The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet

Layout – Construction – Material

Based on data from the ieldwork in 2014

Hubert Feiglstorfer

2015

Austrian Science Fund (ASF / FWF) Project P25066-G19 “The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet“

Project team: Guntram Hazod (ISA, project leader) Hubert Feiglstorfer (ISA) Jürgen Schörlinger (ISA) Martin Gamon (Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Archaeological Prospection and Virtual Archaeo-logy, LBI ArchPro)

Website: www.oeaw.ac.at/tibetantumulustradition (TTT)

Institute for Social Anthropology (ISA) Austrian Academy of Sciences (AAS) Apostelgasse 23 A-1030 Vienna 2

Content

Site numbers according to the listing of grave ields at: http://www.oeaw.ac.at/tibetantumulustradition (hereafter TTT)

Site no. (name of grave ield, county) Page 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse ) 8 – 18

0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) 19 – 25

0367 (Yab, Stod lung) 26 – 28

0032 (Mu ra, ’Phyong po) 29 – 31

0171 (Gnyan, Stod lung) 32 – 33

0024 (Bya sa’i ri, Sne gdong) 34 – 35

0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 36 – 47

0043 (Lcags ri, Grva nang) 48 – 50

0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 51 – 60

0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 61 – 69

0131 (Lo-3c; Stag rtse) 70

0004 (Yar-4, Sne gdong) 71 – 73

Additional surveys (not related to tombs)

