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Revision 2017

Thin Film Evaporation Guide

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Copyright © 2017 – Vacuum Engineering and Materials, all rights reserved Temperature Melting Density °C @ Vapor Pressure (Torr) Evaporation Crucible Material Symbol Z-ratio Remarks Point °C (bulk, g/cm3) Method Liner 10-8 10-6 10-4

TiB -TiC, 2 High deposition rates possible. Al wets Aluminum Al 660 2.7 1.08 677 821 1010 eBeam (Xlnt) TiB -BN, 2 IMCS graphite, BN

Aluminum TiB -BN, BN, C, AlSb 1080 4.3 — — — — eBeam (fair) 2 Co-evaporation is the best approach Antimonide Al2O3 Aluminum TiB -BN, BN, Co-evaporation can work but typically AlAs 1600 3.7 — — — ~1300 eBeam (poor) 2 Arsenide Al2O3 done with MBE Aluminum eBeam or thermal evaporation of AlBr3 97 3.01 — — — ~50 eBeam (poor) graphite, W Bromide anhydrous AlBr3 powder Aluminum eBeam evaporation from powder, but Al C 1400 2.36 — — — ~800 eBeam (fair) graphite, W Carbide 4 3 CVD is a better approach

eBeam evaporation of Al-Cu alloys is Aluminum Al2%Cu 640 2.8 — — — — eBeam (fair) TiB -TiC, BN possible, but sputter deposition is a 2% 2 better approach

Aluminum 1257 410 490 700 AlF3 3.07 — eBeam (fair) graphite, Mo, W Films tend to be porous, but smooth Fluoride sublimes sublimes

Aluminum — TiB -TiC, Reactive evaporation of Al in N or AlN 3.26 — — — ~1750 eBeam (fair) 2 2 Nitride sublimes graphite, BN ammonia partial pressure

Aluminum Swept beam with low deposition rates Al O 2045 3.97 0.336 — — 1550 eBeam (Xlnt) W, graphite (Alumina) 2 3 (< 3 Å/sec)

eBeam evaporation of Al-Si alloys is Aluminum Al2%Si 640 2.6 — — — 1010 eBeam (fair) TiB -TiC, BN possible, but sputter deposition is a 2% 2 better approach

279 345 425 As the deposition rate is increased from BN, graphite, Sb 630 6.68 — eBeam (fair) 3-5 Å/s the grain size decreases and Al O sublimes 2 3 film coverage improves

Best results are achieved with Antimony Sb Te 619 6.5 — — — 600 eBeam (fair) graphite, BN, W powdered source material, relatively Telluride 2 3 high deposition rates can be achieved

Antimony — — ~300 eBeam evaporation from powder or Sb2O3 656 5.2 or 5.76 — eBeam (good) BN, Al2O3 Trioxide sublimes granules

Antimony Can be co-evaporated with Se to Sb Se 611 — — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite Triselenide 2 3 overcome variable stoichiometric effects

Films without substrate heating are Antimony Sb S 550 4.64 — — — ~200 eBeam (good) Al O , Mo, Ta amorphous, while polycrystalline films Trisulphide 2 3 2 3 form on heated substrates

107 150 210 Sputter deposition is the preferred Al O , BeO, As 814 5.73 — eBeam (poor) 2 3 method for deposition of elemental graphite sublimes arsenic

Arsenic Deposition efficiency increases with As Se 360 4.75 — — — — eBeam (poor) Al O , quartz Selenide 2 3 2 3 deposition rate

Arsenic Al O , quartz, Thin films tend to be richer in As As S 300 3.43 — — — ~400 eBeam (fair) 2 3 Trisulphide 2 3 Mo compared to the source material

Arsenic CVD is the preferred deposition As Te 362 — — — — — eBeam (poor) Al O , quartz Tritelluride 2 3 2 3 technique for this material

Reacts with ceramics. Ba evaporation Ba 710 3.78 — 545 627 735 eBeam (fair) W, Ta, Mo pellets are often shipped with protective coatings which must be removed

Swept beam and slow power ramp to Barium BaCl 962 3.86 — — — ~650 eBeam (poor) W, Mo precondition and outgas the source Chloride 2 material

— — ~700 Better consistency in refractive index is Barium Fluoride BaF2 1280 4.83 — eBeam (fair) W, Mo sublimes achieved via CVD

Swept beam and slow power ramp to

Barium Oxide BaO 1923 5.72 or 5.32 — — — ~1300 eBeam (fair) Al2O3, quartz precondition and outgas the source material

Barium Sputter deposition is the preferred BaS 2200 4.25 — — — 1100 eBeam (poor) W, Mo Sulphide deposition technique

BaTiO3 will decompose as single

Barium Titanate BaTiO3 Decomposes 6 — Decomposes eBeam (poor) W, Mo source. Co-evaporate with Ti to maintain Ba/Ti ratio

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Very high deposition rates are possible. Be 1278 1.85 — 710 878 1000 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite Avoid Be powder sources due to toxicity

Beryllium CVD is the preferred deposition BeCl 440 1.9 — — — ~150 eBeam (poor) graphite Chloride 2 technique for this material

Beryllium — — ~200 BeF2 800 1.99 — eBeam (fair) graphite Avoid powder sources due to toxicity Fluoride sublimes

Thin films can also be produced via BeO 2530 3.01 — — — 1900 eBeam (fair) graphite, Al2O3 reactive evaporation of Be with O2 Post deposition thermal annealing

Bismuth Bi 271 9.8 — 330 410 520 eBeam (Xlnt) Al2O3, graphite significantly enhances film properties. However, vapors are toxic

— — ~300 Sublimes at relatively low temperature, BiF 727 8.75 — eBeam (poor) graphite so reasonable vapor pressure can be Fluoride 3 sublimes achieved

eBeam evaporation from Bi2O3 source

Bismuth Oxide Bi2O3 820 8.9 — — — ~1400 eBeam (poor) — is possible, but variations in thin film stoichiometry may occur

