Biodiversity Assessment of the Hunuwela Estate, Kahawatte Plantations PLC, Pelmadulla
April 2012
IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country Programme
Survey team Mr. Sampath de A. Goonatilake (Fauna expert) Mr. Sarath Ekanayake (Flora expert) Mr. Chandana Asela (Fauna expert)
GIS Map Kapila Gunaratne
Project oversight Dr. Devaka Weerakoon
Coordinated by Mr. Shamen Vidanage Mr. Bandula Withanachchi
Photos Sampath de A Goonatilake © IUCN Sri Lanka
Cover photo: Hunuwela Estate, Hunuwela–north division Macadamia Orchid; background Ravana Kapolla mountain ridge
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ------iii 1. Introduction ------1 2. Objectives ------3 3. Methodology ------4 3.1 Site Description ------4 3.2 Assessment Method ------4 3.2.1 Overall methodological approach ------4 3.2.2 Selection of sampling sites and sampling frequency ------5 3.2.3 Methodology adopted for the Floral Survey ------5 3.2.4 Methodology adopted for the Faunal Survey ------5 3.2.5 Species identification, classification and nomenclature ------6 4. Results ------7 4.1 The Habitats ------7 4.2 The Species ------9 4.2.1 Flora ------9 4.2.2 Fauna ------9 4.3 Community based forest uses ------11 4.4 Threats to the biodiversity ------11 5. Recommendations ------13 5.1 Suggestions for improving the environment outlook of Hunuwela estae ------13 5.2 Development of landscape level biodiversity management plan for the estate ------13 5.3 Improvement of community engagements in environmental development ------14 5.4 Campaigning, publicity, rapport building and branding ------15 5.5 Eco friendly community based small industries ------15 6. References ------17
Map 1: Hunuwela estate and its divisions ------4
Table 1: Summary of faunal sampling techniques ------6 Table 2: Some key references used for species identification and Nomenclature ------6 Table 3: Total number of species recorded within the Hunuwela Estate ------9
Appendix 1: Sampling sites and the Habitats ------19 Appendix 2: Floral checklist with respect to their Habitats ------20 Appendix 3: Faunal checklist with respect to their Habitats ------30 Appendix 4: Implementation plan ------44 Appendix 5: List of Butterfly host plants for butterfly gardens ------46 Appendix 6: Photo catalog of the Hunuwela estate ------49
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks are due to Mr. Roshan Rajadurai (Director/CEO Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.), Mr. Viren Ruberu (Director, Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.,), Mr. C.P. Papalie (Manager, Kahawatta Plantations Ltd.) and Mr. Asanaka Abeyakoon (Environment Manager, Dilmah Conservation) for their kind cooperation and support extended to this study.
We would also like to thank Mr. Isuru Karunaratne, Estate Manager Hunuwela Estate and Mr. Upul Assistant Manager and estate staff for providing the necessary logistical support during the field study.
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1 INTRODUCTION
At least two-thirds of the terrestrial environment of the planet earth consists of managed ecosystems such as agricultural systems, plantation forests and human settlements (McNeely, 1995, Bambaradeniya et al., 2003). Therefore, the value of such managed ecosystems for conservation of biodiversity cannot be overlooked. However, the impact of agriculture on biodiversity in the region has been through conversion of biodiversity-rich natural habitats into much simpler agricultural systems. This land-use conversion has led to loss and fragmentation of native habitats with consequent losses of vegetation, and displacement or destruction of plants, animals and microorganisms resulting in biodiversity losses. Due to heterogeneity of the ecosystems the destruction of even a portion of an ecosystem may cause loss of plants and animal species, which are often providers of important services such as pollination, maintenance of soil integrity, catchment protection or biological control of undesirable species to man.
Therefore, in recent times, there has been a major paradigm shift around the world, from the extractive industrial model towards ecology-based approaches variously called eco-agriculture or agroecology (Earles 2005, Scherr & Shames 2006).
Sri Lanka is one of the biodiversity hotspots in south Asia, with megabiodiversity centres such as Sinharaja, Peak wilderness and Knuckles. Several centuries ago most of the wet and montane zone of Sri Lanka would have been covered with such biodiversity rich pristine habitats as historical evidence indicate that this region gas been sparsely populated in the past. However, with the introduction of the exotic plantation system in the 18th century, vast areas of the biodiversity rich humid mountain and lowland forest ecosystems, especially in wet zone of Sri Lanka has been transformed to monoculture plantations such as Tea and Rubber. This trend continued even after independence. As a consequence nearly 95% of the rain forests in Sri Lanka were converted to monoculture plantations over the last two centuries. The earliest monoculture plantations that have been established in Sri Lanka includes Coffee (Coffea arabica), Cinnamon (Cinomom zelanicum) and Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) followed by Tea (Camellia sinensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) that remains as the main monoculture plantations today.
Nearly two thirds of the land area of Sri Lanka can be classified as managed ecosystems (Maddumabandara, 2000). Out of these many of the managed ecosystems in the wet and montane zone at present share boundaries with natural forests. Further many of these managed ecosystems carry patches of natural habitats within their estates. These natural habitats function as crucial refugia or critical corridors between fragmented habitat patches, for the local biodiversity. Therefore, adopting sustainable management approaches to conserve these natural habitat patches as well as minimize the impacts on natural forest habitats present in the boundaries of the large estate plantations have become one of the priority areas in the overall biodiversity conservation strategy of Sri Lanka.
In support of this national strategic goal, Dilmah Conservation under the MJF Group has launched an initiative to further improve the sustainability of biological resources within and bordering the estates managed by the group through integration of biodiversity conservation principles into the management system of their estates. The first step of such an initiative is to develop a detailed inventory of the biological resources present within and immediately adjacent to their estates. To carry out this activity MJF group has forged a partnership with International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), a global authority on biodiversity conservation. Under this programme IUCN will 1
conduct rapid biodiversity appraisals of the estates managed by the MJF group to inventories their biological resources, to identify priority conservation actions and to provide recommendations for sustainable agro-ecological practices within these estates.
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2 OBJECTIVES
The present study was carried out to; 1. Document the status of the biodiversity existing within the Hunuwela estate using rapid assessment methods. 2. Assess the past and ongoing biodiversity conservation initiatives implemented by the estate. 3. Identify the potential for building relationships with biodiversity and livelihoods of local communities.
To achieve the above outputs following activities were carried out within the five divisions of the Hunuwela estate.
A rapid scientific assessment of biodiversity to document habitat types, higher plants, birds, mammals, fish and selected invertebrate indicator groups (freshwater crabs, butterflies, and dragonflies) within the estate.
Rapid evaluation of past and current environment and biodiversity conservation initiatives implemented by the estate.
Analysis of data gathered, and preparation of a report with specific alternatives and recommendations.
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3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Site Description:
The Hunuwela estate is located between Opanayake and Pelmadulla towns in the Sabaragamuwa province. The estate comprises of five divisions with a total extent of 992 ha. These five divisions, namely Hunuwela north, Division C, Division 2, Division 3, and Division 4, are situated in the foot hills of the Hunuwela-kabaragala Mountain range (Asamana Kanda & Ravana Kapolla). Many of the streams that originate from the Asamana Kanda Mountain range flows through the estate. The remaining two divisions, Dandeniya and Dandava are situated far away from the above cluster. The Hunuwela-Kabragala mountain range that lies adjacent to the estate (including Asamanakanda and Ravana kapolla) has been linked with the Rama – Ravana Legend, while the Hunuwela village link with legends of God Sumana saman.
Map 1: Hunuwela estate and its divisions
3.2 Assessment Method
3.2.1 Overall methodological approach A literature survey on the past work related to biological resources available in the project area was conducted and specific information gaps were identified. Then a field survey was carried out to obtain further information on identified knowledge gaps pertaining to biological resources of the Hunuwela estate. During the field survey, standard biodiversity sampling methods were used to document the biological resources (habitats, flora, and fauna) present in the remaining forest patches of the Hunuwela estate. The sampling methods were designed to capture maximum amount of information on the biological resources present in the project area. Further, aspects such as availability of financial resources, and the time period were also taken into consideration, when selecting the survey techniques. 4
3.2.2 Selection of sampling sites and sampling frequency Sampling sites were selected based on a rapid reconnaissance survey of the five divisions of the estate taking into consideration criteria such as accessibility, habitat quality and extent and spatial distribution within the five divisions (Appendix 1). In order to determine the spatial variation and distribution of biodiversity, both aquatic and terrestrial habitats were surveyed during the five day sampling period. Night sampling sessions were also carried out at selected such as high quality natural habitat patches to document nocturnal animals.
3.2.3 Methodology adopted for the floral survey Sampling methods were designed in manner that would capture the dominant plant species present in different floral communities (flowering plants and some common lower plants) within the estate. Distinct vegetation types were identified according to the vegetation structure and composition. Sampling was carried out within sampling plots (50m x 5m) that were laid in different vegetation types except tea and rubber planted areas that do not support high biodiversity. Taxonomic identification of plants was done according to standard botanical techniques. References mentioned at the end were extensively used for this purpose. The site numbers and relevant habitat types sampled are;
Riverine vegetation: Plots 1,3,8,9,10 &17 Secondary forests; Plots 4,5,6,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,19,20,21 &22
Those were the major natural vegetation types that were present within the estate and therefore sampled extensively. In addition a plot was laid in the grassland habitat (Plot 7) and home garden vegetation around the estate bungalow (Plot 2) that were identified as minor vegetation types within the plantation area.
3.2.4 Methodology adopted for the faunal survey All groups of vertebrates (Freshwater fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals) and selected invertebrate species (Freshwater crabs, Butterflies & Dragonflies) were identified and documented. Standard scientific sampling techniques were used to survey the different groups of fauna in the project area (Table 1). Sampling of fauna was done in parallel to the floral transects. Visual Encounter Survey (VES) method was used to record faunal species. Both direct and indirect observations (animal signs such as pellets, tracks and food remains) were made within transects. In addition, information collected from plantation workers and surrounding villagers on fauna present in the area through direct interviews were also recorded and verified through field guides (Table 2) and photographs. All efforts were made to document the animals without causing them harm. Following techniques were used to study the different faunal groups present in the project area.
Butterflies and dragonflies – 5m x 100m belt transect
Freshwater crabs - River bank observations
Fishes – Cast netting, river bank observations,
Amphibians and reptiles – 5m x 100 m belt transect,
Birds –20m circular spot counting along the 100 m transects with 60m intervals
Mammals – 5m x 100m belt transects.
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In addition to the above techniques opportunistic observations were also used for the purpose of compiling the faunal inventory for the site. Further, Night observations along the road net work were carried out to record the nocturnal species (Herpetofauna, birds, and mammals).
Table 1: Summary of faunal sampling techniques Group/ Taxa Method Technique Fish Direct and Cast-netting , stream bank observation, Communication with estate workers indirect and villagers Amphibians Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Reptiles Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Birds Direct and Terrestrial habitats: Line transects indirect (Visual & auditory observations) Mammals Direct and Transects (tracks, fecal matter, feeding signs, carnivore scat analysis calls, indirect Communication with estate workers and villagers etc.); Butterflies Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Dragonflies Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey Freshwater crabs Direct Transects, Visual Encounter Survey
3.2.5 Species identification, classification and nomenclature Identification of fauna and flora: Identification of plants and animals were based on latest published field guides and keys available in Sri Lanka. In addition, the specimens deposited in the National Herbarium and the National Museum was also referred for the purpose of authentication of species whose identity that could not be ascertained using standard guides or keys. The Key references that were used for the identification of flora and fauna are listed in Table 2. Nomenclature of the species present was based on Bambaradeniya (2006). The conservation status of the species was determined according to the latest IUCN lists of threatened fauna and flora.
