Civil Rights Movement and the 1990S: Racism and the African-American Population

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 360 408 UD 029 105

AUTHOR Czech, Christopher TITLE Civil Rights Movement and the 1990s: Racism and the African-American Population. INSTITUTION Saint Cloud State Univ., MN. Dept. of Human Relations. PUB DATE 92 NOTE 78p. PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Black History; *Civil Rights; Course Content; *Curriculum Development; Evaluation Methods; Grade 10; High Schools; *High School Students; Human Relations; *Racial Discrimination; Racial Relations; Secondary School Curriculum; Social Problems; Social Studies; United States History; Urban Areas IDENTIFIERS *African Americans; *Social Movements

ABSTRACT A plan is presented for a curriculum that shows how African Americans have been left out of decision making, stereotyped negatively, and denied resources. The project is intended to be a base for future studies of human relations issues in order to understand how society operates. Using the contexts of the 1960s and the 1990s, the power structures of American society are clarified. The curriculum is designed for a high school social studies classroom, typically a 10th grade studying U.S. history. Topics for the 9 days of study are:(1) racism;(2) institutional racism (2 days);(3) discrimination;(4) African Americans;(5) continued oppression and prejudice today (2 days);(6) color consciousness and discrimination; and (7) dealing with racism. Eighteen attachments, including overheads, a questionnaire, a test, and handouts, are included. (SLD)

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CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT AND THE 1990s:

RACISM AND THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN POPULATION

PERMISSION To U.S. DEPARTMENT REPRODUCE THIS Office of EduCahonat OF EDUCATION PeSearCh and Improvement MATERIAL HAS BEE GRANTED BY EDUCATIONAL. RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERICI C. C-z.e( Cliefhis document003 Peen reproduced Oetelved thorn the as onomatog person Or orpar,,rar.on C Urn°, changes havePeen made In .rnprove rep,OduCkon cluamy

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Christopher Czech Department of Human Relations Curriculum Project 1992 St. Cloud State University St. Cloud, MN 56301

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

RATIONALE FOR PROJECT 1

CURRICULUM DAYS

Day One--Introduction to Human Relations Issues 3 Days Two and Three--History of Oppression and the Civil Rights Movement 1960s 5 Day Four--Africain-Americans Experience with the Civil Rights Movement 8 Day Five--Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement in 1960s 10 Days Six and Seven--African-American Situation Today 12 Day Eight--Issues of African-Americans Today 16 Day Nine--Evaluation and Action Day 18

ATTACHMENTS

Attachment 1--A Group Oppressed 21 Attachment 2--Questionnaire 23 Attachment 3--Human Relations Term Sheet 24 Attachment 4--Total Nation's Involvement in the Civil Rights Movement 25 Attachment 5--U.S. Political Map 26 Attachment 6--"Or Does It Explode?", By Zinn 27 Attachment 7--Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Report Format 40 Attachment 8--The Struggle for Equal Rights 41 Attachment 9--The Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Information 42 Attachment 10--Overhead 1--Income 43 Attachment 11--Overhead 1A--Income 44 Attachment 12--Overhead 2--Poverty 45 Attachment 13--Overhead 3--Education 46 Attachment 14--Overhead 4--Unemployment 47 Attachment 15--"To Discuss Issues of Race We Must Look at Ourselves", By Kramer 48 Attachment 16--"Race Not an Issue to Many", By von Sternberg 49 Attachment 17--"On Race, Local Media Deserves Euthanasia", by Jones 51 Attachment 18--Test 55

WORKS CITED

3 Rationale for Project

It seems in the past that high school students have not been exposed to the 1960s Civil Rights Movement and the African-American views on society. This may be due to the emphasis on early U.S. history and, thus, running out of time in the school year for more current events. The hope of this project is to introduce to the student the social, economic, and political climate during the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and then examine how things have changed, or the lack of change, in today's society. In examining these issues of history, it is a way of providing examples and a forum for emphasizing human relation issues of oppression and racism. This also can show how an institutional power functions. The curriculum will give evidence on how African- Americans have been left out of decision making, negatively stereotyped, and denied resources. These human relation issues are important because students have to deal with the system of oppression everyday. This project is designed to be a base project for future studies of human relations issues in order to understand how society operates.

In designing the project, I could have chosen many time periods as a focus to the study. For exam ple, the Civil War and reconstruction period could be used to show a system that continues to oppress a population. The project also could have focused just on today by bringing issues up and corresponding them to systems of society that discriminate and hold down a population. There are three reasons for use of both the 1960s and 1990s in this curriculum project. First, the students need to understand the system of oppression that takes place in this society. With racial tension high in the country at the present time, understanding human relations concepts, and specifically understanding about racism, is important. It is equally important to instruct the students on how to deal with the issues involved with racism. The project attempts to do this. Second, I believe that students need to have information presented in different ways. In this project, human relations issues are presented -ontext of the 1960s and 1990s. As stated above, the students have a lack of understanding about the events of the 1960s. Many students I have talked with show great interest in this time period. By first using the 1960s as a setting for explaining human relations issues, I hope to tap into their interest. Also, many of the issues are clearly identified in the Civil Rights Movement. Another need of the students is to be presented current information. This tends not to be done in the classroom. The importance and interest in history for the students probably emphasizes current decades and then proceeds back in history, but history is logically presented from the past to the present. Finally, the designer of this project has an interest in trying to explain the power structure in society and explaining both the Civil Rights Movement and current issues. In my schooling, all of these issues were not presented until I went to college. These issues need to be presented earlier in order for the student and the instructor to understand them. The teacher learner process has the ability to expand both parties knowledge about the human relations concepts. The project has evolved and continues to expand. Realistically, in the classroom the human relation issues would be presented at the beginning of the year. When talking about Columbus or slavery, it is important to understand the power structure. This project may be incorporated anytime in the school year or around Martin Luther King Day in order to give it more perspective. In other words, it can be adapted to incorporate different issues or different time periods, but it can be expanded to deal with more

4 racial issues. This could be a base for future information about different racial groups: Asian-Americans, Chicana/Chicanos, or rlifferent-isms including ableism, ageism, classistn, heterosexism, and sexism.

A final note, the project is designed for a high school social classroom (U.S. history 10th grade level) in a mostly white suburb with about 30 students (like Et. Cloud). This project could also be used if there are African-American students or other people of color in the classroom because they also have to understand the human relation issues and the history involved.

2 Day One

TITLE: Introduction to Human Relations Issues.

THEME: Racism.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Racism is the systematic oppression and exploitation of human beings on the basis of their belonging to a particular racial group (Andrzejewski 6).

2. Racism is part of America's culture and its institutions, and can be intentional and unintentional.

OBJECTIVES -- STUDENTS WILL:

1. Begin to understand the human relations issue of racism.

2. Be introduced to some other concepts including: discrimination, ideology, oppression, and prejudice.

3. Start to understand the power relationship between oppression, prejudice, and racism.

4. Identify the historical presence of racism in our society, which includes being left out in decision making and unequal access to resources.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

I. Instruction time involves one day.

2. This activity and others to follow are for a 10th grade social studies class of 30 students.

3. The module is to be used with other lesson days as an introduction and base for the whole curriculum project dealing with the human relations concept of racism and African-Americans.

Materials will consist of

A. A paper called "A Group Oppressed" (Attachment 1).

B. Questionnaire dealing with students perceptions of race (Attachment 2).

C. Human Relations Term Sheet (Attachment 3).

3 6 D. Instructors information for vocabulary -- Andrzejewski; history- -Nash and Norman.

TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES

1. Place desks in a circle or some other arrangement to create a good atmosphere for discussion.

2. Provide the class with "A Group Oppressed" (Attachment 1). The short essay describes briefly the history of African-American oppression in North America. The students have had U.S. History probably up to or through World War II, so these events are not new, but presented in a different view.

3. The class will then read the essay and use it as a base for human relations issues.

4. The students then will receive a worksheet simply called "Questionnaire" (Attachment 2). The worksheet is an attempt to show how their perceptions, stereotypes, and institutions contain racism. This will be used to help understand future human relations issues that will be covered in class.

When the class has completed the Questionnaire, the instructor will ask for volunteers to present their answers to the questions. These answers will be placed on the board as a general indication of how the class views racism.

A second worksheet called "Human Relations Term Sheet" (Attachment 3) will be handed out. This will enable the teacher to use the class answers from the Questionnaire and also the reading A Group Oppressed to explain certain human relations terms. Each of these three attachments are continually used throughout the curriculum project. How the process evolves is, a term is presented verbally and also is written on the board. Then, the concept is related to Attachments 1 and 2 and other examples presented by the instructor. The students are encouraged to add information in an attempt for an active educational process.

The terms that should be covered in this session include racism, discrimination, prejudice, and oppression. If time does not allow for these to be presented, they can be covered on another day. This is the base for the future activities.

8. Finally, the students will be asked to read the Civil Rights Movement pages in their history textbook overnight.

EVALUATION:

As a result of this exercise, the students should have an introduction to human relations concepts of discrimination, ideology, oppression, and prejudice. The grading of the day's exercise is basically based on class participation.

4 Days Two and Three

TITLE: History of Oppression and the Civil Rights Movement 1960s.

THEME: Institutional Racism.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Institutional racism involves when a colonial system is established those in a superior position seek to monopolize basic resources (Andrzejewski 5 -6).

2. History of the U.S. involves the process of institutional racism and privilege that has become both socialized and institutionalized in the everyday life of the people.

OBJECTIVES -- STUDENTS WILL:

1. Understand the human relations concept of institutional racism.

2. Identify the historical presents of racism in our society.

3. Know basic events and people involved .7ith the Civil Rights Movement.

4. Begin to understand the relationship between the Civil Rights Movement, discrimination, and oppression.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instructional time is two days.

2. Activities involving the Civil Rights Movement is continued for three additional days.

3. Mr..terials will consist of:

A. Continued use of Human Relations Term Sheet.

B. Students textbook readings on Civil Rights Movement, or, if possible, parts of Howard Zinn's A Peoples History of the United States (Chapter 17, 442-455) (Attachment 6).

C. A handout entitled "Total Nation's Involvement in the Civil Rights Movement" with directions and a political map (Attachments 4 and 5).

D. "Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Report Format" (from Ed266 218 Pg. 46) (Attachment 7).

5 E. Time line called "The Struggle for Equal Rights" (Attachment 8).

F. Instructors information for vocabulary--Andrzejewski; history--Zinn, political- - Patterson, and social--Eitzen. TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. The first part of class the instructor will investigate what the students remember about the concepts of racism, discrimination, prejudice, and oppression. If reinforcement of meaning is necessary, time will be taken to explain.

2. Building on the first day, the concept of institution and institutional racism will be presented to the class. The instructor will use A Group Oppressed, Questionnaire, and other examples to reinforce the meaning. Student input is a necessary feature. The instructor should present to the class the four basic terms of institutional discrimination. First, the importance of history in determining present conditions. Second, discrimination can occur without conscious bigotry. Third, institutional discrimination is more invisible than individual discrimination. Finally, institutional discrimination is reinforced because institutions are interrelated (Eitzen 280-1).

3. The students will then pair up in groups of five. A handout will be passed out called "Total Nation's Involvement in the Civil Rights Movement" (Attachment 4) which will explain an activity involving major events of the Civil Rights Movement. A map (Attachment 5) is attached to plot where major events occurred. With the handouts, an introduction to the Civil Rights Movement occurs by using either the students textbook or, if possible, Chapter 17 "Or Does it Explode?" from A People's History of the United States, by Howard Zinn (p. 442-455) (Attachment 6).

4. The students are asked to go through the reading finding events that correspond to a date provided on the work-heet, plot on the map where the event occurred, then write the event, what it is about, major groups/people involved, and the result of the event. The answers are expected to be brief, and the students should work together to find the answers. The project will show institutional racism, discrimination, and efforts to bring down oppression. The activity will be completed on the next day.

5. With ten minutes remaining of class time, hand out "Leaders of Civil Rights Movement Report Format" (Attachment 7). This will give directions for an activity to occur on Day Five (should give the time over a weekend)..

6. Explain the assignment to the class. In each group, assign one person to research Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Rosa Parks, Philip Randolph, and Andrew Young. Encourage the students to investigate the contributions of each individual. Ask the students to use the Report Format in preparing their summaries. State they will need at least three sources, and the project is a five minute informal presentation to their individual groups. The Report Form will be turned in to determine if the activity was successfully completed (ED 266 218 p. 46) (Attachment 7).

6 7. End of Day Two.

8. Beginning of Day Three.

9. Continue with. The Total Nations Involvement in the Civil Rights Movement activity until all groups are completed, or 15 minutes.

10. Conduct a group discussion on the activity and bring events into the context of the human relations issues of discrimination, oppression, institutional racism, and prejudice.

11. Hand out "The Struggle for Equal Rights" (Nash 921) (Attachment 8). This reprint from the text The American People reinforces the events and effects from the earlier Civil Rights Movement activity in a brief and easy to understand language.

12. During the discussion, put on the board or overhead The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1968 and Voting Act of 1965. Work these government bills into the context of the protests. Explain the relationship between the systems discrimination, the protest, and the government bills. Note that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 bars discrimination in the hiring, promotion, and wages of employees of medium and large firms (Patterson 143). The Civil Rights Bill of 1968 prohibits discrimination in housing (164). Finally, the Fifteenth Amendment gave African-Americans the right to vote, but institutional devices kept them from voting. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 forbids discrimination in voting and registration (144-5).

11 By the end of class, the students should have a better understanding of the African-Americans struggle against oppression in the 1960s. This concept will be strengthened by a video on the next class day.

EVALUATION:

In days two and three human relations concepts have been reinforced with a special emphasis on institutional racism. The main evaluation comes from the activities, map, group work, and participation of the students. Even though the activity focuses on the Civil Rights Movement, it is hoped the student begins to see these concepts in today's world.

7 DAY FOUit

TITLE: African-Americans Experience with the Civil Rights Movement.

THEME: Discrimination.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Discrimination is actions or practices that are carried out by the members of dominant groups, or their representatives, which have a different or negative impact on members of subordinate group (Andrzejewski 4).

2. During the Civil Rights Movement, the process of removing some discrimination from institutions was attempted. Some success occurred, but other actions did not affect the oppressive system in place which affects African-Americans.

OBJECTIVES -- STUDENT WILL:

1. Understand the human relations concept of discrimination.

2. Be introduced to types of discrimination including: isolated discrimination, small group discrimination, direct institutional discrimination, indirect institutional discrimination.

3. Experience through the media of video the Civil Rights Movement.

4. Identify in elementary ways different types of discrimination in the Civil Rights Movement.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instruction time is one day with time the following day to finish.

2. Material will consist of:

A. Continued use of Human Relations Term Sheet.

B. A video called "Ain't Scared of your Jails", produced by Blackside, Inc. and PBS video, Alexandria, VA.

C. Instructional information or vocabulary from Andrzejewski. TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. The first part of the class is an introduction to different types of discrimination: isolated discrimination, small group discrimination, direct institutional discrimination, and indirect institutional discrimination. The definitions should be placed on the Human Relations Term Sheet.

2. The students will then be asked to write on a blank piece of paper the four different types of discrimination leaving space for them to write examples.These examples will come from the video. Students also will be asked to give their general impressions of the film and the most important theme of the film.The assignment will be due the next class day.

