Biodiversity Assessment of the Opata Estate, Kahawatte Plantations PLC, Pelmadulla

April 2012

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country Programme Survey team

Mr. Sampath de A. Goonatilake (Fauna expert) Mr. Sarath Ekanayake (Flora expert) Mr. Chandana Asela (Fauna expert)

Project Oversight

Dr. Devaka Weerakoon

Coordinated by

Mr. Shamen Vidanage Mr. Bandula Withanachchi

Photos Sampath de A Goonatilake © IUCN Sri Lanka Sarath Ekanayake

Cover page Opata estate 2nd Upper division tea plantation

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Contents

Acknowledgements ------iii 1. Introduction ------1 2. Objectives ------2 3. Methodology ------3 3.1 Site Description ------4 3.2 Assessment Method ------4 3.2.1 Overall methodological approach ------4 3.2.2 Selection of sampling sites and sampling frequency ------4 3.2.3 Methodology adopted for the Floral Survey ------4 3.2.4 Methodology adopted for the Faunal Survey ------5 3.2.5 Species identification, classification and nomenclature ------5 4. Results ------7 4.1 The Habitats and ecological setting ------7 4.2 The Species ------9 4.2.1 Flora ------9 4.2.2 Fauna ------9 4.3 Community based forest uses ------11 4.4 Threats to the biodiversity ------11 5. Recommendations ------14 5.1 Action for conserving soil resources ------14 5.2 Action for restoring habitat patches in pollution landscape ------15 5.3 Actions for community engagements ------15 5.4 Camping, publicity, rapport building and branding ------16 6. References ------18

Map 1: Opata estate and its divisions ------3

Table 1: Habitat types and site numbers examined ------4 Table 2: Summary of faunal sampling techniques ------5 Table 2: Some key references used for species identification and Nomenclature ------6 Table 3: Total number of species recorded within the Opata Estate ------10

Appendix 1: Sampling sites and the Habitats ------20 Appendix 2: Floral checklist with respect to their Habitats ------21 Appendix 3: Faunal checklist with respect to their Habitats ------30 Appendix 4: Implementation plan ------49 Appendix 5: List of Butterfly host plants for butterfly gardens ------67 Appendix 6: Photo catalog of the Opata estate ------70

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Acknowledgements

Special thanks are due to Mr. Roshan Rajadurai (Director/CEO Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.), Mr. Viren Ruberu (Director, Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.), Mr. C.P. Papalie (Manager, Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.) and Mr. Asanaka Abeyakoon (Environment Manager, Dilmah Conservation) for their kind cooperation and support extended to this study.

We would also like to thank Mr. Rolly Douglas, Estate Manager Opata Estate and his Assistant Manager Mr. Nanda Kumara for providing the necessary logistical support during the field study. Finally we are very grateful to the field staff of Opata estate for the support extended during our field study.

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1. Introduction

It is widely recognized that conversion of natural habitats to agricultural landcapes is an important driver of biodiversity loss in developing countries (Sala et al., 2000). Such farm land expansion and intensification inevitably leads to loss or degradation of habitats of many naturally occuring flora and fauna due to loss of space, food resources and roosting and nesting places. Further, such land conversion also results in fragmentation of habitats restricting movement of animals that can have a direct impact on some critical plant processes such as pollination and seed dispersion. However, the fact remains that at least two-thirds of the terrestrial environment of the planet consists of managed ecosystems such as agricultural systems, plantation forests and human settlements (McNeely, 1995, Bambaradeniya et al., 2003). Therefore, the value of such managed ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity cannot be overlooked. The habitat quality and thereby the richness and abundance of naturally occurring species in such managed ecosystems can be improved through the implementation of a well designed management plan. This will not only help biodiversity conservation but also improve the productivity of these ecosystems through stabilizing natural processes such as nutrient recycling, pollination, soil conservation and regulation of pest populations. Further, emerging new economic initiatives such as carbon trading, obtaining high end markets for their products and development of ecotourism ventures has paved the way to accrue higher economic benefits through sustainable agro-ecological practices.

During the British period large extents of land in the wet zone of Sri Lanka were converted into mono- crop plantations. This trend continued even after independence. As a consequence nearly 95% of the rain forests in Sri Lanka were converted to agricultural landscapes over the last two centuries. Therefore, at present almost two thirds of the land in Sri Lanka can be classified as managed ecosystems (Maddumabandara, 2000). Many of these plantations at present share boundaries with natural forests and also carry patches of natural habitats within their estates. These natural habitats at times can function as crucial refuges for the local biodiversity or critical corridors for movement of animals between fragmented habitat patches. Therefore, adopting sustainable management approaches to conserve these natural habitat patches as well as reduzing the impacts on natural habitats present in the boundaries of the large estate plantations have become one of the priority areas in the overall biodiversity conservation strategy of Sri Lanka.

In support of this national strategic goal, Dilmah Conservation of the MJF Group has launched an initiative to further improve the sustainable management of biological resources within and bordering the estates managed by the group through integration of biodiversity conservation principles into the management system of their estates. The first step of such an initiative is to develop a detailed inventory of the biological resources present within and immediately adjacent to their estates. To carry out this activity MJF group has forged a partnership with International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a global authority on biodiversity conservation. Under this programme IUCN will conduct rapid biodiversity appraisals of the estates managed by the MJF group to inventories their biological resources, to identify priority conservation actions and to provide recommendations for sustainable agro-ecological practices within these estates.

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2. Objectives

The present study was carried out to; 1. Document the status of the biodiversity existing within the Opata estate using rapid assessment methods. 2. Assess the past and ongoing biodiversity conservation initiatives implemented by the estate. 3. Identify the potential for building relationships with biodiversity and livelihoods of local communities.

To achieve above outputs following activities were carried out within the seven divisions of the Opata estate.

 A rapid scientific assessment of biodiversity to document habitat types, higher plants, birds, mammals, fish and selected invertebrate indicator groups (butterflies and dragonflies) within the estate.

 Rapid evaluation of past and current environment and biodiversity conservation initiatives implemented by the estate.

 Analysis of data gathered, and preparation of a report with specific alternatives and recommendations.

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3. Methodology

3.1 Site Description: The Opata estate (595.18 ha in extent) is located between Pelmadulla and Godakawela towns in the Sabaragamuwa province. The estate comprise of seven divisions. Of these divisions, 1st Lower, 2nd Lower, 3rd and C-division have semi natural secondary forests and shrub forests habitats. Much of these natural habitats are associated with the stream network that originate in/ or outside the estate and flows through the estate. Estate divisions are separated from surrounding villages by a public road network. Tea, cinnamon and rubber are the main crops that are planted in the estate.

The seven divisions that belong to the Opata estate are 1. 1st Upper division - 98.30 ha 2. 2nd Lower division - 41.00 ha 3. Walayboda division - 60.70 ha 4. C - division - 174.80 ha 5. 2nd Upper division - 108.02 ha 6. 2nd Lower division - 67.63 ha 7. No 3 – division - 44.73 ha

Map 1: The sites that were sampled within the Opata estate during the biodiversity survey

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3.2 Assessment Method

3.2.1 Overall methodological approach A literature survey on the past work related to biological resources available in the project area was conducted and specific information gaps were identified. Then a field survey was carried out to obtain further information on identified knowledge gaps pertaining to biological resources of the Opata estate. During the field survey, standard biodiversity sampling methods were used to document the biological resources (habitats, flora, and fauna) present in the seven divisions of the Opata estate. The sampling methods were designed to capture maximum amount of information on the biological resources present in the project area. Further, aspects such as availability of financial resources, and the time period were also taken into consideration, when selecting the survey techniques.

3.2.2 Selection of sampling sites and sampling frequency Sampling sites were selected based on a rapid reconnaissance survey of the seven divisions of the estate taking into consideration criteria such as accessibility, habitat quality and extent and spatial distribution of different habiats within the seven divisions (Appendix 1). In order to determine the spatial variation and distribution of biodiversity, both aquatic and terrestrial habitats were surveyed during the five day sampling. Total of 19 sites were sampled during day time while night time sampling was carried out at selected sampling sites which have high quality natural habitat patches.

3.2.3 Methodology adopted for the floral survey Sampling methods were designed to record key plant species present in the different floral communities (flowering plants and some common lower plants) within the site. Distinct vegetation types were identified according to the plant community structure and composition. For the listing of plants, 50mx5m, were laid in different vegetation types except in tea and rubber plantated areas which are homogeneous habitats with low plant diversity. Taxonomic identification of plants was done according to standard botanical techniques. References mentioned at the end were extensively used for this purpose. The site numbers and the habitat types sampled at these sites are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Habitat types and site numbers examined. Site nos. Habitat type 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Alstonia Forest X X Grassland X X Horticultural Crop Lands X Riverine Forest X X X X Secondary Forest X X X X X X X X X Semi-Wild Rubber Areas X

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3.2.4 Methodology adopted for the faunal survey All groups of vertebrates (Freshwater fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) and selected invertebrate species (Butterflies & Dragonflies) were identified and documented. Standard scientific sampling techniques were used to survey the different groups of fauna in the project area (Table 2). Sampling of fauna was done in parallel to the floral transects. Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method was used to record faunal species. Both direct and indirect observations (animal signs such as pellets, tracks and food remains) were made within transects. In addition, information collected from plantation workers and surrounding villagers on fauna present in the area through direct interviews were also recorded and verified through field guides (Table 3) and photographs.

All efforts were made to document the animals without causing them harm. Following techniques were used to study the different faunal groups present in the project area.

 Butterflies and dragonflies – 5m x 100m belt transect  Fishes – Cast netting, river bank observations and examination of fishes caught by the local fisherman

 Amphibians and reptiles – 5m x 100 m belt transect,  Birds –20m circular spot counting along the 100 m transects at 50m intervals

 Mammals – 5m x 100m belt transects.

In addition to the above techniques opportunistic observations were also used for the purpose of compiling the faunal inventory for the site. Further, Night observations along the road net work were carried out to record the nocturnal species (herpetofauna, birds, and mammals).

Table 2: Summary of faunal sampling techniques

Group/ Taxa Method Technique Fish Direct Cast-netting , stream bank observation Amphibians Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Reptiles Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Birds Direct and indirect Terrestrial habitats: Line transects (Visual & auditory observations) Mammals Direct and indirect Transects (tracks, fecal matter, feeding signs, carnivore scat analysis calls etc.); Butterflies Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Dragonflies Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey

3.2.5 Species identification, classification and nomenclature

Identification of fauna and flora: Identification of plants and animals were based on latest standard published field guides and keys available in Sri Lanka. In addition, the specimens deposited in the National Herbarium and the National Museum were also referred for the purpose of authentication of species whose identity that could not be ascertained using standard guides or keys. The Key references that were used for the identification of flora and fauna are listed in Table 2. Nomenclature of the species present was based on Bambaradeniya (2006) and Senarathna (2000) for the fauna and flora respectively. The

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conservation status of the species was determined according to the latest IUCN lists of threatened fauna and flora.