Bya khyung ’Bab sa tower 74 – 75

Chad kha monastery 76

Chad kha, monastery ruins 77 – 81

Shide Lhakhang 82 – 83 Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 3

Structural Aspects of Central Tibetan Burial Mounds

1. Introductory remarks In some cases the stone walls were only partially removed and the adjoining wall layers have been opened The following is a irst description of the architectural and exposed. At one site, some mounds or even group data collected by the author during the ieldwork in of mounds have fallen victim to government construc- Central Tibet in May, June 2014. This ield research tion projects. Some of this major damage has opened was carried out in collaboration with Guntram Hazod the mounds up to the central core and exposed the in- (ISA) and Martin Gamon (from LBI ArchPro) in the terior structure. framework of the ASF inanced project “The Burial Mounds of Central Tibet” (P 25066-G19). Weathering is another factor of deconstruction, primarily affecting the surface by wind and water erosion, in The architectural survey was conducted with common some cases also destroying whole sections of a mound equipment suitable for a small research team, the alti- by water running through the grave ield situated in tude and a timely progress of the work, as described in the alluvial fan. The surface erosion takes different Feiglstorfer 2008. The “structure-from-motion” (SfM) forms, determined by the mineral composition and the photography was an additional tool, which made it grain-size distribution of the surface material. In some possible to generate three dimensional (3D) models of cases effects of erosion left a stepped design (exam- the sites visited. The in situ surveys focused on the ple 0141), in others it simply reduced the volume of layout of the mounds and on details of construction the mound. In cases, where the earth shell protecting of the objects and their architectural relation to each the stone walls has been eroded, the walls, which were other, also regarding the ritual architecture of the im- built without mortar, have fallen apart and the stones mediate environment. Today our architectural study of have been scattered over the surrounding terrain. dozens of burial mounds in Central Tibet enables us not only to talk about structural features but also to draw the contours of typologies and to make sound 3. Building material statements for future comparative research in terms of architectural relationships with other burial mound The basic raw materials for the construction of mounds cultures within the Tibetan Highlands (especially the were earth and stone, which were pre-cessed by differ- grave ields in the Tuyuhun area of eastern Tibet; Tong ent construction methods. Wood in the form of sticks Tao 2008) and the Central Asian regions. In fact, at and branches was used for stabilising purposes but not the current state of research we see several typical ar- for primary construction. No ibres were found within chitectural aspects with regard to ground plan, shape, the earth of the mounds, either in the rammed earth or size, the orientation, construction methods or the use in the adobe bricks. Sticks and branches are in most of building material. cases missing, either due to weathering or due to re- moval by locals. In any case, their former use can be assumed by the existence of remaining holes in the 2. The ruins of the mounds tomb walls. The material seems to have been taken from the immediate vicinity. Geological and miner- The mounds we studied are in various states of dere- alogical examinations of the local raw material related liction, which were either of anthropogenic or natural to its origin and to its use for particular techniques reason. The different states of disrepair shed light on are planned as a further step in our research project. structural patterns, which would otherwise be hidden Related calculations for the effort in making a large beneath the surface. The latter situation concerns only a (elite) burial mound have been made. These data will few mounds, which apparently have not been touched, be more precise after a further examination of the raw whereas most are historically opened mounds. Some material. Such calculations may provide evidence of tombs have been completely gutted, with just parts the number of workers and the time needed for the of the lanks remaining. Most of the stones (either preparation of a grave. crushed or round depending on the mound’s proxim- ity to a riverbed) have been removed by the locals, Our material analysis has so far included the stone evidently for building purposes (example: Site 0142). lions of Chad kha, which were originally situated in 4 Layout – Construction – Material front of an elite burial mound of 0105 (in Mal gro; see 5. The inner structure Hazod 2015). Most likely these were made from rocks lying next to the mound in question, which have been Several tombs in the ield 0131 (in Lo Valley, Stag rtse identiied as probably being basalt. County) had been demolished by a bulldozer, so that the inner structure of one mound had been torn apart in such a way that the grave chamber, in particular the 4. Structural aspects walls and the roof, remained accessible for examination. The tomb construction here reveals the impor- A closer look at the construction features shows that tance of a solid and secure encasing of the body’s re- there were different ways of itting a mound into its mains. No evidence of burial objects was found. topographical environment and also different internal structures – in terms of building material, their The outer walls were made of quarry stones, all cut individual sizes or their composition. Each burial to size by hand to make two walls 50 cm high by 50 mound seems to follow its own internal construction cm wide and 87 cm apart. The rear was closed by two ‘anatomy’. Individual building decisions may be re- rocks and the front of the chamber was open. The loor lated to a mound’s total size, the topographical situa- was earth and the roof was covered by a 150/100/40 tion, the material available on site, and certainly also cm rock (L/W/H). This chamber is rather small, with the principal’s capability regarding the expenditure a rock as roof, which structurally represented the sim- on labour. plest method. Laterally these stone walls were em- bedded in compressed earth, similar to rammed earth The mounds examined do not have one single con- but not in regular layers as we know it from rammed struction structure but a composition of several com- walls. The graves found in some ields were appar- ponents, starting with the grave chamber as the inner ently not rammed. core followed by an alternation of massive building elements made of stone or rammed earth and backill- ing with loose or compressed earth in between. The 6. The individual sites inding of a rammed earth platform at ground level in Mound-1 (M-1) of site 0141 points to the existence of a foundation plate made of rammed earth layers. M-4 6.1 Sites 0141 and 0142 (pp. 8–25): of the grave ield 0002 shows the alternation of massive stone walls and horizontal and vertical earth inill. The stone plates along the top of M-1 at ield 0141 in- dicate the location of the stone walls below. At ca. 140 Reconstructing the building phases, the inner core cm, the wall is rather thick (section B-B). Two stone must have been the starting point of a grave-mound walls were erected next to each other ca. 2 m apart. construction and the following steps towards the outer The geometry of the side walls deines the orientation shells seem to follow a structural logic. From inside to of the inner structure of the mound, with ca. 80° ob- the outside was the ideal method, which made it pos- tuse angles of the trapezoid, a ground plan geometry sible to concentrate on the core part and the prepara- that we often ind for trapezoid mounds with an aver- tion of the chamber for the deceased at the geometrical age of ca. 83°±4° beside two examples with 71° (ield centre. 0171) and 73° (ield 0002). The top of the mound is eroded. It cannot be excluded that earth was originally Depending on the size of tomb, a vertical or horizontal used to raise the mound into a spherical form, as hy- shaft was kept for later access to the inner chamber. pothetically reconstructed (see M-2; sections A-A and M-1 of 0002 or also M-1 of 0004 (both in Yar lung) B-B). The stepped signs of erosion are clearly visible have remaining niches, which may relate to the ex- at this M-1 (section A-A). Stone walls at M-1 and M-2 istence of a vertically organised access shaft with the at ield 0141 appear to be structurally connected with entrance from the top of the mound. It also appears the rammed earth wall. The section through one wall that the access shafts did not end above the chambers construction at M-2 shows a ca. 50-cm-thick stone but in front of them. This points to the existence of an wall, supported on both sides by a rammed earth wall. antechamber connected to the actual grave chamber. Since the stone walls were erected without mortar and to a height of 1.6 m and a thickness of only 50 cm it was necessary to build a kind of a ‘lost formwork’, Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 5 which was possibly originally connected with the was roughly calculated; a re-calculation of the irst stone wall. Section B-B shows the use of stone walls ield note results in the estimate that ca. 200 people as breast walls to hold the load of the adjoining hill. must have worked for ca. two years for the duration of Photos from stone walls at ield 0142 (Cha-2) show the construction. round shaped walls, which seems to be rather rare. The two stone lions related to this tomb are located The earth was rammed in layers ca. 10 cm high sep- close to the northern corners of the mound. They arated by rows of stone plates, which we also know face towards the tomb, following the diagonals of the from wall constructions of the monastery ruins of mound and their orientation was calculated with GPS old Chad kha. Earth walls, which were rammed in 10 and is shown in the overview of this site. cm layers, represent well-known types of foundation throughout the Himalayas. As to the rammed walls In Mu ra the famous tomb stele on a stone tortoise they may either be rammed in higher sections, as in (situated next to the grave of the emperor Khri Lde the case of the fortiication wall in Chad kha (see pho- srong btsan; 0032, grave no. XIV) is surrounded by a to), or like the towers at the foot of Bya ra mdo (see modern temple-like construction. The graphic shows plans and picture). Walls 140 cm wide, as at M-1 of the stele’s integration into the temple’s core and the ield 0141 (Cha-1), are rather big but not uncommon, position of the tortoise about 2.5 m below ground. The as can be seen in the example of the wall widths of up reason for the raising of the level of the surrounding to 110 cm at the Bya ra mdo towers, whose walls were terrain was evidently erosion over centuries. erected on stone foundations. Such stone foundations again were not necessary for the earth walls at M-1 of Cha-1, since they were enclosed and thus protected 6.4 Site 0171 (Gnyan, Dmar district of Stod lung against precipitation. One striking similarity between County) (pp. 32–33) these two rammed constructions is that the corners were not joined but remained open, which structur- On top of M-1 there is a modern ’brog sa (shepherds’ ally is of no relevance for the mound but for the free- camp site) constructed as a rectangular depression, standing towers this produced gaps along the corners with the sides lined with a row of stones. M-2 in the several centimetres wide in some places. Structurally same burial mound ield has a trapezoid stone forma- such a construction may be described as ‘slabs’ that tion on its lat surface, similar to the stone marking are ’leant’ but not joined together – on the whole a of cist tombs, but its identiication as grave remains rather unstable form of construction. uncertain.

