6 THE GUAYABITOID AND MAYOID SERIES: AMERINDIAN CULTURE HISTORY IN DURING LATE PREHISTORIC AND PROTOHISTORIC TIMES

ARIE BOOMERT

Trinidad's geographical position and its environmental and social characteristics are unique. The island is relatively large, especially if compared to the Lesser , and shows varied topographical, micro-climatic, vegetational and faunal conditions, thus offering possibilities for differential economic and social adaptations. Being just offshore the South American mainland, Trinidad's S coast faces the sea channel, separating the island from the deltaj its N and E shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean, and its W coast by the calm waters of the Gulf of Paria (Fig. 1). In prehistoric times this geographical situation made the island the natural gateway for human migration, trade, and diffusion of culture from the mainland to the vice versa. Apparently Trinidad formed the crossroads of Amerindian geographical movement to and from four directions: firstly, the Orinoco Valley, secondly, the East Venezuelan Cordillera and coast, of which Trinidad's N shore and highest mountain- ridge, the Northern Mange, forms an Eastward extension, thirdly, the coastal area of , and, finally, and the . It should be noted that seabound traffic from the Guianas is invariably directed to the S and E coasts of Trinidad by the Guiana Stream. As a result, Trinidad forms a unique ground for testing hypotheses relating to the prehistoric and protohistoric cultural sequence of the entire S part of the area. As House and Harris have shown, cultural developments on the mainland were quickly felt in Trinidad and from ethnohistoric 94

information it can be learned that as late as the sixteenth century the W coast of the Guianas, S and W Trinidad, the W shore of the Gulf of Paria and the Lower Orinoco Valley were closely knit by aboriginal tribal relationships and ties of language, trade and culture. This formed one Amerindian interaction sphere, internally connected by various waterways: rivers, sea channels and the Gulf of Paria (Boomert, 1983).

1.1. The Guayabitoid series: introduction

The chronological framework for the Ceramic age cultural development of Trinidad as it has been presented by Rouse in various papers since the late 1940s (Rouse, 1947, 1953b, 1964, 1978) should and does reflect Trinidad's geographical situation. Rouse's sequence, of which the latest version can be found in Rouse & Allaire (in press), distinguishes between four subsequent ceramic complexes in Trinidad, from early to late, Cedros, Palo Seco, Erin, and Bontour. Cedros and Erin are considered to represent direct offshoots of the two earliest ceramic traditions of the Lower Orinoco Valley, the and Barrancoid series respectively, while Palo Seco obviously forms a local Trinidad Saladoid complex which developed out of Cedros under strong Barrancoid influence, Evidence for the existence in Trinidad of another mainland ceramic series, Arauquinoid, is presented by Harris in his modification and detailing of Rouse's sequential framework (Harris, 1978). Using Rouse's terminology, the complex Harris describes as characterizing his Trinidad Period Illb could be called St Catherine's after the type site. Harris (1978, Fig. 6) places St Catherine's chronologically between Erin and Bontour. The upper boundary of Trinidad Barrancoid is dated by both Rouse and Harris at about AD 1000. According to Harris' sequence, the St Catherine's and Bontour complexes would be confined to the period between AD 1000 and 1500, although Rouse & Allaire 95

(in press, Fig. 4) allow for continuation of Bontour into the Historic age. Rouse & Cruxent (1903:125-126) note close similarities between Bontour and the only late-prehistoric ceramic tradition known from the Paria peninsula of NE , the Guayabitoid series, reason why they include the Bontour complex in this pottery tradition. This paper reviews the late prehistoric to prohistoric cultural development of Trinidad. It attempts to show that in fact one post-Barrancoid ceramic series existed in the island until shortly before the discovery. Following House & Cruxent, this pottery tradition will be called the Guayabitoid series. Four Guayabitoid complexes are distinguished in Trinidad, from early to late, St Catherine's, Bontour, St Joseph, and Marac. A major break in the culture history of Trinidad is proved to have occurred about 600 BP, resulting in the development of a new ceramic series, Mayoid. Two Mayoid • 1 complexes are described, Guayaguayare and Mayo, of which the first one is still prehistoric whereas the second one dates from the Historic period. Seriation diagrams for temper and vessel shapes of the various Guayabitoid and Mayoid complexes, excluding St Catherine's, showing the major ceramic developments within these series, and a revised chronological chart for Trinidad (Fig. 2) are presented. In accordance with Harris' conclusions, the inception of the Guayabitoid series in Trinidad is felt to have been brought about by the same sequence of events that led to the decline of the Barrancoid series and the consequent destruction of the Los Barrancos trade network in the S Caribbean, i.e., the downward movement of the Arauquinoid series in the Orinoco Valley and its subsequent expansion towards the coasts of Venezuela and the Guianas. In terms of absolute chronology the establishment of Guayabitoid as an Arauquinoid-derived pottery series in Trinidad is placed about 1300/1350 BP or ca. AD 600/ 650, using the conventional radiocarbon calender. Its beginnings are thus dated somewhat later than the first Arauquinoid 96

influence in the Lower Orinoco Valley, resulting in the adoption of freshwater sponge spicules (cauixf) as tempering material by the Los Barrancos potters about 1450 BP (Sanoja, 1979:189), and simultaneously with the initial date for the Guarguapo complex (or "Post-Classical Barrancas" as Sanoja (1979:20) prefers to call it) in the Saladero/Barrancas area.

1.2. The St Catherine's complex

St Catherine's is a shell midden site situated in SK Trinidad, ca, 1.5 km inland from the S coast (Fig. 3). The site was excavated by Harris in 1972 and 1974. In vertical cross section it shows a natural stratification of two shell layers, divided by sterile silt, probably resulting from flooding. The lower shell stratum (St Catherine's I) is characterized by Saladoid pottery, the upper shell layer (St Catherine's II) by ceramics of the St Catherine's complex (Harris, 1972:8-9,12,15, 1974, 1978; Hoffman, 1973, 1974; TTHS-AR, 1974, 1975/1976, 1976/1977; TTHSN, 2/71, 1/72, 3/72, 4/72, 1/73). Pottery similar to St Catherine's II is present at the Guayaguayare site near by. This is a multicomponent shell midden on the shore of Guayaguayare Bay (Fig. 3) which shows a definitely horizontal stratification: the prehistoric occupation seems to have moved gradually from the E and Central parts of the site to the W. In 1969 Harris dug three testpits (A, B and C) in the centre of the Guayaguayare midden, which yielded Barrancoid, St Catherine's and Bontour ceramics (Harris, 1971, 1972:7, 10-12, 1974. 1976a, 1978, 1980, pers. comm.; Hoffman, 1973, 1975; TTHS-AR, 1969/1970. 1975/1976, 1976/1977; TTHSN, 1/70, 2/70. 1/72, 2/72, 1/77, 3/77, 4/77, 3/78, 5/79, 2/80). Charcoal from the 0-25 cm level of testpit C yielded a radiocarbon date of 1260 + 100 BP (lVIC-785). Although originally attributed to the Barrancoid occupation of the site (Tamers, 1973), it is more likely that this date relates to the St Catherine's component present. 97