Table 2: Some key references used for species identification and Nomenclature

Group Source Flora Dassanayake, M. D. & Fossberg, F. R. (eds) (1980 – 1991), Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds) (1994 - 1995), Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds) (1995 - 1996), Vlas J & Jde Vlas (2008), Flora nomenclature Senaratna LK (2000) Fauna nomenclature Bambaradeniya (2006) Freshwater Fish Pethiyagoda, R. (1991), Goonatialake deA (2007) Amphibians Manamendraarachchi K and R Pethiyagoda (2006), De Silva (2009) Reptiles Somaweera, R (2006), Somaweera R & N Somaweera (2009) Birds Harrison J (1999), Kotagama S & G Ratnavira (2010), Warakagoda D & U Hettige (2008) Mammals Phillips, WWA (1935), Wijeyratne, GdeS (2008) Butterflies D’ Abrera (1998) Dragonflies Fonseka T. de (2000), Bedjanic M, Conniff K & GdeS Wijeyratne (2007) Invasive species Marambe et al, 2010 Threatened species IUCN Sri Lanka & MENR, 2007, IUCN (2008)

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4. Results

4.1 The Habitats and ecological setting

Opata estate is located in the mid country wet zone of Sri Lanka within the altitude range of 300m and 900m. The rainfall is distinctly seasonal with two rainfall peaks in the year that is characteristic to the wet zone climatic region. The south western monsoon rains occurs from May to September. The northeast monsoon occurs from December to February. There are two distinct inter monsoon period. During these inter monsoon periods, namely, March to April and October to November, the rains are mainly due to convectional activity. Agro ecologically, the area is classified under WM1 (Wet zone Mid country 1) where the 75% expectancy of annual rainfall is 3125mm and 75% expectancy of dryness for particular months are ½ January and February. The mean annual sunshine duration in the wet zone ranges from 4.9 to 6.4 hours per day depending on the location and the duration of sunshine are related to the cloud cover. During rainy season, sunshine is very low. Out of 22 physiographic units in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Opata and the surrounding area is classified under unit 17, termed Southern platform/Belihul Oya-Godakawela land system. This is a dissected plateau having a general altitude of 600m msl consisting of low to moderate relief hills and valley land form units (Somasiri and Nayakekorale, 1999, Somasiri, 1999). According to soil taxonomy, the area poesses soils belonging to Dodangoda series under Typic Plinthudults sub group (Mapa et al, 1999).

According to Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke (1990), the site is coming under the bio-region 4 where the tropical lowland wet evergreen forest best represents the climax vegetation. Currently, they are highly fragmented and many of them are restricted to small blocks of a few hundred hectares each. The climax forests of this bio-region are dominated by Dipterocarp species, among which endemism reaches 90 percent, and some species are very rare and highly restricted in distribution. These forests also show considerable micro-climatic differences within a relatively small spatial area. At present, 93 percent of endemics in the rain forests of this bioregion are either endangered, Vulnerable or Rare according to the IUCN Red Data Book criteria. This is mainly due to the high human population pressure on the limited land resources of this region and consequent loss of forest habitats, and overexploitation of forest resources.

Introduction of plantation crops, tea and rubber, during the British period has completely transformed the landscape in Opata area. Crop production requires the removal of the natural vegetation, or its drastic modification. The Opata complex of estate lands at present are dominated by plantation crops such as cinnamon, tea and rubber. The Opata estate complex in addition to these plantation crops posses several near natural habitat areas representative of the locality. As far the overall land cover situation is considered, the estate complex comprise of a mosaic of vegetation types covering a spectrum of natural, semi-natural and highly anthropogenic systems. The key vegetation types and plant species identified in the area include; Alstonia dominated Forests, Grasslands, Horticultural Crop Lands, Riverine Forests, Secondary Forests and Semi-Wild Rubber Areas.

Alstonia dominated Forests: A monoculture of Alstonia trees (Alstonia macrophylla) growing upto 20m-30m forms the canopy of this vegetation type. Trees are spaced mostly 8m x 8m and the stem diameter varies depending on the age (20cm - 30cm range is common). Light penetration through the canopy is mostly 40%-50% as per visual estimates. In almost all areas, under growth is dominated by weedy herbaceous plants (1m-2m) such as Panicum maximum, Clidemia hirta, Urena lobata and Mikania cordata. Pureria phaseoloides escaped from rubber estates is also found commonly in the 7

understorey vegetation. Shrub and tree species such as Lantana camara, Macaranga peltata, Neolitsea cassia, Swietenia macrophylla and Symplocos cochinchinenis are also found frequently in this vegetation type.

Grasslands: Grasslands occur on lands where tea planting has been abandoned due to various reasons. Grasslands have a simple vegetation structure, closely grown grass cover that grows up to 2m in height. Occasionally, isolated and scattered tree (up to 20m) and shrub (up to 3m) species can be seen. Cymbopogon nardus and Panicum maximum are the most commonly occuring grass species observed in this habitat. Isolated trees and shrubs that occur commonly include Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia scholaris, Macaranga peltata, Trema orientalis and Lantana camara.

Horticultural crop lands: This vegetation type is mainly found in areas that immediately surrounding the estate bungalows. These horticultural crop lands are dominated by ornamental species. They are results of long term manipulations and dominated by multipurpose tree species. Best developed multi- storey horticultural crop lands can be observed in the bungalow premises. Generally, several plant layers; canopy 20m, sub canopy 10m and shrub/herb layer 2m could be recognized. Albizia falcataria, Areca catechu, Artocarpus altilis and Artocarpus heterophyllus are the common tree species found in ths habitat while Allamanda cathertica, Anthurium andrianum, Arundo donax, Axonopus affinis, Centella asiatica, Clerodendron infortunatum, Clidemia hirta, Codiaeum variegatum, Coffea Arabica, Costus speciosus, Duranta repens and Elusine indica are the frequently found shrub and herb species. The continuous canopy allows very little light to reach the ground. Horticultural crop lands are also important faunal habitats providing animals with feeding and nesting sites.

Riverine Forest: Riverine forests are found along the banks of streams and the distribution of this vegetation type is generally restricted to a 10m-15m wide strip on either side of the banks. The canopy reaches about 25m-30m in height with a Sub-canopy (20m) and a shrub/herb (1m-2m) layer. These belts of forest are home to many surviving rainforest plant species. The common species occupying different layers include; Canopy: Artocarpus nobilis, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Hydnocarpus venenata, Madhuca longifolia, Mangifera zeylanica, Semecarpus nigro-viridis, Terminalia arjuna and Vataria copallifera Sub-canopy: Albizia falcataria, Alstonia macrophylla, Areca catechu, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Caryota urens, Celtis philippensis, Cyathocalyx zeylanicus, Ficus exasperate, Hevea brasiliensis, Litsea gardneri, Litsea longifolia, Macaranga peltata, Mallotus tetracoccus, Margaritaria indicus and Nothopegia beddomei Shrub layer: Allophylus cobbe, Cinnamomum verum, Clerodendron infortunatum, Clerodendron paniculatum, Coffea Arabica, Eurya acuminate, Ficus hispida, Hibiscus furcatus, Humboldtia laurifolia, Ixora coccinea, Leea indica and Pongamia pinnata Herb layer: Alocasia macrorrhiza, Axonopus affinis, Commelina bhenghalensis, Costus speciosus, Cynotis axillaris, Laginandra ovate, Limocharis flava, Ludvigia peruviana, Ludwigia deccurence, Mikania cordata, Panicum maximum, Urena lobata and Xanthosoma sp. Riverine forests form the inter phase between stream and other terrestrial habitats. It is the frontline defense against stream bank erosion due to water currents. Riverine forests provide convenient resting sites for birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians etc.

Secondary Forest: These are either areas that are abandoned after tea or rubber cultivation or natural forest that are heavily exploited over the years (some 20-25 years back). In such areas the secondary forest has developed. But they continue to be subjected to high human pressure. The forest structure is more or less developed into a four strata system; canopy (25m), sub canopy,

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shrubs and herbs. But the species composition is not yet closer to natural forests. Common species observed in these four layers include Canopy: Albizia falcataria, Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia scholaris, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus tsjahela, Hevea brasiliensis, Mangifera indica, Melia dubia and Swietenia macrophylla Shrubs/treelets: Clerodendron infortunatum, Clerodendron paniculatum, Ficus exasperate, Ficus hispida, Lantana camara, Macaranga peltata, Mallotus tetracoccus, Manihot glaziovii, Neolitsea cassia, Pagiantha dichotoma, Symplocos cochinchinenis, Trema orientalis and Zizyphus oenoplia Herbs: Axonopus affinis, Blechnum orientale, Chromolaena odorata, Clidemia hirta, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Dichranopteris linearis, Mikania cordata, Panicum maximum, Pennesetum polystachyon, Tripsacum laxum, Urena lobata and Wedelia trilobata. These forests can be considerd as transitional habitats developing into rainforests if left undisturbed.

Semi-Wild Rubber Areas: Some rubber plots in the estate have been poorly managed due to the issues of the land features or cost factors and at present remains as abandoned plantation areas. In such sites, wild plant species have invaded the cropping area. The intensity of invasion by the wild plants is proportional to the duration of negligence. In this vegetation, three strata can be recognized. They are rubber dominant tree canopy (10m-20m), shrubs (2m-5m) and ground herbs (below 1m). In addition to rubber trees the canopy layer includes tree species such as Albizia falcataria, Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia scholaris, Mangifera indica and Michelia champaca. Below the canopy a layer comprising of treelets or shrubs such as Aleurites moluccana, Areca catechu, Artocarpus gomezianus, Ficus exasperate, Ficus hispida, Litsea gardneri, Macaranga peltata, Mallotus tetracoccus, Manihot glaziovii, Neolitsea cassia, Pagiantha dichotoma, Symplocos cochinchinenis and Trema orientalis can be seen. Ground herb layer consists mostly of weedy plants such as Ageratum conyzoides, Axonopus affinis, Bidens pilosa, Blechnum orientale, Chromolaena odorata, Clidemia hirta, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium heterophyllum, Desmodium hetrocarpus, Elusine indica, Lantana camara, Mikania cordata, Panicum maximum, Pureria phaseoloides, Urena lobata and Wedelia trilobata.

4.2 The Species

4.2.1 Flora: According to the results of the preliminary floristic survey a total of 334 species belonging to 91 plant families have been recorded within the Opata estate (Annexes 2). This includes 22 species that are endemic to Sri Lanka and five species listed as threatened species (IUCN SL and MENR, 2007). Since the land area is mostly covered with anthropogenic habitats, a large number of weedy and exotic species were found. This included six species listed as alien invasive species in Sri Lanka.

4.2.2 Fauna: Total number of 205 faunal species including 31 endemics, five migrants and four domestic species were recorded during the survey (Appendix 3). The faunal assemblage included eight species that are listed as nationally threatened (2 - Endangered species and 6 - Vulnerable species). A further 22 species observed at the Opata estate are listed as nationally Near Threatened (NT) (IUCN SL and MENR, 2007).