Table 2: Some key references used for species identification and Nomenclature Group Source Flora Dassanayake, M. D. & Fossberg, F. R. (eds) (1980 – 1991), Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds) (1994 – 1995), Dassanayake, M. D., Fossberg, F. R. & Clayton, W. D. (eds) (1995 – 1996), Vlas J & Jde Vlas (2008), Flora nomenclature Senaratna LK (2000) Fauna nomenclature Bambaradeniya (2006) Freshwater Fish Pethiyagoda, R. (1991), Goonatialake deA (2007) Amphibians Manamendraarachchi K and R Pethiyagoda (2006), De Silva (2009) Reptiles Somaweera, R (2006), Somaweera R & N Somaweera (2009) Birds Harrison J (1999), Kotagama S & G Ratnavira (2010), Warakagoda D & U Hettige (2008) Mammals Phillips, WWA (1935), Wijeyratne, GdeS (2008) Butterflies D’ Abrera (1998) Dragonflies Fonseka T. de (2000), Bedjanic M, Conniff K & GdeS Wijeyratne (2007) Freshwater crabs Bahir et al., (2005) Invasive species Marambe et al, (2010) Threatened species IUCN Sri Lanka & MENR, 2007, IUCN (2008)
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4 RESULTS
4.1 The Habitats
Hunuwela estate is located in the wet zone mid country of Sri Lanka where altitude ranges between 300m and 900m. Rubber and tea is the dominant plantation crop while cinnamon is also cultivated at small scale. The estate is located between a precipitous forested hill on the east and low laying village landscape in the valley bottom. The hills are covered with rainforests and act as a watershed for the numerous streams that are descending from the hill. Scattered semi-wild home gardens are located at lower elevations just before the forest meets the plantation area. Such forest dwellers engaged in traditional forest based livelihoods, especially Kithul tapping. The estate is situated in a sloping landscape and the entire area is coming under the wet zone climatic region, where the rainfall is distinctly seasonal with two rainfall peaks in the year. The south western monsoon rains occurs from May to September. The northeast monsoon occurs from December to February. There are two distinct inter monsoon periods. During these inter monsoon periods, namely, March to April and October to November, the rains are mainly due to convectional activity. Agro ecologically, the area is coming under WM1 (Wet zone Mid country 1) and there 75% expectancy of annual rainfall is 3125mm and 75% expectancy of dryness for particular months are ½ January and February. The mean annual sunshine duration in the wet zone ranges from 4.9 to 6.4 hours per day depending on the location. The duration of sunshine is related to the cloud cover and therefore during the rainy season, sunshine is very low. Out of the 22 physiographic units in the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Hunuwela and the surrounding area is classified under unit-17 termed Southern platform/Belihul Oya-Godakawela land system. This is a dissected plateau having a general altitude of 600m msl consisting of low to moderate relief hills and valley land form units (Somasiri and Nayakekorale, 1999, Somasiri, 1999). According to soil taxonomy, the area posses soils belonging to Dodangoda series under Typic Plinthudults sub group (Mapa et al, 1999).
According to Gunatilleke & Gunatilleke (1990), the site is coming under the bio-region 4 where tropical lowland wet evergreen forest is the dominant climax vegetation. Currently, they are highly degraded and many of them exist as small blocks of few hundred hectares in extent. The climax forests of this bio-region are dominated by Dipterocarp species, among which endemism reaches 90 percent, and some species are very rare and heavily localized in distribution. These forests also show considerable micro-climatic differences within a relatively small spatial area. At present, 93 percent of endemics in the rain forests of this bioregion are endangered, vulnerable or rare according to the IUCN Red Data Book criteria. This is mainly due to the high human population pressure on the limited land resources of this region and consequent loss of forest habitats, and overexploitation of forest resources.
Rubber and tea crop occupy nearly 90% of the land cover of the estate and the balance consist of cinnamon, patches of grasslands, horticultural crop lands associated with homesteads, secondary forest and degraded riverine forests. Introduction of plantation crops in early part of the last century, during the British period has completely transformed the landscape in Hunuwela area. Crop production requires the removal of the natural vegetation, or its drastic modification. Components of original natural vegetation is confined to some fragments of riverine vegetation, and the more terrestrial secondary forests are less natural as far as the native biodiversity is concerned.
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The key vegetation types and their characteristics are as follows.
A. Riverine Forest: Semi-natural riverine forests are found along the banks of streams, and the distribution of this vegetation type is generally 5m-10m on either side of the banks. Vegetation height is about 20-25m with stratified forests. The common species making up the different layers of the forest include; Canopy (20m-25m); Adenanthera bicolor, Artocarpus nobilis, Bhesa ceylanica, Calophyllum sp., Caryota urens, Celtis philippensis, Cyathocalyx zeylanicus, Dipterocarpus zeylanicus, Ficus drupacea, Ficus exasperate, Hydnocarpus venenata, Macaranga peltata, Margaritaria indicus and Myristica dactyloides; Shrubs/treelets (2m-10m) - Pongamia pinnata, Turpinia malabarica, Allophylus cobbe, Clerodendron infortunatum, Eupatorium inulifolium, Fagrea obovata, Ficus hispida, Ficus tinctoria, Humboldtia laurifolia, Ixora coccinea, Litsea gardneri, Pagiantha dichotoma and Symplocos cochinchinenis; Herbs (below 2m) - Pandanus ceylanicus, Alocasia macrorrhiza, Angiopteris erecta, Axonopus affinis, Cirtococcum trigonum, Clidemia hirta, Commelina diffusa, Costus speciosus and Ludwigia decurrens. This belt of forest is home to many surviving rainforest plant species. Riverine forests form the inter phase between stream and other terrestrial habitats. It is the frontline defense against stream bank erosion due to water currents. Further, riverine forests provide convenient resting sites for birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians etc.
B. Secondary Forest: Patches of secondary forests at various stages of succession are located randomly scattered in the landscape. They are results of abandoning of previous plantation areas or sometimes the natural forest areas that have been heavily exploited over the years (some 15- 20 years back); under that circumstances the secondary forest have developed and currently they are still under human pressure. The forest structure more or less comprised of a four strata system; canopy (25m), sub canopy, shrubs and herbs. But the species composition is not yet closer to natural forests. Common species observed in the different layers of this habitat include; Canopy (20m-25m) – Albizia falcataria, Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia scholaris, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Hevea brasiliensis and Melia dubia; Sub canopy (10m-20m)- Adenanthera pavonina, Areca catechu, Artocarpus gomezianus, Bridelia retusa, Carallia brachiata, Macaranga peltata, Mallotus tetracoccus, Trema orientalis and Aleurites moluccana Shrubs (2m-5m) - Brucea javanica, Camellia sinensis, Chromolaena odorata, Clerodendron infortunatum, Clerodendron paniculatum, Lantana camara, Neolitsea cassia, Psidium guajava and Symplocos cochinchinenis Herbs (below 2m) - Ageratum conizoides, Axonopus affinis, Blechnum orientale, Cirtococcum trigonum, Clidemia hirta, Commelina diffusa, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium hetrocarpus, Dichranopteris linearis, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis atrovirens, Ficus exasperate, Mikania cordata, Mimosa pudica, Mitracarpus villosus, Nephrolepis auriculata, Oplismenus composites, Panicum maximum, Pennesetum polystachyon, Pureria phaseoloides, Urena lobata and Wedelia trilobata. All such species are pioneers or weedy plants indicating early succession. The forests are transitional habitats developing into rainforests if left undisturbed.
C. Grassland: Scattered patches of grasslands occur on lands where tea planting has been abandoned due to various reasons. Grasslands have a simple vegetation structure; just the closely grown grass 8
cover up to 2m in height. Tree (up to 20m) and shrub (up to 3m) species can be seen scattered within the grassland occasionally. Panicum maximum is the most common grass species observed. Sometimes isolated Alstonia macrophylla trees can be seen indicating succession towards secondary forests.
D. Horticultural crop lands: The vegetation mainly found immediately around estate bungalows are primarily horticultural crop lands dominated by ornamental species. They are results of long term manipulations and dominated by multipurpose tree species and lawn grasses. Best developed multi- storey horticultural crop lands can be located in bungalow premises. Generally, there are several plant layers; Canopy (up to 20m) - Caryota urens, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Filicium decipiens, Mangifera indica, Hevea brasiliensis and Swietenia macrophylla Sub canopy (around 10m) - Amherstia nobilis and Bambusa vulgaris Shrubs (2m-5m) - Carica papaya, Coffea arabica and Muntingia calabura Herb layer (upto 1.5m) - Ageratum conizoides, Axonopus affinis, Bidens pilosa, Canna indca, Cyperus rotundus, Desmodium heterophyllum, Desmodium triflorum, Eleutheranthera raderalis, Kyllinga bulbosa, Mimosa pudica, Phyllanthus niriuri and Tridax procumbens) Horticultural crop lands are also important faunal habitat providing animals with feeding and nesting sites.
4.2 The Species
4.2.1 Flora: According to the results of the preliminary floristic survey a total of 282 species of plants belonging to 87 plant families have been recorded within Hunuwela estate (Annexes 2). Among them 21 species are endemic to Sri Lanka and 15 are threatened (nationally or globally threatened). Presence of seven species of invasive plants within these habitats is a matter of concern. Since the land area is mostly covered with anthropogenic habitats, a large number of weedy and exotic species were found.
4.2.2 Fauna: A total of 214 faunal species including 37 endemics were recorded during the survey (Appendix 3). The faunal assemblage included 13 species that are listed as nationally threatened (1- Critically Endangered species, 4 - Endangered species and 8 Vulnerable species). A further 24 species are listed as nationally Near Threatened (NT) and one species as Data deficient (IUCN SL and MENR, 2007).
Table 3. Total number of faunal species recorded within the Hunuwela Estate Recorded in the site Conservation status of the species Animal Groups Total Endemic Migrant/exotic Domestic CR EN VU NT DD Dragonflies 16 5 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Butterflies 47 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 1 Crabs 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fishes 12 4 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 Amphibians 9 5 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 Reptiles 24 5 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 Birds 75 11 5 0 0 0 1 9 0 Mammals 30 5 0 5 1 2 3 3 0 Total 214 37 6 5 1 4 8 24 1
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Dragonflies: Total number of 16 species of dragonflies and damselflies were recorded. This included five species that are endemic to Sri Lanka. Rivulte Tiger (Gomphidia pearsoni), and Wijaya's Scissor tail (Macrogomphus wijaya) found in the stream habitats of the division-2 are listed as nationally and Globally Endangered (EN). Divisions Two and Four have high quality aquatic habitats (stream vegetations) suitable for dragonflies and damselflies. Thus the highest numbers of species were recorded in the division 2 & 4.
Butterflies: Total number of 47 butterfly species including one endemic (Ceylon birdwing- Troides darsius) were recorded within the estate and among them Hampson's Hedge Blue (Actyolepis lilacea) is listed as a Nationally Data Deficient (DD) species. Another seven species recorded at the site are listed as nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). The highest numbers of butterfly species were recorded within the 2 & 4 divisions.
Freshwater Crabs: Freshwater crab species belonging to genus Oziothelphusa sp. was recorded in the steams within division 2. It was not possible to identify this crab up to species level. However, it is most likely an endemic species, as all recorded freshwater crab species (51) to date are endemic to the Sri Lanka.