Using the published descriptions it is possible to summarize the characteristics of the St Catherine's complex as follows. Sherds are medium-thick and tempered with sand, shell and cauixi. Vessel shapes mainly include variants of globular jars with generally S-shaped profile, often called ollas, and simple unrestricted bowls with internally thickened rims, triangular in cross section. Composite, keeled jars with squarish, flattened lips, concave upper parts and restricted mouths next to biconical or simple restricted bowls are less common. A special form is represented by Harris' so-called canari, a sizeable jar with sharply everted, straight rim (cf. Harris, 1978, Fig. 13). Bases are flat or annular. Few handles occur; they are vertical as well as horizontal and D-shaped. Decoration consists of incision and punctation, often in combination. Incised lines are shallow and U-shaped. Motifs composed of rectilinear short lines ending in dots at both ends are especially found on the flattened parts of internally thickened bowl rims. A typical motif is formed by a freeze of such lines, placed vertically and horizontally in alternating order. Similar freezes executed in short incised lines without punctations also occur. Simple curvilinear motifs, including incised ovals and circles with or without central punctation are found on the inner rims of canaris and the interior walls of unrestricted bowls. The rim of one oval bowl shows a single broad punctation; another one is decorated with a "horned" lug with central punctation. Modelled motifs include appliqué fillets in "snake" pattern, small punctated knobs or pellets and rim lobes. One keeled jar is decorated with a four-legged zoomorphic adorno, only attached to the vessel wall by its feet. Probably similar, cauixi-tempered, keeled jars with squarish lips show modelled-incised human or animal faces in Barrancoid fashion (comparable to Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, PI. 101:13) or incised curvilinear multiple-line motifs (Harris, 1978, Fig. 13, pers. comm.). It is obvious that the St Catherine's complex shows a blend of ceramic elements characteristic of the Barrancoid and 98

Arauquinoid series of Venezuela and the Guianas. Cauixf temper, unrestricted bowls with internally thickened rims, triangular in cross section, restricted biconical bowls, olla forms, horizontal handles, punctated and punctated-incised motifs of decoration, trapezoidal and triangular rim lugs, punctated appliqua fillets and modelled zoomorphic adornos are typically Arauquinoid. They constitute diagnostic pottery traits to be found in such Arauquinoid complexes as, for instance, Arauquin (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959:190-193), Matraquero (ibid.:193-195) and Camoruco (ibid.:209-211; Roosevelt, 1980:210-216,229; Rouse, 1978) in the Middle Orinoco area, Macapaima near the Orinoco-Caroní junction (Sanoja, 1979:47-52,232-253), Hertenrits (Boomert, 1977, 1980) and Mon Repos (Evans & Meggers, 1960:148- 150; Im Thurn, 1884; Osgood, 1946:50-55) on the shores of and respectively, and Valencia in the Central Venezuelan coastal zone (Bennett, 1937; Cruxent, 1971:1)8-137; Kidder, 1944:61-72; Osgood, 1943). In contrast, decorative motifs consisting of lines ending in dots and modelled-incised human faces are Barrancoid, typical of the Los Barrancos (or "Classical Barrancas") complex of the Lower Orinoco (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959:229; Sanoja, 1979:210, Fig. 94:c,103:A), Coporito in the Orinoco delta (ibid.: 44-45,212-228), and Erin in Trinidad (Rouse, 1953a). Furthermore, St Catherine's incised lines are shallow and U- shaped in cross section. They resemble the Barrancoid technique of incision rather than that of the Arauquinoid series which is typically V-shaped and deep. Pottery complexes comparable to St Catherine's and showing a similar blend of Barrancoid and Arauquinoid ceramic traits include Guarguapo (Cruxent &. Rouse, 1958/1959:230-233; Sanoja, 1979) and Apostadero (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959:234-237) in the Lower Orinoco Valley, Late Mabaruma on the NW coast of Guyana (Evans & Meggers, 1960:86-123) and Mora in the Orinoco delta (Voorhies e_t a_l_. , in press). St Catherine's vessel shapes and motifs of decoration indicate its derivation from these mixed Barrancoid/Arauquinoid complexes of the mainland. For instance, 99

notwithstanding their Saladoid flavour, the St Catherine's keeled jars find their closest counterparts in Guarguapo (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, Fig. 164:1-4,6) and probably Apostadero (ibid., Fig. 196:8-9) while its olla forms are found back in these same pottery complexes (ibid., Fig. 195:10-16, 196:17-18). Harris' canari seems to resemble a Guarguapo form illustrated by Sanoja (1979, Fig. 94:b) although similar shapes are known from Hertenrits (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 5:16-22), Valencia (Kidder, 1944, Fig. 19:1-10; Bennett, 1937, Fig. 7:1; Osgood, 1943, Fig. 6:G-H), and possibly Late Mabaruma (Evans & Meggers, 1960, Fig. 39:4,40:4). Arauquinoid vessel shapes such as unrestricted bowls with internally thickened rims are equally known from Guarguapo, Late Mabaruma and Apostadero. The rims of these bowls are typically decorated with motifs consisting of incised lines ending in dots like in St Catherine's (for instance, Kaituma Incised and Punctate Motif 1, cf. Evans & Meggers, 1960:104, Fig. 42). Similarly, decorative motifs composed of incised short lines, placed horizontally and vertically in alternating order, are found back in Guarguapo (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, PI. 100:13; Sanoja, 1979, Lam. 37:a-b, Fig. 103:A), Late Mabaruma (Aruka Incised Motif 4, cf. Evans & Meggers, 1960, PI. 21 :j), and Mon Repos (Osgood, 1946, Fig. 12). A variant of this motif is found in the Mora complex. In conclusion, the St Catherine's complex appears to represent the local Trinidad aspect of a general development which took place in the entire S part of the Caribbean culture area. Simultaneous and rapid replacement of Barrancoid by Arauquinoid ceramic traits characterizes the period between 1450 and 1350 BP in the Lower Orinoco Valley and the coastal areas of Venezuela and the Guianas. It is exemplified by the ceramic development from Los Barrancos to Guarguapo, Apostadero and Macapaima as well as by the replacement of Barrancoid by Macapaima trade sherds in the early part of an otherwise unrelated complex such as Bañador on the Lower Orinoco (Nieves, 1980, Graf. 1). 100

Trade and other forms of weak interaction between the Barrancoid and Arauquinoid peoples must have been responsible for the beginning of this process, which, however, cannot be explained without assuming gradual migration of Arauquinoid groups from the Middle Orinoco area downriver and towards the Atlantic and Caribbean coasts. This movement coincides with the simultaneous expansion of the Arauquinoid series from the Middle Orinoco region to the W, into the Central Venezuelan Llanos (Zucchi, 1975:79-80; Zucchi & Denevan, 1979).