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Table 4. Total number of species recorded within the Opata Estate

Recorded in the site Conservation status of the recorded species Animal Group Total Endemic Migrant Domestic CR EN VU NT Dragonflies 16 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 Butterflies 39 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Fishes 17 5 0 0 0 0 2 2 Amphibians 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 Reptiles 26 7 0 0 0 1 2 2 Birds 75 9 5 0 0 0 0 9 Mammals 27 3 0 4 0 1 2 2 Total 205 31 5 4 0 2 6 22

Dragonflies: Total number of 16 species of dragonflies and damselflies were recorded within the stream habitats. This included four (Green's Gem - Libellago greeni, Shining Gossamerwing - Euphaea splendens, Dark-glittering Threadtail - Elattoneura centralis, Stripe-headed Threadtail - Prodasineura sita) species that are endemic to Sri Lanka (Bedjanic et al., 2007). Division - C has high quality aquatic habitats (stream vegetations) suitable for dragonflies and damselflies. Thus the highest number of species, respectively eight and seven were recorded in the sampling sites 12 and 14. None of the recorded dragonflies or damselflies species are listed as threatened species in Sri Lanka.

Butterflies: Total number of 39 butterfly species was recorded during the field survey. This did not inccude any endemic or threatened species. However, six species of butterflies recorded at the site are listed as nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). The most common butterfly species observed were Common Cerulean (Jamides celeno), Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus), Common sailor (Neptis hylas), and Psyche (Leptosia nina). All the divisions have a similar species richness with respect to butterflies.

Freshwater Fishes: A total of 17 freshwater fish species including five endemics (Stone sucker - Garra ceylonensis, Black lined barb - Puntius pleurotaenia, Banded mountain loach - Schistura notostigma, Walking catfish – Clarias brachysoma and Combtail - Belontia signata) were recorded within the stream net work located inside the estate. Among them Long finned eel (Anguilla nebulosa) and Black lined barb (Puntius pleurotaenia) are listed as a nationally Vulnerable (VU) species. A further two species (Banded mountain loach - Schistura notostigma, Combtail - Belontia signata) are listed as a nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). Maximum number of fish species was recorded from streams located within 2nd upper division and division ‘C’.

Amphibians: Total numbers of five amphibian species including four endemic species (Corrugated water frog - Lankanectes corrugates, two unidentified Shrub frogs - Pseudophilautus sp., Common wood frog - Hylarana temporalis) were recorded. However, none of the recorded species are listed as threatened species. Highest numbers of amphibians were recorded within the division ‘C’ within the remaining natural forest patches. Two amphibian species belonging to genus Pseudophilautus were not identified in to the species level. However, the amphibian diversity is likely to be much more than that was recorded judging by the habitat diversity within the estate.

Reptiles: Altogether 26 species of reptiles including seven endemic species (Flapshell turtle - Lissemys ceylonensis, Deignan's lankaskink - Lankascincus sp., Sri Lanka Pipe snake - Cylindrophis maculate, Checkered keelback - Xenochrophis sp, Blind snake- Typhlops sp., Earth snake -

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Rhinophis sp., Green pit viper - Trimeresurus trigonocephalus) were recorded. Flapshell turtle (Lissemys ceylonensis), and Sri Lanka cat snake (Boiga ceylonensis) are listed as nationally vulnerable (VU) while Parker's black turtle (Melanochelys trijuga) and Sri Lanka Pipe snake (Cylindrophis maculata) are listed as Nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL and MENR, 2007).

Birds: A total number of 75 bird species including nine endemic species and five migratory species. Out of these nine species are listed as Nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). Indian Peafowls (Pavo cristatus) that have invaded the estate during recent years and has become a serious pest in several food crops in the village areas.

Mammals: Total number of 27 mammalian species were recorded within the estate premises. This includes three endemics (Sri Lanka toque monkey - Macaca sinica, Golden palm civet - Paradoxurus sp., Mouse-deer - Moschiola sp.) and four domestic species. Further, three species of mammals (Giant squirrel - Ratufa macroura, Fishing cat - Prionailurus viverrinus, Rusty-spotted cat - Prionailurus rubiginosus) observed in the estate are listed as Nationally threatened while another two species (Pangolin – Manis crassicaudata, Sri Lanka toque monkey - Macaca sinica) are listed as Nationally Near Threatened (NT) (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007).

4.3 Community based forest uses The use of forest products by the local communities was ascertained based on an interview survey. They depend on natural resources within the estate to obtain herbs for medicinal purposes, vegetables and mushrooms (Beru leaf flush, kebella) for consumption, and firewood for household use. Other than floral species number of faunal species (Wild boar, Pangolin, Civet cats, Jungle fowls) are also hunted locally for consumption.

4.4 Threats to the biodiversity Soil erosion: Soil erosion at Opata estate is visible in many places and results in not only loss of top soil but also soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor drainage and soil acidity problems. These other forms of soil degradation usually contribute to accelerate soil erosion. Soil erosion must have occurred as a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed causing serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from the estate is reflected in reduced tea crop performance in certain patches, reduced surface water quality, exposed soil layers, exposed root system of trees, damaged stream banks and damaged drainage networks. Opata being a hilly landscape in wet zone, both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing the water erosion problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand, silt, clay and organic matter can be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water. Usually, soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during high intense rains. Although the erosion caused by low intensity long rainy periods is not as noticeable as that produced during high intensity rains, the amount of soil loss can be significant, especially when cumulative effect over time is considered. Runoff can occur whenever there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface ditches. The amount of runoff can be increased if infiltration is reduced due to soil compaction and crusting. Runoff from the land may be greatest when there is no vegetation cover. Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates have higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure making greater resistance to erosion. The lower nutrient levels often associated with degraded soil make poor plant growth, as seen in many patches of tea lands, which in turn provides less protection for the soil. Under natural conditions, when the steepness and the slope of a field

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increases the amount of soil loss from erosion by water also increases accordingly. Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants. Plant and residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows excess surface water to infiltrate. The current practice of minimum weeding in tea and rubber lands has positively contributed towards controlling soil erosion. Several modes of erosion can be seen at Opata estate.

Sheet and Rill Erosion: Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff; it occurs rather uniformly over the slopes and may go unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost. Rill erosion results when surface runoff makes small channels.

Gully erosion: There are places especially associated with motarable gravel roads where large quantities of top soil and subsoil ha eroded due to erosion. Surface runoff, causing gully formation or enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper design of surface drainage systems.

Stream and ditch bank erosion: Absence of stream bank vegetation, poor construction of stone walls or their inadequate maintenance, blockage of surface drainage systems, uncontrolled livestock access, and cultivating too close to both stream banks has led to bank erosion problems.

The soil erosion affects fertile topsoil and reduce crop yield as an immediate effect. Some areas with steep slopes are already showing effects of minor scale landslides (as shown by slanted trees) which can trigger more destructive landslides. In addition, pesticides may also be carried off the site with the eroded soil. Sediment which reaches streams or watercourses can accelerate the erosion process, clog drainage ditches and stream channels, deposit silt in water bodies, cover fish spawning grounds and reduce downstream water quality. Pesticides and fertilizers, frequently transported along with the eroding soil can contaminate or pollute downstream water sources.

Watershed degradation: Watershed is generally regarded as the 'feeder area' of a given stream or spring and has a well demarcated geographical boundary. In Opata estate there are several mini watersheds benefiting the worker community. The total number of significant mini watersheds in the Opata estate is needed to be assessed through a GIS analysis. Here, the watersheds include terrestrial upland areas (both plantation areas and semi-natural forested areas), marshy wetlands and riparian areas. The riparian land is a strip of moist loving vegetation cover between the higher uplands and the lower, wet areas of a watershed. Riparian areas act as water filters to prevent pollutants from entering a water body. Wetlands are the small streams and can have seasonal or perennial flow of water. The water quality, quantity and seasonality are depended on many factors such as climate, watershed vegetation, geological features, human activities etc. Currently, several community water points are found in Opata estate and in the absence of a well developed drinking water scheme in some settlements, it is essential that mini-watersheds are conserved and enhanced for sustaining community life and livelihoods. Livestock rearing by community is also highly dependent on such water sources. Apart from those watersheds, especially the more moist areas are important 'intensive care units' for some sensitive biodiversity that aren't even visible, but they are still important because they support other species and their life cycles. The benefits of watersheds to the biodiversity and ecosystem processes are enormous; some examples of these functions include supporting life by provision of food, water and shelter for countless species, reduce flooding by storing excess water

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and slowing water velocity, purify water, recharge groundwater, reduce erosion and stabilize soil, control flash floods, replenish ground water for human and animal consumption, regulate temperature and moisture to protect biodiversity and trap sediment to minimize its harmful effects. Presently, almost all the watersheds at Opata estate are degraded due to various human disturbances removal of native vegetation cover, spread of invasive plants, excessive human presence in source areas and inefficient water use practices. Therefore, a balance has to be met to manage watersheds in production landscape.

Degradation of remnant forests: There are several patches of semi-natural forests in degraded state. The flora is indicative of characteristic ecosystems potential for the area although full spectrum of plant life is not present due to habitat degradation over the years. Expansion of plantation area, gradual removal of timber plants, frequent human presence and occurrence of invasive plant species have been the driving forces behind forest degradation. Reduced native biodiversity in such patches are immediately visible. Some of the surviving rainforest plants species only live in small specific areas in the country and that makes them especially vulnerable to extinction. The same is true for animals living in that changing landscape; some animals are simply unable to survive. On physical side, soil erosion accelerates with forest degradation. Trees and plants act as natural barriers to slow down water flow as it runs off the land. Roots bind the soil and prevent it from washing away. The absence of vegetation causes the topsoil to erode more quickly. It's difficult for plants to grow in the less nutritious soil that remains. This damage due to deforestation is reversible and can be managed through implementation of a planned programme of actions.

Spread of invasive plants: Several species of invasive plants namely Lantana camara, Panicum maximum and Eupatorium odoratum occupies a considerable area of the estate land that could have been occupied by native plants. As elsewhere, such species displace native plants, native animals including threatened and rare species, reduce species diversity, form dense monocultures, alter food webs, and degrade watersheds and soil environment.

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5 Recommendations

Suggestions for improving the environmental outlook of Opata estate

Environmental development activities of Opata estate need to be a continuous process with due consideration for economic aspects as well as social realities. Initially, a detailed understanding of the issues and management objectives has to be defined so that this can lead to the development of an environmental road map for sustainable management of biological resources in the Opata estate. Preparation of a GIS data base on Opata estate will make such efforts more successful. GIS will be a very useful tool in identifying land slide prone areas, degraded forests, watersheds, habitat links etc. Based on land information and management needs, a comprehensive management plan can be developed for the estate. The following actions can be identified as priority areas that need to be considered in development of an environmental management plan for Opata estate.

5.1. Actions for conserving soil and water resources:

Stabilize steep slopes: Restoration of landslides prone and unstable slopes can minimize the vulnerability to future dangers. Maintenance of low biomass vegetation cover in such areas will protect against runoff related damages. Drainage canals need to be diverted from steep lands.

Restore riparian vegetation: Flowing water can erode stream banks widening the stream. Stabilization includes many techniques that can be employed to control stream bank erosion. Physical methods employ large boulders or rip rap to strengthen the bank or redirecting flows. Vegetative methods utilize plants or plant cuttings for bank stabilization. Native plants can be widely used in developing riverine vegetation that serve the dual purpose of stream bank protection and sustenance of native biodiversity. Establishment of dense grassed linings in more vulnerable segments of the stream bank is also useful. Vegetated waterways always act against the erosive forces of concentrated runoff from sloping lands. Vegetated stream banks should be protected from grazing and trampling by livestock.