Sputter deposition is preferred, but Bismuth Bi Se 710 7.66 — — — ~650 eBeam (fair) graphite, quartz co-evaporation using Bi and Se sources Selenide 2 3 is possible

Sputter deposition is preferred, but Bismuth Bi Te 585 7.85 — — — ~600 eBeam (fair) graphite, quartz co-evaporation using Bi and Te sources Telluride 2 3 is possible

Decomposes when evaporated. Sputter Bismuth deposition is preferred, but can be Bi2Ti2O7 — — — Decomposes eBeam (poor) graphite, quartz Titanate reactively co-evaporated in O2 partial pressure

Bismuth Can be co-evaporated from Bi and S Bi S 685 7.39 — — — — eBeam (poor) graphite, W Trisulphide 2 3 sources

1278 1548 1797 Can react with graphite and B 2100 2.36 0.389 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite, W crucible liners. Requires high power to sublimes evaporate

Ion assisted eBeam deposition with Ar Boron Carbide B C 2350 2.5 — 2500 2580 2650 eBeam (good) graphite, W 4 can improve film adhesion

— — ~1600 Ion assisted eBeam deposition with N2 Boron Nitride BN 2300 2.2 — eBeam (poor) graphite, W produces stoichiometric thin films, but sublimes sputter deposition is preferred

eBeam evaporation from bulk source

Boron Oxide B2O3 460 1.82 — — — ~1400 eBeam (good) W, Mo material produces stoichiometric thin films

Boron B S 310 1.55 — — — 800 eBeam (poor) graphite — Trisulphide 2 3

Dedicated system is recommended,

Cadmium Cd 321 8.64 — 64 120 180 eBeam (fair) Al2O3, quartz since Cd can contaminate other purity sensitive depositions

Cadmium CdSb 456 6.92 — — — — — — — Antimonide

Thin films can be produced by eBeam Cadmium evaporation from bulk source material, Cd As 721 6.21 — — — — eBeam (poor) quartz Arsenide 3 2 but CVD is a preferred deposition method

Cadmium CdBr 567 5.19 — — — ~300 — — — Bromide 2

Cadmium CdCl 570 4.05 — — — ~400 — — — Chloride 2

Cadmium CdF 1070 5.64 — — — ~500 — — — Fluoride 2

CdI films have been deposited by Cadmium 2 CdI 400 5.3 — — — ~250 — — thermal evaporation on glass substrates Iodide 2 using stoichiometric powders

Can be produced by reactive

Cadmium Oxide CdO 900 6.95 — — — ~530 eBeam (poor) Al2O3, quartz evaporation of Cd in partial pressure of

O2 or reactive sputtering with O2

Cadmium — — 540 Al O , quartz, eBeam evaporation from bulk source CdSe 1264 5.81 — eBeam (good) 2 3 Selenide sublimes graphite material produces uniform films

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Cadmium Reports in the literature of deposition CdSiO — — — — — ~600 — — Siliside 2 by CVD

— — 550 Substrate heating improves film Cadmium Al O , quartz, CdS 1750 4.82 — eBeam (fair) 2 3 adhesion. Deposition rates of 15 Å/sec Sulphide graphite sublimes are possible

High quality CdTe thin films on glass Cadmium Al O , quartz, CdTe 1098 6.2 — — — 450 eBeam (fair) 2 3 substrates at 100°C have been Telluride graphite fabricated with eBeam deposition

272 357 459 Low partial pressure of O2 in the

Calcium Ca 842 1.56 — eBeam (poor) Al2O3, quartz vacuum chamber is required to avoid sublimes oxidizing the Ca

Deposition rate of 20 Å/sec are easily CaF 1360 3.18 — — — ~1100 eBeam (Xlnt) quartz, Ta achieved with eBeam deposition. Fluoride 2 Substrate heating improves film quality

Calcium Oxide CaO 2580 3.35 — — — ~1700 eBeam (poor) ZrO2, graphite Forms volatile with W and Mo Post deposition thermal annealing

Calcium Silicate CaO-SiO2 1540 2.9 — — — — eBeam (good) quartz at 500°C improves film quality and adhesion

— Decomposition of CaS bulk source Calcium CaS 2.18 — — — 1100 eBeam (poor) ZrO , graphite material can be overcome by co- Sulphide 2 sublimes evaporation with S

Calcium Sputter deposition is the preferred CaTiO 1975 4.1 — 1490 1600 1690 eBeam (poor) — Titanate 3 method

Calcium Substrate heating improves the CaWO 1620 6.06 — — — — eBeam (good) W, ZrO Tungstate 4 2 crystallinity of the deposit

— 1657 1867 2137 Better film adhesion results from eBeam C 1.8-2.3 0.22 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite, W evaporation compared to vacuum arc (diamond) sublimes sublimes deposition

Al O , BeO, Ce deposits readily oxidize when Ce 795 8.23 — 970 1150 1380 eBeam (good) 2 3 graphite exposed to air

1890 2000 2310 Stoichiometric films are best achieved

Ceric Oxide CeO2 2600 7.3 — eBeam (good) graphite, Ta using reactive evaporation with O2. sublimes Substrate heating improves film quality

Can be produced using bulk source material. Substrate heating from Cerium Fluoride CeF 1418 6.16 — — — ~900 eBeam (good) Mo, Ta, W 3 150-300°C improves adhesion and film quality

Mixed CeO2-Ce2O3 films can be reduced Cerium Oxide Ce2O3 1692 6.87 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite, Ta to Ce2O3 by heating in UHV at 725°C Cesium Cs 28 1.87 — -16 22 30 eBeam (poor) quartz —

Cesium CsBr 636 4.44 — — — ~400 — — — Bromide

Cesium CsCl 646 3.97 — — — ~500 — — — Chloride

Cesium CsF 684 3.59 — — — ~500 — — — Fluoride

Cesium CsOH 272 3.67 — — — ~550 — — — Hydroxide

Stoichiometric CsI films are possible Cesium Iodide CsI 621 4.51 — — — ~500 eBeam (poor) quartz, Pt from bulk, source material, but good film coverage can be a challenge