At some sites (example 0142: ground plans at Cha- 2) the stone walls form a grid laid above the actual 6.5 Site 0024 (Bya sa’i ri, ’On valley, Sne gdong grave chamber for structural protection. A difference County) (pp. 34–35) is evident in the thickness of the walls in the centre and those at the front of the mound (possibly for struc- This “bird-shaped” ield 0024 consists of a central tural reasons). mound (M-1) and seven lateral grave mounds (three plus four) plus ten sacriicial stone pits arranged in a line at the rear of M-1. See the photographic docu- 6.2 Site 0367 (Yab, Stod lung County) (pp. 26–28) mentation at TTT: ield no. 0024.

These mounds are mostly circular and rather low (see sections). The biggest mound is ca. 15 m in diameter. 6.6 Site 0002 (close to Rtse thang, Sne gdong County) A circle of loose stones lay across this ield marking (pp. 36–47) the individual mounds. Stone walls are of different types – without mortar between the stones as at M-4 of 0002 (see section) 6.3 Site 0032 (Mu ra, in ’Phyong rgyas) (pp. 29–31) or in a mortar bed, which is a rather thick continuous line, and inally those where the stones were not laid The amount of earth used in the mound for this grave but illed irregularly. The last two types are found in of the emperor Khri Srong lde btsan (no. XI of 0032) one mound of 0004 (behind Khra ’brug; see ground 6 Layout – Construction – Material plan and photos). There are no stone walls with well- the mound to the hill behind it are visible. The mound dressed stones and smaller stones as inill in the gaps is ca. 4.7 m high at the front and 3.3 m at the back. as we may ind at existing structures in Lhasa (see The upper part of the ramp may have been steps, photo). as indicated by the steepness of its remains. At this mound, and due to the absence of the lateral stone Mound 1 has a niche, which may have been a former walls, the illing of the trapezoidal and later shaping of vertical entrance or antechamber. The wall is again the mound into a spherical form becomes evident (see a composition of rammed earth adjoined by a today photo). Mounds M-2 and M-4 are actually round pits missing stone wall towards the interior. At Mound 2 made of stones, which are laid cylindrically into the the rammed earth wall construction becomes evident ground to a depth of ca. 4 m. Examples of shafts are and a reconstruction of the missing lateral parts of the shown as 3D models. mound may show its former shape. Due to missing walls at Mound 3 parts of the 3 x 3 stone grid within the mound become visible. This grid was constructed 6.9 Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro County) vertically in several sections: the irst rows of stones (pp. 61–69) are ca. 77-88 cm high and were covered by rammed earth on which the following rows of stones were set Along the west side of mound M-1 the stone framing but partially shifted to the position of the walls below, of a possible former pedestal for one of the two guard- most probably for structural reasons. ian lions is visible (see Hazod 2015). Along the east side of the mound the pedestal may have been eroded, because here the ground is more even and slightly 6.7 Site 0043 (Lcags ri, Grva nang) (pp. 48–50) sloping.

This mound shows remains of later, primarily stone On top of M-1 two sides of a rectangular stone founda- superstructures on top. Their width varies from 60 cm, tion are visible, raised just a few centimetres above the 73 cm, 95 cm to 100 cm, also including bivalve con- top of the mound. The orientation of these walls does structions. Uphill, the remains of a ramp connecting not correlate with that of the mound as a whole. the mound with the hill behind it are visible. The original shape of mound M-2 is not clear – pos- The process of building a mound can be reconstructed sibly circular, but also square cannot be excluded. On from the surface survey of Mound 3. This is shown the west side a buttressing wall made of large, thin axonometrically with 3D models in the chronological stone slabs with earth mortar in between adjoining a steps that it is suggested were followed after the hole rammed earth wall is visible (see section). Along the had been dug for the tomb and the grave chamber was whole south side of this mound there are the remains constructed: of steps topped with stone slabs. 1. Levelling the earth for erecting the irst level of a grid of walls. Mound M-4 is located on top of a steep hill with a path below. A buttressing wall was erected with two 2. Erecting the irst level of a wall grid (model on top rows of stones. A section through this hill shows the and next page). technique of buttressing a hill to protect a mound on 3. Filling up the space between the walls, covering the top of it. walls and levelling the ground again. 4. Erecting the second level of a wall grid but slightly shifted (see all three models). 6.10 Site 0004 (behind Khra ’brug monastery, 5. Filling in the space between the walls, covering the Sne gdong County) (pp. 71–73) walls and shaping the mound with earth. A partially opened mound shows two different types of stone wall, one with a row of regularly laid stones 6.8 Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Dmar district, Stod lung with continuous lines of earth mortar beds, whereas County) (pp. 51–60) the other is not continuous. This fact suggests the position of a vertical entrance hole which was later illed Similar to site 0043, the remains of a ramp connecting with stones to close it permanently. Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 7

Bibliography

FeiglstorFer, Hubert. 2008. “Einhand-Architektur- dokumentation: Traditionelle Messmethoden und Photogrammetrie”. Gesellschaft und Gebaute Umwelt: Ausgewählte Beiträge aus der Sozialwissenschaft, Ethnographie und Architektur, eds. Ferenc Zamolyi, Tamás Szilágyi, Vienna: IVA-Verlag, 95–111.

