugues. l4 l . flj.2 W hether o r n o t th e given t i t l e s ("which d i f f e r from so u rce to source in many cases) were Bach’s o"wn indications or those of a student or copyist, the terminology used continues in the tradition of a rather free interchange, especially noticeable in the use of prelude and toccata. The titles of free organ works from the 15th century until the time of Bach—praeludium, toccata, fantasia, ricerear, etc.—seem to have been applied haphazardly in many cases, and the given titles of these works do not necessarily represent a particular formal struc­ ture. Johann Gottfried Walther's definitions (l732) of the terms toccata, fantasia, capriccio. and ricercar. for example, s till show considerable overlapping and ambiguity. While this freedom in the use of terms may, from a 20th-century viewpoint, seem to indicate weakness or instability, this is not necessarily the case. Titles were some­ times interchangeably applied, and often indicate functional rather than structural principles. Pieces with an introductory function, for ex­ ample, may be entitled praeludium, intonatione. or toccata. Titles such as ricercar and fantasia cover a wide realm of possibilities, although by the l?th centimry the term ricercar was applied in a much narrower sense. Fantasia, throughout its history, is perhaps the freest of all designations, since the term can include anjrthing dictated by the

"fantasy" of a composer. Since titles do not convey significant details about the formal construction of a free organ work, it is important that the scholar and performer not be mislead by them.

Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in C Major (BWV 531)> Prelude and Fugue

in G Minor (5^9) , Toccata and Fugue in D Minor (5&5), Fantasy (or

Concerto. or Partita) in G Major (57l), and Fantasy in G Major (572),

for example, show three-part structure (toccata-fugue-toccata, or some . 143 adaptation thereof), which was quite common in the toccatas of Merulo,

Frescohaldi, Froberger, Buxtehude, Bdhm, and others. A five-part construction (toccata-fugue-toccata-fugue-toccata, or some variant thereof) was also favored by Merulo, Froberger, Buxtehude, Bruhns, and others, and appears in Bach's Prelude and Fugue in G Minor (535) i

Prelude and Fugue in A Minor (551) , Fantasia and Fugue in A Minor ( 561), and Toccata and Fugue in E Major (or C Major) (5^6).

An expert sense of idiomatic keyboard writing, as well as a high level of sensitivity to the possibilities inherent in the instrument, are evidenced in Bach's early organ works. From the beginning, free organ forms, particularly the toccata and prelude types, depended largely on the presence of keyboard figurations such gs scale passages, broken chords, and tr ill figures. An undeniable relationship with the important art of improvisation is evident here. Many of Bach's early free works contain elements that suggest a type of i-nritten-out improvi­ s a tio n .

Bach inherited from the North Germans a tendency toward exploita­ tion of the full resources of the organ, especially the pedal division, like Buxtehude, Lübeck, Bruhns, Bdhm, and others, Bach sometimes incor­ porated lengthy pedal solos into his works. These, together with other virtuosic pedal techniques, such as scales and double pedal parts, were possible in this period only on northern instruments, which were the first to develop a complete and independent pedal division. Pedal pas­ sages are an integral part of most North German organ compositions in th e 17th century, and Bach was quick to assimilate this practice in many of his early works. South German and Italian organ designs, especially in the pre-

Bach period, followed a different line of development. Pedal divisions, where they existed, were small, and, although pedalpolnts are common, ohhligato pedal parts are rare in southern organ literature of this time. The fact that a substantial number of Bach's early works (such as BI-JV 561, 575» 590, 591» etc.) do not feature pedal as an integral part of the texture, seems to indicate southern influences. Because of the sustaining power of the instrument, pedalpoint is an effective device, and is quite common in organ literature, generally. It is especially prominent, however, in the southern and middle German reper­ toire, such as in the toccatas of Pachelbel. Pedalpoint, used to a greater or lesser extent, also occurs in a majority of Bach's early organ works.