Stoichiometric chiolite films are difficult Chiolote Na Al F — 2.9 — — — ~800 eBeam (poor) Al O 5 3 14 2 3 to fabricate with eBeam evaporation

837 977 1157 Films are very adherent. High Cr 1890 7.2 0.305 eBeam (good) W, graphite deposition rates possible, but uniformity sublimes can be an issue

Chromium CrB 2760 6.17 — — — — — — — Boride

Chromium CrBr 842 4.36 — — — 550 — — — Bromide 2

Chromium Can be fabricated by co-evaporation Cr C 1890 6.68 — — — ~2000 eBeam (fair) W Carbide 3 2 of Cr and C

Chromium CrCl2 824 2.75 — — — 550 — — — Chloride

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Chromium Stoichiometry can be maintained by Cr2O3 2435 5.21 — — — ~2000 eBeam (good) W Oxide reactive evaporation in O2 Chromium Cr Si 1710 6.51 — — — — — — — Siliside 3

Chromium The quality Cr-SiO cermet films Silicon Cr-SiO Influenced by Composition eBeam (good) W fabricated with eBeam evaporation Monoxide improves with annealing at 425° C

Al O , BeO, Pellets or powder both work well as Co 1495 8.9 — 850 990 1200 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite source material

— — 400

Cobalt Bromide CoBr2 678 4.91 — — — — sublimes

— — 472

Cobalt Chloride CoCl2 740 3.36 — — — — sublimes

CoO can be fabricated by reactive evaporation with O , but sputter Cobalt Oxide CoO 1935 5.68 — — — — eBeam (fair) — 2 deposition is the preferred fabrication method

Al O , Mo Ta, Poor adhesion on most substrates. Use Copper Cu 1083 8.92 0.437 727 857 1017 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite thin adhesion layer of Cr or Ti

Stoichiometric CuCl films have been Copper CuCl 422 3.53 — — — ~600 eBeam (poor) quartz produced from pellets and powder Chloride source material

— — ~600 graphite, Al O , Thin films have been fabricated from Copper Oxide Cu O 1235 6 — eBeam (good) 2 3 2 Ta stoichiometric Cu O powder sublimes 2

— — ~500 Copper Sulfide CuS 1113 6.75 — — — — sublimes

Good films can be fabricated using Cryolite Na AlF 1000 2.9 — 1020 1260 1480 eBeam (good) W, graphite 3 6 pellets or powder source material.

Quality thin films can be fabricated from Dyprosium Dy 1409 8.54 — 625 750 900 eBeam (good) W bulk source material

Dyprosium — — ~800 Bulk source material is available in DyF3 1360 6 — eBeam (good) W, Ta Fluoride sublimes pellets and powder form

Dyprosium Thin films have been fabricated from Dy O 2340 7.81 — — — ~1400 eBeam (fair) W Oxide 2 3 bulk source material

650 775 930 Er 1497 9.06 0.74 eBeam (good) W, Ta — sublimes

Erbium Fluoride ErF2 1380 6.5 — — — ~950 — — — Reactive evaporation of bulk material in Erbium Oxide Er2O3 2400 8.64 — — — ~1600 eBeam (fair) W O2 atmosphere maintains stoichiometry. 280 360 480

Europium Eu 822 5.26 — eBeam (fair) Al2O3 — sublimes

Europium EuF 1380 6.5 — — — ~950 — — — Fluoride 2

Reactive evaporation of Eu O powder Europium 2 3 Eu O 2400 8.64 — — — ~1600 eBeam (good) W or granules in O atmosphere maintains Oxide 2 3 2 stoichiometry.

eBeam evaporation of EuS powder in Europium EuS — 5.75 — — — — eBeam (good) W UHV (10-8 torr base vacuum) has been Sulphide reported in the literature

eBeam evaporation of Gd directly from

Gadolinium Gd 1312 7.89 — 760 900 1175 eBeam (Xlnt) Al203, W the water cooled Cu hearth has been reported

Reactive evaporation of Gd2O3 pellets in O maintains thin film stoichiometry. Gd O 2310 7.41 — — — — eBeam (fair) Al 0 , W 2 Oxide 2 3 2 3 Refractive index increases with substrate heating

graphite, Al O , Ga 30 5.9 — 619 742 907 eBeam (good) 2 3 Alloys with refractory metals BeO, quartz

Gallium eBeam evaporation from bulk source GaSb 710 5.6 — — — — eBeam (fair) W, Ta Antimonide material is possible

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Gallium Film quality is improved with ion GaAs 1238 5.3 — — — — eBeam (good) graphite, W Arsenide assisted evaporation

— graphite, Al2O3, -3 Gallium Nitride GaN 6.1 — — — ~200 eBeam (fair) Reactive evaporation of Ga in 10 N2 sublimes BeO, quartz

Gallium Reactive evaporation of Ga O in O Ga O 1900 5.88 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite, W 2 3 2 Oxide (ß) 2 3 partial pressure maintains stoichiometry

Gallum Co-evaporation of Ga and P has been GaP 1540 4.1 — — 770 920 eBeam (fair) quartz, W Phosphide reported

Al O , quartz, Uniform films achieved with slow power Gemanium Ge 937 5.35 0.516 812 957 1167 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite, Ni ramp and swept beam

Germanium — — ~650 Sputtering is the preferred method of Ge3N2 450 5.2 — eBeam (poor) — Nitride sublimes fabrication

GeO stoichiometry can be maintained graphite, Al O , 2 GeO 1086 6.24 — — — ~625 eBeam (good) 2 3 by reactive evaporation of bulk source Oxide 2 quartz material in O2 Germanium GeTe 725 6.2 — — — 381 — — — Telluride

Metal spitting can be an issue. Mitigate W, Al O , by slow power ramp with swept beam Gold Au 1062 19.32 0.381 807 947 1132 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite, BN and low carbon content in source material