Hazod, Guntram. 2015. “The lions of ’Chad kha: A note on new indings of stone monuments in Central Tibet from the Tibetan imperial period”. The Illuminating Mirror: Festschrift for Per K. Sørensen on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday, eds. Guntram Hazod, Olaf Czaja, Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 189–204. tong tao. 2008. The silk roads of the northern Tibetan plateau during the early Middle Ages (from the Han to Tang dynasty) as reconstructed from archaeological and written sources, doctoral thesis, University of Tübingen.

*** 8 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND II

MOUND I

Mound I and Mound II. Overview. Top: Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-10-24.

Bottom: 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon. N

MOUND I

MOUND II

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 9

orientatian

towards settled valley A

orientatian towards settled valley

B 2

5 4

NORTH

B A 0 1 5m

Mound I. Ground plan. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-10-24.

Key: 1 Top of the mound: Remains of a trapezoid stone wall. 2 Reconstruction of the position of a former stone wall. 3 Foot of burial mound. 4 Looted area and possible position of the grave chamber. 5 Hypothetical reconstruction of the earlier shape of the mound.

Geometrical data Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) 10 Layout – Construction – Material

Section B-B (red colour)

3 3.3 7 4.8 6 1 1 6 2 3 4 5 8 11 9 10 4

0 1 5m 4.4 5.8 1.4 7 4 8 11

17.5m ~units in m Section A-A Mound I. Section A–A, Section B–B (in red).

Key for Section A–A: Key for Section B–B: 1 Stone wall. 8 Stone wall. 2 Shape of eroded earthen mound. 9 Second outer stone wall. 3 Hypothetical earlier shape of the mound. 10 Shape of eroded earthen mound. 4 Terrain. 11 Terrain of Section B–B. 5 Looted area and possible position of the grave chamber. 6 Hypothetical position of a second stone wall (see nr. 8). 7 Shape of inside the mound: Plane without steps of erosion.

Detail of section B–B: Stone wall. In Section A–A marked with ‘8’.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 11

Mound I and II: 3D models with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon. Top: Mound 1 in front showing stepped eroded embankment. Middle: Mound 2 with north and east sides showing stepped eroded embankment. Bottom: Mound 2 with south and west front showing rammed earth walls.

Detail of section A–A: Stepped slope. In Section A–A marked with ‘2’.

0 1 3m

Detail of Section A-A: stepped slope (see section A-A: Nr.2)

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) 12 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound I. Overview from the south.

Mound I. Top of the mound.

Mound II. Stones to the east of the mound, probably remains from the stone walls of the mound.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 13

orientatian towards settled valley

7 orientatian 7 towards settled valley

3 1

2 AA 5

C 5 4

C NORTH 6

05 m

Mound II. Ground plan. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), Mapabc (2014), image taking 2011-10-24. Key: 1 Escarpment by demolishment or erosion, bordering the plateau on top of the mound. 2 Escarpment, towards the south much stronger than at ‘1’. 3 Rammed earth wall, straight lined in the north and west; acting like a lost formwork for the adjoining stone wall. 4 Rammed earth wall, in the south following a wavy course, probably due to demolishment. 5 Reconstructed course of the rammed earth wall according to the course of ‘3’ and the position of ‘4’. 6 Outer shape of the base of the mound in the east and south; contrary to ‘3’. 7 Hypothetical former shapes of the earthen mound.

Mound II. Geometrical data.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) 14 Layout – Construction – Material

1 5 234 234

Mound II. Section A–A.

Key for Sections A–A and B–B: 1 View of the rammed earth wall. 2 Section through the rammed earth wall; width app. 115 cm. 3 Reconstruction of a stone wall; according to an existing and exposed stone wall on the south side. The stones along the rammed earth walls on the north and west side are missing, probably caused by theft. 4 Cover of the sub-construction with earth; according to the south and east side. Hypothetical former shapes of the earthen mound. 5 Terrain. 6 Hypothetical reconstruction of the outer shape of the top of the mound.

1 5 34 2 234

Mound II. Section B–B.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 15

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) 16 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound II. East side.

Mound II. North-eastern corner.

Mound II. North-western corner.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 17

Mound II. North-western corner.

Mound II. Rammed earth and stone wall along the south section.

Mound II. Hole along the south side; deepness about 220 cm; no cracks within this hole which shows remains of a rammed earth foundation.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) 18 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound II. East side.

Mound II. North-eastern corner.

Mound II. North-western corner.

Site 0141 (Cha I, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 19

MOUND II

MOUND I

Mound I and Mound II. Overview. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2010-12-07.

MOUND II

MOUND I

Mound I. Mound II.