1.3. The Bontour complex

The Bontour complex can be considered as having developed out of St Catherine's. It is represented in the lower parts of our seriation diagrams (Fig. 5-6). Material from excavations and surface collections made at nine different sites in S Trinidad, partly or wholly belonging to the Bontour complex, has been analysed in close co-operation with Peter Harris (cf. Harris, this volume). Six of these sites are situated on Trinidad's S coast: from W to E, Icacos (Harris, 1978, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1975/1976, 1976/1977, TTHSN, 2/72, 3/72, 2/7Ó), Los Iros (Harris, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1977/1980; TTHSN, 4/70. 1/73. 3/78, 4/78, 1/80), Quinam (Rouse 1947, 1953a; Wing, 1962: 42-43,46,49-52), Quinam East (Harris, pers. comm.; TTHSN, 3/70, 4/70, 1/73, 2/73, 2/78), Bâtiment Crasé* (Harris, 1972:10-11, 1978, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1971; TTHSN, 7/71, 2/72, 3/73. 2/78), and Guayaguayare. The type site, Bontour, is to be found on the W coast, close to the Gulf of Paria (Rouse 1947, 1953a, pers. comm.; Harris, 1972:4,7-9, 1978). Point Radix-1, finally, is situated on Trinidad's E shore (Harris, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1971; TTHSN, 4/70). All sites represent shell middens. Three other sites, Point Radix-2 (de Booy, 1917; Linné, 1925:34,46,111-112; Lovén, 1935:108-113,143,242,251-259,334; Rouse, 1953a), St John (Rouse, 1953a, pers. comm.) and Erin (Harris, pers. comm.; Rouse, 1953a, pers. comm.; TTHSN, 3/70, 101

4ll§,4ll2.t'$lTS) are known to have yielded Bontour refuse while still eleven other sites may equally belong to this complex (Fig. 3). The latter include Bénitier (Rouse, 1953a), Beggorat (ibid. ), St Ann's (ibid.). Mayaro-Resthouse (ibid.), Beauséjour, Brittannia/Bon Espoire (Bullen & Bullen, 1976; Rouse, 1953a), and Lagon Doux (Bullen & Bullen, 1976; Harris, pers. comm.; Rouse, 1953a; TTHSN, 4/72), all in the Mayaro area of the SE coast, Chagonary (Rouse, 1953a; Wing, 1962:5-8,43-46), Trinidad Hill (Rouse, 1953a), Palo Seco East (ibid.), and San Fernando- Harris Promenade/High Street (Harris, pers. comm; TTHS-AR, 1971; TTHSN, 3/70, 4/70, 3/71, 8/71, 4/76), all in SW Trinidad. By far most of these sites are shell middens, suggesting principally coastal adaptation. The Bontour site was excavated by Carter and Barr in 1942 and by Rouse in 1946. The writer studied the material from both excavations which is kept at the Peabody Museum of Yale University, New Haven, while other finds were collected by Harris and the writer at Bontour in 1981. Similarly, the results of Rouse's 1946 excavations at Quinam (Trench 4) and those at St John of 1953 were analysed at Yale. In addition, the material Harris obtained from testpits at Icacos (1976) and Los Iros (1978) could be studied in Trinidad. Finally, an extensive surface collection was made by Harris and the writer at Quinam East while testpits were dug at Point Radix-1, Guayaguayare (pit D, cf. below) and Bâtiment Crasa, all during January, February and March, 1983. Charcoal and shell samples from Icacos, Bâtiment Craso. Point Radix-1, and Guayaguayare yielded six reliable radiocarbon dates: 1200 + 60 BP (Beta-6825). 1130 + 50 BP (Beta-6807), 960 + 50 BP (Beta-6827), 990 • 50 BP (Beto-6809), 780 +_ 60 BP (Beta-6824), and 650 + 50 BP (Beta-6808). If calibrated for temporal variations in the radiocarbon content of atmospheric carbon dioxide (De Vries-effeet) according to the method of Klein ejt al_. (1982), these dates imply a time- span of the Bontour complex between ca. AD 650 and 1400 (Table 6). 102

Non-ceramic artifacts at the sites of the Bontour complex include polished stone axes and adzes, hammerstones, arrowshaft polishers, grinding stones, anvils and anvil-hammerstones, polishing stones (for pottery), rubbing stones of hematite, a chert arrowhead, small pieces of worked bone, including pendants, a shell celt and, especially at the Bontour site, numerous irregular chert and flint flakes and small cores showing use wear but no intentional trimming. They may have had various functions, such as gutting and scraping of fish, opening of shells and cutting of meat. Animal bones occur in moderate numbers, suggesting hunting of land mammals, birds and turtles, next to estuarine fishing of especially catfish (Harris, this volume). The species of shell fish present at the Bontour complex sites indicate collecting in the immediate surroundings of the settlement and adaptation to the edible shell species locally available on the beach. The S and E coast sites yielded abundant numbers of typically sandy beach bivalves as Donax sp. and Tivela mactroides (Harris, this volume). The Bontour site, situated on the coast of the Gulf of Paria, yielded numerous ark shells (Anadara lienosa floridana, Anadara notobilis and Anadara brasiliana), bivalves typical of marine/brackish, shallow-water sandy/muddy bottoms, and several Melongena melongena, Strombus pugilis, Codakia orbicularis, Prunum apicinum, Donax striatus, Turritella variegata, Fasciolaria tulipa, Murex brevifrons, Thais coronata and Thais haemastoma, all at home in a similar environment, next to a large minority of Crassostrea rhizophorae, oysters living attached to mangrove roots in estuarine areas. Only one freshwater and two land snail species were found, Pomacea urceus, Strophocheilus oblongus and Marisa sp. respectively (Percharde, pers. comm.). With respect to pottery, our seriation diagram of the Guayabitoid temper modes in S Trinidad (Fig. 5, Table 1) shows that pounded shell formed the main tempering agent during the Bontour complex, followed by fine to medium-coarse sand, and to a much lesser degree, cauixi. Throughout the development of 103

Bontour sand was almost completely replaced by shell until it reaches a second peak towards the end of the sequence. This probably local late Bontour shell-to-sand temper development has stratigraphically been proven in our testpit at Point Radix-1 (cf. Harris, this volume). Potsherd temper occurs in minimal amounts; at Los Iros the sherd particles often contain sponge spicules. Finally, it should be noted that qualitatively the known St Catherine's temper modes are similar to those of the early part of the Bontour complex. According to the seriation diagram of the Bontour vessel shapes in S Trinidad (Fig. 6, Table 2), simple unrestricted and restricted bowls (Forms 9 and 12) next to griddles (Form 15) are to be found throughout the time-span of the complex (cf. Fig. 7-8). Variants of ollas (Forms 3, 4 and 5) are typical of the entire Guayabitoid series, as are unrestricted bowls with internally thickened rims (Form 10). Other vessel shapes like the bottle of Form 14 and the jars of Forms 6, 7 and 8 are specifically Bontour. The base forms (Fig, 7;9,A) do not show much variation through time (Table 3). Especially Forms 7 and 14 are early Bontour vessel shapes. The bottle with double orifice (Form 14) may represent a debased Barrancoid element. The open bowl with internally thickened rim (Form 10) and the annular base (E) stress continuity with St Catherine's. This may apply also to Form 8 which resembles the St Catherine's composite, keeled jar, although the few rim sherds found at the sites of the Bontour complex do not allow reconstruction of the entire vessel (Fig. 9:8,11:18). Finally, a cauixi- tempered roller stamp, found at Los Iros, is worth noting separately (Fig. 7:16). Decoration is extremely rare: only 2-3% of the sherds shows any form of decoration in the Bontour complex. Punctated or nicked (Fig. 10:1-21). incised (Fig. 10:22-24,11:1-10) and simply modelled (Fig. 11:12) decorative motifs are most numerous; red-painted sherds are rare. Small, plain or punctated wall and rim knobs (Fig. 10:1-7), wall appendages (Fig. 12:15-18), triangular, trapezoidal and "horned" rim lugs, often showing 104