Hafnium Hf 2230 13.09 — 2160 2250 3090 eBeam (good) W —

Fabrication of HfB films by CVD has Boride HfB 3250 10.5 — — — — — — 2 2 been reported

Hafnium — — ~2600 HfC 4160 12.2 — — — — Carbide sublimes

HfN films have been produced by Hafnium Nitride HfN 2852 13.8 — — — — — — reactive RF sputtering of Hf in N2 + Ar Can be fabricated by reactive evaporation in O or using bulk source Hafnium Oxide HfO 2812 9.68 — — — ~2500 eBeam (fair) graphite, W 2 2 material. Post process annealing at 500°C improves film quality

HfSi2 thin films have been fabricated Hafnium by eBeam evaporation of Hf on Si HfSi 1750 7.2 — — — — eBeam (fair) W Silicide 2 substrates followed by annealing at 750°C for an hour

650 770 950 Ho 1470 8.8 — eBeam (good) W — sublimes

Holmium HoF 1143 7.64 — — — ~800 — quartz — Fluoride 3

Ho2O3 thin films have been fabricated by eBeam evaporation of powdered Holmium Oxide Ho O 2370 8.41 — — — — eBeam (fair) W 2 3 source material or reactive evaporation

of Ho in O2 Mo, graphite, In 157 7.3 0.841 487 597 742 eBeam (Xlnt) Wets Cu and W. Mo liner is preferred Al2O3 Indium Thin films fabricated using powdered InSb 535 5.8 — 500 — ~400 eBeam (fair) graphite, W Antimonide source material

Indium Sputter deposition is the preferred thin InAs 943 5.7 — 780 870 970 — — Arsenide film fabrication technique

— — ~1200 Thin films have been produced by

Indium Oxide In2O3 1565 7.18 — eBeam (good) Al2O3 reactive evaporation of powdered In2O3 sublimes in O2 partial pressure. Indium InP 1058 4.8 — — 630 730 eBeam (fair) graphite, W Deposits are P rich Phosphide

Thin films have been fabricated by eBeam evaporation from powdered Indium Selenide In Se 890 5.7 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite, W 2 3 InSe. Post process annealing improves crystallinity

Indium — — 850 In2S3 1050 4,9 — — — — Sesquisulphide sublimes

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Indium In S 653 5.87 — — — 650 — — — Sulphide 2

Thin films from co-evaporation of In and Indium Telluride In Te 667 5.8 — — — — — — 2 3 Te sources has been reported.

Thin films have been produced from 90% In O -10%SnO powder in O Indium In O - 2 3 2 2 2 3 1800 6.43-7.14 — — — — eBeam (good) graphite partial pressure. Substrate temperature Oxide SnO 2 of 250°C improves electrical conductivity of resulting films

Better uniformity and adhesion can be Ir 2459 22.65 — 1850 2080 2380 eBeam (fair) W achieved using sputter deposition

Molten Fe will attack and adhere to Al O , BeO, Fe 1535 7.86 0.349 858 998 1180 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite, severely limiting crucible graphite liner life

Iron Bromide FeBr2 689 4.64 — — — 561 — — — — — 300

Iron Chloride FeCl2 670 2.98 — — — — sublimes

Iron Iodide FeI2 592 5.31 — — — 400 — — — Iron Oxide FeO 1425 5.7 — — — — eBeam (poor) — Sputter deposition preferred.

Fe O thin films fabricated by reactive Al O , BeO, 2 3 Iron Oxide Fe O 1565 5.24 — — — — eBeam (good) 2 3 evaporation of Fe in 0.1 Pa O partial 2 3 graphite 2 pressure has been reported

Iron Sulphide FeS 1195 4.84 — — — — — — —

Lanthanum La 920 6.17 — 990 1212 1388 eBeam (Xlnt) W, Ta —

LaB films and coatings are more 6 LaB 2210 2.61 — — — — eBeam (fair) — commonly produced with sputter Boride 6 deposition.

Lanthanum LaBr 783 5.06 — — — — — — — Bromide 3

Lanthanum — — 900 Ion assisted eBeam evaporation LaF3 1490 6 — eBeam (good) Ta, Mo Fluoride sublimes improves film density and adhesion

Lanthanum C contamination can occur with graphite La O 2250 5.84 — — — 1400 eBeam (good) W, graphite Oxide 2 3 crucible liners

Al O , quartz, Pb 328 11.34 1.13 342 427 497 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 — graphite, W

Lead Bromide PbBr2 373 6.66 — — — ~300 — — —

Lead Chloride PbCl2 501 5.85 — — — ~325 — — — — — ~400

Lead Fluoride PbF2 822 8.24 — — — — sublimes

Lead Iodide PbI2 502 6.16 — — — ~500 — — — Stoichiometric PbO thin films can be

Lead Oxide PbO 890 9.53 — — — ~550 eBeam (fair) Al2O3, quartz, W produced using powdered source material

Lead Stannate PbSnO3 1115 8.1 — 670 780 905 eBeam (poor) Al2O3, W Disproportionates — — ~500

Lead Selenide PbSe 1065 8.1 — eBeam (fair) Al2O3, graphite — sublimes

— — 550 Post deposition annealing at 150°C Lead Sulphide PbS 1114 7.5 — eBeam (fair) Al2O3, quartz sublimes improves the crystallinity of the films

Films produced from bulk PbTe tend

Lead Telluride PbTe 917 8.16 — 780 910 1050 eBeam (poor) Al2O3, graphite to be Te rich. Sputter deposition is preferred

Thin films of PbTiO3 with reactive co-

evaporation of PbO powder and TiO2 Lead Titanate PbTiO3 — 7.52 — — — — eBeam (fair) W, Ta pellets in O2 partial pressure has been reported

Lithium Li 179 0.53 — 227 307 407 eBeam (good) Ta, Al2O3, BeO Li films oxidize readily in air LiBr 547 3.46 — — — ~500 — — — Bromide

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Lithium LiCl 613 2.07 — — — 400 — — — Chloride

Rate control important for optical films. Lithium LiF 870 2.6 — 875 1020 1180 eBeam (good) W, Mo, Ta, Al O Outgas prior to deposition rastered Fluoride 2 3 beam