Freshwater Fishes: Total of 12 freshwater fish species including four endemics (Stone sucker- Garra ceylonensis; Black lined barb- Puntius pleurotaenia; Filamented Barb- Puntius singhala; Walking catfish- Clarias brachysoma) were recorded within the stream network located inside the estate. Among them Long finned eel (Anguilla nebulosa), and Black lined barb (Puntius pleurotaenia) are listed as a nationally Vulnerable (VU) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). Further, the Mosquito fish (Gambusa affinis) which was introduced to the island during the late 1930s was found to be well established in the steep fast flowing streams of division 2 and 4. Maximum number of fish species was recorded from streams located within divisions 2 and 3.
Amphibians: Total number of nine amphibian species including five endemics (Kelaart's dwarf toad- Adenomus kelaartii; Corrugated water frog; Lankanectes corrugates; Shrub frog- Pseudophilautus sp; Common hour-glass tree frog- Polypedates cruciger; Common wood frog- Hylarana temporalis) were recorded. Highest numbers of amphibians were recorded within the remaining natural forest patches and stream side vegetation in division 2. The amphibians observed included Hylarana aurantiaca listed as a Nationally Vulnerable (VU) species and Hylarana temporalis listed as a Nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). However, the amphibian diversity is likely to be much more than what was recorded judging by the habitat diversity within the estate. Reptiles: Altogether 24 species of reptiles including five endemics (Elegant day gecko- Cnemaspis latha; Lanka skink- Lankascincus sp.; Sri Lanka Pipe snake- Cylindrophis maculate; The checkered keelback- Xenochrophis asperrimus; Sri Lanka krait- Bungarus ceylonicus) were recorded. This included Indian star tortoise (Geochelone elegans) listed as a Nationally Vulnerable (VU) and Parker's black turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Kangaroo Lizzard (Otocryptis wiegmanni), Sri Lanka Pipe snake (Cylindrophis maculata), Sri Lanka krait (Bungarus ceylonicus) listed as Nationally Near Threatened (NT) species (IUCN SL and MENR, 2007). The highest reptile diversity was recorded in division 2.
Birds: A total number of 75 bird species including 11 endemics were recorded at the Hunuwela estate. This included Sri Lanka Legge’s Flowerpecker (Dicaeum vincens) a nationally Vulnerable (VU) species and another nine species known to be nationally Near Threatened (NT) (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). Further, the bird assemblage also included five species of winter migrants (Indian Pitta- Pitta brachyuran; Brown Shrike- Lanius cristatus; Asian Paradise- flycathcher- Terpsiphone paradise; Asian
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Brown Flycatcher - Muscicapa daurica; Grey Wagtail - Motacilla cinerea).The highest bird diversity as recorded in the division 2 and 4 which are boarder to the foot hills which carried the natural forests habitats.
Mammals: A Total number of 30 species of mammals were recorded. This included five species of endemics (Highland shrew- Suncus montanus; Sri Lanka toque monkey- Macaca sinica; Purple-faced leaf monkey- Semnopithecus vetulus; Sri Lanka Brown palm civet- Paradoxurus montanus; Sri Lanka pigmy mouse-deer - Moschiola kathygre). Further five species of domestic mammals were also observed within the estate. Small flying squirrel (Petinomys fuscocapillus) listed as Nationally Critically Endangered (CR), Highland shrew (Suncus montanus); Rusty-spotted cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus) listed as Nationally Endangered (EN), and Purple-faced leaf monkey (Semnopithecus vetulus), Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura) listed as Nationally Vulnerable (VU) were included in the mammal assemblage observed within the estate (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007). Another three species such as Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Sri Lanka toque monkey (Macaca sinica), and Sri Lanka pigmy mouse-deer (Moschiola kathygre) also known as Nationally Near Threatened (IUCN SL & MENR, 2007) was also observed. Another interesting observation was the fact that the Purple-faced leaf monkey population shows both Sothern and westerns subspecies (Semnopithecus vetulus vetulus and Semnopithecus vetulus nester) characters.
4.3 Community based forest uses
Based on the interview surveys the use of forest products by the local communities was ascertained. They depend on natural resources within the estate to obtain herbs for medicinal purposes, vegetables for consumption, collection of firewood for household use. Other than plant materials some mammals (Wild boar, Barking deer, and Mouse deer) were also consumed by local communities as a food source.
4.4 Threats to the biodiversity
Habitat loss due to clearance of stream banks and encroachment of villages to water shed areas have been identified as the main threats to the biological resources within the estate. In addition, soil erosion, destructive fire wood collections, hunting, that takes place in the remote areas of the divisions and illegal gem mining within the steam sides of the Hunuwela north division were identified as the other major threats to the biological resources of the estate.
During the last few decades Peafowls have invaded this area and they are currently undergoing a population expansion and can become a threat to small vertebrates, invertebrates and villages crops. Degradation of riverine ecosystems: The riverine ecosystem is a strip of moist loving vegetation cover found along the wet banks of streams. The riverine vegetation associated with stream network of the estate is highly degraded in most stream segments. The forest does not show any stratification, and there are only a few natural riverine plant species were observed in this habitat. Good riverine areas act as water filters to prevent pollutants from entering a water body. Apart from that, especially the more moist areas are important 'intensive care units' for some sensitive biodiversity that are not even visible, but they are still important because they support other species and their life cycles. The benefits of riverine ecosystem to the biodiversity and ecosystem processes are enormous; some examples of these functions include; support life providing food, water and shelter for countless species, reduce flooding, slow down water velocity, purify water, recharge groundwater, reduce erosion and stabilize soil, control flash floods, replenish ground water, regulate temperature and
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moisture to protect biodiversity and trap sediment to minimize its harmful effects. Presently, almost all the riverine forests at Hunuwela estate are degraded due to various human disturbances, removal of native vegetation cover, spread of invasive plants, excessive human presence and expansion of plantation lands to stream edges. However, even at its present degraded state, the riverine ecosystem functions as a critical corridor between high altitude areas and low laying areas, enabling species movements.
Degradation and slow recovery of secondary forests: There are several patches of secondary forests and such areas have resulted due to abandoning of cultivation in the past. After a decade or so, these lands have developed into a vegetation cover consisting mainly of pioneer species of trees, shrubs and herbs. Reduced native biodiversity in such patches are immediately visible. Few rainforest species have made inroads to these patches. Pressure due to invasive plants and low level of shade retards the succession and recruitment of native flora into this habitat at present. On the physical side, poor development of forest stratification increase soil erosion. Trees and other plants act as a natural barrier to slow down water as it runs off the land. Roots bind the soil and prevent it from washing away. The absence of well developed vegetation causes the topsoil to erode more quickly. It is difficult for native plants to grow in the less nutritious soil that remains, have made this habitat susceptible for invasive species. Several species of invasive plants namely Lantana camara, Panicum maximum and Eupatorium odoratum occupies a considerable area in these secondary forests lands that prevents the establishment of native plant species. As elsewhere, such species displace native plants, native animal habitats, threats rare species, reduce species diversity, form dense monocultures, alter food webs, degrade watersheds and soil environment.
Illegal gem mining: Gem mining is carried out illegally in several locations of the estate. Mostly, the gem explorations are purely accidental with illam being exposed in numerous ditches, stream banks, paddy fields, wells, road cuttings and other exposed areas. These “accidental” discoveries often have serious environmental implications if they lead to a gem ‘rush’. The scale of exploration is largely controlled by the nature of the village gem miners. Casual, local exploration and mining of shallow illam deposits is a routine practice seen in many locations according to the local informants. This activity is carried out during periods where the livelihood sources are at low levels. However exploration and exploitation of deeper illam resources is not normally carried out on a casual basis since it is not technically suited for the kind of quick illegal operations being carried out. Perhaps the simplest type of mine workings are the stream dredging which are in places where stream gravels and illam exposed during down cutting and erosion by streams. In their simplest form the dredging operation involves raking up the river gravel or illam into a shallow pile using mamoties and washing them with stream water. The resulting coarse fraction is then picked over by workers to extract the gem minerals. Often riffles, small dams and other barriers are built up on the stream bed to control the current and direct it into stream banks. The entire operation is destructive to riverine ecosystem and no more restoration efforts are made to mitigate the impacts.
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5 RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Suggestions for improving the environmental outlook of Hunuwela estate
Restoration of the Hunuwela estate for enhanced biodiversity needs should be a continuous process with due consideration for economic aspects as well as social realities. A detailed understanding of the issues and management objectives will further refine the environmental development road map of Hunuwela estate. Preparation of a GIS data base on Hunuwela estate will make such efforts more successful. GIS will be a very useful tool in understanding biodiversity refugias, degraded forests, illegal gem mining areas, watersheds, habitat links etc. Based on land information and management needs, a comprehensive management plan can be developed for the estate. However, at present the following actions can be identified as priority areas to be focused by environmental development programme of the Hunuwela estate.
5.2 Development of a landscape level biodiversity management plan for the estate
Given the current situation of the Hunuwela plantation, a comprehensive habitat management plan should provide guidelines as well as specific actions appropriate to restore and conserve the biodiversity of the wider landscape. It is very important that conservation of biodiversity of Hunuwila estate is not considered in isolation. Species move through hilly areas lying east of the estate to low- lying areas in the west. This represents an environmental gradient along decreasing altitudinal range. The key changing environmental attributes include; mist, moisture, wind, temperature, vegetation types and human presence. Low laying areas are dominated by village settlements with agricultural landscapes. Hilly areas are mostly devoid of human habitation and consists of steep mountainous lands with good natural vegetation cover. Hence, the estate is sandwiched between natural forests and low-lying traditional villages. The plantation landscape being somewhat inhospitable territory for native species, any biodiversity management programme should focus on developing habitat connectivity within the plantation area to facilitate species movement along the environmental gradient in the wider landscape.“Connectivity” means that species can move through an area but does not always require continuous natural habitat corridors. Many species can cross some distance over unfavorable areas. Therefore, Hunuwela estate can have several types of habitat linkages without affecting the plantation areas. They are;
Biological corridors: they are continuous patches of habitat linking two or more ecosystems. Ideally such linkages connecting mountain areas with lowland areas can be established by development of riverine habitat of the existing stream network flowing through the estate. In this regard, riverine areas can be planted with not only native trees but also suitable hedges to serve this purpose. Stream can function as corridors for aquatic creatures and, if edged by native vegetation, for terrestrial species as well. Corridors do not have to be totally natural — for example, modified agro forests, economically useful smaller plants, fodder plants, medicinal plants, bee flora, fruit plants for animals can be useful, depending on the species-specific patterns of habitat use. If the corridors become less wildlife compatible they are likely to support fewer species.
Stepping stones: They are habitat 'islands' scattered over the area. Not all links need to be physically joined. Migratory birds, insects and other animals can pass long distances through inhospitable territory but need suitable habitat to rest and feed. On a smaller scale, individual trees or marsh can facilitate movement; for example isolated fruit trees can greatly extend suitable habitat for 13
some species of birds. On upper scale, patches of secondary forests in the plantation landscape can be enriched with native flora favorable for wild life.
Buffer zones: A wildlife favorable buffer zone can be developed as a belt around the estate adjacent to human settlements. It can help the estate ' habitat’ to function as if it were considerably larger by increasing the size of habitat network, and by facilitating movement to and from other large patches. Buffer zones can have some economically useful trees and shrubs/herbs for limited exploitation. Alternatively, the village home gardens also can be further developed as buffer zone components enhancing biodiversity without compromising the economic needs of the community.