a central perforation, punctation or incised circle (Fig. 12: 1-14), appliqué fillets (Fig. 10:8-11), and a few zoomorphic adornos (Fig. 11:13-16) are diagnostic. Black-polished surfaces form a minor feature of wall treatment throughout the development of Bontour (Table 4). Continuity between St Catherine's and Bontour is indicated by several decorative elements, especially by motifs consisting of rectilinear short incisions placed horizontally and vertically in alternating order (Fig. 10:24,11:1-3). Lines ending in dots have disappeared. Analysis and comparison of the various Guayabitoid ceramic modes not discussed with reference to St Catherine's show the basically Arauquinoid character of the Bontour complex. Ollas like Forms 4 and 5 (Fig. 8:6-7) find their closest counterparts in Hertenrits (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 5:5,9.12-15), Mon Repos (lm Thurn, 1884), Guarguapo (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, Fig. 196:6-9). Apostadero (ibid., Fig. 196:13), Valencia (Bennett, 1937, Fig. 7:K; Kidder, 1944, Fig. 20), Matraquero (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, Fig. 15:a-b) and Camoruco (ibid.:209). Cylindrical stamps are widespread in the Arauquinoid complexes of the Middle Orinoco though less common in the Lower Orinoco Valley and on the coast. Here they appear as trade items (?) in Bafíador (Nieves, 1980, Lam. 9:f-g), Apostadero (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959. PI. 104:19) and Late Mabaruma (Evans & Meggers, 1960, Fig. 47:a). Anthropomorphic figurines (Fig. 7:17) are known from Hertenrits (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 19:2-5), Macapaima (Sanoja, 1979, Lam. 22:b) and Valencia (Cruxent, 1971:108-118, etc.). Bontour modes of decoration like small nicked or punctated knobs, punctated appliqué fillets (Rouse, 1947, Fig. 16) and single or double zoomorphic adornos (ibid., Fig. 14), often surmounting triangular rim lugs and looking over the rim to the inside of the vessel, are well-known from the Arauquinoid complexes of Venezuela and the Guianas. A diabolo-shaped knob from Point Radix-2 (Fig. 12:15) resembles a particular Hertenrits zoomorphic adorno (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 14:12) as well as the "cleat shaped" lugs of Arauquin (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, PI. 74:9-10) and Matraquero (ibid.:194). Other Bontour design 105

elements are especially related to the Barrancoid/Arauquinoid complexes of the Lower Orinoco and NW Guyana. The Bontour inward-folded rims (Fig. 8:10,10:24) resemble those of Guarguapo (ibid.:231. Fig. 195:3,9), as do the bowls with dimpled rims (Fig. 10:12-13; compare Sanoja, 1979:89, Fig. 12). Black polishing may be a Barrancoid holdover as it is typical of Los Barrancos (Rouse & Cruxent, 1963:86) as well as Guarguapo (Sanoja, 1979:92-95) and Apostadero (Cruxent «• Rouse. 1958/1959:235). Bontour punctation (Fig. 10:1-21) finds its closest counterparts in Macapaima (Sanoja, 1979. Lam. 81), Guarguapo (ibid. , Graf. 2), Barfador (Nieves, 1983, Lam. 15:a-b) and Apostadero (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, PI. 104:16). The Bontour rim lugs form a special case. Triangular rim lobes (Fig. 12:2-4) are found back in several Arauquinoid ceramic complexes, including Hertenrits, Camoruco and Macapaima, but they are less valuable for comparative purposes than, for instance, the Bontour scalloped lugs (Fig. 12:5) which closely resemble specific lugs in Hertenrits (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 10: 6-15), Guarguapo (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959:231) and Bañador (Nieves, 1980, Lam. 13:a). Simple trapezoidal or slightly "horned" lugs (Fig. 12:12; Rouse, 1947, Fig. 15) occur in various Arauquinoid complexes though the Bontour specimens are closest to similar lugs in Camoruco (Howard, 1943, Fig. 7:H), Hertenrits (Boomert, 198), Fig. 9:20,10:5,13:20) and Apostadero (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959. PI. 102:23). Tabular lugs with central punctation only occur in Apostadero (ibid. , PI. 102:2) while fully "horned" lugs (Fig. 12:11,13-14) are represented on the mainland only in Hertenrits (Boomert, 1980, Fig. 10:4). They may have developed out of zoomorphic adornos like those of Macapaima (Sanoja, 1979, Lam. 85:e-g). The close relationship between the Guayabitoid and Arauquinoid series has long been overlooked. Especially the scarcity of decorated pottery in the Bontour complex and the consequent lack of material for comparison has obscured its origins. Ceramic simplification, including loss of pottery decoration, forms the major aspect of the process of change 106

which characterizes the development of the Arauquinoid series during its movement down the Orinoco river. It is reflected by the minimal amounts of decorated sherds in Bontour as well as, for instance, Macapaima and Guarguapo. A similar process can be observed in the closely related pottery of the Valencioid series. Typical Arauquinoid vessel shapes became simplified as well. Forms like jars and bottles with convex necks, showing human faces with arching eyebrows consisting of punctated appliqué fillets and coffee-bean or slit eyes on their collars, disappeared entirely or lost their face designs (compare Fig. 11:12). These vessel shapes, diagnostic of the Arauquinoid series in the Middle Orinoco Valley, the Venezuelan Llanos, Valencia, and the related complexes of the "Incised-qnd-Punctate" tradition of the Middle and Lower Amazon (Lathrap. 197'): 164- 170), were replaced by simple ollas with cylindrical or concave upper parts, often showing punctated appliqué fillets at the base of their necks, like those of the Guayabitoid series, Hertenrits, Guarguapo, Apostadero, Mon Repos, Valencia, and Macapaima. Similarly, anthropomorphic face designs on trapezoidal bowl lugs disappeared while naturalistically modelled zoomorphic adornos developed into simple "horned" lugs. Finally, the blend of the Barrancoid and Arauquinoid ceramic traditions in the Lower Orinoco Valley resulted in the loss of the Arauquinoid type of fine-line incision, V-shaped in cross section, which became replaced by Barrancoid-like broad and shallow incised motifs. Direct contacts between the Hontour complex and the sites of the contemporaneous Amerindian groups on the mainland are difficult to prove though a small number of shell-tempered olio and bowl sherds, encountered by Sanoja (1979:152, Lam. 73) in levels corresponding to Cruxent ¿4. House's Guarguapo complex at the Saladero site, suggest such (trade?) connections. Furthermore, microscopic analysis of thin sections of selected Bontour pottery samples showed that fine to medium-coarse sand containing waterworn quartz and tiny mica or micaschist 107