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) 20 Layout – Construction – Material

A 1.2m

1.2m

Centre of the mound 8.2m

2 4.2m 1 1.2m

A MOUNDMound II. I Ground - Ground plan. plan

0 1 5m orientatian settled valley towards

Key for ground plan: 1 1...Moat: Moat; former former stone stone foundation. foundation 2 2...Burial Burial mound. mound

Top of burial mound ~1.5m

Mound II. Section A–A. MOUND I -Section A-A

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 21

Mound I. Present state with missing stone wall. CAD: author. Rendering: Ferenc Zamoyi.

Mound I. Reconstruction of the missing stone wall. CAD: author. Rendering: Ferenc Zamoyi.

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) 22 Layout – Construction – Material

~10m

0.65 A ~1m 0.90 0.60

Centre of the mound 2 1 ~6.5m 0.7

0.8 1.6

Mound II. Ground plan. A MOUND II - Ground plan

0 1 3m orientatian settled valley towards

Key for ground plan: 1 Moat; former stone foundation. 2 1...Moat: Burial mound.former stone foundation 2...Burial mound

Top of burial mound Mound II. Section A–A. ~1.4m 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.5

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 23

Mound II. Present state with missing stone wall. CAD: author. Rendering: Ferenc Zamoyi.

Mound II. Reconstruction of the missing stone wall. CAD: author. Rendering: Ferenc Zamoyi.

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) 24 Layout – Construction – Material

Round shaped stone wall of a mound.

Mound I. South-western corner.

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 25

Mound II. View from the west.

Mound II. View from the east.

Mound II. View of the position of the former stone wall.

Site 0142 (Cha II, Stag rtse) 26 Layout – Construction – Material

Circular burial mound.

Remains of circular stone foundations. Example IV – Remains of circular stone foundations.

Site 0367 (Yab, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 27

Section earthen mound 0 1 5m Top view remains of stone foundation

A A

EXAMPLE I GroundGround plan.plan

SectionSection A-A. A-A

A A

EXAMPLE II GroundGround plan.plan

Section A-ASection A-A.

Site 0367 (Yab, Stod lung) 28 Layout – Construction – Material

Section earthen mound 0 1 5m

Top view remains of stone foundation

A A

EXAMPLE III GroundGround planplan.

SectionSection A-A.A-A

A A

EXAMPLE IV GroundGround planplan.

Site 367 - Tölung Yap (Stod lung Yab)

Site 0367 (Yab, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 29

Lhakhang containing stone stele

Orientation of lion

Orientation of Lion ~185°W ~134°E ~120m L L L=Position of lions

~120 H~26m

Position (GPS) and orientation of stone lions. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2012-03-23.

Hypothetical calculation of man power in relation to the time span of erecting the burial mound (120x120x26m): Result of calculation: 200 persons working for about 2 years.

Calculation method: - 1 person manipulating 40 kg of earth (digging, putting in basket, emptying)...takes app. 5 minutes

- For 2000 kg (= 1 m3 of earth): i.e. 5 min / 40 kg = 0.125 min per kg or 250 min per 2000 kg.

- This equals 4 hours for 2 tons for 1 person or 2.5 min in the case that 100 persons work together.

- The emperor’s tomb has a volume of app. 274,400 m3. This equals 748,800,000 kg or 748,800 tons.

- If for 100 workers the manipulation of 2 tons takes 2.5 min (= 1.25 min for 1 ton), it takes 936,000 min for 748,800 tons.

- Calculating 1 year with 525,600 min than 936,000 min equal app. 1.7 years (when working 24 hours every day).

- When calculating with 10 working hours per day, the factor 2.4 has to be applied and instead of 1.7 years it would take 4 years for 100 workers or 2 years for 200 workers.

- This calculation does not include any architectural construction like corbelled roofs or stone walls.

Site 0032 (Mu ra, ’Phyong po) 30 Layout – Construction – Material

Lhakhang built around the stone stele.

Entrance to the lhakhang.

Stone stele based on the original terrain, about 240 cm below the today existing terrain outside the lhakhang.

Site 0032 (Mu ra, ’Phyong po) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 31

Section A-A Key for section A–A: 5 2 1...stele 1 Stele.2...turtle 2 Turtle.3...lhakhang walls (recent construction) 3 Lhakhang4...surrounding walls (recent terrain construction). Section A–A. 5...terrain below turtle 4 Surrounding terrain. 5 Terrain below turtle. 4

5 2 A A 1

Ground Groundplan. plan

0 1 5m

Site 0032 (Mu ra, ’Phyong po) 32 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND II

MOUND I

Mound I and Mound II. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-02-08.

Mound I. ‘brog sa (a nomad’s place or camp). Mound II. Trapezoid stone formation.

7°W 8.5m 83°E

109° NORTH 64°E 71° 6.8m

1...Trapezoid stone foramation 0 1m Site 0171 (Gnyan, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 33

75 4 3 2

Mound I. SectionSection A-A ofA-A the of ‘brog top of sa the. mound 7 6 5 4

orientatian 1 2 towards settled valley A A

0 1 5m MOUNDMound I.I - Ground Ground planplan ofof the the ‘brog 'brog sa sa. onLocated top of onthe top mound of the mound.

