The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

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Specialized Agencies The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the Rise of Alexander committee! We are honoured to have you join us on this Specialized Agency and take part in round #29 of the North American Model United Nations, hosted on the beautiful campus of Victoria College. Tina will be your Chair for the committee. She is currently a second year student, double majoring in Genome Biology and Economics. She has been involved in Model UN for two years now. She is also a photographer for the University’s student newspaper. Mariyan is your moderator. He is a History and Political Science Double Major in his third academic year. The Vice Director is Liam, who has also been previously engaged in Model UN and is an experienced member of NAMUN. Finally, the Crisis Manager is Stephanie Lim.

For this committee, we will time travel back to Greece, 337 BC to revive and rewrite history. The first topic will challenge the strength of the League of Corinth in its infancy. Under Philip II’s leadership, the League will create military strategies against Persia, whose threat is ever more imminent as it makes its own military movements. The second topic tests the League’s unity in the possible event of a loss of leadership. The League will discuss how to continue its military course with or without a new leader. Thirdly, the League will take advantage of its bond and explore opportunities for collaborative economic development. The committee will begin in the winter of 337 BC. Time will progress quickly during each committee session so please be prepared for any unexpected turn of events. The background guide that follows will hopefully provide you with some necessary basic knowledge of the historical background and time frame for this committee, but it is only meant to act as a starting point for your research. During your research process, please keep in mind that history does not necessarily need to repeat itself ----or echo, for that matter.

There will be promises and betrayals. There will be fruitful collaborations and fierce conflicts. There will be ingenious planning and tragic failures - anything but boredom. Let your creativity, skills, passions, and ambitions decide the fate of one of the most successful generals in military history. Yes, military costumes are highly recommended. If you have any questions, please email me at [email protected]. The NAMUN website, www.namun.org, will also be an excellent source of information for conference logistics. Good luck on your preparations. Looking forward to meeting you all in February!

Best Wishes,

Tina Zhou Mariyan Petrov Chair, Rise of Alexander: 337 BC Moderator, Rise of Alexander: 337BC

Liam Malcomson Stephanie Lim Vice Director, Specialized Agencies Crisis Manager, Specialized Agencies

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

HISTORY OF THE COMMITTEE

After the Battle of Chaeronea in August 338 BC, during which the Macedonian army defeated the Greek coalition led by Athens and Thebes, Philip II, King of Macedonia, set up the League of Corinth in 337 BC to enforce common peace among the Greeks. More importantly, as his kingdom expanded, Philip II began to plan his campaign on his still powerful neighbour in Asia Minor, Persia, for which he would need the Greeks’ support. As a result, the main purpose of the League was to collaborate on the Persian campaign under the leadership of Philip II, while resolving the remaining internal struggles among member states.1

THE GREEK COALITION AND BATTLE OF CHAERONEA

The rapid expansion of Macedonian borders since the accession of Philip II raised serious concerns from Athens, who had long been alarmed by Philip II’s military campaigns. In 340 BC, after two months of unsuccessful siege at Perinthus, Philip started his siege of Byzantium. This move initiated a response from Athens, as the fall of Byzantium could interrupt Athens’ grain supplies. This concern was justified when Philip seized Athens’ corn fleet in 340 BC, leading to Athens’ declaration of war on Macedonia.2 Athens quickly formed an alliance with Byzantium to secure access to sea and interfered with Philip’s campaign.3

In 339 BC, Philip turned away from his prolonged siege of Byzantium and journeyed home.4 Using the Fourth Sacred War as pretext, he entered central Greece, captured Elatea and invaded Boeotia. This alarmed both Athens and Thebes, who subsequently joined forces to fight for the liberty of Greece.5

To prevent Philip from entering Boeotia, the Thebans, Athenians, and other Greek allies positioned themselves in Chaeronea, the terrain of which was especially suitable for defense. 6 However, despite the Greeks’ strong position, they still suffered a tremendous defeat and heavy losses, with half of the 6,000 Athenians who had taken part dead or made prisoners. Philip’s son, Alexander III shredded the Sacred Band of the Thebes.7,8

1 Roisman, Joseph, and Ian Worthington. A companion to ancient Macedonia. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010,177-178. 2 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 176. 3 Cawkwell, George. Philip of Macedon. London: Faber & Faber, 1978, 136. 4 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 176. 5 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 144. 6 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 146. 7 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 146-148.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE LEAGUE OF CORINTH

After the disaster at Chaeronea, Philip halted his campaign against Greece. Different members of the allies received different degrees of punishment. Macedonian garrisons were installed in Chalcis, Thebes, Ambracia, and Corinth. 9 The political landscape in many Greek cities was re-shaped to Philip’s favour. However, he did treat Athens generously, as he returned the Athenian captives without ransom. 10 Thus, although the Second Athenian Confederacy was dissolved, democracy was maintained.11