Lithium Iodide LiI 446 4.06 — — — 400 — — —

Lithium Oxide Li2O 1427 2.01 — — — 850 — — —

Lutetium Lu 1652 9.84 — — — 1300 eBeam (Xlnt) Al2O3 — eBeam evaporation of powdered source material results in stoichiometric films Lutetuim Oxide Lu O 2489 9.81 — — — 1400 eBeam (fair) Al O 2 3 2 3 by post deposition rapid thermal anneal

in O2 at 400-600°C

185 247 327 W, graphite, Powder is flammable. High deposition Mg 651 1.74 — eBeam (good) Al O rates are possible sublimes 2 3

Magnesium eBeam deposition from MgAl O powder MgAl O 2135 3.6 — — — — — — 2 4 Aluminate 2 4 has been reported

Magnesium MgBr 700 3.72 — — — ~450 — — — Bromide 2

Magnesium MgCl 708 2.32 — — — 400 — — — Chloride 2

Best optical properties result from Magnesium Al O , graphite, MgF 1266 2.9-3.2 — — — 1000 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 substrate heating at 300°C and a Fluoride 2 Mo deposition rate of ≤ 5 Å/sec

Magnesium MgI 700 4.24 — — — 200 — — — Iodide 2

Stoichiometric films result from reactive Magnesium MgO 2800 3.58 — — — 1300 eBeam (good) Al O , graphite evaporation in partial pressure of 10-3 Oxide 2 3 torr O2 507 572 647

Manganese Mn 1244 7.2 — eBeam (good) W, Al2O3, BeO — sublimes

Manganese MnBr 695 4.38 — — — 500 — — — Bromide 2

Manganese MnCl 650 2.98 — — — 450 — — — Chloride 2

Stoichiometric thin films have been Manganese IV MnO2 535 5.03 — — — — eBeam (poor) W, Mo, Al2O3 produced by reactive evaporation of Mn Oxide -3 powder in 10 torr O2 Manganese MnS 1615 3.99 — — — 1300 — — — Sulphide

Toxic, not recommended for evaporation Hg -39 13.55 — -68 -42 -6 — — processes

— — 250 Toxic and decomposes, not Mercury HgS 8.1 — eBeam (poor) Al O recommended for evaporation Sulphide 2 3 sublimes sublimes processes

Molybdenum Mo 2610 10.22 — 1592 1822 2117 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite, W Films are smooth, hard and adherent

Molybdenum MoB 2100 7.12 — — — — — — — Boride 2

Molybdenum Thin films of Mo C by sputter deposition Mo C 2687 9.18 — — — — — — 2 Carbide 2 and CVD have been reported

Molybdenum Fabrication of MoS by CVD has been MoS 1185 4.8 — — — ~50 — — 2 Disulphide 2 reported

Molybdenum MoSi films have been produced by MoSi 2050 6.3 — — — ~50 — — 2 Silicide 2 sputter deposition

Molybdenum Al O , graphite, Substrate heating improves film MoO 795 4.7 — — — ~900 eBeam (fair) 2 3 Trioxide 3 BN, Mo crystallinity

Neodymium Nd 1024 7 — 731 871 1062 eBeam (Xlnt) Al2O3, Ta — Substrate heating at 360°C improved NdF 1410 6.5 — — — ~900 eBeam (good) W, Mo, Al O Fluoride 3 2 3 film quality

Films may be deficient. Neodymium Nd O 2272 7.24 — — — ~1400 eBeam (good) W, Ta Refractive index increases with Oxide 2 3 increasing substrate temperature

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Differential thermal expansion between Al O , BeO, W, Ni 1453 8.91 0.331 927 1072 1262 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 Ni and graphite can cause graphite graphite crucible liners to crack on cooling

— — 362

Nickel Bromide NiBr2 963 4.64 — — — — sublimes

— — 444

Nickel Chloride NiCl2 1001 3.55 — — — — sublimes

Substrate temperature of 125°C improves film adhesion and quality. Nickel Oxide NiO 1990 7.45 — — — ~1470 eBeam (good) Al O , W 2 3 Use of NiO powder as source material mitigates spitting

Ion assisted eBeam evaporation modifies Nb film stress from tensile to Nb (Cb) 2468 8.55 — 1728 1977 2287 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite (Columbium) compressive at a substrate temperature of 400°C

Niobium Boride NbB2 3050 6.97 — — — — — — — Niobium NbC 3800 7.82 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite NbC thin films on Ti has been reported Carbide

NbN films have been fabricated using reactive evaporation and reactive

Niobium Nitride NbN 2573 8.4 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite, W sputtering in N2. NbN films by ion assisted evaporation have also been reported

Niobium Oxide NbO — 6.27 — — — 1100 — — —

Nb O films produced by RF magnetron Niobium 2 5 Nb O 1530 4.47 — — — — — — sputtering using a stoichiometric target Pentoxide 2 5 have been reported

Niobium NbTe — 7.6 — — — — — — — Telluride

Films produced by co-evaporation of Nb

Niobium-Tin Nb3Sn — — — — — — eBeam (Xlnt) graphite, Ta and Sn have been reported. Substrate heating improves film homogeneity

Niobium Nb O 1780 7.5 — — — — — — — Trioxide 2 3

Osmium Os 1700 22.5 — 2170 2430 2760 — — —

Susceptible to metal spitting. Mitigate W, Al O , Pd 1550 12.4 — — — 1192 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 with slow power ramp and longer soak graphite before deposition

Palladium PdO 870 8.31 — — — 575 eBeam (poor) Al O Decomposes Oxide 2 3

Phosphorus P 41.4 1.82 — 327 361 402 eBeam (poor) Al2O3 Reacts violently in air Low deposition rates (< 5 Å/sec) W, Al O , preferred for film uniformity. Carbon Platinum Pt 1769 21.45 0.245 1292 1492 1747 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite contamination with graphite liners is possible at high power