Key for ground1...Entrance plan and sectionof the ‘brog sa: 1 Entrance.2...Hip of stones (fireplace) 2 Hip of3...Floor stone. of 'brog sa (a nomad's place/camp) 4...Row of ashlars 3 Floor of ‘brog sa (a nomad’s place or camp). 5...Rammed earth flush-mounted with ashlars 4 Row 6...Surfaceof ashlar. drain 5 Rammed earth lush-mounted with ashlar.7...Burial mound 6 Surface drain. 7 Burial mound.

'brog sa top of the burial mound

Mound I. Section of the whole mound. 0 5m MOUND I - Section A-A of the whole mound

Site 0171 (Gnyan, Stod lung) 34 Layout – Construction – Material

towards settledorientatian valley

MOUND I

Mound I. Overview. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2010-12-29.

H (foot)=3713m

20m

94° 99°E H (foot)=3716m 87°

2 1 H (top)=3721m

23m 16° 106°E H (foot)=3709m

13°E

28m

100°

192°W 295°W

20,8m 79° 0 5m

1 Top of stone walls = top of the burial mound. 2 Foot of the mound.

Site 0024 (Bya sa’i ri, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 35

Mound I. View from the east side.

Pits to the west of Mound I.

Site 0024 (Bya sa’i ri, Sne gdong) 36 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND I

MOUND IV

MOUND III

MOUND II

Ground plan of central mound

Mounds I to IV. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-01-06.

Mound IV. View from the south.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 37

2 1 A 4

A 5 MOUND I

Mound I. Ground plan. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-01-06.

Key for section A-A: 1 Rammed earth wall. 2 Former stone wall; most of the stones are missing, probably due to theft. 3 Niche due to former vertical access from the top of the mound; probably linked to an ante chamber or to the grave chamber itself. 4 Hypothetical position of the area of the grave chamber. 5 Foot of the mound. 6 Top of the mound. 6

4 155cm 3 2 1

120 46

0 1 2m

Mound I. Section A-A. Mound I. Geometrical data.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 38 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound I. Sandwich-pattern of a rammed earth wall.

Mound I. Niche in the south-east wall.

Mound I. Missing stone wall in the north-east of the mound.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 39

South-east wall with protrusions framing the internal niche.

Niche in the south-east wall.

Detail of rammed earth wall framing a former stone wall.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 40 Layout – Construction – Material

0°

2160 A 1 6 0 2 0 /

60° 3 1 4 5 °

00 1

6 3

1 0 0 MOUND II 4

Mound II. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-01-06.

Key for ground plan: 1 Scarp: earth compressed. 2 Reconstructed lateral border of the mound, demolished section. 3 Top of the mound. 4 Foot of the mound. 5 Small compression (probably due to looting).

Key for section A-A: 1 Top of the mound (no remains of stone walls). 2 Demolished section. 3 Eroded or demolished section. Mound II. Geometrical data.

2 3 Mound II. Section.

0 5m

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 41

Mound I. View from the east side.

Small mounds to the west of Mound I.

Mound I. Detail of rammed earth wall.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 42 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND III

Mound III. Overview and geometrical data. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-01-06.

Key for the numbers 1...Burial mound of rammed earth. 2...Reconstructed part with measurements and photographs. On satellite images parts of the north-west front of this mound were still existent. 3...Reconstructed stone walls after the remains of the stone walls. Width of the walls: ca. 70 cm. 4...Stone walls, completely missing, hypothetically reconstructed. 5...Scarp (man made, no erosion). 6...Hypothetical front of a former stone wall. 7...Modern path (not existent on satellite image of 2011); after the mound‘s destruction. 8...Area of the grave chamber (hypothetical). 9...Ground level.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 43

3 1

~3.2m 9

8 ~25m MOUND III - Section A-A Mound III. Section A-A.

0 5m MOUND III - Ground plan

orientatian towards settled valley

1 NORTH

B C

5 A 3 8 A

4 6

B C 5

7 2 7 7

Mound III. Ground plan.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 44 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound III. Reconstruction of the process of constructing the part of a mound above the chamber. CAD: author. Rendering: Ferenc Zamoyi. Model on top showing the stone grids, model below the covering with an earth mound and model on opposite page all steps in one. 1. Digging the hole. 2. Erecting the grave chamber (not part of this 3D-model) and illing up the surrounding with earth. 3. Levelling the earth at a certain level for erecting the irst level of a grid of walls. 4. Erecting the irst level of a wall grid. 5. Filling up the interspace between the walls, covering the walls and again levelling. 6. Erecting the second level of a wall grid but slightly shifted. 7. Filling up the interspace between the walls, covering the walls and shaping the mound with earth.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 45

Mound III. Reconstruction of the process of constructing a mound.

Mound III. Sections of the wall construction.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 46 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound III. View of the north-west section.

Mound III. View into the mound showing remains of a stone wall foundation made of loosely laid slate plates.

Mound III. Top of the mound: missing stone walls.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 47

Mound III. Detail of the north-western corner.

Mound III. Top of the mound showing missing stone walls.

Site 0002 (Yar-2, Sne gdong) 48 Layout – Construction – Material

H (foot)=3861m 9 9

8 7 C

5 1 D 10 6 B 4 H (foot)=3859m H (top)=3871m 3 A 2

orientatian towards settled valley

Mound I. Ground plan. View of the norther corner of Mound I. Digital Globe (2014), Mapabc (2014), image taking 2010-12-29.