After these issues were settled, Philip invited representatives from all Greek states to Corinth to set up the synedrion (congress) in the winter of 338 BC. During the first meeting, member-states agreed upon their rights and obligations. All Greek cities attended and joined the League with the exception of Sparta. During the second meeting in spring 337 BC, Philip II revealed his military plan for Persia. He was then elected Hegemon of the Greek states and leader of the campaign, and was promised loyalty from the member states.12

Although the League was mainly Philip’s instrument against Persia, it was also designed as an end to conflicts among Greek states so that Philip could rely on their combined forces. Each member state enjoyed a certain degree of freedom, including freedom of navigation and freedom from revolutionary changes of constitution. However, although member states were also guaranteed freedom from interventions in internal affairs, Macedon had garrisons in Corinth, Chalcis, and Thebes. 13 Although peace was guaranteed under the League’s constitution, it was only maintained under the fear of military action.14

Philip II

Philip II became the King of Macedon in 359 BC. The Macedonian Kingdom he took over was plagued by both internal and external problems. His claim on the throne was contested and Macedon faced threats from the Illyrians and the Paeonians. Through diplomatic finesse, Philip was able to acquire temporary peace for his kingdom. This allowed him to focus on improving the crippled Macedonian army,

8 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 177. 9 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 178. 10 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 167. 11 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 177. 12 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 177-178. 13 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 171. 14 Worthington, Ian. Alexander the Great: a reader. London: Routledge, 2003, 37.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

which Philip then trained, equipped, and reorganized. The significantly enhanced force would later accompany him in many victorious battles.15

In 358 BC, Philip stabilized his western border by defeating the Paeonians and brought the Upper Macedonia under the Argead control. He then secured an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly and Arybbas in Epirus, through political marriage. The latter marriage with Olympias produced a son for the Macedonian king: Alexander III. In 348 BC, Philip conquered Olynthus and ended the Chalcidian League, thereby removing his last barrier to complete control of the Macedonian coast. However, many of his successes came at Athens’ expense. In 339 BC, Philip started his campaign in Central Greece and defeated the Greek coalition led by Athens and Thebes. The League of Corinth was established subsequently with Philip as the hegemon. 16

Philip II inherited a crippled kingdom. However, through extensive military reorganization, clever strategic moves, and diplomacy, by 337 BC, he had become the head of an extensive kingdom of his own – the de facto leader of Greece and ruler of Europe.17

Figure 1 King Philip Ii of Macedon (Wikipedia)

Figure 2 Map of Macedonia by 342 BC (from usu.edu)

15 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 166-68. 16 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 169-177. 17 Roisman, A companion to ancient Macedonia, 177

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Alexander III

The son of Philip II and Philip II’s fourth wife Olympias, Alexander was born in 356 BC as a future successor to his father.18 Olympias, as a princess from Epirus, had high dynastic prestige, which secured her high ranking in Philip’s court. In 342 BC, the fourteen-year-old Alexander became a student of Aristotle, and was the most distinguished pupil of Plato’s Academy in Athens. Aristotle taught his student philosophy, zoology, geometry, and rhetoric. Alexander found himself most interested in Greek literature, especially Homer.19 He also loved hunting games.

Alexander first proved his military talents in 340-339 BC, when he became the temporary regent of Macedon, while his father went off on his campaign in Perinthus and Byzantium. He fought and defeated the Thracian people, Maedi, and renamed their capital Alexandroupolis.20 He was only sixteen at the time.

Two years later, Philip II gave his talented son another chance on the battlefield of Chaeronea, where Alexander led the Macedonia Companion Calvary and defeated the Sacred Band of Thebes.21,22

After the Battle of Chaeronea and the formation of the League of Corinth, Philip II became the leader of a Panhellenic campaign against Persia, while Alexander became the regent of Macedon. He was barely twenty.23

Figure 3 Alexander taming Bucephalus (Wikipedia)

18 Worthington. Alexander the Great, 17. 19 Heckel, Waldemar, and Lawrence A. Tritle. Alexander the Great: a new history. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, 84. 20 Heckel, Alexander the Great: a new history, 85. 21 Heckel, Alexander the Great: a new history, 86. 22 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 177. 23 Heckel, Alexander the Great: a new history, 88.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

TOPIC ONE: THE THREAT OF PERSIA

HISTORY

The Acheamenid Empire, also called the First Persian Empire, was founded by Cyrus II the Great in 547 BC, who first defeated the Medean rulers and, during the subsequent twenty-five years, absorbed Assyria, Lydia, Babylon, and Egypt into his Empire. This empire quickly grew into one of the most developed civilizations in ancient history.2425