Plutonium Pu 635 19 — — — — — — Toxic. Radioactive

Polonium Po 254 9.4 — 117 170 244 — — Toxic. Radioactive

Potassium K 64 0.86 — 23 60 125 — quartz Highly reactive in air

Potassium KBr 730 2.75 — — — ~450 — quartz Use gentle preheat to outgas Bromide

Potassium KCl 776 1.98 — — — ~510 eBeam (fair) Ta, quartz, Mo Use gentle preheat to outgas Chloride

Potassium KF 880 2.48 — — — ~500 eBeam (poor) quartz Use gentle preheat to outgas Fluoride

Potassium KOH 360 2.04 — — — ~400 — — — Hydroxide

Potassum KI 72 3.13 — — — ~500 — — — Iodide

Praseodymium Pr 931 6.78 — 800 950 1150 eBeam (good) W, graphite, Ta Pr films will oxidize in air

Praseodymium W, graphite, Loses oxygen. Reports of Pr2O3 thin Pr2O3 2125 6.88 — — — 1400 eBeam (good) Oxide ThO2 films grown by MBE

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Radium Ra 700 5 — 246 320 416 — — —

Substrate heating at 600°C improves Re 3180 20.53 — 1928 2207 2571 eBeam (good) W, graphite film properties

Films produced by reactive evaporation Rhenium Oxide ReO3 297 8.2 — — — ~100 eBeam (good) W, graphite -3 of Re in 10 torr O2 Rh 1966 12.41 — 1277 1472 1707 eBeam (good) W, graphite —

Rubidium Rb 38.5 1.47 — -3 37 111 — quartz —

Rubidium RbCl 715 2.76 — — — ~500 — quartz — Chloride

Rubidium RbI 642 3.55 — — — ~400 — quartz — Iodide

Material spits using eBeam. Sputter Ru 2700 12.45 — 1780 1990 2260 eBeam (poor) W deposition is preferred

Samarium Sm 1072 7.54 — 373 460 573 eBeam (good) Al2O3 — Loses oxygen. Sputter deposition is Sm O 2350 7.43 — — — — eBeam (good) W Oxide 2 3 preferred

Samarium Sm S 1900 5.72 — — — — — — — Sulphide 2 3

Scandium Sc 1539 2.99 — 714 837 1002 eBeam (Xlnt) W, Mo, Al2O3 Alloys with Ta Loses oxygen. Films produced by Sc O 2300 3.86 — — — ~400 eBeam (fair) W reactive sputtering in O have been Oxide 2 3 2 reported

W, Mo, graphite, Toxic. Can contaminate vacuum Se 217 4.79 — 89 125 170 eBeam (good) Al2O3 systems High deposition rates possible. Molten Ta, graphite, Silicon Si 1410 2.42 0.712 992 1147 1337 eBeam (fair) Si can attack graphite liners limiting BeO crucible liner life

Silicon Boride SiB6 — 2.47 — — — — — — — Sputter deposition is the preferred thin Silicon Carbide SiC 2700 3.22 — — — 1000 eBeam (fair) W film fabrication technique

— — ~1025 Swept beam is critical to avoid hole Al O , Ta, SiO 1610-1710 2.2-2.7 1 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 drilling, since the source material will 2 graphite, W Influenced by composition have a shallow melt pool

Silicon — — 850 Thin films from bulk SiO material has SiO 1702 2.1 — eBeam (fair) W, Ta, graphite Monoxide sublimes been reported

— Thin films of Si3N3 by reactive sputter Silicon Nitride Si3N4 3.44 — — — ~800 — — sublimes deposition have been reported

Silicon Selenide SiSe — — — — — 550 — — —

Silicon — SiS 1.85 — — — 450 — — — Sulphide sublimes

Sillicon SiTe — 4.39 — — — 550 — — — Telluride 2

Swept beam during melt and W, Al O , Ta, focused beam during deposition is Ag 961 10.49 0.529 847 958 1105 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 Mo, graphite recommended for higher deposition rates

Silver Bromide AgBr 432 6.47 — — — ~380 — — —

Silver Chloride AgCl 455 5.56 — — — ~520 — — —

Thin films of AgI fabricated by thermal Silver Iodide AgI 558 5.67 — — — ~500 — — evaporation have been reported

Use gentle preheat to outgas. Metal Na 97 0.97 — 74 124 192 — quartz reacts violently in air

Sodium NaBr 755 3.2 — — — ~400 — — — Bromide

Thin films of NaCl fabricated by thermal Sodium NaCl 801 2.16 — — — 530 — — evaporation in Knudsen cells with Chloride quartz crucibles have been reported

Sodium NaCN 563 — — — — ~550 — — — Cyanide

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Use gentle preheat to outgas. NaF thin Sodium W, Ta, graphite, films produced from powder source NaF 988 2.79 — — — ~700 eBeam (good) Fluoride BeO material and 230°C substrate heating have been reported

Sodium NaOH 318 2.13 — — — ~470 — — — Hydroxide

Wets refractory metals. May react Sr 769 2.6 — 239 309 403 eBeam (poor) graphite, quartz strongly in air

Thin films of SrF produced by eBeam Strontium 2 SrF 1190 4.24 — — — ~1000 eBeam (poor) Al O , W, quartz and thermal evaporation have been Fluoride 2 2 3 reported

Strontium — — 1500 SrO 2460 4.7 — eBeam (poor) Al2O3 Loses oxygen. Reacts with W and Mo Oxide sublimes

Strontium SrS >2000 3.7 — — — — — — Decomposes Sulphide

Sulphur S8 115 2 — 13 19 57 eBeam (poor) quartz Can contaminate vacuum systems High melting point of Ta limits crucible Ta 2996 16.6 — 1960 2240 2590 eBeam (Xlnt) graphite liner selection. High vacuum is required to mitigate oxygen incorporation in films