particles forms a minor group within the sand-temper category. Micaschist sand is characteristic of the rivers of Trinidad's Northern Range (Kuarsingh, pers. comm.) and may indicate trade contacts between S Trinidad and the St Joseph complex of the Guayabitoid series in the N (cf. below). On the other hand, micaceous sand as tempering material is reported by Sanoja (1979:152) from the "Post-Classical Barrancas" levels at the Saladero and Mamonal sites as well as from Macapaima (ibid.: 181-182). Microscopic analysis further showed that the cauixf- tempered sherds in the Bontour complex contain spicules of several fresh-water sponge species, including Drulia sp., Trochospongillo spp., and Stratospongilla sp. (Ezcurra de Drago, pers. comm.). It should be noted that according to Sanoja (1979: 99) only one sponge species has been identified in the cauixi- tempered ceramics of the Guarguapo complex while Hubert (19Ó8: 33, PI. 5) and Linné (1925:49-57) just mention the Parmula batesii species as the fresh-water sponge used for tempering pottery by the prehistoric and protohistoric Amerindians oi the Amazon Valley. Unfortunately nothing is known about the various freshwater sponges to be found in Trinidad except for the fact that such sponges are known to occur, especially in the Caroni and Nariva swamps (Kenny, pers. comm.). However, the limited occurrence of pottery containing cauixi at the Guayabitoid sites (on an average 4.3% of the sherds) suggests importation of these vessels or just the tempering material from the Lower Orinoco Valley rather than local sponge collecting. The occasional occurrence of a few typically thick and coarse-quartz tempered Barrancoid sherds, sometimes showing modelled-incised decoration motifs, at sites of the Bontour complex, including Bontour, Los Iros and Quinam, can be explained either by assuming mechanical admixture of Lrin and Guayabitoidexcavation levels, or by postulating trade contacts and other forms of interaction between Trinidad and the mainland. This last explanation finds support in Sanoja's 108

discovery of a "Classical Barrancas" complex, Coporvto, in the delta of the Orinoco, which appears to have persisted throughout the existence of the Bontour, Guarguapo and Macapaima complexes, until as late as 700 BP (Sanoja, 1979:187). As noted above, Rouse & Cruxent (1963) have pointed to close similarities between Bontour and the two known complexes of the Guayabitoid series of the Paria peninsula in Venezuela, Guayabita and El Morro of the Güiria and Carúpano areas respectively. Bontour and Paria Guayabitoid share shell temper, vessel forms like the ollas of Forms 3 and 4 (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, Fig. 95:1-4,99:2-3), simple bowls, flat and annular bases, and decorative motifs such as small punctated and nicked knobs or pellets (Osgood & Howard, 1943, PI. 12 :M ) , punctated appliqué fillets which are typically triangular in cross section (ibid., PI. 12:j), modelled zoomorphic adornos (ibid., PI. 12:F), and incised wavy line motifs below olla rims (ibid. , PI. 12: D-E). Scarcity of decorated pottery forms another shared characteristic. It is likely that Guayabita represents a W expansion of the Bontour complex of Trinidad rather than the reverse which is assumed by Rouse & Cruxent (1963:148). Charcoal from the Amacuro site of the Guayabita complex has been dated by C-14 at 690 +_ 70 BP (Y-1111) while charcoal from the El Morro and Río Caribe (Calle de la Marina) sites of the El Morro complex yielded radiocarbon dates of 715 ^ 70 BP (Y-298) and 290 +_ 70 BP (Y-299). The extension into Historic times of El Morro is further attested by the presence of Spanish trade sherds at the Río Caribe site. The ceramic similarities between Bontour and Guayabita suggest lively contacts between both late prehistoric Amerindian groups across the Gulf of Paria. Similarly, Bontour influence if not population movement was probably responsible for the development of the Golden Grove complex of SW Tobago, discovered by Harris (1976a). It is represented in the upper levels (Harris' Shell II stratum) of the Golden Grove site, covering refuse of a local Tobago Barrancoid complex. Olla forms, exteriorly incised composite 109

vessels with flattened rims resembling Bontour Form 8 and, especially, unrestricted bowls with internally thickened rims, triangular in cross section, decorated with freezes of rectilinear incised short lines, placed horizontally and vertically in alternating order, are diagnostic. Other Golden Grove ceramic traits, such as incised triangular and trapezoidal rim lugs, dimpled rims and annular bases, are equally reminescent of Bontour (cf. Harris, 1978). Comparable Bontour-like modes of pottery decoration are encountered in various complexes of the Troumassoid and the subsequent Suazoid series of the Windward Islands, especially in St Vincent, St Lucia and . "Horned" tabular rim lugs, often showing short incisions and a central perforation or incised circle, raised rim points and bowl rims decorated with incised motifs as known from Golden Grove have a wide distribution in the S Windwards, notably during Late Troumassoid and Larly Suazoid times, between ca. 1200 and 650 BP (Allaire, 1977, 1981). I am referring to Bullen's so-called "Caliviny Him Modified" and "Suazey Rim Modified" types, known from St Vincent and the Grenadines (Bullen ¿i. Bullen, 1972: 143-161, PI. VIII:c,X:a), St Lucia (McKusick, 1960:116-119, PI. 3:P,4:Q,S,5:P; Bullen & Bullen, 1968a, Fig. 4:i, 1970, Fig. 7 : i-j ,8 : a,1 0:c ,e ; Bullen e_t a_l. , 1973, Fig. 6:f) and Grenada (Bullen, 1964:49, PI. XVII:1-3; Bullen & Bullen, 19o8b, Fig. 6:q-t), as well as his "Caliviny Decorated Basin" type (Bullen, 1964, PI. XIX:6; Bullen A Bullen, 1972:143). The rim modifications discussed above are generally attributed to some kind of Northern cultural influence into the Windward Islands or seen as local simplifications of the elaborate rim appendages of Saladoid times (Allaire, 1978; Bullen & Bullen, 1972:161-164.167), It is true that seemingly comparable rim lugs occur in the Ostionoid and Elenoid series of the and (for instance, Rouse, 1952, PI. 3:A,K), but, as far as the writer is aware, these rim lugs have never been encountered associated with incised motifs of Bontour type on one and the 110