The empire is comprised of many multi-cultural, highly diversified cities that were only held together by the Acheamenid kings, who asserted their dominance by “right of conquest”.26 However, such a heterogeneous empire was not simple to rule. As a result, after Darius I took the throne, he organized the satrapy system, in which each culturally defined province was ruled under a satrap, who collected annual tribute from the residents to the Empire.27

Figure 4 Achaemenid Empire (uncp.edu)

24 Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War, s.v. "Introduction to the Greek-Persian Wars (490 bce–479 bce)." Detroit: Gale, 2008. 25 Brosius, Maria. The Persians: an introduction. London: Routledge, 2006, 1. 26 Worthington, Alexander the Great, 55. 27 Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War, s.v. " the Greek-Persian Wars (490 bce–479 bce)." Detroit: Gale, 2008.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

In 499 BC, the Ionian cities under one satrapy revolted and demanded independence from the Empire. With support from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched to Sardis, a provincial city in Persia, and burned it down. Darius immediately responded to the rebellion and destroyed the main Ionian city Miletus in 493 BC. In 492 BC, Darius began his revenge on his foreign enemies, but only managed to defeat Macedon and Thrace. In 490, another expedition commenced. After being besieged for a week, Eretria fell, and Darius set sail for the plain of Marathon, located north-east of Athens.28 The Persians suffered a terrible defeat, but Darius did not live to have his revenge, as he died in 486 BC. Thus ended the First Greco-Persian War.29

Darius’ son and successor, Xerxes, continued his father’s dream. In 480 BC, Xerxes started his campaign with an army of 300,000 personnel and 1200 ships. At the pass of Thermopylae, he encountered fierce resistance from the Spartans and their allied troops, including the Thespians, Phocians, Thebans, and Locrians. Although Xerxes defeated the Greeks, his victory came at a great cost. After Thermopylae, the Persians looted and demolished the city of Athens. However, the sacrifice of the fallen Spartans bought time for the Athenian and other alliance forces to position themselves. They clashed with Xerxes’ army in 480 BC on the sea, at the Bay of Salamis, where the Greek fleets destroyed a third of the Persian navy. After the defeat, Xerxes returned to Persia with half of his army, leaving his general Mardonius in charge of the other half. In the meantime, Sparta and other Greek cities that were not yet dominated by the Persians joined forces to expel the invaders. The two sides clashed at Plataea. Mardonius was killed during the conflict, after which his army soon fell apart and returned to Persia.30

28 Souza, Philip. The Greek and Persian Wars, 499-386 B.C. New York: Routledge, 2003, 26. 29 Gale encyclopedia, “the Greek-Persian Wars”. 30 Gale encyclopedia, “the Greek-Persian Wars”.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

Figure 5 Greece and Aegean (Rhodes)

PRESENT SITUATION

Between 359 BC and 338 BC, Persia was under the rule of Artaxerxes III Ochus. Faced with an increasingly unstable empire, the Persian king did not attempt as many new territorial conquests as his predecessors had, but instead focused on stabilizing his reign. Artaxerxes first resolved internal conflicts through bloody fratricide, before he quelled rebellions in Anatolia and Sidon, and re-conquered Egypt.31

Nevertheless, Persia’s influence seemed to be dwindling. In 346 BC, Isocrates openly wrote to Philip, urging him to unite the Greeks and lead an expedition to Persia.32 Although Philip did not immediately accept the challenge, some of his military maneuvers certainly made the Great Persian King uncomfortable. Philip’s campaign in Thrace and the northern Aegean shore posed a direct threat to the Anatolia region controlled by Persia.33 In 339 BC, Perinthus and Byzantion saw the first direct clashes between the growing and the ageing empires. At Perinthus, two of the Persian satraps offered help to the besieged city and succeeded in defending the people. Similar

31 Roisman, A companion, 346. 32 Roisman, A companion, 56. 33 Roisman, A companion, 347.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

strategies were applied to Byzantion, which also slowed down Philip’s advance.34

When Philip II presented his campaign against Persia, he branded it as a Panhellenic revenge for the Greek cities that had suffered during the Greco-Persian War.35 Meanwhile, with the death of Artaxerxes III in 338 BC and the succession of a puppet king Arses controlled by Pagoas, Persia presented itself as a weakened empire and a charming target for any ambitious leader.36

However, the power of this two-century old Empire could not be overlooked. The establishment of the League was a political tool for Philip to ensure Macedonian dominance over the Greek city-states. He needed their support, as their combined military forces were probably considerable; in fact, the lingering military strength of city-states such as Athens could very likely cost Philip his conquest as well as the stability of his own Empire. The Theban and Argives support of Artaxerxes III’s Egypt conquest in 344, as well as Athens’ call for Persian support against Philip in 341 both pointed to a potential alliance between the Greek city-states and Persia, further justifying Philip’s concern.37

POTENTIAL FUTURE CONFLICTS

Since the primary military goal of the League is to invade Persia, the League will be planning war strategies and carrying out military actions. After the member states decide on if and how they will contribute, either by direct military reinforcement or financial support, the League will discuss the routes for the expedition, such as whether the forces should reach Persia by sea or by land through Thrace. In the meantime, Persia will realize the imminent threat of Macedonia and its Greek allies. The Persian King will very likely make its own military movements, such as strengthening its power in Anatolia.