Except in liturgical organ music, the presence of a pedal part is no guarantee that a work was intended for the organ.. Keyboard instru­ ments, especially in the pre-Bach period, were sometimes used inter­ changeably, and organists were expected to be equally skilled on any keyboard instrument. A distinction was not alwaj's made even in Bach's time. This is especially clear in some of Bach's early organ works, a number of which seem equally suited to performance on pedal-harpsi- chord. The distinction becomes clearer, both stylistically and through the use of written indications (such as -pro organo pleno) in later Bach works, but there are exceptions here as well. Bach's Six Sonatas for

Two Manuals and Pedal (BWV 525-30), for example, although often played on the organ, may have been intended for pedal-harpsichord.

Many forerunners of Bach, in their improvisations, must have used the keyboard in a dramatic fashion in order to demonstrate virtuosity. This virtuosic element is noticeable also in written-out pieces, 1^5 particularly those of the toccata or free fantasia type. Aimed as much toward congosition as it was toward performance, stylus fantas- ticus harbored this dramatic element. With their loose organization and impulsive virtuosity, some of Bach's early free works seem rooted in this tradition. Freistimmigkeit (free addition and subtraction of voices) may be viewed as a consequence of the improvisatory style.

Particularly in toccata-like passages, which aim toward stunning ef­ fects, the "integrity" of individual voice lines is not important.

Voices appear and disappear as fu ll chords alternate with solo reci­ tative lines and pedal passages. Freistimmigkeit is always a possibi­ lity on keyboard instruments, since the fingers (and feet) can play as many voices as physical limitations will permit, or as few as one or two lines at a time. A regular feature of 15th-and 16th-century key­ board music, as in the ricercars of Jacobo Fogliano and Julio Segni, for example, Freistimmifikeit is as common in Bach's early toccatas as it is in works by Buxtehude and Bruhns, or Cavazzoni and Merulo.

Characteristic keyboard figurations, which abound in so many of

Bach's works, owe much to the "common fund" of such patterns, as they had developed in works of the Italians Marco Antonio Cavazzoni, Andrea

Gabrieli, Merulo, Frescobaldi, and Rossi, and the Germans Froberger,

Pachelbel, Scheidemann, Buxtehude, Bruhns, and Bdhm. Especially influ­ ential in this regard was Sweelinck, "founder" of the North German school, whose free works show many traces of English virginal tech­ niques, Bach's fully-notated cadenzas (i.e .. in BWV 531i 532» 53^»

535) show northern as well as southern influence. The many examples of written-out ornamentation, especially trill figures (as in BW 531, 533» 535» 550 » 551» 5&1» etc.), recall Italian practices, especially as in ' the toccatas of Frescobaldi. who made regular use of this technique.

In North German tradition, toccatas (i.e . . Bruhns' large E minor toccata, and works hy Tunder and Buxtehude), often open with single recitative lines; (the dramatic element of stylus fantasticus is present here). This is the case in some of Bach's early works, such as

BWV 533» 564, 565, and 566.

Parallel motion (in thirds, sixths, tenths, etc.) between two or more voices occurs quite regularly in BWV 532 , 534, 536 , 550, 56 8, 569»

575» and numerous other early Bach works. Excessive parallel motion indicates that the voices are not completely independent, and this type of writing is reminiscent of Pachelbel (especially in the pedalpoint to c c a ta s .)

Southern composers of the 15th through the 17th centuries (especi­ ally the Italians) may be credited with great advances in the art of fugal writing, especially as regards the development of ricercar, can- zona, and other types. Keyboard collections by Frescobaldi and

Poglietti, for example, were used in the l8th and even into the 19th centuries to teach strict counteipoint. South German organists, often throu^ direct student-teacher relationships, adopted Italian techniques and made their own contributions to this repertoire. Bach's Canzona in

D Minor ( 588), Fugue in B Minor (579) » and Fugue in G Minor ("Legrenzi",

574) are most clearly derived from Italian practices, since they actu­ ally employ themes borrowed from Italian models. Bicercar-like subjects

(mostly in slow, even note values) are the basis of, or play an import­ ant role in, BWV 534, 579 » 588, and 589. Lively themes, often employing

repeated notes, characterize the pre-Bach canzona, which, like the ricercar, exerted a tremendous influence on the development of the fugue. Canzona-like subjects appear in BWV 531» 535» 537» 550, 566,

574, 576, and 579* Even in later fugues, which establish most fully

Bach's genius (such as the Fugue in E -flat, Claviertlbung III) , Bach s till draws from the rich heritage of ricercar and canzona, as it had been established by Frescobaldi, Froberger, Weckmann, and others.