same vessel as in the S Windwards. This combination of Bontour-like incised designs and "horned" rim lugs is equally known from the Plymouth complex of Tobago which may have developed partially out of Golden Grove (Harris, 1978, 1980). Although "Caliviny" type linear painting is completely absent, Plymouth shows major similarities to the Early Suazoid complexes of the Windward Islands, notably Macabou I (Allaire, 1977:317-326) and Fannis (McKusick, 1960:116-119). Charcoal, obtained by the author during his 1982 excavations at Lovers' Retreat, the type site of the Plymouth complex, yielded a C-14 date of 730 + 105 BP (Beta-4905). As Allaire (1977, 1978, 1981) has shown, evidence for the local development of the Troumassoid-Suazoid continuum out of the Saladoid series in the is sufficiently available and I certainly do not want to replace the once hypothesized "Ostionoid Horizon" by a Guayabitoid one. Ceramic similarities like those between the Bontour complex and the contemporaneous Amerindian pottery assemblages in the S Windwards point to trade relationships and other forms of social interaction rather than to population movements. They suggest once more increasing inter-island contacts after the collapse of the Barrancoid trade network. Most likely Tobago played an intermediary role in the distribution of Guayabitoid traits to the N as here Trinidadian and Lesser Antillean influences seem to converge. The scarcity of decorated pottery in the Guayabitoid •eries has led to the connotation that the Gulf of Paria region formed a cultural backwater in late-rprehistoric times. However, this is contradicted by all the ethnohistorical evidence available (Boomert, 1983; Kirchhoff, 1948). Furthermore, the distribution of Bontour sites in 5 Trinidad and the food debris excavated speak for successful adaptation to a coastal habitat, involving a mixed economy based on shell collecting, estuarine fishing and agriculture. The number of Bontour sites and the expansion of this complex Ill

to the Paria peninsula and Tobago even suggest population increase after St Catherine's times. This would parallel the observations of Sanoja (1979:259) and Roosevelt (1980:218) on similar developments along the lower and middle stretches of the Orinoco river, starting as early as Corozal times. This population increase has been associated with the introduction of maize in prehistoric subsistence agriculture, previously entirely based on manioc cultivation (ibid»;241-242). Maize as well as manioc were certainly grown on the extensive complexes of raised fields, maintained by the Hertenrits people of NW Suriname (Boomert, 1983). However, evidence for maize agriculture is not available for Bontour and Guayabita to date. Their patterns of adaptive strategies are closer to those of the simultaneous Amerindian communities in the Lesser Antilles. As Rouse & Allaire (1978) have noted, the first abundant evidence for a maritime subsistence economy is associated with the Troumassoid series in the Windward Islands while Harris (1976a) arrives at a similar conclusion with respect to the Golden Grove complex of Tobago. Population increase, opening up of new trade routes, increased social interaction and development of new subsistence patterns seem to characterize the post-Barrancoid period everywhere in the S Caribbean, in the Antilles as well as on the mainland.

1.4. The St Joseph complex

The St Joseph-2 site represents the thusfar only Guayabitoid si te in N Trinidad (Fig. 3). It is a shell midden situated in the centre of St Joseph, a small town at the entrance of a valley in the Northern Range. The town formed Trinidad's first capital during Spanish times and was founded as San José de üruna by Domingo de \/era in 1592. The site was excavated by Goggin in 1953; his finds are kept at Yale's Peabody Museum where the writer was able to study them. 112

Goggin's material was enlarged by an extensive surface collection made by the writer at St Joseph-2 in 1981/1982. Goggin dug two trenches at the site (Goggin, 1968:18-19. 40-41; Rouse, 1953a, pers. comm.). Trench 1 yielded Historic European material, including sherds of Middle Style olive jars, Spanish maiolica, delftware, chinaware, pipebowls, glass, iron nails, gun flints, etc., dating from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, thoroughly mixed with Amerindian pottery throughout. In contrast, Trench 2 showed mixed European/Amerindian material in its upper levels, overlying undisturbed prehistoric refuse and a pit burial. This stratigraphie situation has given rise to the often quoted but erroneous conclusion that the St Joseph Amerindian pottery complex was still in existence when the cleared the grounds for their capital (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959. Fig. 4; Glazier, 1982; Rouse, 1953a). It is more likely, however, that mechanical admixture is responsible for the St Joseph stratigraphie blend of European and Amerindian material. Modern glass and nineteenth-century pottery were found in the 20-39 cm level of Trench 2 while the 40-50 cm level yielded a piece of possible delftware. Furthermore, neither Trench 1 nor Trench 2 show any chronological order with respect to the depths at which the datable maiolica sherds were encountered. In Trench 2 a piece of Aucilla Polychrome, dating from the early eighteenth century, was found at a lower depth than a San Luis Blue-on-White sh«rd, which is typical of the first half of the seventeenth century. Trench 1, finally, yielded nineteenth-century European pottery, modern glass and iron fragments at deeper levels than sixteenth-century maiolica sherds. Consequently, the St Joseph midden appears to be fully prehistoric and to have been mixed with European material only after its abandonement by the Guayabitoid Amerindians. The St Joseph-2 site has been left out of our seriation diagrams because of its geographical location. The overwhelming 113

majority of St Joseph ceramics is tempered with local Northern Range river sand, containing waterworn (blue) quartz and micaschist particles (Kuarsingh, pers. comm.), identical to the tempering material of the sporadic trade sherds encountered at the sites of the Bontour complex in S Trinidad, mentioned above. According to temper (Table 1), the St Joseph complex seriates best with the latter half of the Bontour sequence in the S and the first part of the subsequent Guayaguayare complex of the Mayoid series.

The analysis of the St Joseph vessel shapes (Fig. 9fB; Table 2) and its decorative motifs (Table 4) suggests a similar chronological placement. A cauixí-tempered griddle, showing incised, punctated and modelled designs, is worth mentioning (Fig. 13,A:15). Its decoration closely resembles similarly punctated-incised motifs in Arauquin (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959, PI. 77:5,78:9) and Camoruco (ibid., PI. 88:6). It is likely that the Amerindian habitation at St Joseph ended only a few centuries before the discovery. Possibly the Spaniards chose the spot of the old prehistoric settlement for their own town because of the fact that in 1592 due to the disturbance of the original vegetation cover by the Amerindians the low hill on which St Joseph is situated was not grown by high tropical forest but instead by sparse secondary growth. This must have facilitated clearing considerably. Although the ceramic inventory of the St Joseph complex suggests a close relationship to and, most likely, n derivation from the Bontour complex of S Trinidad, the inland location of the site in the foothills of the Northern Range, close to a tributary of the Caroni river, points to a type of subsistence different from that of the Bontour shell middens on the S, SW and SE coasts. Wing (1962:45-46,49) lists the porcupine (Coendú prehensilis), paca (Agouti paca), agouti (Dasyprocta agouti) and brocket (Mazama americana) as the animals hunted for by the St Joseph people, but the sample may be incomplete. 114

The sparse non-ceramic finds from St Joseph include polished stone axe fragments, a thin circular pendant with central perforation and an elliptical one with unfinished transfixion, both made of local Northern Range micaceous schist, a bone point and some flint or chert chips. The shells collected by the St Joseph Amerindians comprise brackish/marine, estuarine or sandy/muddy shore species like the mangrove oyster (Crassostrea rhizophoroe), a small bivalve as Codakia orbicularis and the gastropod Melongena melongena, as well as freshwater (river/swamp) species, including Pomacea urceus and Marisa sp. The Melongena melongena snails belong to the Mucurapo flats variety (Percharde, pers. comm.). This suggests a shellfish catchment area as far away as at least 14 km W of the site.