34 Roisman, A companion, 349. 35 Roisman, A companion, 178. 36 Gale Encyclopedia, “the Greek-Persian Wars”. 37 Roisman, A companion, 349.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

INDIVIDUAL CITY-STATE POSITIONS

Macedon Macedon strongly endorses the campaign. It claims that it wants to seek revenge for the Greek city-states, but mostly it is for Philip’s territorial interests.

Messenia Messenia will likely remain neutral on this issue. However, it may succumb to Macedonia’s rule and contribute to the effort. Its previous loyalty to Thebes may tie its action closely to that of Thebes.38

Olympia Olympia of Elis will likely remain neutral. However, as Elis had historically been an ally of Argos and Athens, it may share common interest with the two.39

Argos After Philip’s victory at Chaeronea, he reorganized the political landscape in Argos in favour of his local supporters.40 As a result, Argos will likely abide by Macedonian policies.

Athens Athens will agree with Macedon on the expedition and contribute military forces, partially because it has just been defeated by Philip and is therefore not in a good position to disagree.

Thebes Thebes will approve of the plan. Same as Athens, it will be partially pressured to contribute. It will also be interested in making some territorial gains in Persia.

Eretria Eretria will support Athens’ decision. Eretria was burned down during the Greco- Persian Wars and will want to make up for its loss.

38 G.L. Cawkwell, “Epaminondas and Thebes”, The Classical Quaterly New Series 22(2): 264. 39 Susan Marjorie Downie, “The Political Uses of Hero Cult at Olympia and Delphi” (PhD Diss., University of Toronto, 2004), 133. 40 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 148.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

Thermon As the meeting place of the Aetolian League that had grown substantially in military power by 340 BC, Thermon will be wary of any Macedonian policy.41 However, it will likely remain neutral on the issue.

Delphi Delphi will most likely remain neutral on this issue, as it was not directly involved in the Greco-Persian Wars. However, since it received help from Philip during the Third Sacred War, it will agree with Macedon’s decision.

Thermopylae Although an important battle of the Greco-Persian Wars was fought at Thermopylae, it will likely remain neutral on this issue. However, given its important role in the Amphityonic League that includes Athens and Aetolia, it may be influenced by its allies.42

Megara Megara was among the Greek alliance against Philip during the Battle of Chaeronea. Its tragic defeat may pressure Megara to accept Macedonian dominance and go along with Philip’s decision.

Chalcis A Macedonian garrison is installed in Chalcis, which will pressure the city to obey Macedonian rule. However, based on its previous alliance with Athens, it will probably follow Athenian leadership more closely.43

Elatea Elatea will likely obey Philip’s orders, as the city was captured by the Macedonians even before the Greek coalition failed at Chaeronea.

Amphissa Amphissa will likely remain neutral on this issue. However, since Philip conducted military missions against Amphissa during the Fourth Sacred War, it may be slightly disgruntled at following its lead.44

41 Encyclopedia Britannica. "Aetolian League (state, ancient Greece)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian-League (accessed November 13, 2013). 42 Encyclopedia Britannica. "amphictyony (ancient Greece)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21561/amphictyony#ref19746 (accessed November 13, 2013). 43 Rhodes, A history, 315. 44 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 176.

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Corinth A Macedonian garrison is also installed in Corinth. As a result, Corinth is likely to agree with Philip’s plan. Furthermore, the Corinthians fought successfully against the Persians during the Greco-Persian Wars.45 It may not have any problem doing so again.

KEY QUESTIONS

1. Considering the strength of the Persian Empire in 337 BC, how feasible is Philip’s campaign? 2. Will your member state answer to Philip’s rally for revenge? How much will your member state contribute to the campaign? 3. Other than seeking revenge, what interest does your member state have in this campaign?

SUGGESTED EXTERNAL SOURCES

Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War, s.v. " the Greek-Persian Wars (490 bce–479 bce)." Detroit: Gale, 2008.

Encyclopedia Britannica. "Philip II (king of Macedonia)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/456053/Philip-II

Rhodes, P.J.. A history of the classical Greek world, 478-323 BC. 2nd ed. Chicester, west Sussex, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

Encyclopedia Britannica. "Achaemenian Dynasty (Iranian dynasty)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/3415/Achaemenian-Dynasty.

A&E Television Networks. "Ancient Greece." History.com. http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece.