3. Show the video "Ain't Scared of Your Jails" by Blackside, Inc. and PBS Video, Alexandria VA. This will take the students closer into the sounds and events of the 1960s. Issues in the movie include:lunch counter sit-ins, formation of SNCC, the impact of Lhe sit-ins on the 1960 presidential campaign, and the freedom ride. The video is 50 minutes long, so realistically there should be ten minutes left on the tape when the class finishes. The instructor will summarize what was not seen on the next class day.

4. Day ends with the video, and a discussion on the day's activity will take place on next class day.

EVALUATION:

The day's evaluation comes from class participation, papers from the video, and the next day's discussion on the video.

9 1 2 DAY FIVE

TITLE: Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement in 1960s.

THEME: African-Americans.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. African-Americans refer to people of African descent living in the United States.

2. The leaders of the Civil Rights Movement have different ideas and concepts of racism and how to remove some barriers of oppression.

OBJECTIVES -- STUDENTS WILL:

1. Present finding of research about Civi: Rights leaders.

2. Understand different philosophies aP._: act:wities of persons who influenced and aided the quest for civil rights.

By presenting and understanding contributions of individuals, students will gain a clear view of the Civil Rights Movement.

4. Students can consider how they use their own spheres of influence to promote justice and equality.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instruction time--one day.

2. Materials will consist of:

A. Library reference material.

B. Worksheet Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Report Format (ED 266 218) (Attachment 7).

C. Worksheet Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Information (Attachment 9).

D. Instructional information: ED 266 218, vocabulary-- Andrezejewski, political--Patterson.

10 3 TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. The goal of this day is to tie all the history part of the curriculum together in order to proceed into current issues of the African-American population.

2 Have the students get into groups and pass out "Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Information (Attachment 9). This form will be used by the students to place information on the details of the life and contributions of Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, Rosa Parks, Philip Randolph, and Andrew Young.

3. The individual students have five minutes to present their reports to their group..

4. After the reports are completed, conduct a group discussion that concludes the Civil Rights Movement. This should emphasize the individual reports and should also tie human relations topics (oppression/discrimination/etc.) to the video.

5. Before the end of the hour, have the student turn in the Human Relations Term Sheet "Total Nation's Involvement in Civil Rights Movement", map, videotape reactions, and the Leaders of the Civil Rights Movement Report Format and Information Sheet.

EVALUATION:

All of the papers mentioned in number 5 will be evaluated for how successful the students have completed the first part of the curriculum project. Participation in class will also be taken into account. The Human Relations Sheet will be returned the following day, other worksheets will follow.

11 4 DAYS SIX AND SEVEN

TITLE: African-American Situation Today.

THEME: Continued oppression and prejudice.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Oppression exists when any entity intentionally or unintentionally inequitably distributes resources, refuses to share power, imposes ethnocentric culture, and/or maintains unresponsive and inflexible institutions towards another entity for its supposed benefit and rationalizes its action by blaming or ignoring the victim.

2. Prejudice involves an irrational and negative attitude directed at an outgroup because of real or alleged physical or cultural characteristics (Andrzejewski 6).

3. As in all times in U.S. history, there is continued oppression and prejudice in society.

OBJECTIVES--STUDENTS WILL:

1. Understand the concepts of oppression and prejudice in today's world.

2. Identify some current oppression and prejudice towards African-Americans in their life.

3. Distinguish between oppression and prejudice.

4. Know that all systems contain institutions that may control a group of people.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instruction time is two days.

2. This is an introduction to the current issues of racism.

3. Materials will consist of:

A. A number of overheads to explain the economic and social life of African-Americans (Attachments 10-14).

B. A Minneapolis Star Tribune special reprint "Issue of Race" (Attachments 15, 16, 17).

C. Instructor's material: vocabulary-- Andrzejewski; political--Patterson; social--Eitzen and Lauer.

12 TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. The next two days will take more preparation time for the instructor. Most of .._us curriculum project has focused on discussion between class and teacher, or group activities. The first day of current issues of African-Americans will be mostly lecture, but hopefully the class can interact with the discussion.

2. At the beginning of the day the instructor will tie the past to the present. This will bring the subject closer to the student and is the base for the rest of the project. The introduction begins with the aftermath of the Civil Rights Movement (even though some people believe it is continuing and actually should continue). Some points that should be stated in the introduction to the day include:

a. During the later part of the 1960s Vietnam took attention and money away from programs that would have helped people of color.

b. Rising expectations of African-Americans were not met in terms of jobs or other benefits.

c. When Martin Luther King was murdered in 1968, the most active part of the modern Civil Rights Movement came to an end.

d. Most significant progress for equality occurred during the 1960s.

e. The status of African-Americans has deteriorated since the Civil Rights Movement (Patterson (149). Why? (Big question.) Some answers are institutional racism. Others are that power holders do not want to give up power (so oppression), core ideas or traditions (liberty, equality, individualism, diversity, unity, self-government) are myths and are not always in practice (or even used against a population) (4,5).

f. American focus for equality has been limited. One of the largest problems in the U.S. is discrimination (164-65). In order for this class to understand how a country with many resources can have so much discrimination, it needs to understand the inequality that takes place today. This will enable us as a people to better understand oppression, racism, and prejudice towards African-Americans.

3. Areas of focus in the lecture part of the lesson include basic patterns of institutional discrimination, income, education, unemployment, types of employment, and health. Also discussed is the African-American family.

Students are expected to take notes of the most important concepts, and the instructor will suggest what is important. This includes the basic patterns of institutional discrimination

13 111 and some trends, but not statistics. Students can ask questions during any part of the lecture.

5. In the area of income, Overheads 1 and IA (Attachments (10 and I I) show inequalities in household income (Patterson 145). The main point is when the economy was in an economic upturn in the 1980s African-Americans income was lower. Poverty was persistent in the African-American population during this time. Poverty rate is shown on the Overhead 2 (Attachment 12), 33.1% for African-Americans compared to 10.5% for whites (1987). The children's poverty rate was 47.7% for African-Americans and 16.2% for whites. This information shows that the African-American population as a whole is being discriminated against economically by society's institutions (Eitzen 28).

6. In the area of education, the discussion will focus on low educational achievement is a major barrier to p.--)ple of color. Overhead 3, (Attachment 11) on education shows differences in completion of years in school. The main point is a lower level of achievement does not help the population and increases oppression. Why do African-Americans have lower achievement? Discrimination in the schools, language differences, malnutrition, drug abuse, and teenage pregnancy are all factors that can be discussed. Even with a college education, African- American earn $15,000 less annually than a white college graduate (288, 90).

7. In the area of unemployment, focus on African-American rates usually are double the national rate. Overhead 4 (Attachment 14), unemployment shows the difference in 1988. The discussion suggests that social unrest can increase with unemployment. Social problems due to unemployment may be a reason for crime rates and add to the problems of racism (even part of racism) (290-91).

8. In the area of employment, the focus is that even African-American people not affected by unemployment are overrepresented in jobs where pay, power, and prestige are low. These jobs are in blue-collar, service industries. One other problem is the U.S. economy is switching from a manufacturing based to informational and service based. The effects of this for people of color is the trend towards unemployment, low pay, and changing distribution of jobs. This is a system that is becoming more oppressive to the African-American population (291-2).

9. The last area of discussion is health, which is another area in which people of color are disadvantaged. Some examples include: years of life averages 6 years less for African-Americans than whites, racial inequalities exist in the kinds of medical care people of color receive, and in the number of people without health care African-Americans (21.8%, whites 10.1%) (292).

10. If time permits on Day 6, discuss the African-American family. The greater likelihood is that it would be a single-parent family, divorced or widowed. Bring this in context to the other issues discussed on this day. Point out some positive points about the

14 African-Americans lives such as the fact that the black single-parent family tends to adjust better to their situation than do whites. This is because of extended family support and greater acceptance of single parentl:lood (Lauer 460-466).

11. This day is for the students to begin to see the important issues that are involved in African-American lives. There will be positives and negatives involved, and the students will gain a better understanding.

12. Before the end of the day, pass out a Minneapolis Star Tribune special reprint "Issue of Race" (Attachments 15, 16, 17).

13. For the next day, have all the students read the introduction called "To Discuss Issues of Race, We Must Look at Ourselves". Then with the class in groups of five have three groups focus on the article "Race Not an Issue to Many", by Bob van Sternberg (Attachment 16), and three other groups focus on "On Race, Local Media Deserves Euthanasia", by Syl Jones (Attachment 17). Other articles of interest include: "Birth to Death: Race Sets our Agenda for Life", by Kim Ode, "Neighborhoods' Clout Tied to Color", by Allen Short, "Media Reports Reflect Racial Attitudes", by David Peterson.

14. End of Day 6.

15. Start of Day 7.

16. Instructor brings general overview of issues presented in Day 6 into context of human relations issues of oppression and prejudice.

17. The class is divided into groups to summarize and give general reactions to the readings for one-half hour. reactions and information is taken down by individual members.

1 i. When the time for group discussion is completed, the instructor will have the groups briefly summarize and give their reactions to the articles. The teacher asks questions to the groups who will give short answers.

19. With the discussion of the articles, it should bring into better context the issue of racism and other factors presented the day before. This will lead into the next day's activities of issues of African-American population (Day 8) and the action day (Day 9).

EVALUATION:

By taking part in these exercises, it is hoped the students will develop an awareness of African-American issues. This should be accomplished by the lecture of day 6 and newspaper activity of day 7.It is hoped that the students will relate the issues to human relations concepts that have been discussed in this curriculum project. The grading of this project involves the effort of the groups and discussion.

15 Q DAY EIGHT

TITLE: Issues of African-Americans Today.

THEME: Color consciousness and discrimination.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Color consciousness is a belief that one's racial identify should be affirmed and appreciated.

2. Discrimination involves actions or practices carried out by members of dominant groups or their representatives which have a differential and negative impact on members of subordinate groups (Andrzejewski4).

OBJECTIVES--STUDENTS WILL:

1. Understand color consciousness and discrimination better.

2. Know some issues of the African-American community.

3. Identify some similarities and differences from African-American experiences and their personal experiences.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instruction time--one day.

2. Activity is an attempt to have the students have closer contact with people of color either by having a speaker or viewing a video. In so doing, these issues and general lifestyles may be presented.

3. Materials will consist of:

A. A video dealing with current issues, race identity, and race relations. "Liberty", ABC Video Enterprise, Inc. Address: Films for the Humanities and Sciences, Inc., Box2053,Princeton, NJ08543-2053.

B. A panel, or speaker, (whichever is possible) to discuss issues and lives of African-Americans. These people should have a variety of backgrounds in order to present how diverse the population is. Note, this is another idea if video is not available, but this will not be discussed in the activities to follow. If used, this idea

16 will follow the same directions, but have students come up with questions to ask panel members before the class.

C. Instructors material for vocabulary from Andrzejewski.

TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. Beginning of the class bring up the concept of color consciousness. Give examples from the last two class days. The concept should be a connector for human relations issues discussed in the past (i.e., oppression, prejudice, racism).

2. After successfully understanding the concept of color consciousness, have the students take out a blank sheet of paper. Give them directions first to look for color consciousness in the video "Liberty". Second to right down African-American issues that are presented in the video. Third, right down questions they would like to know about African-Americans.

3. Then show the video "Liberty" from Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises. This video discusses race relations in the 1990s. Also, it !oaks at what extent should African-Americans strive to maintain cultural heritage or assimilation into American society.It is unique in that it discusses these issues with a group of white and African-American high school students and then later with a mixed-race group of college students. This should have the effect of bringing issues closer to the students understanding.

4. Day will end with the video, but issues discussed in the movie and questions on students papers will be used on the next class day.

EVALUATION:

For this day, evaluation comes in the form of the responses on the students papers and the discussion to follow the next day. All of these should be related to issues and human relations concepts. DAY NINE

TITLE: Evaluation and Action Day.

THEME: Dealing with Racism.

SPECIFIC CONCEPTS:

1. Racism is the systematic oppression and exploitation of human beings on the basis of belonging to a particular racial group.

2. Racism is intentional or unintentional.

3. Racism is prejudice with power (Andrzejewski 6).

OBJECTIVES -- STUDENTS WILL:

1. Demonstrate what they have learned about racism by a take home short essay test.

2. Making sure the students understand the concepts and issues involved on the Human Relations Term Sheet.

3. Describe constructive ways of channelling personal power towards societal change.

4. Provide a forum for future discussions of racism.

EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT:

1. Instruction time will be one day unless there is need for additional time the next day.

2. The activity provides an opportunity to expand into other human relations issues or other oppressed groups.

3. Materials will consist of:

A. Take home essay Test sheet with directions (Attachment 18).

B. Contact with a population of African-American tenth graders. For the class to have a better understanding of African-Americans, there must be some contact with the population that has been studied. This activity involves having a group discussion between the class and another group of 10th graders from an African-American background. This could be accomplished by the class going to another school, the other group coming to our school, or video hookup between the schools.

18 21 TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES:

1. At the beginning of the class the instructor will hand out a take home written exam (Attachment 18). This will be due in three days, and the instructor will read the directions to the students (Attachment 13).

2. In some form (video hookup, travel to another school, or another group comes to the school), a group of African-American students will have a discussion session with my class. The rationale for this activity is:first, there needs some contact between the two populations; second, it brings all the human relations issues to a functional level (everyday level); finally, it presents an opportunity for the students to ask questions to gain a better knowledge of African-Americans. This is an action day in that the students begin to learn how to interact with African-Americans and take abstract concepts and see how they apply in the "real world".

3. The discussion is in an open forum. Students are asked to supply questions they have or from the video exercise of the day before.

4. The instructor can ask questions to initiate communication back and forth from the two groups. Some questions might include:

A. How does racism affect you today?

B. How can some of the problems between the two groups be resolved?

C. Is there a lack of opportunities for African-Americans; etc.

5. The day will end with the discussion. The activity could be followed up the next day with a class discussion or proceed on to discussion of another oppressed group.

EVALUATION:

All in all, this curriculum project has focused on African-American issues relating to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and to the 1990s. The students should have a better knowledge of the power structure of the nation and of how institutions can limit certain populations of people. This all evolves around human relations issues. The students will be graded on how well they understand the concepts as demonstrated by the Pssay test. Other evaluations include group discussion, different projects completed, and interaction between different members of the discussion groups. Again, I hope this project is a beginning to a study on other racial groups and also different -isms.

19 ATTACHMENTS ATTACHMENT I

A GROUP OPPRESSED

NOTE: This short history of the African-American experience in North America is to show how the group has been oppressed by the systems in place. The essay does not, however, show the cultural side of African-American history that is equally important.

The slave trade brought African-Americans to North America from the 1500s until the Civil War. The slaves were defined as property and denied the rights given to other members of society. Families could be broken up for any reason the owner desired. Slave owners used their power in several ways to maintain their dominance over their slaves. They demanded absolute obedience, and to question authority meant physical punishment. The slaves were taught to defer to their masters and to accept their own inferiority. They were taught to identify with their masters' economic success. Finally, slaves were made to feel dependent on their masters, primarily by restricting their education (Nash 64-69).

After the Civil War, the newly freed blacks remained powerless. They did not have the skills and resources to break away from their dependence on whites. Because whites owned the land, African-Americans were forced to enter into sharecropping agreements where they would farm the land, take all the risks, and return a percentage of the crops harvested to the owner. Typically, the sharecropper would borrow on the next year's crop to purchase equipment, food, and clothing. In this way a cycle of indebtedness developed that bound the sharecroppers as if they were slaves (Norton 457).