Northern elements in Bach's fugal T'iriting are apparent in the occasional "breakdown" of counterpoint which occurs in some fugal sections, leading into free toccata material (as in BWV 535» 536, 5^9»

561» 565» 566, and 575) ' T h is i s c h a r a c te r is tic o f most N orth German toccatas, and is an entirely acceptable element of the stylus fantasticus as described by Mattheson.

In the light of Bach's extraordinary genius, it is sometimes difficijilt to maintain a perspective on his development. By the time

Bach wrote his last great organ works, he had so thorou^ly assimilated the musical achievements of preceding generations that individual influ­ ences are difficult to trace. In Bach's early free organ works, on the other hand, various stages in his development, as well as strong influences from 15th-to 17th-century German and Italian styles are considerably more obvious. 148

FOOTNOTES

CHAPTER FOUR

1. This is not to deny the presence of other influences, such as the French, hut these are not uithin the scope of the present stu d y .

2. Andre firro , Johann Sebastian Bach; The Organist and His Works for the Organ, transi, by Wallace Goodrich, with a Preface by Ch.-M. W ider (New York; G. S chirm er, 1902), 25-26.

3• Hans T. David and Arthur Mendel, eds., The Bach Reader; A Life of Bach in Letters and Documents, rev. ed., with supplement (New Yo]±: Norton, 1966), 2?.

4. Ibid., 27-28.

5. Peter Williams, Bach Organ Music. 9.

6. David and Mendel, op. cit.. 2?.

7. Peter Williams, op. cit.. 7.

8. Friedrich Blume, "J. S. Bach's Youth," The Musical Quarterly LIV/l (Jan. 1968), 7-8.

9. Obituary of Bach ( 1754), by C. P. E. Bach and J. F. Agricola. See David and Mendel, Bach Reader. 213-24.

10. I b i d . . 217.

11. Peter Williams, op. cit.. 8.

12. Ernst Isler, "Johann Sebastian Bachs Jugendkompositionen für Orgel," Schweizerische Musikzeitung und SSngerblatt LXX/21, 22 (Nov. 1930) , 726.

13* Hermann K eller, The Organ Works of Bach; A Contribution to th eir History, Form, Interpretation and Performance, transi, by Helen Hewitt (New York, London, Frankfurt: C. F. Peters, 19&7), 27.

14. Isler, op. cit., 727.

15. I b i d . . 774. 16. I b i d . i49

17. David Miilbury, "Bach's Passacaglia in o minor: Notes re; its Background, Essence, and Performance," Bach/The Quarterly Journal of the Riemenschneider Bach Institute H l/2 (April 1972), 19*

18. "A watermark may tell us, with reasonable certainty, that a work was in existence by a certain date; but it will not necessarily te ll us what the work was like when it was first composed, when i t was composed, and when and how Bach re v is e d i t . " Walter Emery, "The Dating of Bach's Organ Works; The Great G Major and Great G Minor as S tylistic Landmarks,” The Organ XXXVll/lifB (April 1958), 182.

19. Compasses of J. S. Bach's organs are given in William L. Sumner, Bach's Organ-Registration. foreword by Ivor Keys, Vol. 11 of School of Bach-Playing for the Organist, general ed., Gordon Phillips (London: Hinrichsen, I 96I), 44. See also; Walter Emery, "The Compass of Bach's Organs as evidence of the date of his Works," The Organ XXXH/126 (1952), 92-100. Peter Williams is of the opinion that "compass is a poor indica­ tion of when, where and why a piece was written. . . . There is no knowing why such pieces have the compass they do have (they might be transcriptions or revisions, or altered by the copyist, or written for a particular organ) ..." Williams, op. c it., 17• Walter Emery also believes that the "compass" method "rests on uncertain information about the compass of Bach's organs, and on a whole series of dubious assumptions. Its results are suggestive, but not much more." Emery, "The Dating of Bach's Organ Works," 182.