45 Gale Encyclopedia, “the Greek-Persian Wars”.

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TOPIC TWO: LEADERSHIP OF THE LEAGUE HISTORY

The Delian League and the Peloponnesian League

Before the League of Corinth was formed, multiple leagues had sprouted in Greece. The complex network of alliances and frequent changes of alliances added to the complexity of foreign policies in Greece.

The Delian League was formed after the Battle of Platea to defend against, and possibly raid the “barbaric” Persians.46 The League’s meetings took place in Delos, a small island in the southern Aegean, at least until 454/3.47 Members were mostly cities along the Aegean coast, and were obliged to either contribute military forces or pay tributes to Athens, the leader of the League. At the League’s height around 467, the League had 200 members. 48 Under the leadership of Cimon of Athens, the League captured a few cities such as Eion and Carystus. Multiple revolts Figure 6 Alliances before the Peloponnessian War (usu.edu) occurred after the formation of the League. Naxos and Thasos revolted; they were besieged by the League and lost their autonomy to some extent. 49 These two episodes demonstrated and established the permanence of the League.50 However, after the Peace of Callias was put in place and fighting between Persia and Greece officially ceased, the League transformed into something more similar to an Athenian Empire where members swore allegiance to the

46 Rhodes, P.J.. A history of the classical Greek world, 478-323 BC. 2nd ed. Chicester, west Sussex, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010, 17. 47 Rhodes, A history, 18. 48 Takeshi, Amemiya. Economy and economics of ancient Greece. (New York: Routledge, 2007), 7. 49 Rhodes, A history, 19. 50 Rhodes, A history, 20

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alliance, or simply to Athens (such as Eretria and Chalcis). 51 As Athens slowly took over and turned into the hegemon of the Delian League, more revolts occurred, including those in Chaeronea and some cities in Euboea.52

The Peloponnesian League was formed by the fifth century, slightly earlier than the Delian League. Unlike the Delian League, the Peloponnesian League, under the leadership of Sparta, was bound by a set of alliances instead of an organized structure.53 Many of the League members contributed to the second Greco-Persian war, such as the Arcadians, Megarians, and Corinthians. However, not everyone on the Peloponnese complied with Spartan supremacy. The Argives, who refused to recognize Sparta as its leader, formed an alliance with Athens when the latter severed its tie with Sparta. Another defection arose when Megara joined Athens’ side due to a border dispute with Corinth.54

The coexistence of two major and often opposing powers inevitably led to tensions and conflicts. As a result, the Peloponnesian War of 431-404 broke out, as Sparta fought to dissolve the Athenian Empire. The conflict officially concluded in 404 with the Peace of Nicias and the League was effectively dissolved.55 However, a second Athenian League was formed in 377 to further defend its members from their Persian enemy but more importantly, to protect its members’ autonomy and freedom from Sparta. Unlike the Delian League, the second League was formed as a syndrion, an organization that looked quite similar to the League of Corinth on paper.56

Figure 6 The Ruins of the Delphi Theatre (Wikipedia)

51 Rhodes, A history, 47-51 52 Rhodes, A history, 51 53 Rhodes, A history, 22 54 Rhodes, A history, 23,41 55 Rhodes, A history, 157. 56 Rhodes, A history,229-230.

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The Amphictyonic League and the Sacred Wars

The Amphictyony League is a council of tribes bound by religion. The religious temple is located in Delphi at the Temple of Apollo. Despite its religious nature, the League also wielded political influence, as evident in the Third and Fourth Sacred Wars.57

In the 350’s, the Amphictyony demanded a fine from Sparta for committing sacrilege and Phocis for cultivating sacred land. Both refused to comply. In 356, Philomelus of Phocis occupied Delphi and plunged Delphi of his opposition. He did not raid the sanctuary but prepared a mercenary army using loot earned from local Delphians. Philomelus also raided Locris.58 In response, the Locrians staged an attack on Philomelus and his army in 355. The Locrians’ defeat prompted them to seek help from the Thebans. Eventually the Amphictyony declared a sacred war against the Phocians. After defeating the Locrians again as well as the Thessalians, Philomelus was eventually brought down by the Thebans. The war was temporarily halted, as another Phocian general, Onomarchus, continued to strengthen the Phocian forces. Macedonian help was recruited but Onomarchus still won two decisive battles against Philip II. In 352, Philip returned and persuaded the Thessalians to join forces.59 He led a victorious expedition at the Battle of the Crocus Field and drove out the Phocians. Philip continued his successes but had to turn back at Thermopylae as the Athenians blocked his entrance into Central Greece.60

After the Battle of the Crocus Field, the Phocians still succeeded in controlling eastern Locris while the Thebans were busy fighting the Spartans in 351. Despite initial defeats when the Thebans returned, the Phocians eventually captured several Boeotian cities in 351.61 In 346, Philips was asked by Thebans for his support. Philip marched south towards Thermopylae, which at the time was occupied by the Phocians. As Athens-ally of Phocis-suggested, the Phocians capitulated in return for a safe withdrawal from Thermopylae. The Third Sacred War ended.