During this same period many states passed "Jim Crow" laws mandating racial segregation in almost all areas of life. These laws, which legalized white domination, remained in effect until about 1965.

Although the Fourteenth Amendment gave African-Americans the right to vote after the Civil War, the white majority in the southern states used a variety of intimidation methods. Those who tried to vote were often beaten, lynched, or their property was destroyed. If they did vote, the only choices were candidates selected by whites. Legal obstacles also prevented African-Americans from voting. Literacy tests and poll taxes prevented many from voting because of a lack of education and being poor. The Twenty-Fourth Amendment (1964) prohibited literacy tests and poll taxes (Nash 582-586).

Beginning with World War I, African-Americans began to move from the rural south to the urban north in order to work in industry short workers because of the war.After the war, African-Americans experienced large-scale discrimination because when the soldiers returned home jobs became scarce (746-747). World War II created a new demand for more workers in the north, and so an increased number of African-Americans migrated from the south.

21 African-Americans had served in the war and helped produce products in industries, and their population was concentrated in the cities. As a result, following the war, African-Americans were unwilling to accept continued discrimination (904-08). These and other factors led to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. The results of the 1960s included favorable legislation and court decisions, but still African-Americans could not overcome discrimination and difficult economic conditions.

22 ATTACHMENT 2

QUESTIONNAIRE

DIRECTIONS: Answer questions to the best of your ability. This will not be turned in, and your views are confidential unless you are willing to present them.

Do you have any friends who are African-Americans?

2. How do your guardian(s) react to African-Americans?

3. How do you react when you have contact with African-Americans?

4. Do you live by any African-Americans? If "Yes", how many?

5. What are some stereotypes of African-Americans?

Do you feel African-Americans are treated fairly by different institutions? Discriminated against?

Do you see racism in your everyday life? Explain.

8. Give your general feelings about African-Americans.

23 26 ATTACHMENT 3

HUMAN RELATIONS TERM SHEET o African-Americans--

o Blaming the victim--

o Color consciousness--

o Discrimination- -

Types of: 1. Isolated discrimination- -

2. Small group discrimination- -

3. Direct institutional discrimination-

4. Indirect institutional discrimination--

o Ideology--

o Institution--

o Institutional racism-- o Oppression--

o Prejudice--

o Racism--

24 ATTACHMENT 4

TOTAL NATION'S INVOLVEMENT IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

DIRECTIONS: Use the following dates to investigate the events provided in Chapter 17, "Or Does It Explode?" by Howard Zinn. Work in your groups to find the information. First, generally plot on the following political map where the events took place. Then on the space provided or on another sheet list:(1) The event; (2) Groups/people involved; (3) What the event was about; (4) Results.

1. End of 1955 (p. 442).

2. February 1, 1960 (p. 444).

3. May 4, 1961 (p. 444-45).

4. Winter 1961 (p. 446).

5. Summer of 1964 (p. 447).

6. Summer of 1963 (p. 448).

7. August 1965 (p. 450).

8. Summer of 1966 (450-5).

9. 1967 (451-53).