Moreover, several types of mini-habitats are available in Hunuwela estate for habitat links. Suitability of such different types of habitat for connecting habitat patches is dependent on species that are targeted; some species have highly specialized ecological needs while others can use virtually any corridor. Generally speaking, small forest fragments, wetland areas especially abandoned terraced paddy fields, dying trees, shade trees, caves, organic farming areas, small grazing areas, individual trees having extra ordinary uses for wildlife (e.g. Ficus trees), natural springs, water holes, small streams, hedges, strips of native vegetation beside fields, unsprayed verges on roads, rocky areas etc. are all mini-habitats and useful linkages in the landscape. These can be further enriched with right kind of plants to act as wildlife corridors, wildlife habitat buffers, wildlife food blocks and wildlife hiding/resting places. Appropriate plant species need to be selected for sustaining primates, butterflies, birds, bats, reptiles and pollinators. This kind of habitat restoration activities have multiple benefits; enhance biodiversity, conserve soil and improve watersheds.
As a practical tool, it is highly recommended to use 'Landscape Species approach' in enhancing the biodiversity of Hunuwela plantation landscape. Basically this approach include (a) Select some key wildlife species, preferably lowland Purple face leaf Langurs, frugivourous birds/bats, some sensitive amphibians and butterfly species, (b) Understand their habitat requirements in time and space, (c) Understand threats to such species, (d) Prepare the biological landscape in association with plantation areas for their sustenance.
Once we prepare the habitats for those key species, many other species are sustained. However, this approach is scientifically intensive, and need GIS mapping, planning of habitat networks, planting of appropriate trees, understanding animal behavior, seasonality, human-wildlife conflicts etc. Moreover, such interventions will make the estate's biodiversity less vulnerable for climate change in future.
5.3 Improvement of community engagements in environmental development
The capacity of plantation companies to solve environmental problems and create a better agro ecological environment largely depends on the knowledge and involvement of local community and work force. Often, environmental problems are indications of community problems and therefore their involvement is very relevant for broad-based actions. Broad-based action is needed because working in isolation cannot accomplish long-term solutions to community problems and resultant environmental problems. Activities of surrounding villagers and plantation work force affect the quality of estate land environment. People have a common interest in estate environment in relation to their day to day work and livelihoods. Understanding these conditions may lead to seek to encourage environmental management through locally based actions and to more effectively plan and deliver 14
locally relevant environmental education to all audiences including estate worker community. Community-based environmental awareness and local actions have been more commonly applied with community economic development, village water resource management and health issues. Estate environmental management goals cannot be accomplished until they can work confidently and competently with community members and with officers from other agencies such as forest department, education department and wildlife department. The community engagement has to draw attention to several needs:
To ensure that environmental awareness has an obvious connection to the community
To emphasize the link between local activities and a quality of estate environment To ensure that environmental awareness is relevant to day to day life.
To achieve this goal several activities can be initiated.
Establishment of an environment management committee: Organizational problems are major hindrances to any implementation work. Establishment of a task team that cares for the every aspect of estate environment will streamline the work.
Environmental education and awareness: Presence of a knowledgeable work force within the estate representing top, middle, lower strata is essential pre requisite for building support for the environmental program. Having an enlightened village community in the vicinity will be an added benefit in enhancing the biodiversity and curbing illegal activities.
Greening of routine processes: Use of CFL bulbs, non toxic paints, nature friendly pesticides, recyclable material/energy, locally produced raw material. Calculate carbon foot print of processes and rectify weaknesses. Some of these practices are already in place.
5.4 Campaigning, publicity, rapport building and branding
It is very essential that the good environmental work that the estate has undertaken is related to public image, institutional links, and premium price for products, social acceptance and community support. Suitable print, electronic and verbal media can be used in this regard.
5.5 Eco friendly community based small industries:
There are some opportunities in the estate land for following small industries.
Beekeeping in Rubber Plantations: The rubber tree is a prolific source of honey which is obtained from the extra floral nectaries at the tip of the petiole, where the leaflets join. Although rubber plantations have been identified as a source of bee honey, organized commercial exploitation of honey from rubber plantations in Sri Lanka is negligible. The available estimates on the honey production in India bears evidence to the importance of rubber plantations as a source of honey. In India 60% of bee honey production comes from rubber estates. Apart from honey, other principal hive products are pollen, propolis, beeswax, royal jelly and bee venom which also have industrial uses. The major consuming industries for honey in the domestic market are the indigenous medicine and tourism. Presently, there is a ready export market as honey is gaining popularity in the beauty care industry as well. In Sri Lanka it is high time that Rubber growers form a consortium for rubber growing regions to achieve the twin objectives of commercial exploitation of rubber honey and hive products 15
supplementing the income from rubber. As a bonus bee keeping enhance the fruit setting of many crops and forest plants contributing to economy and ecology.
Commercial Anthurium cultivation under rubber tree shade: Several varieties of Anthurium have heavy local and export demand. Mid elevation areas with frequent mist cover are ideal for cultivating Anthurium under rubber plantation. Generally, Anthurium needs 75% shade and high moisture conditions. Dense planting of Anthuriumrs in lines of plastic planting gutters laid on the ground will be able to support 20,000 plants per hectare along with rubber and as a plant produces 5-6 flowers per year (approx. Rs. 100/= per good flower), this could be a significant income generating activity for the local community if managed in profit sharing basis. Freely available floricultural consultation from the Department of botanic gardens (Peradeniya) will add value to effective use of plantation landscape in future.
Extraction of rubber seed oil: Rubber oil, which can be extracted from the rubber seed using mechanical pressing method, is of high acid value, that is, the free fatty acid content is high and the oil is not edible, but makes it suitable for use in soap manufacture. It has been used as a substitute for palm kernel oil in the production of soaps (bar soap and detergent soap). Such avenues should be explored as a cottage industry with surrounding community to minimize resource wastage.
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5 REFERENCES
1. Ashton, PM, Gunatilleke, CVS., Zoyza, N, Dassanayake, MD, Gunatilleke, IAUN., & Wijesundara, S, (1997). A field guide to the common Trees and Shrubs of Sri Lanka. WHT Publications & Pvt, Sri Lanka. 2. Bahir, MM, Ng, PKL, Crandall, K & R Pethiyagoda (2005). A conservation assessment of the freshwater crabs of Sri Lanka. The raffles bulletin of zoology. Supplement No. 12: 121–126. 3. Bambaradeniya C.N.B. 2000. Alien invasive species. Loris. 22: No 4, pp 3-7. 4. Bambaradeniya, CNB (Editor), 2006. Fauna of Sri Lanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. The World Conservation Union, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Government of Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp 5. Bambaradeniya, CNB, Edirisinghe, JP, de Silva, DN, Gunatilleke, CVS, Ranawana, KB & Wijekoon, S (2003) Biodiversity associated with an irrigated rice agro-ecosystem in Sri Lanka. Biodiversity and Conservation. 6. Bedjanic M, Conniff K and GdeS Wijeyratne (2007) Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. Jetwing Eco Holidays. 242pp 7. D’ Abreira, B (1998). The Butterflies of Ceylon. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, 221 pp 8. Dassanayake MD and Fosberg, FR (eds) (1980 - 1991) Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. I-VII. Amerind Publ., New Delhi. 9. Dassanayake MD and WD Clayton (eds) (1996 - 1999). Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. X - XIII. Amerind Publ., New Delhi. 10. Dassanayake MD, Fosberg FR and WD Clayton (eds) (1994 - 1995) Revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon, Vols. VIII - IX. Amerind Publ., New Delhi.
11. De Silva (2009) Amphibians of Sri Lanka: A photographic Guide to Common frogs, Toads and Caecilians. Published by Author, Kandy. 168pp 12. Earles, R (2005) Sustainable Agriculture: An Introduction Publication of ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. USA. 13. Fonseka, Tde (2000) The Dragonflies of Sri Lanka. WHT publications (privet) Limited. Sri Lanka. 303pp 14. Goonatilake deA (2007) Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Sri Lanka. 134pp 15. Gunatilleke, IAUN. & Gunatilleke, CVS, (1990). Distribution of Floristic Richness and its Conservation in Sri Lanka. Conservation Biology. 4. 16. Harrison J (1999) A field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press. New York. 219pp 17. IUCN (2008) The list of threatened species. WWW.IUCN.redlist.org 18. IUCN Sri Lanka & MENR (2007) The 2007 Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 148pp
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19. Kotagama S and Ratnavira, G (2010) An Illustrated Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Field Ornithology Group. University of Colombo Sri Lanka. 356 pp 20. Madduma Bandara, CM (2000) Land Resources: Conditions and Trends. In: Natural Resources of Sri Lanka 2000. National Science Foundation, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 306 21. Manamendra-Arachchi K and R Pethiyagoda (2006) Sri Lankave Ubayajeeveen. (Sinhala text), The Wildlife heritage trust of Sri Lanka. 440pp 22. Mapa, RB, Somasiri, S, & Nagarajah, S (Eds.), (1999), Soils of the low country wet zone, Soils of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Special publication no.1, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 23. Marambe B, Silva P, Wijesundara S and N Atapattu (2010) Invasive Alien Species, Strengthening Capacity to Control Introduction and Spread in Sri Lanka. Biodiversity Secretariat, Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources, Sri Lanka. 191pp 24. McNeely, JA (1995) How traditional agro-ecosystems can contribute to conserving biodiversity. In: Halladay, P. & D.A. Gilmour (Eds.) Conserving Biodiversity Outside Protected Areas. The role of traditional agro-ecosystems. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK, pp 20-40. 25. Pethiyagoda R (1991). Freshwater fishes of Sri Lanka. The Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, 362 pp 26. Phillips WWA (1935). Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science, Dulau and Company, London. 371pp
27. Sala, OE, Chapin, FS, & Amesto, JJ (2000) Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science 287:1770-1774. 28. Scherr, SJ & Shames, S (2006). Agriculture: a threat or promise for biodiversity conservation. Arborvitæ. The IUCN/WWF Forest Conservation Newsletter. 29. Senarathna LK (2001) A Checklist of the flowering Plant of Sri Lanka.Pub.No.22 MAB Checklist and Handbook series National Science Foundation. Colombo. Sri Lanka. 451pp 30. Somasiri, S, (1999), Physiography and land form, Chapter 3 in - Soils of the low country wet zone, Soils of the wet zone of Sri Lanka, Mapa, R. B., Somasiri, S., Nagarajah, S. (Eds.), Special publication no.1, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, , Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
31. Somaweera R & N Somaweera (2009) Lizards of Sri Lanka, A colour Guide with Field Keys. Chimaria Buchhandelsgesellschaft mbH. 303pp 32. Somaweera R (2006) Sri Lankave Sarpayin. (Sinhala text). WHT publications (privet) Limited Sri Lanka. 297pp 33. Warakagoda D & Hettige, U (2008) Birds of Sri Lanka, Vocalization and Image Guide. Pitta Products. CD-ROM 34. Wijeyratne GdeS (2008) A photographic Guide to Mammals of Sri Lanka. New Holland Publishers (UK) Ltd. London. 128pp
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Appendix 1: Sampling sites and its habitat
Divisions SAMPLING SITES HABITAT TYPES CODE GPS Coordinates Lat/Long