During a meeting for the Amphictyonic council in the same year, Philip punished and expelled the Phocians from the league. Sparta was also kicked out of the Amphictyony. The council was restructured; Thessaly now took the lead and Philip became second in command. The Macedonian involvement in the League gave

57 Encyclopedia Britannica. "Amphictyony (ancient Greece)." 58 Rhodes, A history, 302 59 Rhodes, A history, 304 60 Rhodes, A history, 305 61 Rhodes, A history, 307

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Macedon a stronger presence in the Greek world. The Thebans were weakened. Athens was seen as defeated as it had supported the wrong side in the sacred war.62

In summer 340, representatives of Amphissa friendly with Thebes condemned Athens for anti-Thebes sentiment. Athens responded by accusing the Amphissans for cultivating the sacred plain of Cirrha. A sacred war was declared against Amphissa during the winter Amphictyonic council meeting. Both Thebes and Athens stayed out of this war. However, as Amphissa eventually submitted to the Amphicyotic force, and Philip captured Elatea, the two Greek powers panicked. A new Greek alliance formed against Philip and the Battle of Chaeronea ensued.63

PRESENT SITUATION

After the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip’s Macedonian Kingdom is undisputedly the only major power in Greece. Since the League of Corinth is comprised of all Greek states except Sparta, Philip’s leadership essentially gives him control over all of Greece.64 For the members, their recent defeat, the strength of Macedonian control, as well as the rise of Philip’s young military genius and successor, allow the Greek states no choice but to answer to Philip’s commands. However, tensions among the Greek states and animosity towards Macedonia remain. The League is still unstable.

POTENTIAL FUTURE CONFLICTS

Although the League is currently under Philip’s command, members need to consider how the leadership should be maintained if Philip had to terminate his role in the League. Given the tensions among Greek states, certain new alliances may form while old ones are renewed. Some may remain loyal to Macedon while others may challenge Macedonian rule. However, as the League’s primary goal is to invade Persia, many Greek states may have interests in the expedition and would value the stability of the League for the sake of the campaign more than competing for the leadership role. Since Alexander III has proven himself to be a highly able general and leader, some may agree to his succession and follow his lead. However, the more ambitious states may choose otherwise. As a result, while Alexander will unquestionably succeed his father, whether the League will still remain stable after his succession remains uncertain.

62 Rhodes, A history, 308-309 63 Rhodes, A history, 317. 64 Roisman, A companion,177-178.

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INDIVIDUAL MEMBER STANCES

Macedon Although there may initially be some disagreements, Philip’s sudden death will be followed by Alexander’s succession, given Alexander’s military accomplishments and Olympia’s high ranking in the court.

Messenia Messenia will likely remain neutral on this issue. However, its previous loyalty to Thebes and old alliance with Athens may influence Messenia to choose a side.65

Olympia Olympia of Elis will likely remain neutral. However, the Elean alliance with Argos and Athens many result in common interest shared between the three.66

Argos Despite Argos’ historical alliance with Thebes and Athens, after Philip’s victory at Chaeronea, he reorganized the political landscape in Argos in favour of his local supporters.67 As a result, it will likely remain loyal to Macedon.

Athens As Athens has always been wary of Macedonian power, the fall of Philip will present itself as an ideal opportunity to turn the tables. However, the strength of Alexander as a military leader and Athens’ own interest in the Persian campaign may prompt it to remain neutral on the issue.

Thebes Thebes’ situation is similar to that of Athens. After suffering a heavy loss at Chaeronea, Thebes may not be militarily prepared for a revolt. However, given its ambitions, the reaction of Thebes is unknown.

Eretria Eretria will likely remain neutral on the issue. However, it will support Athens’ decisions, as it has consistently been an ally of Athens.

65 Cawkwell, “Epaminondas and Thebes”, 264. 66 Susan Marjorie Downie, “The Political Uses of Hero Cult at Olympia and Delphi” (PhD Diss., University of Toronto, 2004), 133. 67 Cawkwell, Philip of Macedon, 148.

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Thermon As the meeting place of the Aetolian League that had grown substantially in military power by 340 BC, Thermon will be wary of any Macedonian rule.68 However, it will likely remain neutral on the issue.

Delphi Delphi will endorse Macedonian rule, as Macedonia came to its rescue during the Third Sacred War and has a strong presence in the Amphictyonic League.

Thermopylae Thermopylae will likely remain neutral. However, given its strategic location, it may seek new alliances within the league.