10. Spring of 1968 (453-454) (HINT: Martin Luther King spoke out on .)

25 28

"Or Does It Explode?" 17. blackswithpeoplea surprise. such inis onethememories, Dui Unitedthing perhapshe thatblack Slates,revolt itcannot shoold revolt is there always he notof taken wasthe have. an 1950sthe away,inch The memory below andmemoryand 1960sNorth for theof suchslavery, ofsurface. oppressed people, and For Southcame as PEOPLE'S tionalterMural":memory after that generation.of but segregation, a living presence-- lynching, part humiliation. or the daily livesAndIn the ofit 1930s,blacks inLangston genera- Hughes wrote a poem, "Lenox Avenue was not just a OF TH6 what happens to a dream deferred' Dues u dry up HISTORY. Does it stink like rotten meat? Or Andlikefester a then raisinlike a ma insore the sun? Or crust and sugar over -- Or doesMaybelike a itsyrupy explode?it just sweet?sags like a heavy load howeverthoughtsPerhaps joyful,can the often portendedblues, be foundhowever rebellion. in the pathetic, arts, And andthen concealed so the it Inwaspoetry, a anger; societyin blackthe andthoughts of society. complex the jail, controls, both crude and relined, secret UNITED"1 listorians may well view it -Eric loner, New York Times Book Review new version of American history." as a step toward a coherent of dangerouswhatthatno longer I cameleery socurrentsCabot to secret, be Lodgecalled among In putthethe young in 1920s,"Harlem the Congressionalblacks: Claude Renaissance," McKay, Record one wrote as of an thea eAamplepoem figures STATE_S HuntedIf we must and die, penned let in all inglorious spot it not he like hogs . . 17,1:0W RD ZINN NosedLike men to we'llthe wall,Ince the murderous cowardly pack, drag, hal lighting tun kl 3 '2 . 436Countee Cullen's poem "incident" evoked A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES memoriesall different, all By the 1930s the mask was off for many black poets. Langston "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" 437 the sameout of every black American's childhood: OnceHeart-filled, Iriding saw a in Baltimorean oldhead-filled Baltimore, with glee, Hughes wrote "I, Too." TheyII, am too, send the sing medarker America to eat brother. in the kitchen AndNowKeep hesoI looking was wasI smiled, eight no straight whit andbut bigger, heveryat pokedrne. small, out AndButWhen Igroweat laugh, company well strong. comes, His tongue, and called me, "Nigger." I'llTomorrow, be at the table . That'sOfFromI saw all Maythe all thingswholethat until I remember.December; ofthat Baltimore happened there Cullen wrote a bitter Gwendolyn Bennett wrote: When company conies..I want to see lithe Negro girls, . ts.) casespoem notingof injustice, that whitebut now poets that At the time of the Scottsboro Boys incident, had used theirblacks pens were to involved, protest inmost other were silent. WhileEtched sunset dark against lingers.. the sky . . co His last stanza was: Surely, I said, OfAroundI want a strange to a hearheathen black the chanting firerace.. . . Even outward subservienceUncle Tom But they have raised noNow cry.i wonder will the why. poets sing. behavior in real situa- There was Margaret Walker's prose-poem "For My People": HiddenOfI want my sadto by feel people'sa minstrel-smile. the surging soul cautionconcealedtions, the comic or resentment, fawning Negro anger, on energy. the stage, The black minstrel, around the turn of blackthe self-ridicule, poet Paul Lau- the . . be written in. the sky. Let a secondLet a new generation earth rise. full ofLet courage another issue world forth, be born. Let a bloody peace therence century, Dunbar, wrote in the"We era Wear of the the Mask": ItWe hides wear our the cheeks mask that tnd grinsshades and our lies, eyes, raceblood.andlet a apeopleof strength Letmen the nowloving martial of rise finalfreedom and songs clenching take come be control! written, beto growth,the let pulsing the let dirges a inbeauty our disappear. spirits full of andhealing Let our a BeneathBut let our the feet, world and .dream long theotherwise, mile;. We sing, but oh, the clay is vile instance,man. His autobiographyhow blacks were of 1937,set against Black oneBoy, another, gaveBy theendless when 1940s insights:he there told washow for Richard Wright, a gifted novelist, a black itthemselves as "Two Realat the Coons," same theytime. were, WhenTwo blackBert Williamsperformers of that time played the We wear the mask. and George Walker billed Nathanfiction Huggins thatminstrel white says, men and satirized Southmen.he was Blackcalled prodded Boya "nigger." expressedto fight Well, another unashamedly the whiteblack Southboy everyforThe had the white neverhumiliation amusement South known saidand meneverof thatwhitethen: it knew "niggers," and I was what the white had"intending created. to . give style and comic dignity to a ." known what I thought, what I felt. The white South said that I had a "place" 3 fit: 438 A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" 439 inhad always made me reject thelife "place" to Well, I had never felt my "place"; or, rather, my I which the white South had assigned deepest instincts doneto say about "Yes, it. sir" And to everyhere, allwhite of a man, sudden, whether i had he foundI had had always organizationsmy respect detested or innot. it,which but 1 had never known that anything could be meAnd no word that It had never occurred to me that I had ever heard fall from the lips of southern was in any way an inferior being. humanity. white men of raceNegroes or color.. and whites sat together, and worked together, and knew no difference . . hadwaiting,masked, ever made hot, sometimes mecoiled. really unmistakablydoubt the worth clearthe of my ownIt was all there in the poetry, the prose, trainingsigns of aof people black unbeaten, children the music, sometimes organizedmentand his Councils fellow a demonstration Communists in 1932 which toorganized which got rent a blockthousand relief committees for peopleHerndon needy came,ofpeople. becameUnemploy- six They hun- a Communist party organizer in Atlanta. He discussin America it when to alonekeep amongthem silent.themselves? But also: I thinkHowIn doBlack Negroes Boy, feel Wright about told the about way they the this questionhave can beto answeredlive? How do they dredtion.municado,to theof Hethem jobless, recalled and white, Butcharged his andsoon trial: thewith after nextviolating that day Herndon athe Georgia city was voted statute arrested, $6,000 against held in insurrec- reliefincom- wouldn'tin a single be sentence. not hi n' but A friend uproar of down here!" "Lawd, man! Ef it wuzn't fer them polices 'n' them mine who rail an elevator once told ore: or lynch mobs, there (he tells todetail.my unemployed room, Did andI believe read workers? thatpassages the That bosses ofNegroes it to and the shouldgovernment jury.The They have state questioned oughtcomplete of Georgia to pay equality me insurancedisplayed in great with the literature that had been taken from sotv of attentionthisunfoldedThe period God to Thaiofinthe thehis problemFailed). life,1930s and The ofin hisraceAlabama, Communist disillusionment equality. it wasparty Richardthe was Wright, for a time, joined the Communist party When the Scottsboro case Communist party knownthat to pay specialwith the party, in whitefeelterritory,Black people? that Beltthat the kicking Didworking-class the I out Negro the whitepeople could landlords runshould the millsbe and allowed andgovernment mines to rule and officials?the government? Black DidBelt I believe in the demand for the self-determination of the oned,had become in the associatedearly years with of the defenseDepression, by of these young black men impris- southern injustice.NAACP of exploiting That it wasn't necessary to have bosses at all? I told Herndonthem I believed was convicted all of thatand and more..spent five years in prison until in . . blackthewho issue people were for pureitswere own in realistic motive.purposes, about The and otherthe there difficulty half Thewas partya was accused by liberals and the admirationof of the blacks truth by was their that black of having white allieshalf-truth in it, but dangeroustounder1937 the theEstablishmentwhich Supreme when he was linked Court founda dangerous with ruledguilty. the unconstitutionalCommunist Itmilitancy was men among party.like hintthe blacks, whoGeorgia representedmade statute more theorganizingCommunistsHerndon,And black in Georgia, organizer work whosein theagainst in South fatherof1932, theenormous had diedaunemployed nineteen-year-old earned of obstacles.miner's the pneumonia, There was in Birmingham, for instance. black youth named Angelo who had workedHosea Hudson, andatthe his danger: writer trial; nationally andBenjamin scholar renowned Davis, W. theE. men B.black likeDu lawyersingerBois, There andwhowho actor defendeddid were notPaul others hide Robeson, Herndon whotheir made that same connection, magnifying in minesparty.Birmingham Heas wrotea boy organized later:in Kentucky, by the joined Communist an party, Unemployment Council in and then joined the lay on Bois,be,assupport anti-Communist his however friendsand sympathy their were politicalas so forthe fewso the white views Communist that population. might Herndon, be party. maligned He Davis, The could Negro byRobeson, not the afford wascountry notDu to slashed,my belly inand the my mines buddies for akilled All my life I'd been sweated and steppedon few dollars a week, and saw my pay stolen and I lived in the worst section of town, and and Jim-Crowed. I as nity.a whole, found admiration for their fighting spiritThe in the black black militant commu- mood, flashing here and there in the thirties, disgustingrode behind about the "Colored" me. I heard signs myself on streetcars, called as Ay "nigger" and "darky" and I had though there was something was reduced to a subsurface simmering during World War II, when 3 b 440the nation on the one hand denounced A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES racism, and on the other hand they would have large effects. Congress did Andnot moveso the toUnited enact States the went ahead to take small actions, hoping "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" 441 payingmaintainedofbalance black jobs. andinsegregation When the yellow United the people warin Statesthe the ended, inarmed Africa aenormous, forcesnew President Harry Truman had to reckon and Asia. element entered theand racial kept blacks inwithunprecedented low- this, especially upsurge as fromfourlegislationWallaceissued months the left asked before an for the executive by presidential the Committee order electionasking on that Civilof 1948,the Rights. armed and But challengedforces, Truman segre- in that election by Progressive party candidate Henry thepopulationform.revolt cold Actionwarof former rivalry at on home thecolonies with race emboldened the question allSoviet over the wasby war Union began, and theworld dark-skinned threatenedneeded, to take not Marxistjust to calm a black promises, frustrated by the tionpossibilitybutasgated possible," byin inthe World of needmilitary. warThe War togrew.order maintain II, Itmay institute took have blackover policiesbeen amorale decade prompted of in racialto the complete not armed equality only theforces,by "asthedesegrega- electionrapidly as the basicWhatata United thesameness Dumost States Bois flagrant of had theirthat said couldcondition.failure long counter ago,It was unnoticed, now of American societythe race question. the continuous Communist thrust needed to present to the world loomed large in authoritylawsdid not. passed The to wipein Fourteenth the out late racial 1860s and discrimination. and Fifteenth early 1870s, Amendments, The gave ConstitutionTruman the President pluscould demanded the have enough set issued of executive orders in other areas, but line.on1,/45: Civil "The Rights, problem which of the 20th century President Harry Truman, in late 1946, recommended that the civil rights section is the problem of the color appointed a Committee of buttionpower.that specific ''prohibitingthe Neither President legislation did discrimination Truman. execute in 1887 For the already instance, laws,in interstate butbarred he no asked discriminationPresidenttransportation Congress had in forusedfacilities"; interstate legisla- that o Commissionthediscriminationand Department to slop on voting Civilof in Justicejobs. Rights,discrimination, be that expanded, Congress and passTruman's Committee was blunt about its suggested new laws to end racial that there be a permanent motivationlaws against in making lynching toaftertransportation move the Constitutiontoward and that had had end.never been During been amended enforced the war to by itestablish Meanwhile,executive racial action. the equality Supreme Court was taking steps--inety years ruled that the "white wasofthere conscience.important, costly recommendations. to there Hutthe therecountry. was wasanYes, international also it said, an ''economic there reason: was reason wasteful of its talent. And, perhaps most "moral reason:" a matter " discrimination doctrineprimarieswhichprimary"tutional. thatused it tohad in exclude the defended South blacks were since from really the voting 1890s. the electionswasin theTheIn 1954,Democratic NAACP the unconsti- broughtCourt party finally struck down the "separate but equal" smallest actions have fatreaching effects.. Our position in the post -war world is so vital to . . We cannot escape the future that our the fact that schools,a series of and cases now before in Brown the Court v. Board to challenge of Education segregation the Court in the said public the our civil rights record has been an . Those with competing philosophies have stressed issue in world politics. The world's press . separation of schoolchildren "generates a feeling of inferiority . , that ofproveand underprivileged radioare our shamelessly aredemocracy full of people. it.. an distortingour empty This mayfraud, seem shortcomings. and our nation a consistent oppressor ludicrous to Americans, but it . . They have tried to is aequal'may yearIn affectthe haslater field theirno it saidofplace." hearts public that Theand segregatededucation, Courtminds didin itfacilities a said,not way insist "theunlikely should ondoctrine immediateever be integrated toof be'separate undone."change: "with but thesufficientlyignore final triumph what important the of world the to worrydemocratic thinks our of fricads.us ideal or our The UnitedThe United States was out in the world now record.is not so inevitable that we can States is not so strong, in a way it had guideline,all remaineddeliberate more segregated. speed." than By 75 1965, percent tcn yearsof the after school the districts"allStill, deliberate in the speed" South it was a dramatic decisionand the message went around Committeenever been. Thesaid: stakes ". were . . our smallestlargeworld actions supremacy. have far-reaching And, as Truman's effects." the world in 1954 that the American government had outlawed segrega- t_fqn (-) 442 A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF 'I HE UNITED sTATEs "OR DOES II EXPLODE?" 443 gapnonnot Inbetween enough.the United word In Statesthe and early fact, too, 1960s itfor was those black an notexhilarating people thinking roseWhat aboutsign in to ofrebellion the others change. customary seemedall over rapid progress to blacks was apparently reporternonviolence,rentten years: battles, described emotional thereferences willingness a churchmass to meeting tolostmeetings, struggle American in MontgomeryChristianand sacrifice.ideals, hymns the during A New commitmentadapted the York boycott: toTimes cur- to theregisteredthatin South. a hundreddeep And memoryin inthe northern the poetry, late of slavery, 1960scities. the music, they that were everydaythe occasionalengaging presence in outbursts wild ofinsurrection humiliation, of anger, It was all a surprise to those without "walkBaptist with church God." tonight to urge their followersOne toMore aftershun than the the other, twocity's thousand indicted buses andNegro Negroes leaders tilled look the the church rostrum from in abasement crowded to less.uttered,the more laws frequent passed, sullen decisions silences. made, Part winch of that turnedFor memory such out to awas bepeople, meaning-of words with such a memory, and such daily recapitula- degreeandbalconyUnder prayed; heat. and this Theytheyoverflowed banner collapsedpledged they into themselveshave in the the carried ,'isles again a,nand andfor they eightyagain sweltered to days "passive ain stubborn an resistance eighty-live boycott " trees. They chanted and sang; (hey shouted citysetwhichtion ofof events.nohistory,Alabama one hadrevoltThose set, was events but always which came, minutesmight at thego away, offend withThree inof a1955,sonic timing months unpredictablein mechanism the after capital her arrest, Mrs. Rosa Parks, a forty-three- Montgomery. thatof theHeMartin would city's said Lutherbuses. thesoon protest inspireKing atwas millions that not meeting merely of people gaveover to bus's ademand preview but overracial of the things justice. oratory that downyear-oldlaw inproviding seamstress,the "while" for sectionexplainedsegregation of why the on shebus: city refused buses, to whyobey shethe Montgomerydecided to sit withbeen"go deepthe plunged weapon down Imo intoof the protest. abyssthe archives Itof oppression. of history." AndWe we have He decided said: known to humiliation, raise we have known abusive language, we have is one of the greatest glories of America that up only quitewantedthat toed white toafter know. people %pending when wear and a 'Hunloll how day didn'twould woiknig wecome ever inWell, determine my inmind the our firstbut rights thisplace, as human I had been working all day on the Job. I handle and work on clothing is what I was I them.trampledwe have We the overmust right everyuse of the protest. day, weapon don't of ever love. let We anyone must Ifhave pullwe arecompassionyou arrested so low and every under- day, if we are exploited every day, if we are as to hate placedfeelbeings'? like .in obeying jail his demand lie called a policeman and I was arrested and . It just happened that the driver made a demand and I just didn't intostanding lifehate at usmidnight, for that those they wewho are are hate not always us.lcullly We on responsible must the threshold realize for so of theirmany a new hale. people dawn. But are we taught stand ofall peoplethecity boycott,buses. walked. Car and pools The sent citywere many retaliated organized to jail. Whiteby to indicting take segregationists NegroesMontgomery one hundred to work; turned blacks leadersmost tocalled a mass meeting. They voted to boycott asbuilding thatwell aswhile a blacks.sympathetic there But were there following misguided were blacks throughout people who thought thewho nation,King's might the message stressamonghe won on whites naive,over love byand nonviolence was powerfully effective in onewasviolence.King, oftired the Jr., Bombs throughleaders the twenty-seven-year-old exploded ofthe the front boycott. in door four King'sof Negro the Altattia-born home churches. wasof Dr. bombed. Aminister Martin shotgun But Lutherwho blast the was alwayspresidentinlove, Monroe, withthere ofnonviolence. wereNorth the local others Carolina, NAACP, Twowho an wouldyears becameex-marine afterhave known the tonamed be Montgomery forbitterly Roberthis view fought, Williams, boycott,that and blacks notthe Supremeblackof the people vast Court protestof outlawed Montgomery movement segregation persisted, that wouldon localand sweep inbus November lines. Montgomerythe South 1956, in thewas the next the beginning. It (' 9 forecast the style and mood shouldKlanNAACP,local defend Klansmenleft. Williams(The themselves Klanattacked and was againstother the being homeblacks, violence, challenged of armedone with of gunswiththenow leaders rifles,ifwith necessary. its fired of own the back. WhenMonroetactic The of 444repelledviolence; by a IndiansKlan raid tiring on anrifles.) Indian community in North Carolina was A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES thequestion, Democratic concerned party. about the support of southernThe two white buses leaders that left of' Washington, D.C., on May 4, 1961, headed "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" 445 andcounterboro,lence. when NorthOn downtown, February they Carolina, would 1,where 1960, notdecided leave,only four whites tofreshmen the sit lunch downate. at Theycounter ata NegroStill,the were Woolworth'sinwas college therefused closed y...ars in service,Greens- for lunchthat the followed, southern blacks stressed nonvio- thisfistsInfor Alabama,New violence,and Orleans, iron a bars. norbus never did was The the got set southern federalthere. afire. In Freedom government. policeSouth Carolina,did Riders not FBI interfere wereriders agents attacked were with watched, beaten. any with of states.cameday. The to A sitseventeen-year-oldnext silently. day they returned, sophomore and then, at daySpelman afterIn theday, College next other two in Negroes Atlanta, weeks, sit -iris spread to fifteen cities in five southern tothetook nonviolent Student notes, did Nonviolent but nothing. militant Coordinating action for equal Committee rights,At (SNCC),organized this point, dedicated another veterans of the sit-ins, who had recently formed Ruby Doris Smith, heard about Greensboro: . . . theyFreedom called Ride, the fromDepartment Nashville of to Justice Birmingham. in Washington, Before they D.C., started to askout, to put roe on the list And when two hundred studentsWhen the were student selected committee for the was formed I told my older sister . mentfor protection. said no, theyAs Ruby cotodn't Doris protect Smith anyone, reported: but ". if something happened, . . the. Justice Depart- firstrestaurant demonstration at the IStale was amongCapitol them.with six I wentother through students, the but food when line we in thegot to . . they would investigate. You know how they do. ." downthe andcashier told she us towouldn't leave. take We ourdidn't money and went to the countyIn his jail. Harlem apartment in New York, a young Negro teacher . The Lieutenant-Governor came bordermingham,inMontgomery, a bloodyby police,Alabama, scene. and made spent thereThey their aresumedwere night way attacked inback theirjail, to were trip, byBirmingham, whites totakenThe Jackson, racially towith the took fists Mississippi. Tennesseemixed aand bus SNCC clubs, to Freedom Riders were arrested in Bir- theof mathematicstheyinlook Greensboro the onwere South their taking faces, had namedsit-inners. always the sort Bob initiative. of "Thelooked Mosessullen, students They onsawangry, the awere indefensive,photodetermined. that kids inpicture themy cringing. newspapers Before,age, had anda Thisthecertain I Negroknew timeof toAttorneyworld, travel and withoutGeneral the government being Robert arrested, Kennedy, was agreedanxious instead to to the preventof ByFreedom insisting this further time onRiders' the theirviolence. Freedom being right Riders were in the news all over the thethismore initiativehad thansomething against fifty thousand segregationto do with people, my took ownmostly hold. life." black, In theThere some next was twelvewhite, violence participatedmonths, against the sit-inners. But the idea of taking constitutionalaboutarrestedpossible Robert in mobJackson, rightKennedy: violence. to ininterstate return"He As Victordidn't for travel Mississippi hesitateNavasky for Senator tocomments policetrade Eastland's the protection in freedom Kennedy guarantee against riders' Justice, 111were3,600 demonstrations open people to blackswere of putone in Greensboroin kind jail. or But another by and the inmany end a hundred ofotherA 1960,year places.cities, after lunch theand counters Greensboro over incident, a northern-based group dedi- laterprotested,of their how right he sang, aTtdto live." demanded his fellow theirinmates rights. were Stokely singingThe Carmichael Freedom in the Parchtnan Riders recalled did not become subdued in jail. They res -d, inonitedcated interstatebuses "Freedom to racialgoing travel. throughequalityCORERides" Such thein which segregationSouth, (Congress blacks to try tohad and break oflong whites Racial the been segregation tras Equality)organ- illegal, led together butpattern the andjailtresses- in I thinkMississippi you're unjust." and the And sheriff he said, threatened "I don't wanttoI hung take to onhearaway to allthe their that mattress mat-shit, and said, "I think we have a right to them nowfederal was government John F. Kennedy, never enforced but he too the seemed law in thecautious South; about the President the race totugger," sing "I'mand Gonnastarted toTell put God on the flow wristhreakers. You Treat Mc" and everybody started I wouldn't 44. 111,1VC and started 446"Getlu sing Inn) it, ;Indto there!" by this and tune he Tyson went out was the really door 10 and pieces. slammed it, and left everybody A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES He called to the trusties, facing police clubs, tear gas, dogs, high-powered Inwater Birmingham hoses. And in mean-1963, thousands of blacks went into the streets, "OR DOES IT EXPLOpi r 447 ofelse slaveryof with 1961 their stilland mattresses. lingered, again in mass1962. demonstrationsOf 22,0(X) black took peopleIn placeAlbany, in Albany, Georgia, a small deep-South town where the atmosphere in the winter ier a black,courageing,Mississippi,while, ato few allregister against white,over Arkansas. the peoplewere violence. deep moving Joined to South, vote, The intoby Departmentto localthe communities protest young black against people, peopleof inJustice Georgia, racism, theyof SNCC,recorded were Alabama, to organiz-huild mostly 1412 up overandthousandarrests,was discrimination. the learning South,went was totaking to littlejail act.Ilerc, for theblack The marching,as names inAlbany children all theof assembling, prisonerspolicedemonstrations participateda chief, to protest that new segregation lined up before his desk. after one of the mass would sweep generation demonstrationsnamedOthersmonplace, cameCarver beatings inforward. Neblett, three became months A working nineteen-year-old frequent. of for1963. SNCC ManyImprisonment in black localTerrell studentpeople County, became were from Georgia, com- afraid.Illinois dom."yourlie looked name?" up The and boy saw a Negro boy about nine years looked straight at him and said: "Freedom, Free- old. "What's reported:movement. lie has been keeping up with the Imovement from thetalked beginning. with a blind man who is extremely interested in the civil rights tracingon Inthe Lee sensibilitiesthe County, process Georgia, byof awhich whole after some generation the of events ofThere 1961-1962, is no way a of measuring the effect of that southern movement them became activists and leaders. of young black people, or of black teenager yearshouses,literacyEven old,though test. shoot wants Imagine, this into to mancome !bent, while is to orblind our putMany meetings. he us wantsareoff theirafraid to properly,learn that whiteall thea blind men questions man,will burn seventy on ourthe tookhetonamed the was notes county Jamesapproached on courthouSethe Crawford conversation: by thejoined to deputy vote. SNCC One registrar. and day, began bringing Another taking a SNCC workerwoman there,black people decidedgroupsfor help. working to callThey togetherupon hoped young in that Mississippi, people would frombring and otherfacingattentionAs parts theincreasing summerto of the the situationviolence, countryof 1964 inapproached, SNCC and other civil rights CRAW10111):R LoisRi.Gtst RAW RAR: What do you want'? in(afterI brought the givinghall) this Why the lady woman did down you a bringcardto register. tothis fill ladyout and down sending here'? her outside violated.civilhadMississippi. stoodrights by,workers Again lawyers andwere for again beatenthe Justicein Mississippiand Departmentjailed, andwhile elsewhere,had federal stood laws by, the werewhile FBI C'RnwloRI).CRAwinktrRtRi.ws call RARAH: R. SupposeWhoItecauseIt's are my youshe youJob. towantsget bring two to people bulletshe a first downin yourclass to head citizenregister'? right like y'all. now: busloadcivil rights of movementblack Mississippians rented a theatertraveled near to Washington theOn White the eve House,to testifyof the and pub-Mississippi a Summer, in early June 1964, the CRAW!C'Rawloko. ORD:Itixos I KAN ads t RAH AreI gotNoIf you to diescared? anyhow. I don't do it, I can get somebody else to do it. (No reply) Theernmentintolicly Mississippi.abouttranscript had the the dailyof Constitutionallegalthis violence, testimony power theto lawyers give wasdangers protectiongiven testified facing to President against thethat volunteers the such Johnsonnational violence. coming gov-and (-RawlRI t,isi ORD. KAH. SupposeIback of somebody the head rightcantocouldn't now. in that Whatdo door nothing would you do? If they shoot me in the back of the and shoot you in the federalAttorney presence General during Kennedy, the Mississippi accompanied Summer. by a TwelverequestThere was days,for no a afterprotectiveresponse. the public hearing, three civil rights workers, (.'RawlRI t,ISI ()RH RAR. r) 1Whathead he peoplepeople?there are I work people for. coining from