1 Stream side habitat SS 06° 38.117´NL/80° 36.125´EL 2 Home garden habitat HG 06° 38.118´NL/80° 29.125´EL 3 Stream side habitat SS 06° 38.077´NL/80° 36.147´EL 4 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.052´NL/80° 36.489´EL 5 Shrub - secondary SH 06° 37.892´NL/80° 36.546´EL 6 Stream side habitat SS 06° 37.928´NL/80° 36.833´EL Division 2 2 Division 7 Grassland habitat GL 06° 37.869´NL/80° 36.850´EL 8 Stream side habitat SS 06° 38.231´NL/80° 36.083´EL 9 Stream side habitat SS 06° 38.196´NL/80° 36.009´EL 10 Stream side habitat SS 06° 38.146´NL/80° 35.847´EL 11 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.890´NL/80° 35.490´EL 12 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.770´NL/80° 35.700´EL 13 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.599´NL/80° 35.682´EL Division 4 4 Division 14 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.514´NL/80° 35.832´EL 15 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.039´NL/80° 35.406´EL 16 Forests - secondary FS 06° 36.962´NL/80° 35.076´EL 17 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.315´NL/80° 34.990´EL 18 Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.366´NL/80° 35.092´EL
19 3 Division Forests - secondary FS 06° 37.309´NL/80° 35.229´EL 20 Shrub-forest SF 06° 37.206´NL/80° 35.651´EL 21 Dandava Forests - secondary FS 06° 35.668´NL/80° 35.967´EL Hunuwela 06° 36.693´NL/80° 36.337´EL 22 SS north Stream side habitat
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Appendix 2 : Flora checklist of the Hunuwela Estate
(legends used in the table: SpS- Species status; CoS-Conservation status; END- Endemic; IND- Indigenous)
Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 1 Acacia auriculiformis X X 2 Acacia caesia X X X X X X 3 Adenanthera bicolor END THR X 4 Adenanthera pavonina X 5 Ageratum conizoides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 6 Albizia falcataria X X X X X X X X X X X X X 7 Albizia odoratissima X 8 Aleurites moluccana X X X X X X X X X 9 Allamanda cathertica X X 10 Allophylus cobbe X X X 11 Alloteropsis cimicina X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 12 Alocasia fornicata X X 13 Alocasia macrorrhiza Invasive X X X X X 14 Alstonia macrophylla X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 15 Alstonia scholaris X X X X X X X X X 16 Amaranthus tricolor X 17 Amherstia nobilis X 18 Amphelocissus indica X 19 Anamirta cocculus X X X X X X X X X X X 20 Angiopteris erecta X 21 Angiopteris fraxinea X 22 Anodendron paniculatum X X X X X X 23 Antidesma walkeri END THR X 24 Apodytes sp. X 25 Areca catechu X X X X X X X X X X X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 26 Areca concinna END THR X 27 Argyria sp. X 28 Aristolochia indica X X X X X X 29 Aristolochia ringens X 30 Artabotrys zeylanicus X X X 31 Artocarpus altilis X X 32 Artocarpus gomezianus X X X X X X 33 Artocarpus heterophyllus X X X X X X X X 34 Artocarpus nobilis END THR X X X X X X X X X 35 Axonopus affinis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 36 Bambusa vulgaris X X X X X 37 Barleria sp. X 38 Barringtonia acutangula X X 39 Berrya cordifolia X 40 Bhesa ceylanica END THR X 41 Bidens pilosa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 42 Blechnum orientale X 43 Bothriochloa pertusa X X X X X X X 44 Brachiaria purpurascens X 45 Bridelia retusa X X X X X 46 Brucea javanica X X 47 Callicarpa tomentosa X 48 Calophyllum inophyllum X 49 Calophyllum sp. X 50 Camellia sinensis X X X X X X X X X 51 Canna indca X 52 Carallia brachiata X X X 53 Carica papaya X X 54 Caryota urens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 55 Celtis philippensis X 56 Centella asiatica X X 57 Centrosema pubescens X X X X X X X X X X X X 58 Chromolaena odorata Invasive X X X X X X 59 Chrysopogon aciculatus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 60 Cinnamomum verum X X X X X X X X X 61 Cirtococcum oxyphyllum X 62 Cirtococcum trigonum X X X X X 63 Cleidion sp. X 64 Cleistanthus sp. X 65 Cleome monophylla X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 66 Cleome viscosa X X 67 Clerodendron infortunatum X X X X X 68 Clerodendron paniculatum X X 69 Clidemia hirta Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 70 Clitoria ternatea X X X X X X X 71 Cocos nucifera X X X 72 Codiaeum variegatum X 73 Coffea arabica X X X X 74 Colocasia esculenta X X X X 75 Commelina appendiculata X X X X X X X X X 76 Commelina bhenghalensis X X X 77 Commelina diffusa X X X X X X X X X X 78 Commelina kurzii X X 79 Conyza bonariensis X X X X X X X X X X X X 80 Conyza floribunda X X X X X X X X X X 81 Costus speciosus X X X X X Crassocephalum 82 crepidioides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 83 Crateva religiosa X X X 22
Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 84 Crotalaria pallida X 85 Croton bonplandianus X 86 Croton sp. X 87 Cryptocarya wightiana THR X X 88 Curculigo finlaysoniana X 89 Cyanotis villosa X X X X X X X X X 90 Cyathocalyx zeylanicus X X 91 Cyclea burmanni X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 92 Cymbidium bicolor X X 93 Cymbopogon nardus X X X 94 Cyperus difformis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 95 Cyperus irria X X 96 Cyperus pilosus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 97 Cyperus rotundus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 98 Delonix regia X Dendrobium 99 macrostachyum X 100 Dendropthoe sp. X X 101 Derris scandens X 102 Desmodium heterophyllum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 103 Desmodium hetrocarpus X X X X X 104 Desmodium triflorum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 105 Dichranopteris linearis X X X X X X X 106 Digitaria ciliaris X X X X X 107 Digitaria longiflora X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 108 Dillenia indica X 109 Dipterocarpus zeylanicus END X X X 110 Drynaria quarcifolia X X 111 Echinochloa colonum X X X 112 Elaegnus latifolia X 23
Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 113 Elaeocarpus serratus X X X X 114 Elettaria cardamomum X 115 Elettaria sp. X 116 Eleusine indica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 117 Eleutheranthera raderalis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 118 Eliaesis guineensis X 119 Emilia eserta X X X X X 120 Emilia sonchifoila X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 121 Entada zeylanica X 122 Eragrostis atrovirens X 123 Eragrostis riparia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 124 Eragrostis uniloides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 125 Eucalyptus grandis X 126 Eucalyptus torelliana X X X 127 Eupatorium inulifolium X 128 Euphorbia heterophylla X X X X X X X X 129 Euphorbia hirta X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 130 Exallage auricularia THR X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 131 Fagraea fragrance X X X X X 132 Fagrea obovata X X X 133 Ficus benghalensis X 134 Ficus drupacea X X 135 Ficus exasperata X X X X X X X X X X X X 136 Ficus hispida X X X X 137 Ficus microcarpa X X 138 Ficus nervosa X X X 139 Ficus religiosa X X X X 140 Ficus tinctoria X X X X X 141 Ficus tsjahela X X X X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 142 Ficus virens X 143 Filicium decipiens X X Fimbristylis 144 cinnamometorum X X 145 Fimbristylis miliacea X X X 146 Flacourtia ramnotchi X 147 Flemingia strobilifera X 148 Flueggea leucopyros X 149 Freycinetia walkeri END X X 150 Garcinia cambogia X 151 Garcinia sp. X 152 Gliricidia sepium X X X X X X X X X X X 153 Glochidion moonii END THR X 154 Gloriosa superba X X 155 Grevillea robusta X 156 Grewia carpinifolia X X 157 Gynura lycopersicifolia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 158 Hemidesmus indicus X 159 Hevea brasiliensis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 160 Hibiscus furcatus X X X 161 Hiptage benghalensis X X X X 162 Humboldtia laurifolia THR X 163 Hydnocarpus venenata END X X X 164 Hyptis capitata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 165 Ipomoea cairica X X X X X X X 166 Ipomoea indica X X X X X 167 Ischaemum indicum X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 168 Ischaemum rugosum X X X X X X X 169 Ischeamum rugosum X 170 Ixora coccinea X X X 25
Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 171 Jasminum angustifolium X 172 Jatropha curcas X X 173 Justicia procumbens X 174 Kyllinga bulbosa X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 175 Lantana camara Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 176 Lasia spinosa X 177 Leea indica X X X X X 178 Lindernia rotundifolia X X X 179 Litsea gardneri END THR X X X X X X X X 180 Litsea longifolia END THR X X X X 181 Ludwigia decurrens X X X X 182 Lygodium microphyllum X X X X X X X X 183 Macaranga peltata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 184 Madhuca nerifolia THR X X 185 Mallotus tetracoccus X X X X X X X 186 Mangifera indica X X X X X X X X X X X 187 Manihot esculenta X X X 188 Manihot glaziovii X X X 189 Margaritaria indicus THR X X X X X X 190 Melia dubia X X X X X X X X X 191 Mesua nagasarium X 192 Michelia champaca X X 193 Microcos paniculata X X X X X X X 194 Mikania cordata Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 195 Milusa sp. X 196 Mimosa invisa X X 197 Mimosa pudica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 198 Mitracarpus hirtus X X X X X 199 Mitracarpus villosus X X X X X X X X X X X X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 200 Muntingia calabura X 201 Musa bulbisiana X 202 Musa paradisica X X X X 203 Mussaenda frondosa X 204 Myristica dactyloides X X 205 Neolitsea cassia X X X X X X X X X 206 Nephelium lappaceum X 207 Nephrolepis auriculata X X X X X X X 208 Nothopegia beddomei X X X 209 Nymphaea nouchali X 210 Ocimum americanum X 211 Ophiorrhiza mungos X X 212 Oplismenus compositus X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 213 Osbeckia octandra END X 214 Oxalis corniculata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 215 Pagiantha dichotoma X X X X X X X 216 Pandanus ceylanicus END X X 217 Panicum maximum Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 218 Panicum repens X X X 219 Paspalidium flavidum X X X X X X X X X X X X 220 Paspalum conjugatum X X X 221 Paspalum scrobiculatum X X X X X X X 222 Passiflora edulis X 223 Peltophorum pterocarpum X 224 Pennesetum polystachyon X X X 225 Peperomia pellucida X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 226 Phyllanthus niriuri X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 227 Pilea sp. X 228 Piper longum X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 229 Piper sp. X 230 Piper sylvestre X 231 Piper zeylanicum END X X X 232 Pometia pinnata X X X X 233 Pongamia pinnata X X 234 Pothos sp. X X 235 Psidium guajava X X X X X 236 Psyshotria indica X 237 Pterospermum canescens X X 238 Pterygota thwitesii END X 239 Pureria phaseoloides X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 240 Richardia brasiliensis X X X X X X X X X 241 Richardia scabra X X X X X X X 242 Sauropus androgynus X X X X X X X X X X X X X 243 Schefflera emarginata END X 244 Schefflera stellata X X X X 245 Schleichera oleosa X X X 246 Scolopia pusilla END X 247 Scoparia dulcis X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 248 Semecarpus gardneri END X 249 Semecarpus marginata END THR X 250 Semecarpus nigro‐viridis END X X X X X 251 Semecarpus subpeltata END THR X X 252 Setaria barbata X 253 Sida acuta X X X X X X X X X X X X X 254 Smilax zeylanica X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 255 Solanum melongena X 256 Spathodea campanulata X X 257 Spermacoce articularis X X X X X X
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Sites ‐‐>
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Plant species SpS CoS 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 258 Spermacoce assurgens X X X X X X 259 Spermacoce hispida X X X X 260 Spermacoce latifolium X X X X X X X X X X X 261 Stachytarpheta indica X X Stereospermum 262 personatum X X X 263 Strychnos sp. X 264 Swietenia macrophylla X X X X 265 Symplocos cochinchinenis X X X X X X X X X X X 266 Synedrella nodiflora X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 267 Syngonium podophyllum X X 268 Syzygium caryophyllatum X X 269 Syzygium operculatum X 270 Tectona grandis X 271 Thespesia populnea X 272 Thottea siliquosa X 273 Trema orientalis X X X X X X X 274 Tridax procumbens X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 275 Tripsacum laxum X X X X X X 276 Turpinia malabarica X 277 Urena lobata X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 278 Vernonia cinerea X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 279 Vetiveria zizanioides X 280 Vitex altissima X X X 281 Walsura trifoliolata X 282 Wedelia trilobata Invasive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 283 Xanthosoma sp. X X X X 284 Zizyphus oenoplia X X X 285 Zyzyphus nepeca X X
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Appendix 3: Faunal checklist with respect to their habitats
(legends used in the table: SpS- Species status; CoS-Conservation status; END- Endemic; PEND- Proposed endemic; IND- Indigenous; EXO- Exotic; DOM: Domestic; BrR- Breeding residence, WV –Winter Visiter)
Dragonflies
Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D‐D D‐HN Scientific Name English Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Family ‐ Calopterygidae
1 Neurobasis chinensis Oriental green‐wing IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Vestails apicalis Black‐tipped flashwing IND 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Euphaeidae