Megara Megara also fought in the Battle of Chaeronea. Its defeat will likely prompt it to remain neutral, unless it seeks stronger alliances.

Chalcis A Macedonian garrison is installed in Chalcis, which will pressure the city to obey Macedonian rule, regardless of the leader. However, based on its previous alliance with Athens, it will probably follow Athenian leadership more closely.69

Elatea Elatea will likely endorse Macedonian rule under Alexander, as the city was captured by Philip during the Fourth Sacred War.70

Amphissa Amphissa may be unhappy with Macedonian rule as Phocis was defeated by the Macedonians in the Third Sacred War. However, it will likely remain neutral, as Phocis is not in a strong position to oppose Macedon.

Corinth A Macedonian garrison is installed in Corinth. As a result, Corinth will be pressured to endorse Alexander's succession.

68 Encyclopedia Britannica. "Aetolian League (state, ancient Greece)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7644/Aetolian-League (accessed November 13, 2013). 69 Rhodes, A history, 315. 70 Rhodes, A history, 317

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

KEY QUESTIONS

1. Will your city-state endorse Alexander as the new leader of the League? If yes, will you carry out your duty as a member of the League and punish the ones who break their loyalty to Macedonia? If no, is your city-state strong enough to stage a revolt? 2. Who are your allies in the League? What is the strength of you alliance? 3. What is your interest in the League? What are your aims for your action or inaction?

SUGGESTED EXTERNAL SOURCES

"Alexander the Great (Alexander of Macedon) Biography." Alexander the Great (Alexander of Macedon) Biography. http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/AlexandertheGreat.html

Encyclopedia Britannica. "Amphictyony (ancient Greece)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21561/amphictyony#ref19746.

Rhodes, P.J.. A history of the classical Greek world, 478-323 BC. 2nd ed. Chicester, west Sussex, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

"Internet History Sourcebooks." Internet History Sourcebooks. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-delianleague.asp.

“Greece and Macedon.” Greece and Macedon. http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/AncientMacedonia/GreeceandMacedon.ht m

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

TOPIC THREE: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

HISTORY & PRESENT SITUATION

Trade is a key part of the Greek economy, as it allows for population expansion and movement. It also allows goods from different regions of the Asia Minor, as well as the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas to be enjoyed in one place. Major trading centres and areas include the Isthmus of Corinth, Thasos, and the port of Piraeus in Athens. 71,72

Although interconnected markets are not well developed, each city-state has its own market place (agora) and a port market (emporion), if the city is by the ocean. These agoras serve as economic, political, social, and often religious centres. They are often regulated by public officials. To prevent disputes, these officials ensure consistency in weights, measures, scales, and coinage.73

Local trade between suburban areas and city centres is prominent, often in the form of producer-middleman- consumers. 74 Trade between city-states is also present. Traded goods include cereals, wine, olives, figs, honey, perfumes, and fine pottery. 75 However, trading ventures that require long-distance travel by land are less feasible, given the mountainous landscape and the lack of a well-developed Figure 8 Attic Red Figure road system.76 (Wikipedia)

As a result, long-distance trade is mostly accomplished by sea. Trading between Greece and its peripheries was established at least by the early fifth century. 77 Merchant ships traverse the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Black Seas to deliver the necessary resources for the Greek people. These trading ventures are often done by

71 Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in Ancient Greece." Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2013. . 72 G.J. Oliver, “The Economic Realities,” in A Companion to the Classical Greek World, ed. K.H Kinzl (Malden, MA: Blackwell pub., 2006), 296. 73 "Economy of Ancient Greece." Economy of Ancient Greece. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . 74 “Economy of Ancient Greece." 75 Cartwright,"Trade in Ancient Greece." 76 “Economy of Ancient Greece.” 77 Oliver, “The Economic Realities”, 295.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

the private sectors instead of by the state. Traded goods include metals, timber, jewelry, fine vases, salt fish, wheat, honey, and wine. 78,79

Clay pots and vases are popular products and widely traded. They are created and designed for their specific contents such as water, olive oil, and wine. The finest pots are exported from Corinth, Aegina, Athens, and Rhodes. 80 Before the mid 6th century BC, Corinth dominated the pottery trade. However, by 525, the high-quality Black Figure pottery and later, the Attic Red Figure allowed Athens to take over the market.81

Figure 9 Trade Routes (Wikispace)

Timber is also a necessity to the Greeks. To obtain high-quality timber, the Greek states have to import from Macedonia, the Black Sea region, and Asia Minor. 82

Grain is another major import for many Greek city-states. Since agriculture is vulnerable to seasonal changes, the Greeks often rely on grain from the Black Sea region (especially Bosporos), Thrace, and Egypt. 83,84,85