20. Hedar, Dietrich Buxtehudes Orgelwerke, op. c it.

21. Eiedel, Quellenkündliche Beitrâge, II 6, Note 2. (See, for example, p . 98 above.)

22. Riedel, ibid.

23. I b i d . , 116.

24. Rose, op. c it., 210. Gloria Rose's study is an example of the use of sty listic evidence, in the absence of conclusive documentation in the primary source material, to determine authorship. With regard to questions of authenticity in the Bach works, Keller makes the important point that "so lange sie nicht gelSst sind, sollten zweifelhafte Werke ausdrlicklich als solche gekennzeichnet werden. . . . Nur in einem kleineren Teil der Fâlle ist es ja bis jetzt mSglich gewesen, die Echtheitsfrage mit Sicherheit oder genügender Wahrscheinlichkeit zu klSren. " (As long as the problems of authenticity remain unsettled, doubtful works ou^t to be ex­ pressly indicated as such. . . . In only a very few cases have questions of authenticity been clarified with any amount of 24. (con*t) certainty.) See Hermann Keller, "Unechte Orgelwerke Bachs,” Bach-Jahrhuch/lm Auftrage der Neuen Bachgesellschaft. ed. Arnold Schering, XXXIV (1937), 59.

25. Blume, 0T>. c it.. 24, 29. An important proposal hy Thurston Dart may provide at least some relief for what appears to he a hopelessly confused issue. Dart's article, "Bach's Early Keyboard Music; A neglected source (Brussels, B.R., Fetis 29^0) , " (Acta Musicologica XlKl/Fa.cs. I I I - IV , 1970, 236- 38) draws a tte n tio n to a m anuscript t h a t "may w ell disprove Professor Blume's contention ahout the absence of primary sources for Bach's early keyboard music." (p. 236) The manuscript to which Dart refers contains I 8 keyboard pieces (toccatas, capric- cios, preludes, etc.), all ascribed to Bach. (Although Schmieder considers four of them to be doubtfully authentic, all but two are without a composer's name in the manuscript.) Dart's investi­ gation leads him to the following important conclusions: "The manuscript certainly must rank as a primary source for I 8 of Bach's early keyboard works, providing texts of first-rate vaiue. I believe that it is in his hand throughout; that it may well comprise fa ir copies of all the non-liturgical keyboard pieces written be­ f o r e 1706 or so which he wished to preseive in final form; that four of the doubtfully authentic keyboard works of Bach (571 f 832, 922, 996) ought henceforward to be considered as genuine, thou^ veiy early, jompositions ; and that none of its contents ought to be dated as much, if at all, later than his departure from Amstadt in June 1707." (p. 238) From our standpoint in the 20th century, it is difficult to under­ stand how Bach's original handwritings could have been lost. How­ ever, a different attitude toward the preservation of manuscripts prevailed in the l8th century. Wolfgang Schmieder deals effectively with this issue in his article, "Die Handschriften Johann Sebastian Bachs; Betrachtungen liber ihre Schicksale, ihre Wanderungen und ihren Verbleib," Bach-Gedenkschrift 1950; Im Auftrug der Inter- nationalen Bach-Gesellschaft, ed. Karl Matthaei (ZtSrtch: Atlantis Verlag, 1950), 190-203.

26. Peter Williams, op. cit., 17.

27. I b i d . . 3 3 .

28. Keller, The Organ Works of Bach, 31-38.

29. I b i d . . 33.

30. Albert Schweitzer, J. S. Bach. 2 vols., English transi, by Ernest Newman (London: Breitkopf & H ârtel, 1911; reissued London: A & C Black, 1923) , I , 267.

31. K eller, The Organ Works of Bach. 38. 32. Johann Sebastian Bach; Complete Organ Works; A G ritico-Practical 151 Edition in Eight Volumes, ed. and with prefatory material by Charles-Marie Widor and Albert Schweitzer, Vol. 6 ed. by Edouard Nies-Berger and Schweitzer (New York: G. Schirmer, 1940-4l, 195^).