1.5. The Marac complex

This can be considered as having developed out of Bontour locally in S Trinidad. It forms the latest known complex of the Guayabitoid series and appears to have existed side-by-side with the Guayaguayare complex, the earliest representative of the Mayoid tradition in Trinidad. Three sites of the Marac complex have been examined, Marac, Grant's Trace and Sylvester Trace, all shallow pottery deposits with sparse shell refuse, situated on forested, highly eroded inland ridges, ca. 4-6 km behind the S coast (Fig. 3). The Marac site was probably discovered by Bullbrook and Parkinson in 1919 (Marac-1). Bullbrook describes several partly destroyed flexed human burials from a road cutting near the Moreau Road (letter to St. I. de Verteuil, Oct. 8, 1919), the same location where 17 similar burials were encountered during road construction works by the Forestry Division in 1963 (Marac-2). Bullbrook's site became erroneously known as Rio Claro in the littérature (Bullbrook, 1953:8; Rouse, 1953a). Peter Harris made an extensive surface collection at 115

the Marac-2 site between 1963 and 1978 (Harris, 1972:15-16, 1978, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1976/1977, 1977/1978; TTHSN, 3/73, 6/73, 6/76, 2/78), while similar collections were made by Anderson-Cordova at Sylvester Trace in 1978 (Harris, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1977/1978; TTHSN, 2/78) and both by Harris (1974) and Anderson-Cordova (1978) at Grant's Trace (Harris, 1972:10, 1976b. 1978, pers. comm.; TTHS-AR, 1977/1978; TTHSN, 2/78). This material was analysed by the writer in co-operation with Peter Harris. Marac pottery is tempered predominantly with small pieces of pounded potsherds. Sand and/or caraipé (cf. below) are less common. At the Marac-2 site the potsherd temper particles often contain caraipe* grains, at Sylvester Trace mainly cauixi. The thin section of a quartz-sand tempered sherd from Grant's Trace showed that the sand contained about 30% of plagioclase feldspar next to hornblende and many other, unidentified, igneous rock fragments, suggesting a provenance outside Trinidad (Kuarsingh, pers. comm.). The relative importance of sand and caraipé as tempering materials point to contemporeinity with the latest part of the Bontour sequence and the St Joseph and Guayaguayare complexes, as our seriation diagram (Fig. 5; Table 1) bears out. A large fragment of a Spanish olive jar and a mirror piece found at the Marac-2 site (cf. Harris, this volume) suggest continuation of the complex into Historic times. The analysis of the Marac vessel shapes and decorative motifs (Fig. 6-7; Tables 1-4) conform to the temper modes seriation. Variants of ollas (Forms 3-5) and bowls (Forms 9-11) are dominant (cf. Fig. 15,A). Several typically Bontour vessel shapes have disappeared though annular bases still occur. The presence of roller stamps at Marac-2 (Fig. 13:8) and Grant's Trace and both figurine fragments and a pottery ocarina at this last site (Harris, 1976b) are noteworthy (Fig. 7:18). A few Barrancoid sherds found at Marac-2 may be derived from destroyed Lrin burials close to this site. The stone artifact inventory of the Marac complex includes grinding stones and possible manos, pieces of fossil coral, 116

polished stone axes, hammerstones, pestles, polishing stones, hematite rubbing stones, anvils, chert flakes, and an unfinished bead of quartzite (Harris, 1976b). A miniature axe found at Marac-2 may be derived from a destroyed burial. Shellfish is not abundant at the three sites of the Marac complex; it includes Donax sp. and various freshwater snails. Geographical location, the shallow character of the refuse deposits and the relative scarcity of shells as well as the presence of grinding stones at these sites suggest (forced?) inland movement, less stable settlement patterns and increasing dependence on agriculture, including perhaps maize, next to hunting at the expense of coastal shell collecting and estuarine fishing (Harris, this volume).

2.1. The Mayoid series: introduction

As mentioned above, the Bontour complex of Trinidad is considered to have been terminated by a probably small population influx from the South American mainland into the island, giving rise to the development of a new ceramic tradition, the Mayoid series. It was not until after long hesitation and consideration of the available data that the writer came to this conclusion. Migrations are not popular in modern archaeology and indeed similarities between Bontour and Mayoid ceramics are not absent, suggesting at least some continuity. However, it is felt that the combined occurrence of a number of entirely new ceramic elements, both of shape and technique of manufacture, observed by Peter Harris and the writer in the Guayaguayare complex of the W part of the Guayaguayare site in SE Trinidad, could not be explained by simply assuming trade and other forms of weak interaction with a yet undefined donor area. Moreover, just these new ceramic traits are characteristic of the Historic Amerindian pottery of the Mayo complex of S Central Trinidad, known from Spanish 117

mission sites dating back to the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

2.2. The Guayaguayare complex

The Guayaguayare site has been mentioned above in connection with the St Catherine's and Bontour complexes of the Guayabitoid series. This shell deposit represents also the only thusfar known site of the Guayaguayare complex, the earliest representative of the Mayoid series in Trinidad, although the possibility exists that similar refuse it to be found at Icacos in the extreme W part of Trinidad's S coast (Fig. 4). Surface collections made by Josa in 1975 (Harris, 1978, pers. comm.; TTHSN, 2/80) and by Harris and Boomert in 1980 led to the excavation of a 1x1 m testpit (D ), controlled in 5 cm levels, in the W part of the site by Harris and the writer in February/March of 1983. This testpit yielded Bontour complex refuse in its lower and medium levels and pottery of the Guayaguayare complex in its upper part. The sample of Guayaguayare pottery obtained was considerably enlarged with a surface collection from the W part of the site. Shells from the 5-10 cm level of pit D yielded a radiocarbon date of 550 + 50 BP (Beta-6823). If calibrated, this points to a calendric date for the Guayaguayare complex between AD 1320 and 1425 (Table 6). Guayaguayare pottery is tempered exclusively with caraipé (Fig, 5; Table 1). This is the ash of the siliceous bark of a small tree, Licania apétala, which is locally known among the Amerindians of the Amazon Valley and the Guianas as "couepia", "kwepi" (Kalina, Suriname) or "kauta" (, Guyana and Suriname). At present it forms the only tempering material the Indians in the coastal part of the Guianas use for their pottery (Ahlbrinck, 1931:343; Ostendorf, 1962). The bark is burned, resulting in the removal of most organic components, and afterwards pounded. Temper consists of a mixture of white 118