Key to ground plan: A to D Wall remains of four building structures. 1 Plateau = top of the burial mound. 2 Two chambers: Width of stone walls app. 50 to 65 cm. 3 Bivalve wall: Outer stone wall (ca. 70 cm) - central illing with earth (ca. 260 cm) - inner stone wall (ca. 65 cm). 4 Stone wall (ca. 60 cm). 5 Stone wall (ca. 95 cm). 6 Stone wall (ca. 73 cm). 7 Stone wall (ca. 100 cm). 8 Ramp connecting the mound with a foot path in the NE. 9 Foot paths. 10 Foot of the mound. Mound I. Geometrical data.

Site 0043 (Lcags ri, Grva nang) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 49

MOUND I. Ground plan of the structural remains in the southern corner on top of the plateau.

Mound I. View of the norther corner of Mound I. Mound I. Building structure on top of the mound located in the southern corner.

Site 0043 (Lcags ri, Grva nang) 50 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound I. North section. Stone wall along the top of the mound.

Mound I. East section. Stone wall along the top of the mound.

Mound I. Plateau on top of the mound stone wall (see nr. 5) in the ground plan.

Site 0043 (Lcags ri, Grva nang) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 51

MOUND III

MOUND I MOUND IV

MOUND II

Mounds I to IV. Overview. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Mapabc (2014), Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-02-08.

Mound I. North western corner. Mound I. View of the western section of the mound.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 52 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND III MOUND II MOUND IV

MOUND I

Site 172. Overview from the west. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon.

MOUND I

MOUND III MOUND IV MOUND II

Site 172. Overview from the east. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 53

H (height of the wall)=4m

A H 3,1m

H 4,5m 2 4 1 5

H 4,7m 3 A H 3,3m

Mound II. Ground plan. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2011-02-08.

Key for ground plan: 1 Plateau = top of the burial mound. 2 Excavation pit on top of the plateau. 3 Border of the pit (vertical, not sloping). 4 Slope; in earlier time possibly a staircase. 5 Ramp connecting to the rising slope.

Mound II. Geometrical data.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 54 Layout – Construction – Material

MOUND I

MOUND II

Site 172. Mound II. View from the west. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon.

1 2 4 3 terrain 5 terrain terrain horizontal

0 5m Key for ground plan: 1 Plateau = top of the burial mound. Mound II. Longitudinal section A-A. 2 Excavation pit on top of the plateau. 3 Border of the pit (vertical, not sloping). 4 Slope; in earlier time possibly a staircase. 5 Ramp connecting to the rising slope.

ramp

Site 172. Mound II. View from the west. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Martin Gamon.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 55

Mound II. South eastern corner.

Mound II. North eastern corner.

Mound II. Detail of north eastern corner showing layers of ramming the earth.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 56 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound III. A A 3 2 1 Key to ground plan. orientatian 1 Excavated pit. 2 Top of the mound. 3 Burial mound.

f the mound towards settled valley

Ground plan

Top of burial mound

Not the grown ground

Section A-A 0 1 5m

Mound IV. AA Key to ground plan. 1 Excavated pit. 3 2 1 2 Top of the mound. orientatian towards settled valley 3 Burial mound.

f the mound Ground plan B

Top of burial mound

Grown ground

Section A-A Top of burial mound

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 57

Mound III. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Hubert Feiglstorfer.

Mound IV. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Hubert Feiglstorfer.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 58 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound IV. Section. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), by Hubert Feiglstorfer.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 59

Mound III.

Mound IV.

View into Mound IV.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) 60 Layout – Construction – Material

View into Mound III.

View into Mound IV.

Site 0172 (Sgang skyid, Stod lung) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 61

MOUND I

MOUND II

ruins of a nunnery

MOUND III

trail

Mounds I to III. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2010-12-07.

Mound I. Geometrical data.

Mound II. Geometrical data.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 62 Layout – Construction – Material

orientatian towards Chad kha

MOUND I

MOUND II 2 1

5 4 A orientatian towards settled valley

A towardsvalley settled 3 towards settled valley

6 orientatian orientatian

Mound I and Mound II. Layout. Source of satellite picture: Google earth: Digital Globe (2014), image taking 2010-02-08.

Key for ground plan of Mound I: 1 Remains of the upper surface of a stone wall; with a few centimeters surmounting the surrounding level of the plateau of the mound; not following a trapezoidal geometry. 2 Reconstruction of a trapezoid as the outer shape of the mound. 3 Disposal of stones in a half-elliptic shape: Hypothesis to have been the basis of one of the protecting lions. 4 Quarry stone wall; recorded at the south side of the mound.

Key for ground plan of Mound II: 4 Remains of the upper surface of a stone wall; with a few centimeters surmounting the surrounding level of the plateau of the mound. 5 The outer shape of the mound gives more evidence to follow a circle than a square. 6 Hypothetical internal geometric order following a square with the orientation following the outline of ‘4’ and of still existing steps (see section A–A).

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 63

Mound I. View from the mound into the valley.

Mound I. East side. Possible remains of a pedestal for a stone lion.