Add more mulch to cropping areas: Mulch is a type of protective covering which is in direct contact with the ground, provides more protection in absence of a canopy cover. It can vary from straw, to compost, to wood chips, or saw dust. The system is particularly valuable where a satisfactory plant cover cannot be established at the time of year when erosion risk is greatest. The beneficial effects of mulching include protection of the soil surface against raindrop impact, decrease in flow velocity by imparting roughness, and improved infiltration capacity. It also enhances burrowing activity of some species of earthworms which improves transmission of water through the soil profile and reduces surface crusting and runoff and improves soil moisture storage in the root zone.

Restore Cover Crops in vacant sites: Planted cover crops such as Pueraria phaseoloides provide another technique of achieving in situ mulch. Cover crops conserves soil water, improves water use efficiency, weed control and improve soil organic matter content. It is the most satisfactory method of building up the organic content of soil in crop areas. The effectiveness of cover crops in soil and water conservation however depends on species characteristics including ease of establishment, vigor of growth, depth of rooting, rapidity of establishment of surface cover etc.

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Introduce Strip Cropping and line planting in sloping lands: This is farming of sloping land in alternate contoured strips of crops and close-growing crops (for example, a cover crop or grass) aligned at right angles to the direction of natural flow of runoff. The close-growing strip slows down runoff and filters out soil washed from the land in the interfiled crop. Strip cropping provides effective erosion control against runoff on well-drained erodible soils on slopes. The width of the strips can be varied with the erodibility of the soil, and slope steepness. Trees like Gliricidia sepium, Pongamia pinnata and, Erythrina variegata can be arranged in similar way in tea lands.

Establish Ridges and furrows on sloping lands: The ridge-furrow system is a commonly used physical conservation practice. Ridge-and-furrow systems when aligned parallel to the contour lines have the dual purpose of erosion control and surface drainage. They are also an effective ground water recharge system for watersheds.

5.2. Actions for restoring habitat patches in the plantation landscape:

The estate has many patches of degraded habitats and unproductive land blocks. These are ideal for sustaining smaller wildlife, and restoration of such habitats considering site specific situation is an important step in developing the environmental image of the estate. Habitat restoration and management enhance ecological functioning of the remnant habitats; both wetlands and terrestrial ecosystems, and give opportunities for native plants and animals to thrive there. This involves gradual introduction of indigenous and endemic plant species representing different life forms (trees, shrubs and herbs) suitable for desired wildlife. Initially some exotic species such as Erythrina spp. may be able to use as nurse crops for native flora. Long-term management is needed to maintain the habitat pockets and keep out invasive species. Considering the highly fragmented nature of forests in the wider landscape in the plantation area, it is necessary to include corridors to facilitate movement of wildlife, wildlife habitat buffers, wildlife food patches and wildlife hiding/ resting areas. Wildlife habitat corridors connect isolated patches of habitat. They can be linear vegetation belts formed around natural features such as streams. Trees/shrubs with a high density of stems are ideal for wildlife corridors. Riparian buffers and filter strips can be established for sustaining stream side species and also serve as wildlife corridors. Wildlife food patches can be small tracts of faunal food plants to provide food and cover for a variety of wildlife. Wildlife hiding places (shrubby areas) can provide shelter for small mammals, reptiles and numerous bird species. Good sites for wildlife hiding places are once again located along stream banks and edges of the plantation. Appropriate plant species need to be selected for sustaining butterflies, birds, bats, reptiles and pollinators. This kind of habitat restoration activities have multiple benefits such as enhancing biodiversity in and around the estate, conserve soil and improve watersheds. Home gardens of the surrounding area can be part of the habitat development works and necessary for engagement of the local communities.

5.3. Actions for community engagements: The capacity of plantation companies to solve environmental problems and create a better agro ecological environment largely depends on the knowledge and involvement of local community and work force. Often, environmental problems are indications of community problems and therefore their involvement is very relevant for broad-based actions. Broad-based action is needed because working in isolation cannot accomplish long-term solutions to community problems and resultant environmental problems. Activities of surrounding villagers and plantation work force affect the quality of estate land environment. People have a common interest in estate environment in relation to their day to day work and livelihoods. Understanding these conditions may lead to seek to encourage environmental management through locally based actions and to more effectively plan and deliver

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locally relevant environmental education to all audiences including estate worker community. Community-based environmental awareness and local actions have been more commonly applied with community economic development, village water resource management and health issues. Estate environmental management goals cannot be accomplished until they can work confidently and competently with community members and with officers from other agencies such as forest department, education department and wildlife department. The community engagement has to draw attention to several needs:

 To ensure that environmental awareness has an obvious connection to the community  To emphasize the link between local activities and a quality of estate environment  To ensure that environmental awareness is relevant to day to day life.

To achieve this goal several activities can be initiated.

Establishment of an environment management committee: Organizational problems are major hindrances to any implementation work. Establishment of a task team that cares for the every aspect of estate environment will streamline the work.

Environmental education and awareness: Presence of a knowledgeable work force within the estate representing top, middle, lower strata is essential pre requisite for building support for the environmental program. Having an enlightened village community in the vicinity will be an added benefit in enhancing the biodiversity and curbing illegal activities.

Greening of routine processes: Use of CFL bulbs, non toxic paints, nature friendly pesticides, recyclable material/energy, locally produced raw material. Calculate carbon foot print of processes and rectify weaknesses. Some of these practices are already in place.

5.4. Campaigning, publicity, rapport building and branding It is very essential that the good environmental work that the estate has undertaken is related to public image, institutional links, and premium price for products, social acceptance and community support. Suitable print, electronic and verbal media can be used in this regard.

5.5 Eco friendly community based small industries: There are some opportunities in the estate land for following small industries.

Beekeeping in Rubber Plantations: The rubber tree is a prolific source of honey which is obtained from the extra floral nectaries at the tip of the petiole, where the leaflets join. Although rubber plantations have been identified as a source of bee honey, organized commercial exploitation of honey from rubber plantations in Sri Lanka is negligible. The available estimates on the honey production in India bears evidence to the importance of rubber plantations as a source of honey. In India 60% of bee honey production comes from rubber estates. Apart from honey, other principal hive products are pollen, propolis, beeswax, royal jelly and bee venom which also have industrial uses. The major consuming industries for honey in the domestic market are the indigenous mediine and tourism. Presently, there is a ready export market as honey is gaining popularity in the beauty care industry as well. In Sri Lanka it is high time that Rubber growers form a consortium for rubber growing regions to achieve the twin objectives of commercial exploitation of rubber honey and hive products supplementing the income from rubber. As a bonus bee keeping enhance the fruit setting of many crops and forest plants contributing to economy and ecology.

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Commercial Anthuriam cultivation under rubber tree shade: Several varieties of Anthurium have heavy local and export demand. Mid elevation areas with frequent mist cover are ideal for cultivating Anthurium under rubber plantation. Generally, Anthurium needs 75% shade and high moisture conditions. Dense planting of Anthuriumrs in lines of plastic planting gutters laid on the ground will be able to have 20,000 plants per hectare along with rubber and a plant produce 5-6 flowers per year (approx. Rs. 100/= per good flower). This is a significant income for the community if managed in profit share basis.

Extraction of rubber seed oil: Rubber oil, which can be extracted from the rubber seeds using the mechanical pressing method, is of high acid value, that is, the free fatty acid content is high and the oil is not edible, but makes it suitable for use in soap manufacture. It has been used as a substitute for palm kernel oil in the production of soaps (bar soap and detergent soap). Such avenues should be explored as a cottage industry with surrounding community to minimize resource wastage.

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5 References

1. Ashton, PM, Gunatilleke, CVS., Zoyza, N, Dassanayake,MD, Gunatilleke, IAUN., & Wijesundara, S, (1997). A field guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications & Pvt, Sri Lanka. 2. Bambaradeniya C.N.B. 2000. Alien invasive species. Loris. 22: No 4, pp 3-7. 3. Bambaradeniya, CNB, Edirisinghe, JP, de Silva, DN, Gunatilleke, CVS, Ranawana, KB & Wijekoon, S (2003) Biodiversity associated with an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Biodiversity and Conservation. 4. Bambaradeniya, CNB (Editor), 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp 5. Bedjanic M, Conniff K & Wijeyratne, GdeS (2007) Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays. 242pp 6. D’ Abreira, B (1998). The Butterflies of Ceylon. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, 221 pp 7. Dassanayake MD and Fosberg, FR (eds) (1980 - 1991) Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. I-VII. Amerind Publ., New Delhi. 8. Dassanayake MD and Clayton, WD (eds) (1996 - 1999). Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. X - XIII. Amerind Publ., New Delhi. 9. Dassanayake MD, Fosberg FR and Clayton, WD (eds) (1994 - 1995) Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. VIII - IX. Amerind Publ., New Delhi. 10. De Silva (2009) Amphibians of Sri Lanka: A photographic Guide to Common frogs, Toads and Caecilians. Published by Author, Kandy. 168pp 11. Fonseka, Tde (2000) The Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. WHT publications (privet) Limited. Sri Lanka. 303pp 12. Goonatilake deA (2007) Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Sri Lanka. 134pp 13. Gunatilleke, IAUN. & Gunatilleke, CVS, (1990). Distribution of Floristic Richness and its Conservation in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology. 4. 14. Harrison J (1999) A field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press. New York. 219pp 15. IUCN Sri Lanka & MENR (2007) The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 148pp 16. IUCN (2008) The list of threatened species. WWW.IUCN.redlist.org 17. Kotagama S and Ratnavira, G (2010) An Illustrated Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Field Ornithology Group. University of Colombo Sri Lanka. 356 pp 18. Madduma Bandara, CM (2000) Land Resources: Conditions and Trends. In: Natural Resources of Sri Lanka 2000. National Science Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 306 19. Manamendra-Arachchi K and Pethiyagoda, R (2006) Sri Lankave Ubayajeeveen. (Sinhala text), The Wildlife heritage trust of Sri Lanka. 440pp 20. Mapa, RB, Somasiri, S, & Nagarajah, S (Eds.), (1999), Soils of the low country wet zone, Soils of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Special publication no.1, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 21. Marambe B, Silva P, Wijesundara S and N Atapattu (2010) Invasive Alien Species, Strengthening Capacity to Control Introduction and Spread in Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Sri Lanka. 191pp