3 Euphaea splendens Shining Gossamerwing END 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Coenagrionidae
4 Pseudagrion rubriceps Red‐headed Sprite IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Platycnemididae
5 Copera marginipes Yellow Featherleg IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Platystictidae
6 Drepanosticta nietneri Nietner's Shadwdamsel END 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Protoneuridae
7 Elattoneura centralis Dark‐glittering Threadtail END 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Gomphidae
8 Gomphidia pearsoni Rivulte Tiger END EN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Macrogomphus wijaya Wijaya's Scissortail END EN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Libellulidae
10 Orthetrum glaucum Asian Skimmer IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Orthetrum luzonicum Marsh Skimmer IND 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 30
12 Orthetrum pruinosum Pink Skimmer IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 13 Orthetrum sabina Green Skimmer IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Diplacodes trivialis Blue Percher IND 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 15 Trithemis aurora Crimson Dropwing IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 16 Trithemis festiva Indigo Dropwing IND 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Butterflies
Estate Divisions D-2 D-4 D-3 D-D D-HN Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Family ‐ Papilionidae 1 Troides darsius Ceylon birdwing Maha kurulu piya papiliya END NT 1 1 2 Pachliopta hector Crimson rose Maha rosa papilia ING 1 1 Pachliopta 3 aristolochiae Common rose Podu rosa papilia ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 Papilio polytes Common mormon Kalu papilia ING 1 1 5 Papilio polymnestor Blue mormon Maha nilaya ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 Papilio clytia Mime Rawana papilia ING NT 1 Graphium 7 sarpedon Blue bottle Nil papilia ING 1 Graphium 8 agamemnon Tailed jay Kola papilia ING 1 Family ‐ Pieridae 9 Leptosia nina Psyche Kalu‐thith sudda ING 1 1 1 1 1 10 Delias eucharis Jezebel Podu Maha‐sudda ING 1 11 Catopsilia pyranthe Mottled emigrant Thith‐piya piyasariya ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 Catopsilia pomona Lemon emigrant Kaha piyasariya ING 1 1 13 Eurema brigitta Small grass yellow Punchi kahakolaya ING 1 1 Common grass 14 Eurema hecabe yellow Maha kahakolaya ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Family ‐ Nymphalidae Tirumala 15 limniace Blue tiger Podu nil‐kotithiya ING 1 16 Parantica aglea Glassy tiger Suduwan nil‐kotithiya ING 1 1 1 1 1 17 Euploea core Common crow Podu kaka‐kotithiyaya ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 31
Cupha 18 erymanthis Rustic Raththiya ING NT 1 1 Phalantha 19 phantha Leopard Podu thith‐thambiliya ING 1 20 Vindula erota Cruiser Yoda thambiliya ING NT 1 1 1 21 Cirrochroa thais Tamil yeoman Kela raththiya ING NT 1 1 22 Junonia lemonias Lemon pansy Dumburuwan alankarikya ING 1 23 Junonia atlites Grey pansy Aluwan alankarikya ING 1 24 Junonia iphita Chocolate soldier Podu alankarikya ING 1 1 1 1 1 25 Junonia almana Peacock pansy Monera alankarikya ING 1 Hypolimnas 26 misippus Danaid Eggfly Kela Alankarikya ING 1 Pantoporia 27 hordonia Common lasker Kaha selaruwa ING NT 1 28 Neptis hylas Common sailor Gomara selaruwa ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 29 Parthenos sylvia Clipper Yoda kela selaruwa ING NT 1 Euthalia 30 aconthea Baron Achchilaya ING 1 Common evening 31 Melanitis leda brown Podu dumburuwa ING 1 1 Orsotriaena Medus Brown Maha‐iri panduru‐ 32 medus /Nigger dumburuwa ING 1 1 Visithuru panduru‐ 33 Nissanga patnia Gladeye bushbrown dumburuwa ING 1 Ypthima 34 ceylonica White four‐ring Podu heen‐dumburuwa ING 1 1 1 1 Elymnias 35 hypermnestra Common palmfly Podu thal‐dumburuwa ING 1 Family ‐ Lycaenidae Hampson's Hedge 36 Actyolepis lilacea Blue Sudu Panduru‐nilaya ING DD 37 Caleta decidia Angled Pierrot Gomara Mal‐nilaya ING 1 38 Castalius rosimon Common Pierrot Podu Mal‐nilaya ING 1 1 39 Everes lacturnus Indian Cupid Indiyanu Panduru‐nilaya ING 1 1 1 1 40 Jamides bochus Dark Cerulean Anduruwan Seru‐nilaya ING 1 1 1 41 Jamides celeno Common Cerulean Podu Seru‐nilaya ING 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 42 Prosotas nora Common Lineblue Podu Nil‐iriya ING 1 1 1 1
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43 Zizina otis Lesser Grass Blue Podu Thruna‐nilaya ING 1 1 Family ‐ Hesperiidae Ampittia 44 dioscorides Bush Hopper ING 1 1 45 Iambrix salsala Chestnut Bob ING 1 1 1 46 Suastus gremius Indian Palm Bob ING 1 1 Taractrocera 47 maevius Common Grass Dart ING 1
Freshwater Crabs
Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D‐D D‐HN Scientific Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Family ‐ Parathelphusidae 1 Oziothelphusa sp. Endemic 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Freshwater Fish
D‐ D‐ Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D HN Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Family ‐ Anguillidae 1 Anguilla nebulosa Long finned eel Pol mal aandha IND VU 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cyprinidae 2 Devario malabaricus Giant Danio Dankola Sayala IND 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 3 Garra ceylonensis Stone sucker Gal Pandiya END 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Puntius bimaculatus Redside barb Ipili Kadaya IND 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Puntius pleurotaenia Black lined barb Heeta Massa END VU 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 6 Puntius singhala Filamented Barb Dankola Pethiya END 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 7 Rasbora microcephalus Carverii Rasbora Caveri Randiya IND 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 8 Rasbora dandia Striped rasbora Dandiya IND 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Tor khudree Mahseer Lehella IND 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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Family ‐ Claridae 10 Clarias brachysoma Walking catfish Magura END 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Poeciliidae 11 Gambusa affinis Mosquito fish Guppy EXO 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys 12 thermalis Common spiny loach Thith Ahirawa IND 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Amphibians
D‐ D‐ Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D HN 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 22 Family ‐ Bufonidae Kelaart's dwarf 1 Adenomus kelaartii toad Kelartge kuru gemba END 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Duttaphrynus Common house 2 melanostictus toad Sulaba geai gemba IND 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Microhylidae Ornate narrow Visituru muwapatu 3 Microhyla ornata mouth frog madiya IND 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Nyctibatrachidae Corrugated 4 Lankanectes corrugatus water frog Vakarali madiya END 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Dicroglossidae 5 Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis Skipper frog Utpatana madiya IND 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Rhacophoridae 6 Pseudophilautus sp Shrub frog Paduru mediya END 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Hour‐glass tree 7 Polypedates cruciger frog Pahimbu gas madiya END 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Ranidae Common wood 8 Hylarana temporalis frog Sulaba bandi madiya END NT 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Hylarana aurantiaca Small wood frog Kuda bandi madiya IND VU 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34
Reptiles
Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D‐D D‐HN
Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Family ‐ Bataguridae
1 Melanochelys trijuga Parker's black turtle Parkerge gal ibba IND NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Family ‐ Testudinidae
2 Geochelone elegans Indian star tortoise Mevara ibba/ Taraka ibba IND VU 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Family ‐ Agamidae
3 Calotes calotes Green garden lizard Pala katussa IND 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
4 Calotes versicolor Common garden lizard Gara katussa IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
5 Otocryptes weigmanii Kangaroo Lizard Yak katussa END NT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Family ‐ Gekkonidae
6 Hemidactylus frenatus Common house‐gecko Sulaba gehuna IND 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 Hemidactylus parvimaculatus Spotted housegecko Pulli gehuna IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 Cnemaspis latha Elegant day gecko Bushana divasarihuna END 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Family ‐ Scincidae
9 Eutropis carinata Common skink Sulaba hikanala IND 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
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10 Eutropis macularia Bronzegreen little skink Pingu hikanala IND 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 Lankascincus sp. Lanka skink Lakhiraluva END 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Family ‐ Varanidae
12 Varanus bengalensis Land monitor Talagoya IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
13 Varanus salvator Water monitor Kabaragoya IND 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Family‐ Pythonidae
14 Python molurus Indian python Pimbura IND 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Family ‐ Cylindrophidae
15 Cylindrophis maculata Sri Lanka Pipe snake Depath naya END NT 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Family ‐ Colubridae
16 Ahaetulla nasuta Green vine snake Ahaetulla IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
17 Dendrelaphis tristis front Spot bronze back Handa haldanda IND 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
18 Ptyas mucosa Rat snake Gerandiya. IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Family ‐ Natricidae
19 Amphiesma stolatum Buff striped keelback Aharukuka IND 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
20 Xenochrophis asperrimus The checkered keelback Diya bariya END 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Family ‐ Elapidae
21 Bungarus ceylonicus Sri Lanka krait Mudu karawala END NT 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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22 Naja naja Indian cobra Naya IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
Family ‐ Viperidae
23 Daboia russelii Russell’s viper Tith polonga. IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
The Merrem’s hump nose 24 Hypnale hypnale viper Polon thelissa IND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Birds
D‐ D‐ Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D HN Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS CoS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Family ‐ Phasianidae 1 Gallus lafayetii Sri Lanka Junglefowl Sri Lanka Wali‐kukula END 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 Pavo cristatus Indian Peafowl Monora BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Picidae Dendrocopus Brown‐capped Pygmy Bora Esasi Gomara‐ 3 nanus Woodpecker karela BrR NT 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Lesser Yellow‐naped Heen Kaha‐gelasi 4 Picus chlorolophus Woodpecker Karela BrR NT 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dinopium Black‐rumped 5 benghalense Flameback Rath‐karela BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 Family ‐ Ramphastidae Megalaima Brown‐headed 6 zeylanica Barbet Polos Kottoruwa BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Sri Lanka Megalaima Sri Lanka Yellow‐ Ranmhunatha 7 flavifrons fronted Barbet Kottoruwa END 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Megalaima Crimson‐fronted Rathmhunath 8 rubricapilla Barbet Kottoruwa PEND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 Family ‐ Bucerotidae Ocyceros Sri Lanka Grey Sri Lanka Alu 9 gingalensis Hornbill Kandaththa END 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 37
Family ‐ Alcedinidae 10 Alcedo atthis Common Kingfisher Mal Pilihuduwa BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 White‐throated Layasudu Madi‐ 11 Halcyon smyrnensis Kingfisher pilihuduwa BrR 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Cuculidae 12 Centropus sinensis Greater Coucal Ati‐kukula BrR 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Psittacidae Sri Lanka Hanging 13 Loriculus beryllinus Parakeet Sri Lanka Giramaliththa END 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 14 Psittacula krameri Rose‐ringed Parakeet Rana Girawa BrR 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Psittacula Plum‐headed 15 cyanocephala Parakeet Pandu Girawa BrR 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Psittacula Sri Lanka Layard’s 16 calthropae Parakeet Sri Lanka Alu Girawa END NT 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 Family ‐ Apodidae 17 Collocalia unicolor Indian Swiftlet Indu Upa‐thurithaya BrR NT 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Cypsiurus 18 balasiensis Asian Palm Swift Asiaa Thal‐thurithaya BrR 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Family ‐ Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne 19 coronata Crested Treeswift Silu Ruk‐thurithaya BrR 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Columbidae Streptopelia 20 chinensis Spotted Dove Alu Kobeiyya BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 21 Chalcophaps indica Emerald Dove Neela‐Kobeiyya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Pompadour Green‐ 22 Treron pompadora pigeon Pompadoru Batagoya PEND 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Green Imperial 23 Ducula aenea Pigeon Neela Mahagoya BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Family ‐ Charadriidae 24 Vanellus indicus Red‐wattled Lapwing Rath‐yatimal Kirella BrR 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Accipitridae Crested Serpent 25 Spilornis cheela Eagle Silu Sarapakussa BrR 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 26 Accipiter badius Shikra Kurulugoya BrR 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 27 Ictinaetus Black Eagle Kalukussa BrR 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 38