Tantalum TaB 3000 12.38 — — — — — — — Boride 2

Tantalum TaC 3880 14.65 — — — ~2500 — — — Carbide

Tantalum Thin films of TaN can be produced by TaN 3360 16.3 — — — — eBeam (fair) graphite -3 Nitride reactive evaporation in 10 torr N2 Swept beam to avoid hole drilling. A thin Tantalum Ta O 1800 8.74 — 1550 1780 1920 eBeam (good) graphite, Ta Ti layer will improve adhesion to the Pentoxide 2 5 substrate

Tantalum TaS 1300 — — — — — — — — Sulphide 2

Technetium Tc 2200 11.5 — 1570 1800 2090 — — —

Al O , quartz, Te 452 6.25 — 157 207 277 eBeam (poor) 2 3 Wets refractory metals graphite

Thin films produced by sputter Al O , graphite, Tb 1357 8.27 — 800 950 1150 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 deposition and thermal evaporation Ta have also been reported

Terbium TbF 1176 — — — — ~800 — — Sputter deposition is preferred Fluoride 3

Thin films prepared by pulsed laser Terbium Oxide Tb O 2387 7.87 — — — 1300 — — 2 3 deposition have been reported

Annealing of Tb O films at 800°C in Terbium 2 3 Tb O 2340 7.3 — — — — — — air to produce stable Tb O has been Peroxide 4 7 4 7 reported

Al O , quartz, and its compounds are very Thallium Tl 302 11.85 — 280 360 470 eBeam (poor) 2 3 graphite toxic. Wets freely

Thallium — — ~250 Thermal evaporation of TlBr thin films Tlbr 480 7.56 — — — Bromide sublimes has been reported

Thallium — — ~150 TlCl 430 7 — — — — Chloride sublimes

— — ~250 Low stress thin films can be produced Thallium TlI 440 7.09 — eBeam (poor) Al O , quartz by eBeam evaporation with a substrate Iodide (ß) 2 3 temperature of 100°C

Thallium Oxide Tl2O3 717 9.65 — — — 350 — — Disproportionates at 850°C to Tl2O Th 1875 11.7 — 1430 1660 1925 eBeam (Xlnt) W, Ta, Mo Toxic and mildly radioactive

Thorium — — — ThBr4 — 5.67 — — — — Bromide sublimes

Thorium ThC 2273 8.96 — — — ~2300 — — — Carbide 2

Stable stoichiometric films of ThO Thorium 2 ThO 3050 10.03 — — — ~2100 eBeam (good) W produced from powdered source Dioxide 2 material have been reported

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Use gentle preheat to outgas. Thorium ThF 1110 6.3 — — — ~750 eBeam (fair) Ta, Mo, graphite Substrate temperature of 175°C Fluoride 4 improves film adhesion and quality

Thorium W, Ta, Mo, Does not evaporate stoichiometrically, ThOF2 900 9.1 — — — — eBeam (poor) Oxyfluoride graphite resulting films are primarily ThF4 Thorium ThS — 6.8 — — — — — — — Sulphide 2

461 554 680

Thulium Tm 1545 9.32 — eBeam (good) Al2O3 — sublimes

Thin films of Tm2O3 by eBeam

Thulium Oxide Tm2O3 — 8.9 — — — 1500 — — evaporation and MBE have been reported

High deposition rates possible, but Al O , Ta, Tin Sn 232 7.75 0.724 682 807 997 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 uniformity may suffer. Slow power ramp graphite, W to mitigate cavitation of melt pool

— — ~1000 Substrate temperature above 200°C Tin Oxide SnO2 1127 6.95 — eBeam (Xlnt) Al2O3, quartz sublimes improves film crystallinity

Stoichiometric thin films of SnSe produced by thermal evaporation of Tin Selenide SnSe 861 6.18 — — — ~400 — — powdered source material have been reported

Thin films prepared by eBeam evaporation of SnS powder and reactive Tin Sulphide SnS 882 5.08 — — — ~450 eBeam (poor) quartz, W co-evaporation of Sn and S have been reported

Thin films of SnTe produced with eBeam Tin Telluride SnTe 780 6.44 — — — ~450 eBeam (poor) quartz evaporation at a substrate temperature of 300°C have been reported

Films are very adherent to almost any Ti 1675 4.5 0.628 1067 1235 1453 eBeam (Xlnt) W, graphite, TiC substrate

Sputter deposition is the preferred thin Titanium Boride TiB 2980 4.5 — — — — — — 2 film fabrication technique

eBeam evaporation of TiC thin films with Titanium TiC 3140 4.93 — — — ~2300 eBeam (fair) W, graphite and without ion beam assistance have Carbide been reported

Stoichiometric thin films of TiO2 have Titanium been produced from powder source TiO 1640 4.29 — — — ~1300 eBeam (good) W, graphite, Ta Dioxide 2 material and a substrate temperature of 600°C

Titanium Outgas with gentle preheat prior to TiO 1750 — — — — ~1500 eBeam (good) W, graphite, Ta Monoxide deposition

Thin films have been prepared by

Titanium Nitride TiN 2930 5.43 — — — — eBeam (good) W, graphite, TiC reactive evaporation of Ti in N2 partial pressure

Stoichiometric films have been Titanium Ti2O3 2130 4.6 — — — — eBeam (good) W, Ta, graphite produced by reactive evaporation of Sesquioxide -4 Ti2O3 powder in 2.5 x 10 torr O2 Long, slow preheat is required to Tungsten W 3410 19.3 0.163 2117 2407 2757 eBeam (good) W condition the source material. Raster the electron beam to avoid hole drilling

Tungsten WB 2900 12.75 — — — — — — — Boride 2

Thin films prepared by eBeam Tungsten evaporation of powdered source W C 2860 17.15 — 1480 1720 2120 eBeam (good) W, graphite Carbide 2 material have been reported. RF Sputter deposition is widely reported

Tungsten WTe — 9.49 — — — — — — — Telluride 3

Tungsten — — 980 Thin films are most commonly prepared WO 1473 7.16 — eBeam (good) W 3 using WO powder source material Trioxide sublimes 3