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22. McNeely, JA (1995) How traditional agro-ecosystems can contribute to conserving biodiversity. In: Halladay, P. & D.A. Gilmour (Eds.) Conserving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas. The role of traditional agro-ecosystems. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, pp 20-40. 23. Pethiyagoda R (1991). Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. The Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, 362 pp 24. Phillips WWA (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, Dulau and Company, London. 371pp 25. Senarathna LK (2001) A Checklist of the flowering Plant of Sri Lanka.Pub.No.22 MAB Checklist and Handbook series National Science Foundation. Colombo. Sri Lanka. 451pp 26. Sala, OE, Chapin, FS, & Amesto, JJ (2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287:1770-1774. 27. Somasiri, S, (1999), Physiography and land form, Chapter 3 in - Soils of the low country wet zone, Soils of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Mapa, R. B., Somasiri, S., Nagarajah, S. (Eds.), Special publication no.1, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 28. Somasiri, S, & Nayakekorale, HB. (1999), Climate, Chapter 2 in - Soils of the low country wet zone, Soils of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Mapa, R. B., Somasiri, S., Nagarajah, S. (Eds.), Special publication no.1, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 29. Somaweera R & Somaweera, N (2009) Lizards of Sri Lanka, A colour Guide with Field Keys. Chimaria Buchhandelsgesellschaft mbH. 303pp 30. Somaweera R (2006) Sri Lankave Sarpayin. (Sinhala text). WHT publications (privet) Limited Sri Lanka. 297pp 31. Warakagoda D & Hettige, U (2008) Birds of Sri Lanka, Vocalization and Image Guide. Pitta Products. CD-ROM 32. Wijeyratne GdeS (2008) A photographic Guide to Mammals of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. 128pp

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Appendix 1: Sampling sites and its habitat

SAMPLING Divisions HABITAT TYPES CODE GPS Coordinates Lat/Long SITES 1 Grassland & Secondary Forest GF 06° 33.967´NL/80° 35.241´EL 2 1Lower Grassland & Secondary Forest GF 06° 38.883´NL/80° 29.178´EL 3 Home Garden HG 06° 33.963´NL/80° 35.387´EL 4 Secondary Forest SF 06° 33.937´NL/80° 35.935´EL 5 Secondary Forest SF 06° 33.827´NL/80° 36.137´EL 6 Shrub & Secondary forest SSF 06° 33.716´NL/80° 35.800´EL 7 2Lower Secondary Forest SF 06° 39.063´NL/80° 28.840´EL 8 Stream side habitat SS 06° 34.200´NL/80° 36.050´EL 9 Grassland GL 06° 34.680´NL/80° 35.801´EL 10 Secondary Forest SF 06° 34.639´NL/80° 35.715´EL 11 Secondary Forest SF 06° 34.661´NL/80° 35.768´EL

12 C Stream side habitat CP 06° 33.877´NL/80° 36.704´EL 13 Secondary Forest SF 06° 33.629´NL/80° 37.047´EL 14 Stream side habitat SF 06° 33.477´NL/80° 37.083´EL 15 Walaboda Secondary Forest SF 06° 33.424´NL/80° 37.129´EL 16 Alestonia Forest AF 06° 33.983´NL/80° 36.500´EL

17 3 Secondary Forest GC 06° 33.568´NL/80° 37.026´EL 18 Grassland RU 06° 33.717´NL/80° 34.968´EL 19 Secondary Forest FL 06° 33.454´NL/80° 35.471´EL

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Appendix 2 : Flora checklist of the Opata Estate

(Legends used in the table: SpS- Species status; CoS-Conservation status; VU –Vulnarable, Endangered)

Sampling Sites

Plant species SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 Acacia auriculiformis X 2 Acacia caesia X X X X X X X 3 Adenanthera pavonina X X 4 Ageratum conyzoides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 5 Agrostistachys coriacea Endemic X 6 Albizia falcataria X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 7 Albizia odoratissima X 8 Aleurites moluccana X X X X X X 9 Allamanda cathertica X 10 Allophylus cobbe X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 11 Alocasia macrorrhiza X X X X X 12 Alpinia purpurata X X 13 Alstonia macrophylla X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 14 Alstonia scholaris X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 15 Amaranthus tricolor X X X 16 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius VU X 17 Amphelocissus indica X 18 Anamirta cocculus X X X X X X X X X X X 19 Angiopteris erecta X X X X X X X 20 Angiopteris fraxinea X 21 Anisophyllea cinnamomoides Endemic X 22 Anona squamosa X 23 Anthurium andrianum X 24 Areca catechu X X X X X X X X X X 18

25 Areca concinna Endemic Threatened X 26 Argyreia thweitesi Endemic X X X 27 Argyria populifolia Endemic X X X X X X X X 28 Aristolochia indica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 29 Aristolochia ringens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 30 Artabotrys zeylanicus X X 31 Artocarpus altilis X X 32 Artocarpus gomezianus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 33 Artocarpus heterophyllus X X X X X X 34 Artocarpus nobilis Endemic X X X X X 35 Artocarpus sp. X 36 Arundo donax X 37 Atalantia ceylanica X 38 Atlernanthera sesilis X 39 Axiandra zeylanica Endemic X 40 Axonopus affinis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 41 Bambusa vulgaris X X X 42 Basella alba X 43 Bhesa zeylanica X 44 Bidens pilosa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 45 Biophytum reinwardtii X X X X X X 46 Blechnum orientale X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 47 Bothriochloa pertusa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 48 Breynia retusa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 49 Breynia vitis‐idea X X X X X X X X X X X X X 50 Bridelia moonii Endemic X X X 51 Brucea javanica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 52 Bulbostylis barbata X X X X 53 Calamus sp1 X 54 Calamus thweitesii EN X 55 Camellia sinensis X X X X X X X X X X X X

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56 Capsicum annuum X X X 57 Carallia brachiata X X X 58 Cardiospermum halicacabum X X 59 Carex indica X X 60 Carex sp. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 61 Carica papaya X 62 Caryota urens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 63 Casseria sp. X 64 Ceiba pentandra X X 65 Celtis philippensis X 66 Centella asiatica X X X X X X X X X X 67 Chromolaena odorata Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 68 Chrysopogon aciculatus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 69 Cinnamomum dubium Endemic X 70 Cinnamomum verum X X X X X X 71 Cirtococcum oxyphyllum X X X X X X X X X X 72 Citrus aurantifolia X 73 Citrus mandurensis X 74 Cleome burmania X X X X 75 Cleome rutidosperma X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 76 Cleome viscosa X X X X X X X X X X X X 77 Clerodendron infortunatum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 78 Clerodendron paniculatum X X 79 Clidemia hirta Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 80 Clitoria ternatea X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 81 Cocos nucifera X X X 82 Codiaeum variegatum X 83 Coffea arabica X X X X X 84 Colocasia antiquorum X 85 Colocasia esculenta X X 86 Commelina appendiculata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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87 Commelina bhenghalensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 88 Commelina kurzii X X X X X X X X X X X X 89 Commelina sp. X X 90 Conyza bonariensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X 91 Conyza leucantha X X X X X X X X X X X X 92 Cordyline sp. X 93 Coscinium fenestratum Threatened X X 94 Costus speciosus X X X 95 Crassocephalum crepidioides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 96 Crinum defixum X 97 Crossandra infundibuliformis X 98 Crotalaria pallida X X 99 Croton bonplandianus X X X X X X X X X X X X 100 Croton hirtus X X X X X X X X X X X 101 Curcuma zedoaria X 102 Cyathea hookeri X 103 Cyathocalyx zeylanicus X 104 Cyclea burmanni X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 105 Cymbidium sp. X 106 Cymbopogon nardus X X X 107 Cynotis axillaris X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 108 Cynotis cristata X X X X X X X X X X X X X 109 Cyperus difformis X X X X X X 110 Cyperus irria X X X X X X X X X X X X X 111 Cyperus rotundus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 112 Cyperus sp. X 113 Cyrtococcum trigonum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 114 Dalbergia pseudo‐sissoo X 115 Delonix regia X 116 Dendrobium macrostachyum X 117 Dendropthoe sp. X

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118 Desmodium heterophyllum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 119 Desmodium hetrocarpus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 120 Desmodium triflorum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 121 Desmos zeylanica X 122 Dianella ensifolia X 123 Dichranopteris linearis X X X X X X 124 Digitaria adscendens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 125 Digitaria ciliaris X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 126 Digitaria longiflora X X X X X X 127 Digitaria setigera X X X X X X X X X X 128 Dimeria gracilis X 129 Diodia ocimifolia X 130 Dipterocarpus zeylanicus Endemic X 131 Dracaena sp. X 132 Drymoglossum heterophyllum X 133 Drynaria quarcifolia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 134 Duranta repens X 135 Ecbolium ligustrinum X 136 Echinocloa colona X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 137 Echinocloa crusgali X X X X X X X X X X 138 Elaeocarpus serratus X X X X X X 139 Eleutheranthera raderalis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 140 Elusine indica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 141 Emilia eserta X X X X X X X X X X 142 Emilia sonchifoila X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 143 Enicosanthum acuminata VU X 144 Eragrostis atrovirens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 145 Eragrostis tenuifolia X X X X X X X X X X X X 146 Eragrostis uniloides X X X X X X X X X X X X 147 Erigeron sumatrense X X X X X X X X X 148 Eriochloa procera X X X

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149 Eucalyptus torelliana X 150 Euphorbia heterophylla X X X X X X X X X X X X 151 Euphorbia hirta X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 152 Eurya acuminata X 153 Exallage auricularia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 154 Fagrea obovata X 155 Fahrenhetia zeylanica X 156 Ficus diversiformis Endemic X X X 157 Ficus elastica X 158 Ficus exasperata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 159 Ficus hispida X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 160 Ficus nervosa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 161 Ficus parasitica X 162 Ficus pumila X X 163 Ficus religiosa X X 164 Ficus tinctoria X X X 165 Ficus tsjahela X X X X X X X X X X X 166 Filicium decipiens X 167 Fimbristylis miliaceae X X X X 168 Flacourtia ramnotchi X 169 Flemingia strobilifera X X 170 Freycinetia walkeri Endemic X X 171 Fuirena capitata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 172 Galinsoga parvifolia X X X X X X 173 Garcinia cambogia X 174 Gliricidia sepium X X X X X X X X X X X X 175 Glochidion coriaceum X 176 Glochidion sp. X X 177 Gloriosa superba X 178 Goniothalamus thwaitesii X 179 Gynura lycopersicifolia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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180 Hedyotis auricularia X X X X X X X X X X X 181 Hedyotis fruticosa X X 182 Hemidesmus indicus X 183 Hevea brasiliensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 184 Heydiotis neesiana X 185 Hibiscus furcatus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 186 Hibiscus rosasinensis X 187 Hiptage benghalensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 188 Humboldtia laurifolia X X 189 Hydnocarpus venenata Endemic X X X X 190 Hyptis capitata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 191 Impatiens wallerana X 192 Ipomoea cairica X X X X X X X X X X X X X 193 Ipomoea indica X X X X X 194 Isachne globosa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 195 Isachne kunthiana X X X X X 196 Ischaemum indicum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 197 Ischeamum rugosum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 198 Ixora coccinea X X X 199 Justicia procumbens X X X X X X X X X X X 200 Kyllinga brevifolia X X X X X X X X X X X X X 201 Kyllinga bulbosa X X X X X X X X 202 Kyllinga nemoralis X X X X X X X X X 203 Laginandra ovata X X 204 Lantana camara Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 205 Leea indica X X X X X X 206 Leucas zeylanica X 207 Limocharis flava X 208 Litsea gardneri Endemic X X X X X X X X X X X X X 209 Litsea longifolia Endemic X X X X X X X X 210 Ludvigia peruviana X X X X