33« Harvey Grace, The Organ Works of Bach (London: Novello, 1922).

34. Charles Sanford Terry, Bach: A Biography. 2nd and rev. ed. (London; Oxford, 1933)*

35. Hans Klotz, Die Orgelkunst der Gotik. der Renaissance und des Barock (Kassel: Bdrenreiter, 1934).

36c Gotthold Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgel- Is. (Berlin: Max Hesse, 1935) •

37. I s l e r , op. cit

38. Blume, OP. cit

39. I s l e r , op. ccit i t . . 723, 724, 778- 79.

40. Included in this study are all the extant free organ works up to ça. 1717» representing Bach's youthful achievement in organ composition. (The so-called Eight L ittle Preludes and Fugues (BWV 553- 80), which are thought to be unauthentic, are not included.) Because of the lack of primary source material for most of this early period, it is impossible to establish with any certainty a chronological order for these works. In most cases, one can say only that these are indeed, early works, and any conjectures regarding how early must be made on the basis of a subjective evaluation of the stylistic evidence. The reader is referred to Wolfgang Schmieder, Thematisch- Systematisches Verzeichnis der Musikalischen Werke von J. S. Bach; Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis (BWV) (Leipzig: Breitkopf & H â rte l, 1950) for detailed information regarding sources, dates of origin, etc., for each individual work. The edition of the organ works to which the present study makes reference is J. S. Bach; Organ Works. 9 vols., ed. Fr. C. Griepenkerl and Ferd. Boitzsch, Preface by Albert Riemenschneider (New York: C. F. Peters, 1844-47, I 852, I 88I ; 1950).

41. Peter Williams, on. cit.. I 6.

42. Keller, op. cit.. 62.

4 3 . Williams, op. cit.. 32. P i r r o , o v. c it. , 35. Pirro makes reference to Mattheson's description of Alla Breve; "It is not necessary to indicate the degree of rapidity of an alia hr eve ; these words suffice to animate the most sluggish brain, to make supple the heaviest of hands. For example, it is like * clucking’ to a horse. (From Grosse Generalbass-Schule. Hamburg, 1732.)

4 5 . Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 80. Norman Carrell, Bach the Borrower (London; George Allen & Unwin L td., 19^7) » 227 » 230- 3 1 . 46. Keller, Organ Works of Bach. 7 6.

4 7 . Isler, op. cit., 775.

48. Williams, op. cit., 34.

4 9. K eller, Organ Works of Bach, 101.

5 0 . Ibid.. 102.

5 1 . • I s l e r , OP. c i t . . 776,

52. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 103-04.

5 3 . I s l e r , OP, c i t . , 727.

54 . Williams, op. cit., 15.

5 5 . Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 100.

56. I b i d . , 101.

5 7. I b i d . . 60.

5 8. Isler, OP. cit., 773.

59. Williams, op. cit., 15.

60. Pirro, OP. cit.. 31-32.

61. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 60.

62. Ibid.. 71.

63. I s l e r , OP. c i t . . 72?, 773. 64. Hermann Keller, "Foreword" of his ed. of J . S » Bach, Orgexwerke, Vol. IX, 3rd ed. (New York: C. F. Peters, 1950).

65. C arrell, Bach the Borrower, 227 , 231.

66. Pirro, op. cit., 40. 153 6?. Williams, op. cit., 31-32.

6 8. I b i d . , 15.

69. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 82.

’°- vf(s5ii'i96«î t i u

7 1. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, ?4.

7 2. I b i d .

73. Williams, op. cit., 16.

74. I b i d .

7 5. K e lle r , Organ Works o f B ach, 75*

76. I s l e r , OP. c i t . , 775.

7 7. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 71. ^ rtself as not enough to conclude that the work is not by Bach, however.

78. Carrell, op. cit., 227» 232.

79. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 65.

80. I b i d .

81. I s l e r , OP. c it., 727-28.

82. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 67.