Depleted thin films oxidize Uranium U 1132 19.07 — 1132 1327 1582 eBeam (good) W, Mo, graphite easily even in low partial pressure of O2 Uranium UC 2260 11.28 — — — 2100 — — — Carbide 2

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Stoichiometric thin films produced Uranium by reactive evaporation of depleted UO2 2176 10.9 — — — — eBeam (fair) W Dioxide uranium in O2 partial pressure have been reported

Thin films fabricated by sputter Uranium UF ~1000 — — — — 300 — — deposition of depleted uranium by F- Fluoride 4 ions has been reported

Thin films produced by reactive sputter

Uranium Oxide U3O8 Decomposes 8.3 — — — — — — deposition of depleted uranium targets

in O2 have been reported. Uranium UP — 8.57 — — — 1200 — — — Phosphide 2

Uranium U S — — — — — 1400 — — — Sulphide 2 3

Wets Mo. eBeam evaporation is V 1890 5.96 — 1162 1332 1547 eBeam (Xlnt) W, graphite, Ta preferred

Vanadium VB 2400 5.1 — — — — — — — Boride 2

Vanadium VC 2810 5.77 — — — ~1800 — — — Carbide

— — ~575 Difficult to maintain stoichiometry by Vanadium VO 1967 4.34 — eBeam (poor) W, graphite eBeam evaporation, sputter deposition Dioxide 2 sublimes is preferred

Vanadium VN 2320 6.13 — — — — — — — Nitride

Thin films prepared from powdered Vanadium source material are nearly V O 690 3.36 — — — ~500 eBeam (good) W, graphite Pentoxide 2 5 stoichiometric. Post process annealing

at 280° in O2 restores full stoichiometry Vanadium VSi 1700 4.42 — — — — — — — Silicide 2

520 590 690 Store Yb evaporation source material in Yb 824 6.98 — eBeam (good) Al O , W, Ta 2 3 N desiccator to mitigate oxidation sublimes 2

Ytterbium Preheat slowly and evaporate at YbF 1157 8.17 — — — ~800 eBeam (fair) Ta, Mo, W Fluoride 3 ≤ 10Å/sec to mitigate dissociation

— — ~1500 Thin films produced by reactive Ytterbium Yb O 2346 9.17 — eBeam (fair) Al O , W, Ta evaporation in 8 x 10-5 torr O have Oxide 2 3 2 3 2 sublimes been reported.

Substrate heating at 300°C improves Y 1509 4.48 — 830 973 1157 eBeam (Xlnt) W, Al O 2 3 adhesion and film smoothness

Films prepared from powdered source Yttrium material, typically with dopants. YAG Aluminum Y Al O 1990 — — — — — eBeam (good) W, Al O 3 5 12 2 3 films post deposition annealed at Oxide 1100°C in vacuum improves crystallinity

eBeam evaporation at a rate of Yttrium ≤ 10Å/sec and substrate temperature YF 1387 4.01 — — — — eBeam (good) W, Ta, Mo, Al O Fluoride 3 2 3 of 200°C produces crystalline films with good adhesion

— — ~2000 eBeam evaporated films can be oxygen deficient, post deposition annealing Yttrium Oxide Y O 2680 4.84 — eBeam (good) graphite, W 2 3 in 10-3 torr O at 525°C results in sublimes 2 stoichiometric films.

W, Al O , quartz, Evaporates well under a wide range of Zn 419 7.14 0.514 127 177 250 eBeam (Xlnt) 2 3 graphite conditions

Zinc Zn Sb 546 6.3 — — — — — — — Antimonide 3 2

394 Zinc Bromide ZnBr2 4.22 — — — ~300 — — — Thin films prepared by eBeam evaporation of powdered source Zinc Fluoride ZnF 87 4.84 — — — ~800 eBeam (fair) quartz, W 2 material have been reported. Substrate heating at 400°C improved crystallinity

Reactive sputter deposition in N has Zinc Nitride Zn N — 6.22 — — — — — — 2 3 2 been reported

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Quality thin films fabricated using eBeam evaporation at a rate of 8Å/sec ZnO 1975 5.61 — — — ~1800 eBeam (fair) quartz, W and a substrate temperature of 300°C has been reported

Deposition rate of ≤ 5 Å/sec. Thin W, Ta, Mo, films are polycrystalline and a substrate Zinc Selenide ZnSe 1526 5.42 — — — 660 eBeam (fair) quartz temperature of 300°C improves adhesion and size of crystallites

— — ~800 Thin films produced by eBeam evaporation display a preferred (111) W, Ta, Mo, Zinc Sulphide ZnS 1830 4.09 — eBeam (good) orientation and best optical properties quartz sublimes result from a 400°C substrate temperature

Stoichiometric thin films produced by eBeam evaporation have good W, Ta, Mo, Zinc Telluride ZnTe 1238 6.34 — — — ~600 eBeam (fair) crystallinity with a substrate temperature quartz of 230°C. Optical properties are thickness dependent

2550 Zircon ZrSiO4 4.56 — — — — — — — Zr 1852 6.4 — 1477 1702 1987 eBeam (Xlnt) W, quartz Alloys with W. Thin films oxidize readily

Stoichiometric films prepared by Zirconium ZrB 3040 6.08 — — — — eBeam (good) W, quartz co-evaporation of Zr and B have been Boride 2 reported

Zirconium Quality thin films of ZrC using pulsed ZrC 3540 6.73 — — — ~2500 eBeam (poor) graphite Carbide laser deposition have been reported

Thin films of ZrN prepared by N ion Zirconium 2 ZrN 2980 7.09 — — — — — — assisted evaporation of Zr have been Nitride reported

-3 Reactive evaporation in 10 torr O2 produce as deposited stoichiometric Zirconium ZrO 2700 5.49 — — — ~220 eBeam (good) W, graphite films. For eBeam evaporated films, post Oxide 2 deposition annealing in O2 restores stoichiometry

eBeam evaporated Zr on Si substrates Zirconium ZrSi 1700 4.88 — — — — — — forms ZrSi following post deposition Silicide 2 2 thermal annealing at 600°C

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