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211 Ludwigia deccurence X X X X X 212 Lycopersicon esculentum X 213 Lygodium microphyllum X X X X X X X 214 Macaranga indica X X X 215 Macaranga peltata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 216 Madhuca longifolia X 217 Mallotus philippensis X 218 Mallotus tetracoccus X X X X X X X X X X X 219 Mangifera indica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 220 Mangifera zeylanica Endemic X 221 Manihot esculenta X X 222 Manihot glaziovii X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 223 Margaritaria indicus X 224 Melia dubia X X X X X X X X X X 225 Mesua nagasarium X 226 Mesua nagassarium X 227 Michelia champaca X X X X 228 Microcos paniculata X X X X X X X 229 Mikania cordata Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 230 Mimosa invisa X 231 Mimosa pudica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 232 Mimosops elengi X 233 Mitracarpus hirtus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 234 Mitracarpus villosus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 235 Monstera sp. X X X X 236 Murdannia nudiflora X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 237 Musa paradisica X X X X 238 Mussaenda frondosa X 239 Neolitsea cassia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 240 Nephelium lappaceum X 241 Nephrolepis auriculata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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242 Nephrolepis biserrata X X 243 Nothopegia beddomei X 244 Nyctanthus arbor‐tristis X 245 Ochlandra stridula X X X 246 Ocimum americanum X X 247 Olax zeylanica X X 248 Oldenlandia corymbosa X X X X X X X X X X X 249 Ophiorrhiza mungos X 250 Oplisminus compositus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 251 Osbeckia aspera X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 252 Osbeckia octandra Endemic X X X X X X X 253 Oxalis corniculata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 254 Pagiantha dichotoma X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 255 Pandanus ceylanicus Endemic X X 256 Panicum colonum X X X X X X X X X X X X X 257 Panicum maximum Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 258 Panicum repens X X X X 259 Paspalidium flavidum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 260 Paspalum distichum X X X X X X X X X X X X 261 Paspalum longifolium X X X X 262 Passiflora edulis X 263 Pennesetum polystachyon X X X X 264 Peperomia pellucida X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 265 Periscaria capitata X X X X 266 Persea americana X 267 Phoenix pusilla X 268 Phyllanthus niriuri X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 269 Phyllanthus reticulatus X X X 270 Piper longum X 271 Piper zeylanicum Endemic X X X X 272 Plecospermum spinosum X

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273 Plumaria rubra X 274 Podadenia thweitesii X 275 Polyscias balfouriana X 276 Pometia pinnata X X 277 Pometia tomentosa X 278 Pongamia pinnata X 279 Pothos sp. X X 280 Psidium guajava X X X X X 281 Pureria phaseoloides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 282 Pyrrosia sp. X X X X 283 Quassia sp. X 284 Richardia brasiliensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 285 Richardia scabra X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 286 Ricinus communis X X 287 Sauropus androgynus X X X X X X X X X 288 Schefflera emarginata X X X X X X X X X 289 Schefflera stellata X 290 Scoparia dulcis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 291 Semecarpus gardneri Endemic X 292 Semecarpus marginata X 293 Semecarpus nigro‐viridis Endemic X X X 294 Senna alata X 295 Senna occidentalis X X 296 Sida acuta X X X 297 Smilax zeylanica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 298 Solanum melongena X 299 Sonchus oleraceus X 300 Sonchus wightianus X X X X X X X X X X X 301 Spermacoce articularis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 302 Spermacoce assurgens X X X X X X X X X X X X 303 Spermacoce latifolium X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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304 Spermacoce ocymoides X X X X X X X X X X 305 Stachytarpheta dichotoma X X 306 Stachytarpheta indica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 307 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis X X 308 Strobilanthes asperrima X 309 Swietenia macrophylla X X X X X 310 Symplocos cochinchinenis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 311 Synedrella nodiflora X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 312 Syngonium podophyllum X X X X 313 Syzygium caryophyllatum X X X X X 314 Syzygium rubicumdum X 315 Terminalia arjuna X X X 316 Terminalia bellirica X X 317 Terminalia catappa X 318 Terpinia malabarica X 319 Thottea siliquosa X X 320 Thunbergia fragrance X 321 Toddalia asiatica X X X 322 Trema orientalis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 323 Trichopus zeylanicus X 324 Tridax procumbens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 325 Tripsacum laxum X X X X X X X X X 326 Urena lobata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 327 Uvaria sp. X 328 Uvaria zeylanica X 329 Vataria copallifera Endemic X 330 Vernonia cinerea X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 331 Wedelia trilobata Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 332 Wormia triquetra X X X 333 Xanthosoma sp. X X X X X X X X 334 Xylopia sp. X

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335 Youngia japonica X 336 Zizyphus oenoplia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 337 Zyzyphus nepeca X

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Appendix 3: Faunal checklist with respect to their habitats

(legends used in the table: SpS- Species status; CoS-Conservation status; EN- Endengered; VU- Vulnarable; NT- Near Threatened; EXO- Exotic; DOM: Domestic; BrR- Breeding residence, WV- Winter Visiter)

Dragonflies

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C WB D‐3 Scientific Name English Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Calopterygidae 1 Vestails apicalis Black‐tipped flashwing Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cholorocyphidae 2 Libellago greeni Green's Gem Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Euphaeidae 3 Euphaea splendens Shining Gossamerwing Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Coenagrionidae Pseudagrion 4 rubriceps Red‐headed Sprite Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Platycnemididae 5 Copera marginipes Yellow Featherleg Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Protoneuridae 6 Elattoneura centralis Dark‐glittering Threadtail Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 Prodasineura sita Stripe‐headed Threadtail Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Libellulidae 8 Orthetrum luzonicum Marsh Skimmer Indigenous 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Orthetrum pruinosum Pink Skimmer Indigenous 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Orthetrum sabina Green Skimmer Indigenous 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Crocothemis servilia Oriental Scarlet Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Diplacodes trivialis Blue Percher Indigenous 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 13 Trithemis aurora Crimson Dropwing Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 14 Trithemis festiva Indigo Dropwing Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 15 Rhyothemis variegata Varigated Flutter Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Pantala flavescens Wandering Glider Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37

Butterflies

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C WB D‐3 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Papilionidae 1 Pachliopta hector Crimson rose Maha rosa papilia Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Pachliopta aristolochiae Common rose Podu rosa papilia Indigenous 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 3 Papilio polytes Common mormon Kalu papilia Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Papilio polymnestor Blue mormon Maha nilaya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 5 Papilio clytia Mime Rawana papilia Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Pieridae 6 Leptosia nina Psyche Kalu‐thith sudda Indigenous 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 7 Delias eucharis Jezebel Podu Maha‐sudda Indigenous 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 8 Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled emigrant Thith‐piya piyasariya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 9 Catopsilia pomona Lemon emigrant Kaha piyasariya Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Pareronia ceylanica Blue wanderer Anduru nil piyasariya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 11 Eurema brigitta Small grass yellow Punchi kahakolaya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Eurema hecabe Common grass yellow Maha kahakolaya Indigenous 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Nymphalidae 13 Tirumala limniace Blue tiger Podu nil‐kotithiya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 14 Parantica aglea Glassy tiger Suduwan nil‐kotithiya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 15 Euploea core Common crow Podu kaka‐kotithiyaya Indigenous 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 16 Cupha erymanthis Rustic Raththiya Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 17 Phalantha phantha Leopard Podu thith‐thambiliya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Vindula erota Cruiser Yoda thambiliya Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 Cethosia nietneri Ceylon lace wing Lanka seda‐piyapatha Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Junonia atlites Grey pansy Aluwan alankarikya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 21 Junonia iphita Chocolate soldier Podu alankarikya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 22 Hypolimnas bolina Great eggfly Maha alankarikya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 Pantoporia hordonia Common lasker Kaha selaruwa Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 24 Neptis hylas Common sailor Gomara selaruwa Indigenous 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 25 Parthenos sylvia Clipper Yoda kela selaruwa Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 Acraea violae Tawny costor Thambily panduru‐boraluwa Indigenous 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38

27 Orsotriaena medus Medus Brown /Nigger panduru‐dumburuwa Indigenous 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28 Nissanga patnia Gladeye bushbrown Visithuru dumburuwa Indigenous 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 Ypthima ceylonica White four‐ring Podu heen‐dumburuwa Indigenous 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 Family ‐ Lycaenidae 30 Castalius rosimon Common Pierrot Podu Mal‐nilaya Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 Everes lacturnus Indian Cupid Indiyanu Panduru‐nilaya Indigenous 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 32 Jamides bochus Dark Cerulean Anduruwan Seru‐nilaya Indigenous 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 33 Jamides celeno Common Cerulean Podu Seru‐nilaya Indigenous 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 34 Lampides boeticus Pea Blue Maha Iri Mal‐nilaya Indigenous 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 Zizina otis Lesser Grass Blue Podu Thruna‐nilaya Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Family ‐ Hesperiidae 36 Iambrix salsala Chestnut Bob Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 Pelopidas agna Little Branded Swift Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 Pelopidas thrax Large Branded Swift Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 39 Taractrocera maevius Common Grass Dart Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Freshwater Fish

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C D‐3

Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Anguillidae 1 Anguilla nebulosa Long finned eel Pol mal aandha Indigenous VU 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cyprinidae 2 Devario malabaricus Giant Danio Dankola Sayala Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 Garra ceylonensis Stone sucker Gal panderuwa Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 Puntius bimaculatus Redside barb Ipili Kadaya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 5 Puntius dorsalis Longsnouted bard Bimtholla Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 6 Puntius pleurotaenia Black lined barb Heeta Massa Endemic VU 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 Rasbora microcephalus Carverii Rasbora Caveri Randiya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 Rasbora dandia Common rasbora Dandiya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 9 Tor khudree Mahseer Horapolaya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Balitoridae 39

10 Schistura notostigma Mountain loach Puwak Badilla Endemic NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Bagridae 11 Mystus vittatus Strpdwarf catfish Iri ankutta Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Claridae 12 Clarias brachysoma Walking catfish Magura Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Siluridae 13 Ompock bimaculatus Butter catfish Walapoththa Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Heteropneustidae 14 Heteropneustes fossilis Stinging catfish Hunga Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Belontiidae 15 Belontia signata Combtail Thalkossa Endemic NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Mastacembelidae 16 Mastacembelus armetus Marbled spiny eel Gan theliya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Channidae 17 Channa punctata Spotted snakehead Mada Kanaya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Amphibians

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C WB D‐3

Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Bufonidae 1 Duttaphrynus melanostictus Common house toad Sulaba geai gemba Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Nyctibatrachidae 2 Lankanectes corrugatus Corrugated water frog Vakarali madiya Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Rhacophoridae 3 Pseudophilautus sp. Shrub frog Paduru mediya Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 Pseudophilautus sp. Shrub frog Paduru madiya Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Ranidae 5 Hylarana temporalis Common wood frog Sulaba bandi madiya Endemic NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