malayensis Changeable Hawk 28 Spizaetus cirrhatus Eagle Perali Kondakussa BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Ardeidae 29 Bubulcus ibis Cattle Egret Geri‐koka BrR 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 30 Ardeola grayii Indian Pond Heron Kana‐koka BrR 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Pittidae 31 Pitta brachyura Indian Pitta Avichchiya WV 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Chloropseidae 32 Chloropsis jerdoni Blue‐winged Leafbird Nilpiya Kolarisiya BrR 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Chloropsis Golden‐fronted 33 aurifrons Leafbird Rannalala Kolarisiya BrR 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Laniidae 34 Lanius cristatus Brown Shrike Bora Sabariththa WV 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Oriolidae 35 Oriolus xanthornus Black‐hooded Oriole Kahakurulla BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Family ‐ Dicruidae Dicrurus 36 caerulescens White‐bellied Drongo Kawuda BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 Family ‐ Rhipiduridae Bama‐sudu 37 Rhipidura aureola White‐browed Fantail Pawanpenda BrR 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Monarchidae Terpsiphone Asian Paradise‐ 38 paradisi flycathcher Asia Rahanmara WV 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Corvidae 39 Corvus levaillantii Large‐billed Crow Kalu Kaputa BrR 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Campephagidae Coracina Black‐headed Kalu‐his Kovul‐ 40 melanoptera Cuckooshrike saratiththa BrR 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 Pericrocotus 41 cinnamomeus Small Minivet Punchi Miniviththa BrR 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 Pericrocotus 42 flammeus Scarlet Minivet Dilirath Miniviththa BrR 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 43 Coracina macei Large Cuckooshrike Maha Kovul‐ BrR 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 39
saratiththa Tephrodornis 44 pondicerianus Common Woodshrike Podu Wana‐saratiththa PEND 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Bar‐winged Wairapiya Masi‐ 45 Hemipus picatus Flycatcher‐shrike saratiththa BrR 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Aegithinidae 46 Aegithina tiphia Common Iora Podu Iorawa BrR 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 Family ‐ Muscicapidae Asian Brown 47 Muscicapa daurica Flycatcher Asia Bora Masimara WV 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tickell’s Blue 48 Cyornis tickelliae Flycatcher Tickel Nil‐masimara BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 Oriental Magpie 49 Copsychus saularis Robin Polkichcha BrR 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Saxicoloides 50 fulicata Indian Robin Indu Kalukichcha BrR 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Sturnidae 51 Acridotheres tristis Common Myna Mayna BrB 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 52 Gracula religiosa Hill Myna Salalihiniya BrR 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Sittidae Velvet‐fronted Villuda Nalal 53 Sitta frontalis Nuthatch Yatikuriththa BrR NT 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Paridae 54 Parus major Great Tit Maha Tikiriththa BrR 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Hirundinidae Nithamba rathu 55 Hirundo daurica Red‐rumped Swallow Wahilihiniya PEND NT 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 Family ‐ Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus 56 melanicterus Black‐crested Bulbul Kalu Hisasi Kondaya PEND 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 Pycnonotus cafer Red‐vented Bulbul Kondaya BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 Pycnonotus 58 luteolus White‐browed Bulbul Bamasudu Kondaya BrR 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 Yellow‐browed Bamakaha 59 Iole indica Bulbul Guluguduwa BrR NT 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hypsipetes 60 leucocephalus Black Bulbul Kalu‐kondaya BrR NT 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 40
Family ‐ Cisticolidae 61 Prinia hodgsonii Grey‐breasted Prinia Grey‐breasted Prinia BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 62 Prinia socialis Ashy Prinia Alu Priniya BrR 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63 Prinia inornata Plain Prinia Sarala Priniya BrR 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Zosteropidae Zosterops 64 palpebrosus Oriental White‐eye Peradigu Sithasiya BrR 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Family ‐ Sylviidae Orthotomus 65 sutorius Common Tailorbird Battichcha BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Timalidae Dumetia Tawny‐bellied Kusakaha Landu‐ 66 hyperythra Babbler demalichcha BrR NT 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Rhopocichla Wathanduru Panduru‐ 67 atriceps Dark‐fronted Babbler demalichcha BrR 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 68 Turdoides affinis Yellow‐billed Babbler Demalichcha BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 Family ‐ Dicaeidae Dicaeum Pale‐billed 69 erythrorhynchos Flowerpecker Lathudu Pililichcha BrR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 Sri Lanka Legge’s 70 Dicaeum vincens Flowerpecker Sri Lanka Pililichcha END VU 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Nectariniidae Purple‐rumped 71 Nectarina zeylonica Sunbird Nithamba Dam Sutikka BrR 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 72 Nectarina lotenia Loten’s Sunbird Lotenge Sutikka BrR 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Motacillidae 73 Motacilla cinerea Grey Wagtail Alu Halapenda WV 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Estrididae Nithamba Sudu 74 Lonchura striata White‐rumped Munia Weekurulla BrR 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lonchura Laya Kayuru 75 punctulata Scaly‐breasted Munia Weekurulla BrR 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Mammals
D‐ D‐ Estate Divisions D‐2 D‐4 D‐3 D HN Co 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Scientific Name English Name Sinhala Name SpS S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 21 22 Family ‐ Manidae 1 Manis crassicaudata Pangolin Kaballewa IND NT 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Soricidae EN 2 Suncus montanus Highland shrew Kandu Hik‐miya D EN 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Hipposideridae Schneider's leaf‐nosed Kesketi Pathnehe‐ 3 Hipposideros speoris bat vavula IND 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Pteropodidae 4 Pteropus giganteus Flying fox Ma‐vavula IND 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Vespertillionidae 5 Pipistrellus coromandra Indian pipistrel Indu Koseta‐vavula IND 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Cercopithecidae EN 6 Macaca sinica Sri Lanka toque monkey Sri Lanka Rilawa D NT 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Purple‐faced leaf EN 7 Semnopithecus vetulus monkey Sri Lanka Kalu‐wandura D VU 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Canidae 8 Canis aureus Jackal Nariya / Hiwala IND 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 DO 9 Canis familiaris Doestic dog Balla M 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Felidae DO 10 Felis cattus Domestic cat Balala/ Pusa M 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Kola Diviya / Balal 11 Prionailurus rubiginosus Rusty‐spotted cat Diviya IND EN 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 12 Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing cat Handun Diviya IND VU 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Herpestidae 13 Herpestes brachyurus Brown mongoose Bora Mugatiya IND 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Viverridae 42
Paradoxurus 14 hermaphoditus Palm civet Uguduwa IND 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Paradoxurus montanus Sri Lanka Brown palm Sri Lanka pani EN 15 civet Uguduwa D 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 16 Viverricula indica Ring‐tailed civet Urulewa IND 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Bovidae DO 17 Bos indicus Domestic cattle Sinhala Elaharaka M 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 DO 18 Bubalus bubalis Domestic water buffalo Mee haraka M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 DO 19 Capra hircus Domestic goat Eluva M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Family ‐ Cervidae Olu Muwa / Weli 20 Muntiacus muntjak Barking deer Muwa IND 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Suidae 21 Sus scrofa Wild boar Wal Ura IND 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Tragulidae Sri Lanka pigmy mouse‐ Sri Lanka Kuru EN 22 Moschiola kathygre deer Meminna D NT 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Hystricidae 23 Hystrix indica Porcupine Ittewa IND 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 Family ‐ Muridae 24 Bandicota indica Malabar bandicoot Uru‐miya IND 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 25 Mus booduga Field mouse Wel Heen‐miya IND 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 Rattus tanezumi Jungle rat Kele meeya IND 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Family ‐ Sciuridae 27 Funambulus palmarum Palm squirrel Leena IND 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 28 Ratufa macroura Giant squirrel Dandu‐leena IND VU 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Family ‐ Peromyidae 29 Petinomys fuscocapillus Small flying squirrel Heen‐hambawa IND CR 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Family ‐ Leporidae 30 Lepus nigricollis Black‐naped hare Wal Hawa IND 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
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Appendix 4: Implementation plan
Management Strategies Based on the above observations we propose the following set of actions as a way to achieve sustainable management of natural and semi natural habitats within the Hunuwela estate. This action plan is to be implemented over a period of five years. The actions are categorized into short, medium and long term, based on the time frames that will be required to successfully complete the activity.
Out of the five divisions in the estate, two divisions (division 1 & 2) have a high potential to be developed as an eco-tourism destination whilst protecting its remaining natural environment. There is a possibility to develop an ecotourism/adventure tourism programme to incorporate with nearby mountain ridge (Asamana Kanda and Ravana Kapolla).
Short term actions: Actions that will be completed within the space of two years Action Item 1: Conduct a detailed (One year) biodiversity assessments to prepare a comprehensive inventory of species and habitats present in the divisions 1 & 2 and boardering mountain slopes. Action Item 2: Identify threats to the natural habitats and areas where management actions are required to improve the existing habitat quality and develop a habitat management plan (Hunuwela environmental management plan). Action Item 3: Develop a GIS based map of the estate indicating the locations and extents of natural and semi natural habitats as well as other important features such as trails, points of interest etc. and link up this information with Google Earth. Action Item 4: Based on the map identify the gaps that are needed to be reforested to connect the remaining natural forest areas and stream side reservations in both divisions 1 & 2 Action Item 5: Conduct an awareness campaign among estate staff to create awareness about the conservation plan and their role in the overall management. Action Item 6: Develops a solid waste management system for all plantation workers living in the estate as well as the surrounding villagers. Action Item 7: Map the water shed of the two stream networks, monitors water yields and identify gaps in the watershed area that needs to be improved. Based on these data a plan to enhance the forest cover in the watershed will be developed. Action 8: Establish a Rivulte Tiger (Gomphidia pearsoni) & Wijaya's Scissortail (Macrogomphus wijaya) species oriented conservation programme via conserving their habitats (stream network at the estate). Action 9: Enrich the estate bungalow gardens with butterfly food plants (larvae feeding plants and nectar plants) to ensure the preservation of existing butterfly diversity. The proposed list of plant species is given in the Appendix 5.