all over the world. Jamesphia,Andrew Chancy, Mississippi, Goodman a young released and black Michael Mississippian,from Schwerner, jail late at and night,were two arrestedthen white seized, volunteers, in Philadel- beaten 4 448with chains, and shot to death. Ultimately, an A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE. UNITED STATES informer's testimony andwas quiet probably dignity" closer of the to themarch, mood but the black "OR DOES IT F.XPLODE?" of the black community. Speaking militant Malcolm X 449 cameledorpeated to any toojail refusalotherlate.sentences The President, of Mississippithe for national the to sheriff government, and deputy under defend blacks against violence. murders had taken place after the re- sheriff and others. ThatKennedy or Johnson, style:hamin Detroit bombing, two months Malcolm after X the said, march in his on powerful, Washington icy-clear, rhythmic and the Birming- how Mississippi,summer, during blacks the askedDemocratic to be seated as partDissatisfaction with the national government the state's populationNational who Conventionwere black. in Washington, of the state delegationintensified. Later that onthey theWashington, were Congress, going march toand march tie on it on theup, Washington.. Senate,bring it to a halt,The not Negroes let were out there in the streets. They were talking about march on the While House, march on . . That they were the government proceed. going to march Theyvice-presidentialto publicity.representwere turned Civilthe down 40candidate rights percent by lawsthe Hubert liberalof were Humphrey.passed in 1957,Congress began reacting to the black revolt, the Democratic leadership, including 1960, and 1964. They turmoil, the world andTheytorevolution. not death,even let said anyscared That they airplanes wasthe were white revolution. going land. power out I'm toThat structuretelling the was airport youthe and blackwhatIt waslay the grass roots out there in the street. in Washington, D.C. to death; I It scaredrevolution. the white man theydown said. on That the runway was enforcedpromisedon-the-spotCongress poorlymuch, passed federal oron anignored.voting even protection equality,stronger In 1965, of Votingon Presidentthe employment right Rights to JohnsonregisterLaw, sponsored this and time vote. andensuring The equality, but were comewasarethat there. downletting you When respecton this the thingthey capital, and foundgo told toothey them, out called "Call it of," far." And Old Toni said, "Boss, I can't stop it that this black steamroller was going to in . what they. said. They said,, "I'mKennedythese said. national "Look you Negro all leaders southerneffect60 1964percent on Negroblacks the "the number voting(20 same percent was inpercentage the 2 million-40 ofSouth those as was white percent. voters. eligible) registered to vote.dramatic. In In 1952, a million By 1968, it was 3 million, notbecauseheadfox,doing even heof thingsIin it.didn'tsaid, it, muchon "If start their you less it." own. all at I'm aren't theThey're telling head in running you ahead of endorse it. I'll welcome it. it, of it."I'll putThey you said, in "These NegroesI'll are help it. us." And that old I'llshrewd join it." it. I'll put you at the changesto control an explosive situation, toThe federal government was tryingwithout channel anger into themaking fundamental . . . This is whatbecame they part did of with it, took the march it over. on And as they took it over, Washington. They joined it it lost its thetraditional officially cooling endorsed mechanism quiet gathering. of the ballot When black civil rights leaders box, the polite petition, ing.militancy. Why, Itit ceasedeven ceased to be angry, to be ita ceasedmarch. to It bebecame hot, it ceaseda to . . picnic, a circus. Nothing be uncompromis- bracedtheplanned failure by a huge Presidentof the march nation Kennedy on to Washington solve and the other race in the summernational of 1963problem, leaders, to protest it was and quickly turned em- butthey a circus, told thosewith clownsNegroes and what all.. time to hit town,No, it was a sellout. II was a takeover.. . . Theywhere to stop, what signs to controlled it so tight, into a friendly assemblage. . black and white theycarry, couldn't what song make, to sing, and thenwhat toldspeech them they to get out could make, and what speech of town by sundown. withoutAmericans"IAlabama-born the anger have SNCC that a dream.many leader, blacks much felt.arrested, When muchMartin Luther King's speech there thrilled 200,000 . ." It was magnificent oratory, but John beaten,Lewis, trieda young to intro- on Washington is corroborated The accuracy of Malcolm X's caustic description in the description from the other side of the march duceofthe the aleaders stronger national of thenote government march, of outrage who and insisted at urging the he militant Eighte':n days after the Washington gathering, meeting,omit certain he was sentences censored critical by exploded in the basement action. almost as if in delib- ofcivilinfrom hisintimidation" rightsthe book Establishment, leadersA Thousand just and when said by Days. Congress White the Hemarch House tells was would how consideringadviser Kennedy"create met an with atmosphere the Arthur Schlesinger, civil rights bills. erateschoolof acontempt black class church were for itskilled. in moderation, Birmingham President aKennedy bomband four had girls praised 45 attending a Sunday the "deep fervor A. ItPhilip Randolph replied: "Theis very Negroes likely arc impossible to get them off. already. in the streets.." Schlesinger says: 46 ; 450thethat"The Washingtonthey conference should withmarchnot laythe admiringly siegePresident to Capitol did and persuade then Hill." concludes: Schlesinger the civil rights "So describes inleaders 1963 A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES year-oldingsthrowing, by the boy, looting, National another and Guard; firea fourteen-year-old bombing three blacksby Chicago pregnantwere blacks killed, girl. andone In wildCleveland,a thirteen- shoot- "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" 451 coalition..Kennedy moved to incorporate the Negro revolution into the democratic . ." bycommunity;the white National civilians. Guardfour Negroes was summoned were shot to to stop death, a commotion two by troopers, in the black two blackwhen people.new "civilthe In democratic rights"the spring laws coalition"of did 1963, not thewhenchange rate bombs oftheBut unemployment rootkeptit did condition exploding not work. for of in The churches, black could not be easily brought into theeffectivement, segregationist perhaps because tactically it South, could necessary bewas used not toenough inappeal the tosouthern to deal nationalIt seemed with atmosphere, theopinion clear entrenched byagainst nowand that the nonviolence of the southern move- fundamentalline.thetowhites government poverty The was civil 4.8line, solution rightsestimates,percent. and hillsone-half to For racismone-fifthemphasized nonwhites of the or of poverty.black the it voting, was white population 12.1In populationbut Harlem, percent. voting was blacks wasbelowwasAccording below not whothat a livedproblemsblacks81 inpercer the leftof South.poverty the country But in theby for 1965,black the ghetto.city.mechanical By In 1965, 1910, cotton 80 90 percent percentpickers of ofharvested blacks Negroes lived if Mississippi Delta cotton. Between 1940 and 1970, 4 million inofhad Congressevery voted part for reached years of the stillits country: peak, lived 1964in inrat-infested Florida,and 1965, set slums.there offIn were byprecisely theblack killing outbreaks those of years a when civil rights legislation coming out Theirin citiesLester: disillusionment and 50 percent was of expressedthe black people by a young livedThere inblack thewas North.writer, a new Juliusmood in SNCC and among many militant blacks. w land,Negro set woman olf by and the a bombkilling threatof a white against minister a Negro who high sat school; in the in pathCleve- of really meant "(hat all men arc endowed with Nowcertain it inalienable rights." . is over. America has had chance after ehance to show that . it . a bulldozerNegrowork; inboy New to during protest York, a fightsetdiscrimination off with by an the off-duty fatal against shooting policeman. blacks of ina There fifteen-year-oldconstruction were riots likebulletsNow response. it is and over. hilly 'TheThey clubs days used with of to singinglove. sing "I Freedom Love Everybody" songs and as the they days ducked of cinnbating bricks . . Love is fragile and gentle and seeks a votersthealso strong in toRochester, ensure Voting their Rights Jersey protection, Act, City, providing Chicago, the black for Philadelphia. ghetto federal inIn registrationWatts, August Los 1965, Angeles,of black just as Lyndon Johnson was signing into law and bottles. Now they sing: TooNothing'foo much much love, kills love, a nigger like accusedofwaserupted a provokedbystander ofin spittingthe by bymost the police,on forcible violentthe police.the arrest urbanseizure There of outbreaka of youngwas a young rioting Negro since blackin drivcr, the World womanstreets, the War clubbing falselylooting II. It urban riots of American history. According to the reportIn 1967, of the in theNational black ghettos of the country, came the greatest Too much love. Coastblack,in;and they firebombing journalist,hundreds used their injured,wroteof guns.stores. of four Thirty-fourthe Police thousandriot (Riversand people National arrested. of Blood, were Guardsmen Robert killed,Years Conot, mostof wereDarkness): of a calledthemWest ityingAdvisory threewhite andagainst property persons."serious Committee local symbolsin butThe the onnot Commissionblack Urban ofmajor" white neighborhoodsrather Disorders, outbreaks,American reported they society," andeight "involved 123 majorthan symbols "minor" purely uprisings,Negroes of disorders. againstauthor- act- thirty- orstrikelonger"In no." Los back, turn Angeles thewhether other the the Negrocheek. response wasThat, goingof frustrs.ted violence on record was and an goaded,Inthat appropriatethe he summer would he would one noof 1966, there were more outbreaks, with rock 4 werewhelmingEighty-three Negro majority civilians."died of of gunfire, the persons mostly killed in Newark or injured andThe inDetroit. all"typical the "The disorders rioter," over- according to the Commission, was a young, 48 452high school dropout but "nevertheless, somewhat better educated than A PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES or a subversive, or seditious, or a red or a radical. But "OR DOES IT Extti.oiw?" when you slay radical 453 hispolitics,toployed non-rioting both whitesin highly a menial Negro and distrustful middle-class job."neighbor" He of wasthe and Negroes political"proud "usually ofand,system." his underemployed although race, extremely informed or hostile em-about Actlongviolence ofenough 1968. against and Presumably get blacks; enough it increasedpeoplewould maketo hethe like strongerpenalties you,Congress you'll theagainst getlaws responded yourthose prohibiting freedom. depriving to the riots of 1967 by passing the Civil Rights inthe our ingredients cities since of the the "explosive end of World mixture War which II":The has report been blamed accumulating "white racism" for the disorders, and identified mentsectionpeople officers, shallof their not members civil apply rights. to ofacts However,the or National omissions it said: Guard on "The the part provisions of law enforce- of this . . or members of limvang Pervasive discrimination and segregation in employment, education, and. growing cunt:coin:lions of impoverished Negroes in our major athe riot Armed or civil Forces disturbance.. of the United States, who are engagedFurthermore, in suppressing it added a sectionagreed to by liberal members . ." cities,human creating needs... a growing crisis of deteriorating facilitiesA new and mood services has sprungand unmet up among Negroes, particularly the young, in . toof fiveCongress years in in prison order for to anyoneget the traveling whole bill interstate passedthat or provided up using interstate whenNIslot)which the to self-esteemfacing Commissionthe "system." rebellion: Report set up itself an investigating was a standard committee, device issueof the a system report; enhanced racial pride are replacing apathy and subinis- prosecutedbyage,facilities three participate (includingor moreunder in, peoplethe mail or Civil carryand involving Rights telephone) on a Act threatsriot." of "to 1968It of definedorganize, violence. was a a young promote, The blackfirst encour- person leader riot as an action r. the words of the report, however strong, will haveThat adidn't soothing completely effect work either. "Black Power" was the new of beMaryland,SNCC, used H. against justRap before Brown, antiwar a who racialdemonstrators had disturbance made ina militant, Chicagothethere. (Later angry Chicago the speech Act Eight.)would in bysloganan given,thewhites, statement they expression a rejection are oftaken." the of of distrustwhite paternalism.But thewriter of idea any Aldous wasFew"progress" there,blacks Huxley: ingiven (or Black "Liberties whites) or Power.conceded knew arc Also, not aboutadviceof poverty. problems of some In theuntouched Negro spring leaders of by 1968, civil who herights feared began lawsproblems losing speakingMartin friends Lutherout, incoming Washington, against King out himselfthe became more and more concerned blacka pride separation in race, an to insistence achieve this on independence.black independence, Malcolm and X often, was theon against. the war in .Vietnam. He connected. war andit's poverty:inevitable that we've got to bring out the question of the tragic mix- arespokemost still eloquent on obscure, a public spokesman he platform became infor theFebruary this. martyr After 1965,of he this was in movement. a assassinated plan whose Hundreds origins as he andup thein not priorities. guns nearly of warenough We become are money spending a national for lifeall ofand obsession, this constructi"e money social development needs . for death and destruction, inevitably suffer. . . when 6. of thousandsthan during read his lifetime.his Autobiography. He was moreMartin influentii. Luther King, though still respected, was being replaced in death phoneKinghim, now conversations, and became even suggested a chiefsent trim target once fake ofin letters, thean anonymousFBI, threatened which tappedletter him, thatblackmailek' his he commitprivate Thesippinow Panthers byvisiting new had heroes:Harlem: guns; Huey they Newtonsaid blacks of the should Black defend MalcolmPanthers, themselves. X forin lateinstance. 1964 had spoken to black students from Missis- suicide.destroyKing. FBIAs Dr. ainternal Senate Martin memos reportLuther discussed on King." the FBI finding said ain black 1976,King leader the was FBI to turning his attention to troublesome questions. tried "to Hereplace still callto getyou you your gel a -crazy thatfreedom, kind nigger"--they of then attitude, you'll don't they'llget say tl labelNegro. you OrYou'll as they'll a get"crazy call freedom you Negro," an extremistby orletting they'll your enemy know that you'll do anything 49 It's the only way you'll gel it. When didinsistedhe express said, on "mustnonviolence.a deep be feeling militant, Riots that massive couldwere self-defeating,not non-violence." be ignored. heAnd thought.He so, planned a "Poor 50 nonviolence, But they 454approvalPeople's Encampment"of the President. on Washington, And he went this to timeMemphis, not with Tennessee, the paternal to A l'1:01'1 E.'S HISTORY OF "1111: UNITED STATES elseain the plannedinstitutions, pattern the mindof violence of the country.against militantBut there black was organizers, something "OR D015 ti EXPLODE ?" 455 balconysupportbrokenmarksman. aoutside strikeup by The ofpolicehis Poorgarbage hotel action, People's room, workers just he Encampment as was in the that shot World city. to went There,deathWar on, I by veterans'standing and an thenunseen onBonus it was a carriedtwowherepolice,December hundred on Blackarmed by 4, the Panthers1969, withrounds police a a submachine little intoandlived, before thethe They apartment,Federal gunfive fired andin the atBureau shotguns, least morning,killing eighty-two of twenty-one-year-old Investigation.raided a squad anand ofapartment perhapsChicago On Hack.country,Armylaws of Evidence now1932 in which on was the was dispersed.thirty-nine hooks, piling the uppeople courts that even werewould withkilled, notThe allprotect thirty-fivekilling of the blacks of civil Kingof rights themagainst brought new urban out breaks all over the thatproceedingBlack they PantherPanther, had that given leader Mark the the FBIClark.Fred police had Hampton Years ana floor informer later, as plan he it ofwasamonglay the in discovered apartment,his the bed, Panthers, and in including aanother court and violenceI and injustice: Motelin the 1907'Vince riots Debou in Detroit, policemen three blackand a teen-agers black private were guard killed were in the tried Algiers for a sketchconcessionsthe of where Fred legislation, Hampton the slept. speeches, theWas intonation the government of the civil turning to murder and terror because the 2 lourthisIn Inellunlit. Jackson, had minder shot Mississippi, two of the in blacks.the spring A jury of 1970, exonerated on the them.campus of Jackson 'I he defense conceded, a UN dispatch said, that the weretherights notyears hymnworking? of the "We civil It Shallwas rights discovered Overcome" movement, later whileby Presidentthat making the governmentconcessions Lyndon Johnson throughin all Statewereorgunfire, piecesCollege, killed. using of aA buckshot shotguns,Negrolocal grand college, struck rifles, Jury police andthe found girls'a laidsubmachine the dormitorydown attack a 211- "justified"gun. and secondFour two and hundredblack barrage U.S students Districtbullets of actionsCounterintelligencemilitantCongress, againstgroups. was blackBetweenacting Program groups. through 1956 (knownBlack andthe 1971FBImilitancy as toCOINTELPRO) the harass seemedFBI concluded and stubbornly break that a tookup massive resis-black 295 3 Courtman,whoIn Judge engage Bostona patient Harold min coilAprilin Coxa disorders ward1970, (a Kennedy in a thepoliceman"must Roston appointee)expect shotCity to andbeHospital, declared injured killed firinganorthat killed."unarmed students black live shots saidoftiontant "ablacks hasrecentto destruction. a under greatpoll indicates 21respect yearsA secret that for of approximatelytheage." FBI Black reportWas Panther there to 25% President fear ofParty, the that black includingNixon blacks popula- in would 197043% 4 courtafterhailingIn theAugusta,of Huston black and man disorder rieorgra,exonerated snapped inin theMay the a towelcity policeman 1970, -File at sixhim New N.groes The York chief Timeswere judge shot reported of theto deathmunicipal during airseventydangerousturn force their poor barracks,attention arena black peopleof fromuntil wealth theyinthe Greenville, andcontrollable were povertyof evicted Mississippi, field classby of the occupiedvoting conflict? military. to an theIn Aunused morelocal 1966, were killed by the police.. AnA confidential eyewitness topolice one ofreport the deaths indicates said thathe had at leastwatched live a of Negro the victims police- . woman,poor people. Mrs. UnitaEverything Blackwell, that we said: have asked forI through these yearsfeel had that been the federal government have proven that it don't care about manof andlooting. his white .fhey par did ,.er not fire fire nine warning shots intoidiots the or back ask ofhim a man to stop suspected running, . handed down on paper. It's never been a reality. We the poor people of Missis- 5 said CharlessiveIn force" April A. Reid, 1970, against a a311- federaltwo year black jury -old soldiers in businessman.. Boston From fOund Fort a Devens,policeman and had one used of "exces- them wesippi don't is tired. have We're a government tired of it that so we'rerepresents going us.to buildOut for ofourselves, the 1967 because riots in Detroit came an organization devoted the country, coming randomly$3required in damages. but twelve persistently stitchesThese outut his of were scalp;a racism "normal" the judgedeep cases, awarded endlessly the servicemen repealed in the history of 51 activity.to influencedLeagueorganizing of Revolutionary thousandsblack workers of blackBlack for revolutionary workersWorkers, in which Detroit change. lasted during This until its was 1971 period the and of J2 456 The new emphasis wa:, more dangerous , PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES than civil rights, because notand asoperated the private as social property property, of individual belonging orto the general "OR DOES IT EXPLODE?" linuted groups of individuals. black community, 457 andspokenclassit created foreseen exploitation. to thean AFLpossibilityits direction: -CIOBack conventionin November"The of blacks and whites uniting on the Negro's protest today is but the firstabout the civil rights movement,1963, A. Philip Randolph had issue of communityThis necessitates and their the replacement dismantling ofwith capitalist a planned property communalA relations black economy. woman, Patricia Robinson, in a pamphlet distributed in in the black sorumbling withwill the whitesto of unemployed the 'under-class.' lure a ofsmall As number the Attempts began to do with blacks all races take to the streets." Negrointowhat has the had taken system been to thedone with streets, historicallyeconomiccapitalism." Leaders of the andBostonwomanwider said in world 1970the did blacknotand in their womanthe revolutionarypast "allies "question herself struggles." the with Shethe said (Poor Black Woman), tied male supremacy to capitalism social and economic system" have-nots in the the poor black enticements.ofNAACP PresidentCORE, and a There former Nixon'sCORE was Freedom wereadministration. talk invited of Rider"black to Floydandthe loan to build a housing development McKissickWhite militant,of House. CORE wasJames received given Farmer a job in in North butformale now equality dominationshe must, with andandmen inthe if fact, it class meant "she society hasequality begun which in totheenforcesAnother black woman, Margaret Wright, said she was not world ofquestion killing, aggressivethe it, capitalism." fighting a $14OfficeC'arolina. million of Economic Lyndongovernment Johnson Opportunity; had given Nixon set up an jobs to some blacks through the Office of Minority tiveworld level. of competition. "I don't want to compete on no I don't want to exploit nobody. . ." . I want the right to he damned exploita- CoLa of Chase)Business took Enterprise. a special interest in Chase Manhattan Bank and the developing "black capitalism." The Rockefeller family (controllers of the Urban League, blackwereto contain and voting me.. the in frighteninglarge numbers explosiveness in The system was working hard, by the late sixties and the South, and in the 1968 Democratic of the black upsurge. Blacks early seventies, NegroandRockefellersfellow a strongcolleges capitalists had influence in always the that South. in beenwhile black David financial helping patrons education through their supportRockefeller of triedblack to businessmen persuade hisit waswith necessarymoney "to shape an Conventionmen,statesBy 1977, eleven (in 1965morethree state thethanblacks senators,number two were thousand was ninety-fiveadmitted seventy-two). blacks into state heldthe representatives,There 267were county two Congress-office in eleven southernMississippi delegation. environmentmightinfinitesimallyor fivehad not orsales he ten in fruitful yearswhichin small, 1974 inthe The theof business $45 largestshort million, run, blackcan while corporation from now." With all of this, black business continue earningExxon Corporation a profit four had sales (Motown Industries) remained sheriffscommissioners,heldadvance. orless chiefs thanBut seventy-sixof blacks, 3 police, percent with508 mayors, of school20 the percent elective 824board city of members. offices. councilthe members, South's population, still A New It was a dramatic York Times eighteen 0.3of percent were$42 billion. more of all black businessThe totalfaces income. receipts in of There was a small amount of change the newspapers and on television, black-owned firms accounted for and a lot of publicity. There creating Atlanta,economicwherereporter, blacks "the analyzing power." white held businessimportantAfter the newMaynard establishment citysituation offices: Jackson, in "Whites continued a to exert 1977, pointed out that even black, became mayor of almost always retain its influ- butan Awakening impressionsignificant in numberof Capitalist changeand of black America) leaders. Some new black voices spoke siphoning off into the mainstream a wrote: against this. Robert Allen (Black small ence."restaurantsmedicalMore blacks schools. and could hotels Northern go were to colleges nocities longer were and universities,busingThose toblacks in the South who could afford to go to barred because of their race. children hack and forth law schools and downtown businesswhole must relations be organized with white lo manage America. If the community as a whole is to 0 3 collectively its internal economyMaul( and businessits firmsbenefit, must be then treated the community as a andin antion Richard attempt in housing. Clowardto create None racially of this, mixed however, schools, was (Poor People's Movements)called "the destruction halting what Francesdespite Piven the racial segrega- 458of the black lower class"--the unemployment, the A PEOPI E'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES deterioration of the whitesYet, a new and blackblacks consciousness were crossing had racial been lines born in andthe Southwas still to alive. unite Also,as a "OR DOES IT EXPLODE'?" 459 ghetto,thesmall rateoverall the new ofrising black unemploymentstatistics crime, middle fordrug class black addiction,among of incomebut blacks black violence. had youths there beenIn wascreated,the summera great of 1977, the Department of Labor 34.8 percent. A reported thatand it raised disparity sippi,classStevens,measuring against black whereand employers. wood white, 44,000 that joinedInled workers1971, to lowertogether two were thousandwages. toemployed protest In woodworkers the aintextile new eighty-five methodmills in Missis- of plants, J. of I'. netblacksblackDespite ween family thewere the newly new incometwice Opportunitiesrisen as of likely middle-class1977 to was die for ofonlya smalldiabetes; about number 60 seven percent of black and the poor left behind. blacks, the mediantimes as likely to that of whites; andactivity.mostly whites in In the Tifton, served South, Georgia, together blacks and on Milledgeville, whitesthe union were committees working Georgia,Would together in of 1977, their a new in plants.blacks union black movement go beyond the limits of the civil ofbe the victims ghetto. of homicidal violence rising out of the poverty . . and despair therights seventies, actions ofbeyond the sixties, separatism beyond to thea coalition spontaneous of white urban and blackriots ofin changedthat experienced little, and urban the conditions riots in the of 1960'spoverty have,haveStatisticsA spreadwithNew a York did notTimes tell thereport whole in earlystory. 1978Racism, said:. always a fewin exceptions, most cities." the places national a historicexplode?said,In 1978, what new 6 Ifmillion happens italliance? did black explode, to There peoplea dream as was wereit haddeferred? no unemployed. wayin the of Doespast, As it woulddryLangston up, come or Hughesdoes with it knowing this in 1978. sow againstgovernmentfact,freed not poor fromjust made a whitesslavery southern concessions for to resources takeone, theiremerged to poor madeplace blacksin underscarce northern in capitalism, aby way cities,the as system.the federal Blacks, that pitted them had long been anda certain yet, because inevitabilityout no one knewof the when, conditions it would of conicblack as a surprise. life in America- selvesInforced housing,anger. intopoor, In conflictblacks the crowded, Boston triedwith towhitesGlobe,troubled, move forNovember into couldscarce find jobs. in Now,them a target neighborhoods where whites, them- 1977: with desegregation for their of Dorchesterattacks,logs by apolice group yesterday said of white after youths, a week in whatof repeated appears Astonings toIlispante family of six fled their apartment in the Savm have been racially motivated and window-mash- Hill section theusetoIn blackBoston, courtsof busing schools, in the response to busing integrate set off toof athe black wave black children of movementwas white to an schoolssponsored by the government and neighborhood violence.white Theschools, and whites ingenious conces- siontheprovidedinto to growthcompetitionprotest for of all a themiddlefor thepoor. miserableclass, decimated inadequate by poverty,Was the black population It had the effect of pushing poor whites and pow hemmed into the ghetto, divided by schools which the system attacked by the blacks ingovernment, the mid-seventies, driven intothere conflict was no with great r"' whitesunder control? Surely,black movement under way. )E ATTACHMENT 7