Mound I. West side. Possible position of a stone lion.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 64 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound I. Composite construction of slabs and rammed earth.

Mound I. Slabs on top of the mound.

Mound II. View onto the stone steps.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 65

1 53 117 64 40 103 63 40 68 108 616 2 3 4 45 141 96 40 147

0 1 5m 207 200 169 214 345 units in cm 1135

Mound II. Section A–A.

Key for Section A–A: 1 Steps covered with slabs; run measures in average about 35 cm; recorded at the east side of the mound. 2 Earthen illing. 3 Rammed earth wall; recorded at the south side of the mound. 4 Quarry stone wall; recorded at the south side of the mound.

Mound II. Detail of stepped proile.

Mound II. Detail of the foundation.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 66 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound II. Foundation as a composite construction of slabs and rammed earth.

Mound II. Edge of the top of the mound framed with slabs.

Mound II. View from the top of the mound onto the top of the stone foundation-wall.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 67 600

A A 600

NORTH slope (rock covered with earth) covered slope (rock with earth) covered trail (rock with earth) covered slope (rock foundation (ashlar) foundation (ashlar) burial mound (rammed earth) foundation (ashlar) burial mound (rammed earth)

Mound III. Ground plan of the slope- orientated foundation.

units in cm 420 410 61 50 388 20 340 73 91 160 135

0 1 5m Mound III. Section A-A.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 68 Layout – Construction – Material

Mound III. With a view into the valley.

Mound III. Top edge of the mound.

Mound III. Stone walls as foundation.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 69

Mound III. Foundation as a composite construction of slabs and rammed earth.

Mound III. Rammed earth walls with slab inlays.

Site 0105 (Bya ra mdo, Mal gro) 70 Layout – Construction – Material

View onto the grave chamber.

Grave chamber.

Site 0131 (Lo-4a; Stag rtse) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 71

I II I

Two types of wall constructions (Mural types I and II). Detail of picture left with mural type I.

Partially opening of a mound. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Hubert Feiglstorfer.

Site 0004 (Yar-4, Sne gdong) 72 Layout – Construction – Material

Two different wall constructions beside each other. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Hubert Feiglstorfer.

A B C Ground plan of a open section of a mound. 3 2-I 2-I 2-II

41 4

5m 5 A B C 0 1 5m

Key for ground plan: 1 Zone of demolition of one of the mounds. 2-I Mural type I. Section B-B. 2-I Mural type II. 3 Top of the burial mound. 4 Boundary of the demolition zone. 5 Anterior boundary of the burial mound.

Site 0004 (Yar-4, Sne gdong) Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 73

Possibly a later inill in the place of a former vertical access. 3D model with ‘structure-from-motion’ (Agi Soft), Hubert Feiglstorfer.

Sections A-A. Similar to section C-C.

Site 0004 (Yar-4, Sne gdong) 74 Layout – Construction – Material

6 ~10.3m A 4

a ~10m

2 3 1

~4.3m 9 7 8 5 bc c 3 A

0 1 3m NORTH

orientatian towards settled valley

Fortress towers. Groundplan and section A-A.

Fortress. South-west corner.

Chad kha Cakun Bapsa tower Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 75

Fortress. West facade.

Fortress. North facade.

Fortress. South-east corner..

Chad kha Cakun Bapsa tower 76 Layout – Construction – Material

Site 105. Rocks on top of the plateau at the level of Mound I and II are the possible raw material used to for the lions at Chad kha new monastery. The material quality shows strong similarities to the stone used for the lions.

Site 104. New monastery entrance with guarding stone lions.

Site 104. New monastery. Right lion.

Chad kha monastery Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 77

Chad kha monastery. Downhill in white: new monastery. Uphill and unplastered: ruins of the old monastery.

Enclosure wall. Rammed earth construction.

Chad kha monastery ruins 78 Layout – Construction – Material

Adobe bricks with lat stone pieces between the brick layers. Foundation made of a traditional regular 3-shell stone foundation.

The 3-shell adobe construction follows the stone construction below with two outer and visible surface layers and smaller pieces as illing elements.

Adobe brick wall with stone pieces between the layers as shown in the example before but not as a 3-shell wall.

Chad kha monastery ruins Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 79

Adobe wall made of runners and headers.

Open wall section in the left middle of the picture shows lat stones laid in thick earth mortar.

Adobe brick wall on a 3-shell stone foundation.

Chad kha monastery ruins 80 Layout – Construction – Material

3-shell stone wall with irregularly laid outer visible shells.

1-shell stone wall with lat and regularly laid stones.

Chad kha monastery ruins Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 81

1-shell stone walls: Wall on top showing more regularity than the wall in the center and at the bottom.

1-shell stone walls: Wall section on top showing less regularity than the wall in the section below.

1-shell stone walls.

Chad kha monastery ruins 82 Layout – Construction – Material

Shide Lhakhang. West facade.

Tradtitional 3-shell wall structure.

Vertically changing layers between big- ger and smaller stones. Theses layers remain consistant throgh the width of the wall.

Lhasa – Shide Lhakhang Tibetan Tumulus Tradition 83

Changing structure from regular stone construction to window framing structure which is covered with a black coating.

Reduction of the wall thickness for the attics.

The penbey fries is woked into the wall.

Lhasa – Shide Lhakhang