78 Cartwright, "Trade in Ancient Greece." 79 "Economy of Ancient Greece." 80 "Economy of Ancient Greece." 81 "Trade." The Ancient Greek World. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. . 82 "Economy of Ancient Greece." 83 Oliver, “The Economic Realities” 295.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

On the other hand, Greek exports are also prevalent, especially those of bronze work, emery from Delos, hides from Euboea, and marbles from Athens and Naxos.86 Wine from Thasos, an area especially rich in vines and mines, is particularly well-known throughout the Greek World and the Black Sea Region. 87

Although private individuals carry out most of the overseas ventures, the city-states have an interest in the trade as well. For example, to ensure that its citizens get enough food, Athens bans any obstruction of grain imports and its re-exportation. Greek cities also receive revenue in the form of port, transit, and market taxes. 88

Figure 10 Weights and Measures (Takeshi)

Most Greek city-states use coinage and base its value on the precious metal silver. However, coinage is still issued in different weight standards. The major four standards are the Attic, Aeginetan, Euboiic, and Corinthian. An Attic silver tetradrachm (4 drachmai) weighs 17.2 g, as oppose to 12.2g of an Aeginetan stater (two drachmai).89Among these four, the Attic standard is most widely traded, due to the strength of Athenian trade and the Athenian power in the Delian League.90 Athens supported its military operations with the Attic coinage and issued the “Standard Decree” that required many Greek cities to use the Attic standard.

84 “Economy of Ancient Greece”. 85 Oliver, “The Economic Reality”, 296. 86 Cartwright, "Trade in Ancient Greece." 87 Oliver, “The Economic Reality”, 296. 88 Cartwright, "Trade in Ancient Greece." 89 Oliver, “The Economic Reality’, 301-302. 90 "Economy of Ancient Greece."

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

POTENTIAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND CONFLICTS

Given that the majority of Greek trade is done on the waters, maintaining peace at sea is of utmost importance to many Greek states. Piracy is one potential problem. Another potential concern is related to the interest of individual city-states. Member states can consider establishing a universal tracking and identification system that differentiates merchant ships from different city-states. They can also consider establishing shipping routes to maintain and coordinate traffic at sea. Furthermore, member states should discuss how to coordinate and respond in the event of potential trading routes blockades.

Another major area of potential development is transparency. Member states can discuss whether it is feasible to provide a more transparent market place and more symmetric information exchange. Also, as different city-states impose different import and export taxes, member states can also consider whether an adjustment of such taxes can be put in place in order to benefit all members.

When the Delian League still existed, members were required to pay tributes to Athens to finance military operations. Whether the same system should be in effect for the League of Corinth is another question member states should address. Should there be tributes or a more transparent central reserve/bank? Should there be a more consistent system for exchange rates or even a unified currency?

STANCE OF THE LEAGUE

As almost all Greek city-states are part of the League, this provides a great economic opportunity for all members, especially since some members have suffered financially from prolonged wars and conflicts. However, different member states will have different interests in potential economic cooperation. Macedonia, as the hegemon of the League, may not want the economic freedom to compromise its control over the members. The member states, on the other hand, will not want the economic cooperation to further impair their sovereignty. As a result, economic cooperation and development will require much discussion and compromise.

KEY QUESTIONS

1. What is the economic and financial state of your city-state? 2. What are your major imports and exports? Which trading routes are of utmost importance to you? 3. What is your economic interest in the League?

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

SUGGESTED EXTERNAL SOURCES

Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in Ancient Greece." Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. .

"Economy of Ancient Greece." Economy of Ancient Greece. N.p., n.d. Web. .

"Trade." The Ancient Greek World. N.p., n.d. Web. .

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

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Cartledge, Paul. Alexander the Great: the hunt for a new past. 1. ed. Woodstock, NY [u.a.: Overlook Press, 2004.

Cartwright, Mark. "Trade in Ancient Greece." Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2013. .

Cawkwell, George. “Epaminondas and Thebes”, The Classical Quaterly New Series 22(2): 264.

Cawkwell, George. Philip of Macedon. London: Faber & Faber, 1978, 148.

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Downie, Susan Marjorie. “The Political Uses of Hero Cult at Olympia and Delphi” (PhD Diss., University of Toronto, 2004), 133.

"Economy of Ancient Greece." Economy of Ancient Greece. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Dec. 2013. .

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Encyclopedia Britannica. "Amphictyony (ancient Greece)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/21561/amphictyony#ref19746 (accessed November 13, 2013).

Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War, s.v. " the Greek-Persian Wars (490 bce–479 bce)." Detroit: Gale, 2008. http://www.cengage.com/search/showresults.do?N=197+4294904997 (accessed November 12, 2013).

Gale Encyclopedia of World History: War, s.v. "Introduction to the Greek-Persian Wars (490 bce–479 bce)." Detroit: Gale, 2008.

The Rise of Alexander: 337 BC

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