LEADERS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

REPORT FORMAT

Identify the civil rights leader whose life you are studying:

Name:

Date and place of birth:

Occupation:

2. Summarize the individual's life prior to involvement in the Civil Rights Movement:

3. Explain the individual's contributions to the Civil Rights Movement:

Form from ED 266 218, P. 46. ATTACHMENT 8

The Struggle for Equal Rights

YEAR EVENT EFFECT

1947 Report of Truman's Showed that blacks remained second-class cat :ens in America. Committee on Civil Rights 1945 Truman issues executive Opened the way for equal opportunities in the armed tortes. order integrating the armed forces 1954 Bum n v. Board of Supreme Court ruled that local school boards should move "with Education decision all deliberate speed" to desegregate facilities. 1935 Montgomery bus boycott Black solidarity tested local petty segregation laws and customs, 1957 Little Rock school White resistance to integration of Little Rock's Central High integration crisis School resulted in Eisenhower's calling in federal troops Civil Rights Act Created Civil Rights Commission and empowered lusticc Department to go to court to guarantee blacks the right to vote. 1960 Civil Rights Act Plugged loopholes in Civil Rights Act of 1957. Sit-in demonstrations Gained support for desegregation of public facilities begin 1961 Freedom rides begin Dramati:ed struggle to desegregate transportation facilities. 1962 lames Meredith attempts Required federal intervention to uphold blacks' rights to attend to attend University public institutions. of Mississippi 1963 Effort to desegregate Brutal response of police televised, sensiti=ing entire nation to Birmingham, Alabama plight of blacks. March on Washington Gathered support and inspiration for the civil rights movement, scene of Martin Luther King's "1 Have a Dream speech 1964 Civil Rights Act Outlawed racial discrimination in public accommodations 1965 Voting Rights Act Allowed federal examiners to register black voters ;\ here necessary. 1971 Busing decision Supreme Court ruled that court ordered desegration was constitutional, even if it employed busing. 1978 Bakke decision Supreme Court declared that affirmative action was constitutional but that firm racial quotas were not.

From Nash 921.

41 ATTACHMENT 9

THE LEADERS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT INFORMATION

1. For each of the individuals listed below, describe briefly:

A. Some details of their life before the Civil Rights Movement.

B. Some individual contributions to the Civil Rights Movement.

Martin Luther King

* Malcolm X

* Rosa Parks

* Philip Randolph

* Andrew Young

1992 Christopher Czech

42 0r ,0 INEQUALITIES IN INCOME OVERHEAD I 1988 4050 Thousands ($) 3020 10 Household Income Household Net Worth Patterson, Page 145 White == African-American 35 Thousands ($) INEQUALITIES IN INCOME OVERHEAD 'IA 15 10 5 19720 1974 1976 1978 1980 _L 1982 1_ 1984 j 1986 1 1988 Eitzen, Pagec2 287. White Hispanic African-American 63 OVERHEAD 2 30%35%1 POVERTY 1987 20%25%15% 10% 0%5% Poverty Rate Eitzen, Page 287. African-American White f' ATTACHMENT 13

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. To dirstussissues()fro wemustlook atqiirselves looked around at a the Star As you can see, we LIke most newspapers, community that wascoping not Tribune tries toapproach public - always well diveraity and affairs Issues from aneutral, address issues of From time to change. Articles will journalistic distance. race In education,in employrnont,,In time, we've presentedarticles about and in the everything from arson tochild abuse housing, in media coverage life.. , issues in our community, fullness opommunity to drugs as - but not as ourIssues. But we also lookedat Ourselvei. : Race, however, is anIssue that can- Often, as we worked onthis project, - not be kept at&comfortable distance we said that evenif we never pub- from the newspaper.It was, and is, lished a thing, wewould have begun our issue. It waspresent In every part changing the cultureand the focus of just as a subject of this project, not the Star Tribune.We learned (or were but as an initiatingforce, a part of thereminded) of the Impactof the limited process, a challengeto change. diversity in our newsroom(although and Hispanicreport- of articles that be- we ;Java Indian The 12-day series ers, there arefewer than a handful gins today was bornin conflict, en- and none worked onthe project). We by an article publishedin better to each gendered than two years learned how to listen the Star Tribune more other, how to the fact that a ago. Thai piece,about an unwed different point of viewis not neces- black teenagemother,'aroused the sarily a "wrong" pointof view. We anger of manyblack readers. Her have yet to reinforced neg- learned how much we story, said the critics, learn about eachother all of us. . . ative, stereotypes. .-.. We know thatwhat we have in this After a complaint waslodged, the everyone. it Council heard testi- series will not please Minnesota News doesn't please everyonewho worked newspaper andfrom mony from the on it There areIssues missing that members of the blackcommunity who about. There are white some readers care were angeredby the story. The Issues included thatmay seem like members of the NewsCouncil, who "old news." There arearticles and make up its majority,found that the presentations that may seemoverly that it was admi- and enlighten- story was not racist, thesimplistic to some rable journalism.Two members of have not writtenthe and an Americaning to others. We council, a black man book on race. Indian man, disagreed. What we have doneis take the`most Within the Star Tribune,the article important parts of ourlives educa- and the News Councilhearing tion, our children,institutions of pow- prompted an internaldiscussion that housing, jobs, so- white er, neighborhoods, continues today. In this very cial activities =and shown how race community (the TwinCities is the in what happens toall area in the can be a factor whitest major metropolitan of us. nation), the very whitenewsroom of the Star Tribune (8percent of the newsroom staff aremembers of minorities) tried to tackleissues of race. Tried to understand.