83. Isler, op. cit., 727.

84. Frotscher, o p. c it.. 861-62; quoted by Keller, 67.

85. I s l e r , OP. c i t . , 728.

87. P i r r o , OP. c i t . , 33.

wezke. ed. K. Schubert (Mainz: Schott, 1938;.

89. I s l e r , OP. c i t . , 774.

90. I b i d . 91. Williams, op. cit.. 31. 15^

92. "One must judge this work not hy the opening and closing sections, hut hy the five-voiced middle section, for Tdiich the passages at the beginning and end are only intended to provide contrast." (writer's transi.) F. C. Griepenkerl's "Vorrede zur ersten Auflage" to the Bach Organ Works, op. c it.. Vol. IV, iv.

93. Isler, OP. c i t . , 7?8.

94. K e lle r , Organ Works o f Bach. 95.

95. P ir r o , OP. c i t . . 4l, n o te .

96. Thurston Dart, op. cit., 237.

97. Keller, Organ Works of Bach, 64.

98. Isler, OP. cit.. 777.

99. K e lle r , Orgsm Works o f Bach. 63-64.

100. Isler, OP. cit.. 774.

101. Keller, Orggn Works of Bach, 64.

102. I h i d .

103. I5ÎÊ-, 63. 104. Ihid. See also Keller, "Unechte Orgelwerke Bachs," 70.

105. Williams, op. cit., 31.

106. Keller, Organ Works of Bach. 68.

107. I s l e r , OP. c i t . . 775.

108. Keller, Organ Worfe of Bach, 94.

109. I s l e r , OP. c i t . . 777.

110. I h i d .

111. K e lle r , Organ Works of Bach. 93. See Hedar ed. of Buxtehude organ works, op. c it.. Vol. II, Nos. 12a and 12h.

112. Pirro, op. cit.. 41.

113. rbid., 41-42.

114. Ihid.. 42 - 4 3 . 115. Keller, 0-rgan Works of Bach. 90. 153

116. Pirro, or. cit.. 46.

117. Williams, op. oit., 20.

118. Keller, Organ Works of Bach. 91, 92.

119. I b i d . , 9 6. Further information on the Italian pastorale is given in Karl Gustav Fellerer, "Zur italienischen Orgelmusik des 17./ 18. Jahrhunderts," Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters f ilr 1938, XLV, ed. Kurt Taut, 8O-8I.

120. Shannon, Organ Literature. 263.

121. Carrell, op. c it.. 228, 232.

122. Keller, Organ Works of Bach. 70-71.

123. Isler, OP. cit., 776.

124. Ibid.. 728.

125. Keller, Organ Works of Bach. 70.

126. "We see the value of stylistic analysis primarily in the sense of its contribution toward an awareness and understanding of Bach's art, a deeper penetration into the elements of his art, rather than in its contribution toward chronology and studies of authenticity." (writer's transi.) Georg von Dadelsen, Beitrâge zur Chronologie der Werke Johann Sebastian Bachs, Heft 4/5 in Tübinger Bach-Studien, ed. Walter Gerstenberg (Trossingen; Hohner-Verlag, 1958), 45. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Shannon, John R. Organ Literature of the Seventeenth Century; A Study of Its Styles. Raleigh: The Simhury Press, 1978.

______. "A Short Survey of the Free Organ Forms in Italy l4^0 to 1650," The A. G. 0. Quarterly Vl/3 (July 1961), 75-20, and 94.

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Terry, Charles Sanford. Bach: A Biography, 2nd, rey. ed. London: Oxford Uniyersity Press, 1933*

Valentin, Erich. Die Entwicklung der Tokkata im 17. nnd I 8. J a h r­ hundert (his J. S. Bach). Münster: Helios Verlag, 1930.

Vogel, Harald. Lectures on North German organ music before Bach, Oherlin Summer Organ Institute, Oherlin College Conservatory of Music, Oherlin, Ohio, June-July 1979.

Von Dadelsen, Georg. Beitrâge zur Chronologie der Werke Johann Sebastian Bachs. Heft 4/5 in Tübinger Bach-Studien. ed. Walter Gerstenberg'. Trossingen : Hohner-Verlag, 1958.

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