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Medium -term Management Strategies Actions that will be completed within the space of two to three years
Action Item 10: Establish a nature trail and nature education programme and the necessary infrastructure to support nature/adventure tourism at the site. Preparation of interpretation material such as filed identification guides and leaflets for divisions 1 & 2. Action Item 11: Establish a Spice gardens in Hunuwela-north division Action Item 12: Establish Eco friendly community based cottage industries using locally available resources (see recommendations for more details) to enhance the socio economic status of estate workers and local communities
Long-term Management Strategies
Actions that will be completed within the space of three to five years.
Action Item 13: Implement habitat management and gap filling plan for the Hunuwela Estate. Action Item 14: Establish an eco-tourism based programme focussing on Asamana Kanda and Ravana Kapolla hills (in the Hunuwela-Kabaragala mountain ridge) divisions as well as a long term research and monitoring programme in collaboration with relevant government and non government organizations. Under this establish nature trails and adventure tourism trails to the Asamana Kanda hill top and the hikers can be guided by local Kithul tapers.
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Appendix 5: List of Butterfly host plants for butterfly gardens
(Sources: 1Woodhouse, L.G.O. 1950 Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. Ceylon Govt. Press, Colombo; 2d’Abrera, B (1998) The Butterflies of Ceylon. WHT Publications (Private) Ltd. Colombo.; 3 Gamage, R (2007) An illustrated guide to the Butterflies of Sri Lanka. Tharanjee Prints, Maharagama)
Butterfly Host Plant Scientific Name English Sinhala Tamil
1 Panicum maximum1 Guinea grass Rata-thana
2 Michelia champaca 1, 3 Gini sapu
3 A. muricata 2 Sour sop Katu anoda
4 A.reticulata, 1, 2, 3 Bullock's heart Anoda atta Ramsitha
5 Aberia gardneri1,3 Keta embilla
6 Abrus precatorius 3 Olinda
7 Adenia hondala 1,2,3 Pothu hondala
8 Adenia palmata, 1,2 Passion vine (wild) Hondala, Potu-hondala
9 Aegle marmelos1, 3 Bael Beli Vilvam
10 Aglaia roxburghiana1,2, 3 Puwangu Kanna Kompu, Chokkala
11 Anarcardium occidentale1,2,3 Cashew Cadju Montiri kai, Kaddu montri
12 Annona cherimola, 1 , Cherimoya Sitha
13 Annona squamosa, 1, 2, 3 Custard apple
14 Ardisia ellipti, 1, 2,3 Balu-dan
15 Aristolochia bracteolata 3 Bing sapsanda
16 Aristolochia indica 3 Sapsanda
17 Asclepias curassavica1,2, 3 Kankumbala
18 Asclepias fulva 2 Kankumbala
19 Bauhinia racemosa, 1 Camel foot Mayila Atti
20 Butea frondosa, 1 Flame of the Forest Gas-kela Parasu, Murrakan
21 Calotropis gigantea, 1,2, 3 Wara, Ela-vara Manakkovi, Errukalai
22 Canavalia gladiata1 Sword bean awara awarakai
23 Canthium paviflorum, 1,3 Katu-keng Kara
24 Capparis moonii1, 2 Climbing caper
25 Capparis roxburghii 3 Kalu illan gedi
26 Capparis sepiara 3 Wellangiriya
27 Capparis zeylanica 3 Sudu wellangiriya
28 Cassia fistula1,3 Indian laburnam Ehela Tirukkontai, Kavanni
29 Cassia kleinii 3 Bim siyambala
30 Cassia occidentalis 3 Peni tora
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Butterfly Host Plant Scientific Name English Sinhala Tamil
31 Cassia siamea1 Wa, Aramana Vakai, Munka konnei
32 Cassia tora, 1, 2 Peti tora Vaddu takarai
33 Celtis cinnamomea 3 Burenda Pinari
34 Chloroxylon swietenia1, 2, 3 Satin wood Buruta Muthirai
35 Citrus decumana, 1, 2 Pommelo, Shaddok Jambola
36 Citrus grandis 3 Jambola
37 Citrus limon 3 Dehi
38 Citrus limon 3 Dehi
39 Crataeva religiosa1 Indian sps
40 Cryptolepis buchanani1, 3 Wel-ruk-attana Katu pal valli
41 Cycas, 1, 2, 3 Madu
42 Diospyros melanoxylon1,2, 3 Ebony Kadumberiya Karungkali
43 Dipteracanthus prostrates 3 Nil puruk
44 Feronia elephantum,, 1 , Woodapple Divul Vila, Villati
45 Ficus benghalensis 1,2, 3 Fig Nuga Attai maram
46 Ficus religiosa 3 Bo
47 Flacourtia 1,2,3 Uguressa Katukali, Karumurukki
48 Glycosmis pentaphylla, 1 Dodan-pana Kulapannai, Konji
49 Hibiscus 1, Shoe flower
50 Hibiscus abelmoschus1,2,3 Kapu-kinissa
51 Hibiscus furcatus 3 Nairiththa
52 Laportea interrupta 2,3 kahambiliya
53 Leguminosae, 1,2, 3 Peas, beans
54 Limonia acidissima 3 Divul
55 Loranthus1, 2, 3 Loranthus Pilila Kuruvichchai
56 Lotus corniculatus, 1 Indian sps.
57 Mangifera indica, 1,2, 3 Mango Amba Maa, Mankai, Manga
58 Modecca, 1,2 Passion vine
59 Murraya koenigii1, 2, 3 Curry leaf Karapincha Karivempu
60 Mussaenda frondosa1,2,3 Mussenda, Vel batsarana Vellai-illai
61 Neolitsea cassia 3 Dawul kurundu
62 Nerium oleander1,2, 3 Oleander Araliya Arali
63 Osbeckia octandra 1,2,3 Heen Bovitiya
64 Parsonsia alboflavescence 3 Vel aguna
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Butterfly Host Plant Scientific Name English Sinhala Tamil
65 Passiflora foetida1,3 Passion fruit vine Delbatu, Hondala, Potu-honda Perunthukodi
66 Piper betel1 Betel Bulath
67 Pithecellobium dulce, 1 Madras thorn
68 Polyalthia1, 2 Mara illuppai
69 Pongamia glabra, 1,3 Magul-karanda Punku,Pungam
70 Portulaca oleracea, 1,2, 3 Purslane Genda kola Pulikkirai
71 Raphis pullchellum, 1 Ghela Kukuruman Karai
72 Ricinus communis1,2,3 Castor oil plant Endaru-tel Chittamanakku
73 Saraca indica1,3 Asoka tree Diya-ratmal Asogam
74 Sesbania grandiflora, 1, 3 Katurumurunga Agatti-keerai
75 Shorea robusta1,2 Sal of India
76 Smilax, 1,2,3 kabarassa
77 Strobilanthes1,2,3 Karvee (india) Nelu Nelli
78 Tinospora cordifolia1, 3 Rasa-kinda Chintil
79 Toddalia asiatica, 1, 3 kudu miris Kandai,mulugu-cheddi
80 Tragia involucrata, 1,2,3 Vel-kahambiliya
81 Wagatia spicata1, 2 Indian sps.
82 Wendlandia bicuspidata 3 Wana idala
83 Wendlandia thyrsoidea, 1,2 Ravanidala
84 Xylia dolabriformis1, 2, Indian sps. Jamboo
85 Ziziphus jujuba1 Maha debata,Masan Ilantai
86 Zizyphus mauritiana1,2,3 Maha-debata, Masan Ilantai
87 Zizyphus rugosa1,2,3 Maha-eraminiya Churai
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Appendix 6 : Photo Catalogue of the Hunuwela Estate
Fig 01 . Rubber plantation Fig 02 . Grassland habitat
Fig 03. Stream side habitat Fig 04. Secondery Forest habiats
Fig 05.Tea plantation Fig 06. Isolated forest patches
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Fig 07. Fast flowing streams Fig 08. Slow flowing streams
Fig 09. Ficus sp which attract large number of Fig 10. Endemic Litsea in flower frugivorous birds
Fig 11. Endemic and threatened Masmoru Fig 12. Endemic Bedidel (Artocarpus nobilis) (Adenanthera bicolor)
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Fig 13. Endemic Polypedates cruciger observed in Fig 14. Vulnerable (VU) Hylarana aurentiaca from the the garden of the Estate managers bunglow Division 2 stream side
Fig 15. Ornate narrow mouth frog (Microhyla ornata) Fig 16. Common house toad (Duttaphrynus from Division 2 melanostictus) from division 2
Fig 17. Data deficient (DD) Hampson's Hedge Blue Fig 18. Near Threatened (NT) Tamil yeoman (Actyolepis lilacea) from division 2. (Cirrochroa thais) Division 2
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Fig 19. Oriental green-wing (Neurobasis chinensis) Fig 20. Endemic and Endengered (EN) Rivulte Tiger from the stream side at division 2 (Gomphidia pearsoni) from stream side at Division 2
Fig 21. Endemic Elegant day gecko (Cnemaspis Fig 22. Green Garden Lizard Super male (Calotes latha) from division 2 calotes) from division 2
Fig 23. Insectivorous Schneider's leaf-nosed bat Fig 24. Endemic and Endengered Highland shrew (Hipposideros speoris) support to contral insect (Suncus montanus); dead speciemen found at pests population at the estate. A colny has found at Division 2. Store rooms at Dicition 3.
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Fig 25. Vulnarable (VU) Gaint Squirrel (Ratufa Fig 26. Freshwater crab species belongs to genus macroura)common throughout the estate Oziothelphusa.
Fig 27. One of the common bird species Hill mynah Fig 28. Endemic and Vulnerable Sri Lanka Legge’s (Gracula religiosa) Flowerpecker (Dicaeum vincens) estate bunglow garden
Fig 29. Stream side Habitat destructions due to Gem Fig 30. Asamana kanda and Ravana kapolla mining at Hunuwela-north division mountain ridge which can be propmote for eco/adventure tourism
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IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature
IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature was founded in 1948. IUCN helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and development challenges. It supports scientific research, manages field projects all over the world and brings governments, non-government organizations, United Nations agencies, companies and local communities together to develop and implement policy, laws and best practice.
IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental network - a democratic membership union with more than 1,000 government and NGO member organizations, and almost 11,000 volunteer scientists in more than 160 countries.
IUCN’s work is supported by more than 1,000 professional staff in 60 offices and hundreds of partners in public, NGO and private sectors around the world. The Union’s headquarters are located in Gland, near Geneva, Switzerland.
In Sri Lanka, through its Country Programme the Union seeks to fulfill this mission in collaboration with its various Commission Members, National Committee Members and Partners in Sri Lanka. IUCN in Sri Lanka commenced its operations since August 1988.
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE
Sri Lanka Country Office No. 53 Horton Place Colombo 7 Colombo Sri Lanka
Tel. +94 11 2682418, 2682488, 5734786 Fax +94 11 2682470 [email protected] http://www.iucn.org/srilanka Endemic Litsea gardneri bloom from Hunuwela estate division 2.