Executive Editor

E abc' ATTACI-LMENT 16 FROM.Star Tribune

But that kind of complacency and Race not indifference, which dominates the number of minority people cation people of color have, the the majority of Minnesotans' atti- who are working poor or stuck in more often they're likely to say tudes about race, isn't shared by poverty. they've been discriminated people of color living In the Twin against. And younger people of an issue Cities. And the poll indicates Just how color are more likely to report big an economic gulf separates instances of discrimination than "We're treated like we're know- minority Minnebutans from white those who are 55 and older. to many nothings, not even second-class Minnesotans. Forty-seven per- citizens," said Larry Epkins, a cent of people of color said their In what appears to be a backlash But minorities view transplanted black Chicagoan household income last year was against affirmative action, 23 who lives in Minneapolis and below $20,000; only 22 percent percent of all Minnesotans situation differently works as a punch press operator of all Minnesotans said their in- who are mostly white say they for a tool company. "Minnesota come was that low. At the other have been personally put at a By Bob von Sternberg is still awfully white, but they extreme, 7 percent of members disadvantage because of their Staff Writer should get used to us. We're of minority groups said their in- race. here to stay." come exceeded $50,000, com- n the surface, it might pared with 17 percent of the pop- One poll question that fo- seem as if race isn't a Not only do large majorities of ulation at large. cused on blacks, the particularly important is- the cities' minorities say that state's largest minority, sue to Minnesotans. more needs to be done in provid- But when it comes to providing underscored Minnesotans' indif- ing employment and housing op- the assistance that could elimi- ference about issues of race. Consider some findings from the portunities, but throe in four say nate that economic Inequality, Those who were polled were Minnesota Poll: Between 60 and they have personally been sub- most Minnesotans simply aren't asked whether "white people in 70 percent of Minnesotans ap- jected to discrimination in the interested. , - , Minnesota want to see blacks pear to be largely unconcerned past. get a better break, or do they about issues of race. Civil rights Only about one:tftird of all Minne- want to keep blacks down, or take a back seat to most public it's obvious from the poll results sotans say more should be done don't you think they care either policy issues. Most Minnesotans that on general issues Involving to provide employment or hous- way?" don't believe much remains to be -race, most Minnesotans share ing opportunities for those of col- mild, tolerant opinions. However, or. But two-thirds of Minnaso-. Six in 10 respondents say Minne- done on addressing past sotans either don't 0-efe about inequalities. opinions diverge when people ta's nilhorifjesSay-oore _heeds: to have a personal stake In Issues, be done to provide such,floirsing the late of African-Aniericans or want to oppress them..Onty one "We treat nationalities like every- leaving white Minnesotans deep- opportunities, and three-foOrth one else," said Norma Cheval.ly at odds with minority Minneso-' think private bilstriess should do third said Minnesotans want to tens. Thus, there is little support more to provide 'minority job see blacks do better. On the oth- who lives near Foley in rural Ben- er side of the racial divide, ton County. "We have one or twofor programs such as busing and opportunities. affirmative action.. among minorities (just over half Negro families very few, a few of what were blacks), 70 per- eclat disCrIrnination may Vietnamese kids. Everyone gets cent said Minnesotans are hos- treated the same." The Minnesota Poll interviewed a be against the law, but the random sample of 800 adults poll found that instances tile or indifferent toward blacks' statewide between March 16 and of everyday discrimination are by prospects. . April 22; another 820 minority no means Isolated. Three out of Eliminating discrimination and and white adults were inter- four minority Minnesotans say improving economic opportunity viewed in Minneapolis and St. they've personalty encountered for minority Minnesotans usual- Paul. discrimination In one of four - ly is the fob of government, but ways. , . the poll found that civil rights Until recently, questions about issues are a low priority among race relations and civil rights When it comes to trying to get a -; Minnesotans. would have had little personal )0b, 51 percent said they believe effect on the lives of most white they "have been put at a dised-: Seven in 10 Minnesotans say Minnesotans because the state vantage" because of their race; "many other public policy issues was so overwhelmingly white. 44 percent said they think their In the state are more important But that has changed dramatical- race has caused store clerks to than are civil rights issues." That ly, especially in the Twin Cities. treat them differently; 41 percent sentiment even prevails among said their race created problerris minority groups, though less Asked whether minority in finding a place to live, and 35 strongly: 57 percent say other Minnesotans have percent said they believed their issues outrank civil rights in achieved "roughly aqua! race was a roadblock to making Minnesota. status with whites," 40 percent friendships. of all Minnesotans agree, a sur- Even though minorities in Minne- prisingly large proportion, con- "Discrimination Is a hard thing to sota say they have routinely en- sidering ample evidence that it prove, very hard," Epkins said. countered discrimination and see Just isn t true. But two-thirds of "In certain neighborhoods when a need for more opportunities, the minorities living in Minneapo- you try to rent an apartment, they overall they hold a relatively be- lis and St. Paul say equal status tell you they won't after they hear nign view of fairness toward hasn't been attained. your voice. You can tell what a people of color in the state. black person sounds like. Then Slightly more than half said they The pot shows that the minority the rent sign is still up three days believe minority group members groups have a clearer view than later." are treated fairly in the state. BEST COPY AVAILABLE whites of the economic reality for people of color in Minnesota, About one-third of Minnesota's "It's all right," said Carl Sprattey, While the number of affluent and minorities said they had been who Is black, lives in Minneapolis comfortably middle-class minor- subjected to three or four of and is a stock supervisor at Tar- ity members has grown, In no 49those discriminatory actg. get. "Some people have their case do the numbers add up to own hangups. I don't always get more than several thousand Such routine Insults occurred a lot of respect from whites. but and that growth has been obliter- more often against men than you can be quite at ease Ilvirg ated by much larger growth In against women. he more ,... ._ . Discrimination touches Discrimination is personal On questions that measure general attitudes and opinions, minori- 3 of every 4 minorities ties in Minneapolis and St. Paul have opinions that track with those Three-quarters of Minneapolis and St. Paul minorities say their race of ail Minnesota adults, But when personal, specific questions has affected the way society about race are asked,opinions of the two groups differ considerably. treats them in at least one of four areas measured by the Min- II Minorities in Minneapolis/St. Paul All Minnesotans nesota Pollput at a disadvantage while looking for a job or for housing, treated differently while `General attitudeS shopping or being shunned socially. Right now in Minnesota. many other issues are moreimportant Among Minneapolis /St. Paul minorities, than are civil rights issues. opinions vary most by age. Agree Do you feelthat When you Do you feel your racehas are shop- that other Disagree put you ata dis- Ping, do people Don't know! pi 8% advantagewhen .. you think have avoid- ., refused 6% r. that many ed making . _ , . . . . seeking finding a store clerks friends with Generally speaking, Minnesotans are fair tomembers-of: ;:=.2.7,.; you be- a job? place to treat you minority groups.. live? differently cause of because of your race? 57% I: Agree yourrace? , t- dw----: ' ,Azy."-... 7- M' 1'7E7 Z17,;,;:v7-4:'' ...... 4);...4.tui-.:, R...."...... ;AlltniTaittilesi . ...L.z,,...._7,-49...... ,....c.:. Disagree Among: Don't know/ 4 If Men 52% 40% 42% 43% refused 3% "46-.7""--43-7 27_..z;; . Minority groups have already achieved roughlyequal status with Age whites in most places in Minnesota. . 18-34 49% 42% 49% 36% Agree 40% :587: r". '..`"44'.7-1'v-. ,:720.?:... -zn',:fIm:', : 68% 55 and older 42 31 21 Disagree 52% Education Don't know! 19. .1. r 34% Less than 46% 32% 35% refused 8% -.7 high school ;y:,;.._.',..466AL7,"' -1-7-4-8-ig.t .,-,7,:sz. . :. _ ... .,i y7.4, . . , ..:::c....i.;,...1,,i. i.,.....,k....,,p.,..:itl .; b., .1,fift-,;:f !.-77!,,-,i .i -, 's' --Lit ..4., ..z:-..ai.-..u,, .:?,.4,,- . ,...... ,..ki.,....i .;;;;.-f.-.45:J.:14.17..ir.. .ri ". Some college 56% 42% 43% 37% --Specificissues is doingenoUgfi t0 provide housing op- 56%7.7'::- 0/...,,:-- ---'4.1350-1::. :"7:"..Z.Z1 Do you thinkMinnesota ;Col3ebeTgralS .!portunities for minorities,-should.it be doing more, or should it be ";'.,doing less than it is now?-.: :..,-".;',4-i- .;-:. :"...: 4 ::: - Household .:6 income 34% 'Doing more Less than 52% 42% 48% i'.g,i,*-: :2-, $20,000 !'it''.(.:;;',-- Doing . -... 50% 48%'.. :, -36% ,qlinough ..:-.-4-'t. $29,999 -",-;4:_i;.,4, f::?;DOI,..ng less $30,000- 48% 30% 46% 36% 8% ., . $39,999 ,. , Don't know/ 11,x;' $40,000 54% 33% 30% .32% 3 ;.-,.s .:. 1,. refused It* or more - . -''';'",:-.. ,....: ,. .:.,-,- ',- -7fii :::-Te.'--r,"1: '' Source: Minnesota Poll of 494 minority adults in Minneapolis and SL Paul, March 16 -April 22 Margin of sampling error, 4 4 percentage points, plus or minus. --4o you thinkpnvate.b..U.'s7.71.ness.76:::::TM'r"inne-7s-O-Idaredoing eno .',::Yiow to provide employment opportunities for minorities, should .'these business be doing more, or should they be doing less? 75% Doing more

Doing -enough ..-,,Dofng loss

. . Don't know/ 7% refused 50 Source: Minnesola Poll of 494 minority adults in M.nnoasol:s andSt. Pau. and fif.,C March f6-Apil 22. Map,-..r, Of sartip!,ng oror: 44 Tdgoerl:ag0 0 rn.r.0s !: based on the minority sample, 3.5 pecontags points,plus o' m n.4. forsf2lowitle, rA"..erl,a;SS .1. ATTACHMENT l7 FROM:StarTribune For example, Francis Fair- banks, head of the Minne- with 11 thy television inter- On race, localmedia apolis American Indian view, 'oh they were present- Center, complained, "The media ed syrh;Sathetically. The faceless, finds the drunkest Indian they nameless kids in City Center - can and takes a picture of him. have redelved all of the blame for That's the Indian of today, In a situation that they did not cre- deserves euthanasia their minds. They never tell the a' ). Thus far, no ore has sough^ story Of our family values or our to Inters/1,3W them. religion." 1r MOre subtle indicators of Raul De Anda, acting executive the medla's malaise in director of the Spanish Speaking racial Matters include the Syl Jones Is a local management ubiquity of certain code phrases consuttant, freelance writer and Affairs Ciauncil, said, "You don't see us portrayed as having big In news stories, such as "near- playwright who was asked by the North Side," "underclass," Star Tribune to report and write on Maxican hats and a serape any- more. Basically, you don't see us "qualified minorities," and even how the media covers Issues of seemingly neutral descriptions race. This essay reflects his per- at all. But when you do see us, we are either poor migrant work- like "black South African leader sonal thoughts on the subject Nelson Mandela." ers or drug-dealing .. - By Syl Jones Colombians." The term "near North Side" In For decades, people of color Dr. Albert DeLeon, who runs the local news stories Is white code have complained that the Council on Asian Pacific Minne- language for the black part of major Minnesota news or- sotans, contends with a double- town that causes all of the prob- ganizations take a narrow; bi- barreled Asian stereotype. "On lems and Is ruining downtown ased, and often racist view of the one hand, the media projects Minneapolis. "Underclass" Is their lives. They have begged. this image of the smart, well- white code for people of color cajoled and demanded coverage assimilated Asian who wins all ofsuspected of being homeless, that fairly represents their inter- the spelling bees. And on the using drugs and stealing for a ests.They have decried stereo- 1 other, there's the non-English- living. A "qualified minority" is typical depictions as crimi- speaking Southeast Asian. Nei- someone corporate personnel nalsand otherwise troubled Indi- ther of these stereotypes is par- departments say they can't find, viduals. Or as athletes and enter- ticularly true." but haven't really looked for. tainers. They have even noted "Black South African leader Nel- that distortions about people of Stephen Cooper, Minnesota son Mandela" implies that Man- color ultimately hurt all of soci- State Human Rights Commis- dela is not a real leader but sim- ety, not just minorities. Yet, these sioner, has little trouble spotting ply the leader of blacks. In a practices have continued unabat- such distortions. Cooper noted nation that is primarily black, why ed for generations. that the bias toward Eurocentric is there no racial designation be- superiority is clearly exhibited in,fore the name of the true minority Maybe the ancient Greeks had for example, the local media's leader, a white man? Onceittie, the right idea. Maybe the time coverage of migration from the reader or viewer breaks the - has come to kill the messenger Iron Range. "The media repeat- code, the mystery of media rac- metaphorically. edly perpetuate the stereotype ofism is forever resolved. people of color coming here The metaphor is apt because the without jobs. Yet, the same was Photographs of minorities in local news media has shot itself true for whites from the Range, newspapers and in television in the foot on racial issues so but the stories about them were news footage invariably give the often that to finish the job might somehow more sympathetic. A Impression that people of color be little more than a humanitarian more mature media would not soare generally involved in either gesture. often make that kind of mistake."sports or crime. Rarely are minorities shown In normal settings Compounding these acts of ap- conducting routine activities. In- The local media has recently parent carelessness are the con- damaged the image of people of stead, stories about social prob- sistently negative portrayals of lems in the state are frequently color through unfair and inaccu- blacks in local and national hard rate coverage, but stereotypical illustrated with large photos of news stories. "There's definitely minorities, despite the fact that depictions of minorities by the a double standard. Why are national media have long been a nearly all social ills in Minnesota black kids who attack a white are dominated by whites, as con- source of white entertainment woman in Central Park labeled a and minority disgust. firmed by other stories in this wolf pack, when white kids who series. rape a retarded girl in suburban But the media implies: Words such as "nigger," Philadelphia are characterized as "coon," "jigaboo," "redskin," kids who just took a wrong That people of color are the "savage," "spit," "chink," "yel- turn?" asked Leola Johnson, as- low peril" and other pejoratives source of most problems, espe- sistant professor of journalism of cially crime and drugs. have been used in print since the the School of Communications, 1700s. Although they rarely ap- Penn State University. "When II That whites are the chief prob- pear today, the mindset that pro- the media does this, it plays moted their development and lem solvers In society and minor- toward a racist predisposition of ities can do little without them. use is discernible in today's cov- its white audience to think of erage of the minority community, black men as brutes." prompting strong negative feel- That there are few minority inos in people of color. achievers in this state outside of A local example of.tho same dou- sports figures. ble standard is the media reaction to the trashing of Sibley High III That people of color generally oo I by white kids, and the do not lead normal lives, but are fulil at City Center involving at best exotic and at worst so- minority youngsters. The Sibley cially deviant COPY High students were rowardod 1 That the myth of "Minnesota Deborah Howell, the recently de- Exempted Of local media Igno- ow, two years Later, Scott means there Is no white parted executive editor of the St. rance abound, from KARE-TV has dropped out of schoo the Twin Cities Reader and the lacisrn in this state and that mi- Paul Pioneer Press, said, "Every because of a day -care norities who claim there is are week. I catch things that are ra- St. Paul Pioneer Press and problem, and Melee still regrets omplainers or worse. cially Insensitive before they get points in between. But in the last that "a story that was one of the Into the paper. Insensitivity is a two years, the Star Tribune has best I ever did got embroiled In IIn other words, the media part of life in Minnesota, where provided two of the more spec- this controversy. To some ex- society's messenger rou- so many people haven't even tacular In recent memory. tent, I think it was probably the , tinely delivers a doubly-dis- gone to school with minorities. photos that realty upset people." elec1 message. It is distorted The Important thing Is to be By far, the most inflammatory ex- She admits that one picture, tak- nce by society itself, which con- aware of those Insensitivities and ample of the media's judgments en of Scott's stomach while in tinues to discriminate against catch them before they get out about racially offensive materials hard labor, was a mistake. -But people of color. But the initial was the "Meet Makela Scott" you know, we decided not to use istorbori Is compounded by a story. HInortty organizations a photo showing the baby actual- letter of problems that the me- ust when it appears the me- were so offended by the portrait ty being born because we eia are only now beginning to dia may be begging for of the vulnerable young black thought it was objectionable." acknowledge. As the nation mercy, another code word woman that they marshaled their oyes toward greater cultural di- appears. This time, the word is forces and took the paper before In other words, such a photo ersity, we need a messenger "insensitivity," which some the Minnesota News Council. would have crossed an obrous eat will deliver the truth, no mat- whites In the media use as an line between what is acceptable ter how complex. Instead, what excuse for racially biased behav- "We won the case, but when I and what is not so obvious, in lor that Is so Ingrown it Is no we receive from the media today looked around at the News fact, that white editors had no re messages that not only mis- longer recognizable. The ex- Council and saw 13 white mem- trouble sensing that it would be cuses for "insensitivity" have aad tne majority but do great bers saying the story was OK but offensive to cross tt. But wrat grown tedious to minorities over a lot of blacks who didn't Ilke it, I rearm to the minority. the editors were apparently Igno- the years. "I was raised in Mir knew ft was high time the news- rant of was that the entire peak- nesota and didn't have much ex- paper came to grips with this age the fact that she was a 'These kinds of distortions cre- posure to minorities"; "There are te wnat Dr. King called 'clouds Issue,- said Tim McGuire, man- poor black girl, the purposeful f inferiority in our children's very few people of color In this aging editor. "In fact, that e as use of black English In Scott's area"; "We can't find minorities the genesis of this series, It be- quotes, the intimate photos. and mental skies,'said Yusef who want to work In Journalism"; Mgeni, a former journalist who is gan In my heart." the Internal narrative Implying pa- and even "We are trying to do rental irresponsibility on the part resident of the Urban Coalition. the best that we can' simply are Every day, I pick up the news- Blacks and other minorities ob- of Scott's mother created a not good enough for people of leoted to the intimate photo- larger-than-fife symbol of media paper and see things that are color in 1990. insensitive, inaccurate or distort- graphs of Scott and to the exploi- exploitation, and that was bound tation of a black girl who became to draw fire. d depictions of people of color. Neariy a quarter of a century >ur children can't help but suffer the symbol of yet another social ago, the Kerner Commission problem. Peg Meier wrote the McGuire asserts that "Meet Ma- eve the seeds of self-hatred warned that we were becoming a that are being planted by the story with the intention of giving kela Scott" was "color blind. We "racially divided and unequal na- readers an Inside view what of did not go out to portray blacks thecfria." tion" and that the news media his in itself argues against the tee life of a pregnant teenager. "I in a negative light. There's eo played a pivotal role In perpetu- was naive in thinking that I could question that a history of eore entinued survival of the mes- ating this state of affairs. Yet, the senger. But in the court of public do this story about a black girl, balanced coverage of Macs complaints about the media to- and I wish now that I had chosen neeinion, an admission of guilt of- would have made that story moe day remain largely the same as a white girl. The original story I acceptable." Still, the fierce pro- in shifts the odds in favor of they were in 1968. .reency. Lately, the media has wanted to tell got lost," she said. tests from communities of oior begun to have second thoughts prompted an intense self-exami- So why do these offensive and Lost, it seems, in the overpower- nation by the newspaper aid led about Its actions. Kent Gardner, often inaccurate characteriza- ea Star Tribune's Assistant ing graphic reality of eight pages to the Race Protect, white Mc- tions continue? The answer de- of text and 26 photographs, two Guire hopes, "will be the fest dal tanning Editor /Metro, said the pends on whom you ask. Those paper has taken a great deal of of which showed Scott's bare, of the rest of our Nes, set the responsible for them white protruding stomach. Minorities criticism over both specific sto- baseline for looking at racial atti- reporters, editors, photogra- rarely receive so much attention tudes and make us a fair rid 'as and general coverage of the phers and news managers rinortty community. from the local media unless the honest presenter of say they don't intend to offend. story is negative. Clearly, Meier information." Yet many also claim that they are "We have talked a great deal did not conceive it as such. "We - not well educated in matters per- did not set out to find a blace girl. But this past February, long after about le and we have done a little taining to race. atter In trying to use examples We were looking for someone "Meet Makela Scott," anc the who was articulate, who would beginnings of the Race Prejece f minorities in everyday stories. This is an alarming admission taut In my opinion, we haven't stay in school, stay with the pro- the newspaper puelished yet an- from those who Control some of ject, and whose parents would other story that was offer.s.ve to brought these issues into our on- the most powerful institutions in :ring conversations about cov- approve of it. Makela was all of people of color. the region, but it is undoubtedly those things." age," he said. Nor has the pa- true. As Yusef Mgenl noted, yee Oche particularty well In hir- "Children of 'Crack' /Casualties "When the media wants to cover She was also a child, only 17 of War," describe: severa drug ing mieortties. "We have not coy- a business story, it sends some- eoed ourselves in glory in regard years old, and clearly did not busts on the North Side ce Min- one with experience in but.' ts. know what It would mean to be neapolis from the point of raw although a lot of effort When it covers agriculture, it as gone Into it," said Gardner. the subject of a massive story In undercover police officers rent- sends someone who ha., et least the newspaper. Most pregnant ten by Paul McErroe, the article lived on a farm. But when the tee r:, might have thought twice evidently began as a photaera- Janet Mason, news director and media covers an Issue Involving ce president, KARE-TV, said, about such exposure, and even pheregenerated story, when Me- race, it will send any old ignorant Scott tried hard to ditch the pro- Enroe said is rare "Basica ly, nee go out of our way to it dude reporter out to do the job minorities whenever possible Joel. But, as Mew noted, in the photographer wateed to Co a But are we doing the best that aentionnd Scott simply enjoyed the at- story about the ceig war eat a can doe No. There is always ' el she received from a showed what act..aity ha;:enee an for improvernent." newspaper reporter and a pho- in the first 30 seeends Oft taus: ) tographer asking questions He wanted to caeere about her life, pretending she the thing. wee irnnoAnI