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Reptiles

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C WB D‐3 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Bataguridae 1 Melanochelys trijuga Parker's black turtle Parkerge gal ibba Indigenous NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Trionychidae 2 Lissemys ceylonensis Flapshell turtle Kiri ibba Endemic VU 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Agamidae 3 Calotes calotes Green garden lizard Pala katussa Indigenous 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 Calotes versicolor Common garden lizard Gara katussa Indigenous 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Gekkonidae 5 Hemidactylus frenatus Common house‐gecko Sulaba gehuna Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Spotted housegecko Pulli gehuna Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Scincidae 7 Eutropis carinata Common skink Sulaba hikanala Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Lankascincus sp Lankaskink Lakhiraluva Endemic 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Varanidae 9 Varanus bengalensis Land monitor Talagoya Indigenous 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 10 Varanus salvator Water monitor Kabaragoya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family Pythonidae 11 Python molurus Indian python Pimbura Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cylindrophidae 12 Cylindrophis maculata Sri Lanka Pipe snake Depath naya Endemic NT 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Colubridae 13 Ahaetulla nasuta Green vine snake Ahaetulla Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 14 Boiga ceylonensis Sri Lanka cat snake Nidi mapila Indigenous VU 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 15 Boiga trigonatus Gamma cat snake Ran mapila Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Dendrelaphis sp. Boulenger’s bronze back Pandura haldanda Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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17 Ptyas mucosa Rat snake Gerandiya. Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Natricidae 18 Amphiesma stolatum Buff striped keelback Aharukuka Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 Xenochrophis sp. The checkered keelback Diya polonga / Diya bariya Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Elapidae 20 Bungarus caeruleus The common krait Thel karawala Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 Naja naja Indian cobra Naya Indigenous 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 Family ‐ Typhlopidae 22 Typhlops sp. Blind snake Smithge kanaulla Endemic 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Uropeltidae 23 Rhinophis sp. Earth snake Gomara thudulla Endemic 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Viperidae 24 Daboia russelii Russell’s viper Tith polonga. Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 Hypnale hypnale The Merrem’s hump nose viper Polon thelissa Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 26 Trimeresurus trigonocephalus Green pit viper Pala polonga Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Birds

W Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW D‐C B D‐3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 15 6 7 8 9 Family ‐ Phasianidae Endemi 1 Gallus lafayetii Sri Lanka Junglefowl Sri Lanka Wali‐kukula c 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Monora BrR 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Family ‐ Turnicidae 3 Turnix suscitator Barred Button‐quail Bola Watuuruwa BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Picidae

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Lesser Yellow‐naped Heen Kaha‐gelasi 4 Picus chlorolophus Woodpecker Karela BrR NT 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dinopium Black‐rumped 5 benghalense Flameback Rath‐karela BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Family ‐ Ramphastidae 6 Megalaima zeylanica Brown‐headed Barbet Polos Kottoruwa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Yellow‐ Ranmhunatha Endemi 7 Megalaima flavifrons fronted Barbet Kottoruwa c 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 Megalaima Rathmhunath Endemi 8 rubricapilla Crimson‐fronted Barbet Kottoruwa c 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Family ‐ Bucerotidae Sri Lanka Alu Endemi 9 Ocyceros gingalensis Sri Lanka Grey Hornbill Kandaththa c 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Alcedinidae 10 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Mal Pilihuduwa BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 White‐throated Layasudu Madi‐ 11 Halcyon smyrnensis Kingfisher pilihuduwa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Family ‐ Meropidae 12 Merops philippinus Blue‐tailed Bee‐eater Nilpenda Binguharaya WV 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Cuculidae Eudynamys 13 scolopacea Asian Koel Kowula BrR 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Ati‐kukula BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Psittacidae Sri Lanka Hanging Sri Lanka Endemi 15 Loriculus beryllinus Parakeet Giramaliththa c 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 16 Psittacula krameri Rose‐ringed Parakeet Rana Girawa BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Psittacula 17 cyanocephala Plum‐headed Parakeet Pandu Girawa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Sri Lanka Layard’s Endemi 18 Psittacula calthropae Parakeet Sri Lanka Alu Girawa c NT 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Apodidae 19 Collocalia unicolor Indian Swiftlet Indu Upa‐thurithaya BrR NT 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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20 Cypsiurus balasiensis Asian Palm Swift Asiaa Thal‐thurithaya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 21 Apus affinis House Swift Punchi Thurithaya BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Strigidae 22 Otus bakkamoena Collard Scops Owl Karapati Kanbassa BrR 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ukusu Bakamoona / 23 Bubo nipalensis Spot‐bellied Eagle Owl Ulama BrR NT 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bora Kewul‐ 24 Ketupa zeylonensis Brown Fish Owl bakamoona BrR 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Columbidae 25 Columba livia Rock Pigeon Podu Paraviya BrR 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Streptopelia 26 chinensis Spotted Dove Alu Kobeiyya BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 27 Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove Neela‐Kobeiyya BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 28 Ducula aenea Green Imperial Pigeon Neela Mahagoya BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Accipitridae 29 Spilornis cheela Crested Serpent Eagle Silu Sarapakussa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 30 Accipiter badius Shikra Kurulugoya BrR 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 31 Spizaetus cirrhatus Changeable Hawk Eagle Perali Kondakussa BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Ardeidae 32 Egretta garzetta Little Egret Punchi Anu‐koka BrR 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 33 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Geri‐koka BrR 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Pittidae 34 Pitta brachyura Indian Pitta Avichchiya WV 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Chloropseidae Golden‐fronted 35 Chloropsis aurifrons Leafbird Rannalala Kolarisiya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Laniidae 36 Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike Bora Sabariththa WV 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Oriolidae 37 Oriolus xanthornus Black‐hooded Oriole Kahakurulla BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Family ‐ Dicruidae Dicrurus 38 caerulescens White‐bellied Drongo Kawuda BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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Family ‐ Rhipiduridae Bama‐sudu 39 Rhipidura aureola White‐browed Fantail Pawanpenda BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Monarchidae Asian Paradise‐ 40 Terpsiphone paradisi flycathcher Asia Rahanmara BrR/WV 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Corvidae 41 Corvus levaillantii Large‐billed Crow Kalu Kaputa BrR 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Campephagidae Coracina Black‐headed Kalu‐his Kovul‐ 42 melanoptera Cuckooshrike saratiththa BrR 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Pericrocotus 43 cinnamomeus Small Minivet Punchi Miniviththa BrR 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Pericrocotus 44 flammeus Scarlet Minivet Dilirath Miniviththa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Aegithinidae 45 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Podu Iorawa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Muscicapidae 46 Muscicapa daurica Asian Brown Flycatcher Asia Bora Masimara WV 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47 Cyornis tickelliae Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher Tickel Nil‐masimara BrR 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 48 Luscinia brunnea Indian Blue Robin Indu Nil Sitikichcha WV 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 49 Copsychus saularis Oriental Magpie Robin Polkichcha BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50 Saxicoloides fulicata Indian Robin Indu Kalukichcha BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Sturnidae 51 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Mayna BrB 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 52 Gracula religiosa Hill Myna Salalihiniya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Sittidae Velvet‐fronted Villuda Nalal 53 Sitta frontalis Nuthatch Yatikuriththa BrR NT 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Paridae 54 Parus major Great Tit Maha Tikiriththa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Hirundinidae 55 Hirundo rustica Barn Swallow Atu Wahilihiniya BrR 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 56 Hirundo daurica Red‐rumped Swallow Nithamba rathu Endemi NT 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 45

Wahilihiniya c Family ‐ Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus Endemi 57 melanicterus Black‐crested Bulbul Kalu Hisasi Kondaya c 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 58 Pycnonotus cafer Red‐vented Bulbul Kondaya BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 59 Pycnonotus luteolus White‐browed Bulbul Bamasudu Kondaya BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Hypsipetes 60 leucocephalus Black Bulbul Kalu‐kondaya BrR NT 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cisticolidae 61 Prinia hodgsonii Grey‐breasted Prinia Grey‐breasted Prinia BrR 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 62 Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia Alu Priniya BrR 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 Prinia inornata Plain Prinia Sarala Priniya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Zosteropidae Zosterops 64 palpebrosus Oriental White‐eye Peradigu Sithasiya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Sylviidae 65 Orthotomus sutorius Common Tailorbird Battichcha BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Family ‐ Timalidae Pellorneum Sri Lanka Brown‐capped Sri Lanka Boraga‐ Endemi 66 fuscocapillum Babbler demalichcha c NT 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Kusakaha Landu‐ 67 Dumetia hyperythra Tawny‐bellied Babbler demalichcha BrR NT 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Wathanduru Panduru‐ 68 Rhopocichla atriceps Dark‐fronted Babbler demalichcha BrR 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69 Turdoides affinis Yellow‐billed Babbler Demalichcha BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 Family ‐ Dicaeidae Dicaeum Pale‐billed 70 erythrorhynchos Flowerpecker Lathudu Pililichcha BrR 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Nectariniidae 71 Nectarina zeylonica Purple‐rumped Sunbird Nithamba Dam Sutikka BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 72 Nectarina asiatica Purple Sunbird Dam Sutikka BrR 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 73 Nectarina lotenia Loten’s Sunbird Lotenge Sutikka BrR 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Estrididae 74 Lonchura striata White‐rumped Munia Nithamba Sudu BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 46

Weekurulla Laya Kayuru 75 Lonchura punctulata Scaly‐breasted Munia Weekurulla BrR 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mammals

Estate Divisions 1 LW 2LW WB D‐C D‐3 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Family ‐ Manidae 1 Manis crassicaudata Pangolin Kaballewa Indigenous NT 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Hipposideridae Bicolored leaf‐nosed Depata Pathnehe‐ 2 Hipposideros sp. bat vavula Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Pteropodidae 3 Cynopterus sphinx Short‐nosed fruit bat Thala‐vavula Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Ma‐vavula Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cercopithecidae Sri Lanka toque 5 Macaca sinica monkey Sri Lanka Rilawa Endemic NT 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Canidae 6 Canis aureus Jackal Nariya Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 Canis familiaris Doestic dog Balla Domestic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Felidae 8 Felis cattus Domestic cat Balala/ Pusa Domestic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Prionailurus rubiginosus Rusty‐spotted cat Kola Diviya Indigenous EN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 10 Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Handun Diviya Indigenous VU 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Herpestidae 11 Herpestes brachyurus Brown mongoose Bora Mugatiya Indigenous 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Black‐tipped 12 Herpestes smithii mongoose Rath Mugatiya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Viverridae 13 Paradoxurus hermaphoditus Palm civet Uguduwa Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 14 Paradoxurus sp. Golden palm civet Ran Hothambuva Endemic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 47

15 Viverricula indica Ring‐tailed civet Urulewa Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Bovidae 16 Bubalus arnee Domestic buffalo Mee Haraka Indigenous 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 Bos indicus Domestic cattle Sinhala Elaharaka Domestic 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 Capra hircus Domestic goat Eluva Domestic 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cervidae 19 Muntiacus muntjak Barking deer Olu Muwa Indigenous 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 Family ‐ Suidae 20 Sus scrofa Wild boar Wal Ura Indigenous 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Tragulidae 21 Moschiola sp. Mouse‐deer Meminna Endemic 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Hystricidae 22 Hystrix indica Porcupine Ittewa Indigenous 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 Family ‐ Muridae 23 Bandicota indica Malabar bandicoot Uru‐miya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 24 Rattus tanezumi Jungle rat Kele meeya Indigenous 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Sciuridae 25 Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel Leena Indigenous 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 26 Ratufa macroura Giant squirrel Dandu‐leena Indigenous VU 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 Family ‐ Leporidae 27 Lepus nigricollis Black‐naped hare Wal Hawa Indigenous 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

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Appendix 4: Implementation plan

Management Strategies Based on the above observations we propose the following set of actions as a way to achieve sustainable management of natural and semi natural habitats within the Opata estate. This action plan is to be implemented over a period of five years. The actions are categorized into short, medium and long term, based on the time frames that will be required to successfully complete the activity.