1; AvAllAtro McErroe described his entry Into the proiect in these terms: "The Second, the standard paradigm This is the 'trial be of evidence it is a mistake to believe that of news and news gathering needed to pronounce sentence good Intentions alone can pro- photographer came back initially prompts reporters and editor's to duce excellent reserts in any en- with these photos and I'm stand- on the media messenger. It is the think in terms of what Is simulta- height of hypocrisy for a newspa- deavor, but in issues of race In ng there looking at them, trying the Twin Cities, good intentions .io figure out what I think. Arid I'm neously dramatic and credible to per to seek awards for a photo may be viewed as just anoteer thinking, This is a story about the average white reader. Mc- deemed too offensive to be pub- Enroe said the assignment was lished. Would the newspaper attempt by a paternalistic wide kids. It's about what is happen- organization to assuage its con- rig to black children.' to, "document what was happen- have submitted a photo showing ing in the drug scene in Minne- a woman being raped if it had science. Effective management After 15 inches of explanatory apolis, not Hennepin County." access to one? Would it submit of racial issues requires more Why not Hennepin County? Be- than good Intentions. It requires material was removed mater-1- photos of grave robbery or 11 that McEnroe says would have cause the drug problem in Hen- mutilation? cultural awareness. humility and nade the story less objection- nepin County is a while problem, the sharing of power. It recuires able to blacks and photos of white suburtan- The photograph in question highly visible leadership by man- the article ran. agers who are perceived tc have People of color were offended Iles caught in the act of selling-? evokes painful images of black fee all of the obvious reasons. drugs would riot fit the standard lynchings. For many people of not only authority, but comus- paradigm of acceptable news. sion. In other words, it is a man- !ere was yet another story lo- color, Howard Beach and Ben- using on minority drug traffick- sonhurst are only a heartbeat agement issue that those a; the Many unsuspecting white Minne- must ing, when the drug problem In away. How many minorities must very top of an organization sotans have a file In their brains be murdered by whites before address directly in word are Hennepin County is largely white. marked "drug abuse," created )though the abusive behavior of news executives understand deed. and reinforced by the media, that these sensitivities? That the In the process, there will be Wi- we police was well-documented, Is filled with nightmare images of rt was set against a backdr of faceless black man straddling ndt caused by mIsunderstard- blacks, Hispanics, switchblades. tee chair was a drug suspect is implied child neglect that pr and Uzis. "Children of 'Crack- Ings and cultural cross-currents. immaterial. Whites seem to for- But the process should not oe ' / Casualties of War," contained get that people of color are al- muddied by the fear of saying the id the reader to Identity with the all of the necessary racial cues to police Instead of the suspects. ways suspects, no matter what wrong thing, concerns over job slip quietly into the mental file the situation, and that a chief The implication was that the with a minimum of cognitive security, tyrannical leadership, perceptions of incompetence or sack suspects were guilty by vir- dissonance. us of simply being present dur- instigator of such abuse of insecurity born of mismanaee- eg the busts, and that the white blacks, Indians, Asians and His- ment. These issues are not Third, whether such thinking is panics have been official bodies they are about the police officers had come to res- characterized as racist, thought- about race cue the children from their own like the police and the armed corporate culture in which racial less or insensitive, the fact is, interaction occurs and they must iarents. The photos stripped there are few minority people on Finally,forncaes, there is the matter of how be addressed from the top down 'em of their humanity and cap- staff at the Star Tribune, the Pio- such concerns are handled by before the process begins. tured the fuer, shame and indig- neer Press or the three commer- nation of a lifestyle that white the media once they surface. The cial television news operations The upside of racial turmoil. waders have been led to believe who have the power to kill or Star Tribune's Race Project Is a response to internal and external when all is said and done, is that typical of blacks living on the correct a story like "Children of ..orth Side of Minneapolis. pressures that have been build- it may lead to across-the-bare 'Crack' /Casualties of War," and ing for years. The newspaper improvements for all people. Jus: thereby save the media from it- has estab"shed an inside com- as the civil rights movement But the major problem with self. this story lies in the pre- mittee called the Race Project brought increased freedom to sumption that, "This is a core group, which has grappled everyone, so may the new em- story about what's happening to But the media apparently with racial attitudes on a limited phasis on racial and ethnic elver- black children." ',Children of has a death wish and does basis inside the paper and Is re- sity bring new opportunities for rack' /Casualties of War," is not want to be saved. sponsible for this series of arti- better training on the job, more out a tragic situation affecting Even after the tremendous up- cles. Although its future mission emphasis on open commur.ica- relatively few children who hap- roar caused by "Children of is still unclear, these are positive eons and more participatioe pen to be black:It is not a story 'Crack' /Casualties of War," this steps for which the newspaper management decisions. In Min- ',out black children In general, newspaper's managing editor must be commended. nesota, where c,orporat!oris are it by McEnroe's own admis- defended the story. He pointed an integral part of the socia fab- - on, it purports to be. The fatal out that one particularly objec- But the organization n ric, the media couIC become a law in the story's conception is tionable photo showing a nave squandered 6 partner in facilitaii-c this transi- 'he racist notion that negative black suspect handcuffed and opportunity by mismanag- tion to a new kind of society. iperiences in the lives of some straddling a chair with a white ing the project internally. The Bert first it must die. inoribes can be elevated to the towel over his head was re- Race Project's own house MS 'eve] of symbolism. Imagine the moved because of strong feel- been rocked by disturbing que-s- outcry if someone wrote a story ings by black staffers. "This sto- boos, most notably the lack of For cnmes against humane, the media is deserving of oeare As a rout child abuse, teen pregnan- ry is an example of blacks on high-level minority leadership or teen suicide, for example, staff having a role in the selec- and reports of conflicts over the messenger. it has eompoueded .. id implied that I described in tion process. That photo was not focus of the group. Star Tribune society's bad news with its own general terms "what is happen- published because of their obiec- management structured the pro- ignorance and igned the good -g to Ukrainian, Irish or Italian bons, but it won the top prize at a ject so that one person has re- DEWS due to its owe prejeCce. iikfrene recent photography contest. sponsibility for producing the, The sooner we drag it out cy the When I look at it,Istill don't product as well as facilitating .a scruff of the neck and putcut of its misery, the seone ee ear This kind of racially skewed understand why it is offensive, process that is gulrerichIng, at ' hinking occurs in local media or- but when blacks see it, they have best. Such a structure requires begin the "ask of construe: -c a nizations ice several reasons. an immediate reaction to it enormous versatility and inelght new media .st, the media assumes, with. into the complex issues sui, DUI much questioning, that the rounding race relations. It is majority cutture in Minnesota will doubtful any one person could erate tee racist assumptions 3D6ng that expertise to bear. hind such thinking i.e., that Cis people are more neglectful 75 -. 1 their children than whites Barm.COY AVAILAP. Not a media Mod with naivete or even good news, but onethat has a variety of racial and ethnic representation at all levels; a media that celebrates diversity in every possible way andreflects the true complexity and vigorof Minnesota and the rest of the nation; a media that recognized the power of accurate knowledge to heal those who areemotional- ly ski< or intellectually starving.

Whether we are successful in this endeavor depends to a great extent on our willingness to em- brace destruction as a necessary first step In the creative process. If we are unwilling to do so,the unfortunate alternative may be a polarized society and, ultimately, sett-destruction.

"Ir. 54 ATTACHMENT 18

TEST

DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions in your own words. Then give examples of individual concepts with an example from the 1960s and one from the 1990s. You can use your notes, and answers should be brief but meaningful.

1. What is racism and how does it affect the African-American population?

2. Describe discrimination and the types of discrimination.

3. What is the difference between oppression and prejudice?

4. Did you learn anything from this unit? What? NOTE: NOT TO BE GRADED.

1992 Christopher Czech

55 Works Cited

"Ain't Scared of Your Jails." Blackside, Inc. and PBS Video, Alexandria, VA, 1986.

Andrzejewski, Julie. "Human Relations Definitions." Human Relations. Needham Heights:Ginn, 1992.

ED 266 218. Martin Luther King, Jr. Resource Guide. New York:New York State Education Department,1985.

Eitzen, D. Stanley and Maxine Baca Zinn. In Conflict and Order. Needham Heights:Allyn and Bacon, 1991.

Jones, Sly. "On Race, Local Media Deserves Euthanasia." Star Tribune Special Reprint 1990:60.

Kramer, Joel.. "To Discuss Issues of Race We Must Look at Ourselves." Star Tribune Special Reprint 1990:1.

Lauer, Robert H. and Jeanette C. Lauer. The Quest for Intimacy. Dubuque:Wm. C. Brown, 1991.

"Liberty." Capital Cities/ABC Video Enterprises, Princeton, NJ, 1991.

Nash, Gary B., et al., eds. The American People. New York:Harper & Row, 1986.

Norton, Mary Beth, et al. A People & A Nation. Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1990.

Ode, Kim. "Birth to Death: Race Sets Our Agenda for Life." Star Tribune 10 June 1990, Special Reprint.

Peterson, David and Syl Jones. "Media Reports Reflect Racial Attitudes." Star Tribune Special Reprint 1990: 57.

Patterson, Thomas E. The American Democracy. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1990.

Short, Allen. "Neighborhoods' Clout Tied to Color." Star Tribune Special Reprint 1990:7. von Sternberg, Bob. "Race Not an Issue to Many." Star Tribune Special Reprint 1990:13.

Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States. New York:Harper & Row, 1990.