Short term actions: Actions that will be completed within the space of two years Action Item 1: Conduct a detailed biodiversity assessment to prepare a comprehensive inventory of species and habitats present in the remaining forest patches. Action Item 2: Identify threats to the natural habitats and areas where management actions are required to improve the existing habitat quality and develop a habitat management plan (Opata environmental management plan). Action Item 3: Develop a GIS based map of the estate indicating the locations and extents of natural and semi natural habitats as well as other important features such as trails, points of interest etc. and link up this information with Google Earth.

Action Item 4: Based on the map identify the gaps that are needed to be filled to bridge the remaining natural forest areas and develop a plan to achieve gap filling. Action Item 5: Conduct an awareness campaign among estate staff to create awareness about the conservation plan and their role in the overall management. Action Item 6: Devolop a solid waste management plan for plantation workers and the sourounding villages who directly come into contact with the estate ecosystems.

Action Item 7: Map the water shed of the two stream networks, monitor water yields and identify gaps in the watershed area that needs to be improved. Based on these data a plan to enhance the forest cover in the watershed will be developed.

Medium -term Management Strategies Actions that will be completed within the space of two to three years

Action Item 8: Establish three butterfly gardens around the three estate bungalows to ensure the preservation of existing butterfly fauna. This can be easily implemented by introducing butterfly larval feeding plants to the gardens of the three bungalows (list of feeding and nectar plants is given in Appendix 5). Action item 9: Establish Eco friendly community based cottage industries and test run for Horticultural aspect, and bee keeping) using locally available resources (see recommendations for more details) to enhance the socio economic status of estate workers and local communities

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Long-term Management Strategies Actions that will be completed within the space of three to five years

Action Item 10: Implement habitat management and gap filling plan for the Opata Estate

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Appendix 5: List of Butterfly host plants for butterfly gardens

(Sources: 1Woodhouse, L.G.O. 1950 Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. Ceylon Govt. Press, Colombo; 2d’Abrera, B (1998) The Butterflies of Ceylon. WHT Publications (Private) Ltd. Colombo.; 3 Gamage, R (2007) An illustrated guide to the Butterflies of Sri Lanka. Tharanjee Prints, Maharagama)

Butterfly Host Plant

Scientific Name English Sinhala Tamil

1 Panicum maximum1 Guinea grass Rata-thana

2 Michelia champaca 1, 3 Gini sapu

3 A. muricata 2 Sour sop Katu anoda

4 A.reticulata, 1, 2, 3 Bullock's heart Anoda atta Ramsitha

5 Aberia gardneri1,3 Keta embilla

6 Abrus precatorius 3 Olinda

7 Adenia hondala 1,2,3 Pothu hondala

8 Adenia palmata, 1,2 Passion vine (wild) Hondala, Potu-hondala

9 Aegle marmelos1, 3 Bael Beli Vilvam

10 Aglaia roxburghiana1,2, 3 Puwangu Kanna Kompu, Chokkala

11 Anarcardium occidentale1,2,3 Cashew Cadju Montiri kai, Kaddu montri

12 Annona cherimola, 1 , Cherimoya Sitha

13 Annona squamosa, 1, 2, 3 Custard apple

14 Ardisia ellipti, 1, 2,3 Balu-dan

15 Aristolochia bracteolata 3 Bing sapsanda

16 Aristolochia indica 3 Sapsanda

17 Asclepias curassavica1,2, 3 Kankumbala

18 Asclepias fulva 2 Kankumbala

19 Bauhinia racemosa, 1 Camel foot Mayila Atti

20 Butea frondosa, 1 Flame of the Forest Gas-kela Parasu, Murrakan

21 Calotropis gigantea, 1,2, 3 Wara, Ela-vara Manakkovi, Errukalai

22 Canavalia gladiata1 Sword bean awara awarakai

23 Canthium paviflorum, 1,3 Katu-keng Kara

24 Capparis moonii1, 2 Climbing caper

25 Capparis roxburghii 3 Kalu illan gedi

26 Capparis sepiara 3 Wellangiriya

27 Capparis zeylanica 3 Sudu wellangiriya

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28 Cassia fistula1,3 Indian laburnam Ehela Tirukkontai, Kavanni

29 Cassia kleinii 3 Bim siyambala

30 Cassia occidentalis 3 Peni tora

31 Cassia siamea1 Wa, Aramana Vakai, Munka konnei

32 Cassia tora, 1, 2 Peti tora Vaddu takarai

33 Celtis cinnamomea 3 Burenda Pinari

34 Chloroxylon swietenia1, 2, 3 Satin wood Buruta Muthirai

35 Citrus decumana, 1, 2 Pommelo, Shaddok Jambola

36 Citrus grandis 3 Jambola

37 Citrus limon 3 Dehi

38 Citrus limon 3 Dehi

39 Crataeva religiosa1 Indian sps

40 Cryptolepis buchanani1, 3 Wel-ruk-attana Katu pal valli

41 Cycas, 1, 2, 3 Madu

42 Diospyros melanoxylon1,2, 3 Ebony Kadumberiya Karungkali

43 Dipteracanthus prostrates 3 Nil puruk

44 Feronia elephantum,, 1 , Woodapple Divul Vila, Villati

45 Ficus benghalensis 1,2, 3 Fig Nuga Attai maram

46 Ficus religiosa 3 Bo

47 Flacourtia 1,2,3 Uguressa Katukali, Karumurukki

48 Glycosmis pentaphylla, 1 Dodan-pana Kulapannai, Konji

49 Hibiscus 1, Shoe flower

50 Hibiscus abelmoschus1,2,3 Kapu-kinissa

51 Hibiscus furcatus 3 Nairiththa

52 Laportea interrupta 2,3 kahambiliya

53 Leguminosae, 1,2, 3 Peas, beans

54 Limonia acidissima 3 Divul

55 Loranthus1, 2, 3 Loranthus Pilila Kuruvichchai

56 Lotus corniculatus, 1 Indian sps.

57 Mangifera indica, 1,2, 3 Mango Amba Maa, Mankai, Manga

58 Modecca, 1,2 Passion vine

59 Murraya koenigii1, 2, 3 Curry leaf Karapincha Karivempu

60 Mussaenda frondosa1,2,3 Mussenda, Vel batsarana Vellai-illai

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61 Neolitsea cassia 3 Dawul kurundu

62 Nerium oleander1,2, 3 Oleander Araliya Arali

63 Osbeckia octandra 1,2,3 Heen Bovitiya

64 Parsonsia alboflavescence 3 Vel aguna

65 Passiflora foetida1,3 Passion fruit vine Delbatu, Hondala, Potu-honda Perunthukodi

66 Piper betel1 Betel Bulath

67 Pithecellobium dulce, 1 Madras thorn

68 Polyalthia1, 2 Mara illuppai

69 Pongamia glabra, 1,3 Magul-karanda Punku,Pungam

70 Portulaca oleracea, 1,2, 3 Purslane Genda kola Pulikkirai

71 Raphis pullchellum, 1 Ghela Kukuruman Karai

72 Ricinus communis1,2,3 Castor oil plant Endaru-tel Chittamanakku

73 Saraca indica1,3 Asoka tree Diya-ratmal Asogam

74 Sesbania grandiflora, 1, 3 Katurumurunga Agatti-keerai

75 Shorea robusta1,2 Sal of India

76 Smilax, 1,2,3 kabarassa

77 Strobilanthes1,2,3 Karvee (india) Nelu Nelli

78 Tinospora cordifolia1, 3 Rasa-kinda Chintil

79 Toddalia asiatica, 1, 3 kudu miris Kandai,mulugu-cheddi

80 Tragia involucrata, 1,2,3 Vel-kahambiliya

81 Wagatia spicata1, 2 Indian sps.

82 Wendlandia bicuspidata 3 Wana idala

83 Wendlandia thyrsoidea, 1,2 Ravanidala

84 Xylia dolabriformis1, 2, Indian sps. Jamboo

85 Ziziphus jujuba1 Maha debata,Masan Ilantai

86 Zizyphus mauritiana1,2,3 Maha-debata, Masan Ilantai

87 Zizyphus rugosa1,2,3 Maha-eraminiya Churai

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Appendix 6 : Photo catalogue of the Opata estate

Fig 01 . A patch of Alstonia forest Fig 02 . Grassland dominated by Cynmbopogon nardus

Fig 03. Horticultural crop lands around estate Fig 04. Riverine forest with disturbed vegetation and bungalows with ornamental plants eroded banks

Fig 05. Secondary forest with abandond tea crop Fig 06. Panicum maximum invaded area

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Fig 07. Motorable tracks on steep areas of the estate Fig 08. Tea and Rubber plantaions are heavily eroded due to tractor movement in rainy weather

Fig 09. Eroded stream banks Fig 10. Steam bank erosion due to gem mining

Fig 11. Kenda (Macaranga peltata) one of the Fig 12. Gini kuru (Alostonia macrophyla) commonest plant species in the Secondary forests

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Fig 13. Endemic Dark‐glittering Threadtail (Elattoneura Fig 14. Yellow Featherleg (Copera marginipes) centralis)

Fig 15. Indian Cupid (Everes lacturnus) Fig 16. Common Cerulean (Jamides celeno)

Fig 17. Mahseer (Tor khudree) Juvenil Fig 18. Longsnouted bard (Puntius dorsalis)

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Fig 19. Striped rasbora Rasbora ( Rasbora Fig 20. Stone sucker (Garra ceylonensis) microcephalus)

Fig 21. Unidentified Pseudophilautus sp. from Fig 22. Water monitor (Varanus salvator) Walaboda division

Fig 23. Hump nosed viper (Hypnale hypnale) Fig 23. Spotted housegecko (Hemidactylus parvimaculatus)

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Fig 23. Changeable Hawk Eagle (Spizaetus cirrhatus) Fig 24. White‐bellied Drongo (Dicrurus caerulescens)

Fig 25. Common Plam squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) Fig 26. Domesticated wild buffalo (Bubalus arnee)

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IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature was founded in 1948. IUCN helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. It supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world and brings governments, non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies and local communities together to develop and implement policy, laws and best practice.

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In Sri Lanka, through its Country Programme the Union seeks to fulfill this mission in collaboration with its various Commission Members, National Committee Members and Partners in Sri Lanka. IUCN in Sri Lanka commenced its operations since August 1988.

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Tel. +94 11 2682418, 2682488, 5734786 Fax +94 11 2682470 [email protected] http://www.iucn.org/srilanka Remaining natural forest patch at division C

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