to grey siliceous particles, columnar and cellular in structure, and grains of carbonized organic material. The name caraipé, often erroneously quoted as cariapé, is derived from the name of the Amerindian village in which Spruce witnessed this specific tempering process in the late nineteenth century (Linné", 1925:38-47). The tree belongs to the Chrysobalanaceae family and is mentioned in the literature on the vegetation of Trinidad under various now obsolete names, including Moquilea kuntzeano (Williams & Cheesman, 1932:314-315). Although not a very well-known species in Trinidad, it has been encountered twice in the N Central part of the island: in the O'Meara and the Aripo savannas, in 1861 and 1913 respectively (Baksh, pers. comm.). This suggests a dry savanna or savanna- woodland habitat, which is confirmed by the occurrence of this tree in the Hupununi savanna of Guyana (Goodland, 19Ó6). Our description of the Guayaguayare complex is exclusively based on the caraipé-tempered potsherds in both testpit D and the surface collection. As can be seen from our seriation diagrams (Fig. 5-6), Guayaguayare can be placed chronologically after the Bontour complex and contemporaneous with Marac. The analysis of the Guayaguayare vessel shapes (Fig. 15,B,16,A; Table 2) shows that such simple forms as unrestricted and restricted bowls (Forms 9 and 12) are dominant, just as in Bontour, but that the proportion of olla variants (Forms 3-5) has been reduced greatly. They appear to have been replaced largely by two variants of an entirely new vessel form, a necked jar with composite contour which often shows a thin-walled, sharply everted neck which is either straight (Form 1) or slightly outcurving (Form 2). Both variants have typically rims with flattened and/or bevelled lips. Such lips are diagnostic of many of the Guayaguayare bowls as well, contrasting sharply with the Bontour bowl rims. Annular bases have disappeared completely (Table 3) and the number of decorative motifs is even smaller than in the Guayabitoid complexes. Only slightly more than 1% of the sherds is decorated, mainly with punctated or nicked rim and wall knobs (Fig. 14,B; Table 4). 119

The introduction of caraipe temper, the two variants of the necked jar and the lip modifications described above suggest a major break with the Guayabitoid series and indeed point to the arrival of new population elements. On the other hand, some continuity is indicated, for instance, by the presence of the three Bontour olla forms, now tempered with caraipe instead of shell or sand and often showing flattened and/or bevelled lips. The profile of the Guayaguayare testpit does not show any observable interruption in the deposition of the shell refuse and the variety of shell species present, predominantly Üonax sp., does not point to change in collecting habits. However, the abundance of animal bone material in the upper levels of the testpit in contrast to its medium and lower parts next to the presence of several stone arrowshaft polishers and a bone arrow point suggest suddenly increased importance of hunting. Interestingly, the Guayaguayare necked jar closely resembles the so-called buck-pot of the present Arawak () and Kalina Indians of Guyana and Suriname. This name, which is in use only in Guyana, is derived from the Dutch bok ("billy- goat"). a slightly derogatory word indicating Amerindians (it may have originated from the resemblance between horns and Indian feathercrowns). The buck-pot, or tumo-y-enë as it is called in the Cariban language, is a vessel used to cook the famous pepper-pot, a stew on the mainland mainly consisting of a mixture of meat and peppers (Ahlbrinck, 1931:91,345; Gillin, 1936:48, PI. 19; Im Thurn, 1883:274-276, Fig. 19; Hoth, 1924: 306. PI. 86,88). The toma-hiem or tomalli-acae vessel of the Island Caribs, used for preparing the toma1i sauce of crabs and peppers was mos t likely identical (Allaire, 1977:50,56-57, n.d.). The genetic connection between the Guayaguayare necked vessel and the buck-pot is stressed by the fact that, as mentioned, exclusively caraipe temper is used for the making of pottery by the Indians of the Guianas. Descriptions of the manufacturing process of buck-pots are given by Im Thurn (1883: 120

276-277) and Roth (1924:130-133). They note that although nowadays the pot is finished with a knife formerly a nicked calabash shell was used to produce a groove around the body and a perfectly smooth, often flattened rim and "slight" lip. The almost complete lack of decoration of the Guayaguayare necked jar presents a final similarity to the buck-pot of the W part of the Guianas and the Windward Islands. The Kalina of Suriname and paint their ceramics, including vessels resembling buck-pots, with lively motifs, mainly in red and black on a white-slipped background. In contrast, the pottery the Arawak of Guyana formerly made was practically undecorated. St Clair (1947) and Brett (1868:29) note that in the early nineteenth century the Lokono (Arawak) of Guyana and W Suriname only smudged their pottery, producing an over-all black colour, a practice found back among the Island Caribs (Allaire, n.d.). In conclusion, the Guayaguayare complex seems to resemble specific vessel forms of both the present Kalina and Arawak Indians of the W part of the Guiana coastal zone and the Historic Island Caribs, suggesting migration from the mainland to Trinidad during final-prehistoric times. Unfortunately, the ceramic history of both Arawak and Kalina in the Guianas is practically unknown. The painted pottery tradition of the Kalina goes back to at least the mid-seventeenth century (Boomert, 1983) but the origins of Arawak ceramics cannot be traced as they gave up pottery manufacture in the nineteenth century and, instead, have since obtained their domestic ceramics from the Kalina while iconographie records are completely lacking. Finally, sites yielding Island Carib pottery have not been discovered in the Windward Islands to date (Allaire, 1980, n.d.). Our state of knowledge with respect to the late-prehistoric and protohistoric archaeology of the Guianas and NE Venezuela is not better. Kalina ceramics have never been encountered in archaeological context and the pottery of the youngest prehistoric culture of both the coastal and interior parts of Guyana and Suriname, the Koriabo complex, an offshoot of the 121

Polychrome Tradition of Amazonia, is definitely not identical to that of the present Amerindians of the Guianas (Boomert, 1977). All that can be said is that both in the Windward Islands and in the Guiana area of the mainland the centuries around the discovery are characterized by a break in Amerindian pottery tradition (Allaire, 1977:361,368). As far as the writer is aware, the only archaeological material in the 5 Caribbean showing major similarities to Guayaguayare concerns part of the Guayabita complex of the Paria peninsula in NE Venezuela. The profile of a specific necked jar with flaring rim and interiorly flattened lip present in Guayabita closely resembles that of the Guayaguayare buck-pot (Cruxent & Rouse, 1958/1959:131-133, Fig. 99:9; Osgood &. Howard, 1943, Fig. 4:C). According to Osgood & Howard (1943:118), 13% of the rim sherds in Guayabita show necks which are angular at the base. Necked jars without the lip modifications typical of Guayaguayare and the Mayoid-like component of Guayabita are known from several Historic pottery complexes of the E Venezuelan coast. For instance, they are diagnostic of Maurica in the Barcelona area (Cruxent «, Rouse, 1958/1959:109, Fig. 79:6-14), Nueva Cadiz (ibid.:59, Fig. 21) and Obispo (ibid., Fig. 25:8-12), both of Cubagua island. No Historic material other than late-nineteenth century or even more recent artifacts has been found at Guayaguayare, suggesting that at this site the Guayaguayare complex did not extend into Historic times. The presence of moderate numbers of cara ipé-tempe red sherds and the buck-pot vessel shape at sites of the Marac complex and in St Joseph points to contacts between Guayaguayare and both these Guayabitoid complexes. It is -tempting to correlate the apparent inland movement of Marac with the intrusion and establishment of the Mayoid ceramic series in the island. We need more evidence, however, before such a conclusion can be drawn. 122

2.3. The Mayo complex

This forms the second and final ceramic complex which can be attributed to the Mayoid series of Trinidad. It is known from at least three sites in the SW Central part of the island, Mayo, Princes Town and Savaneta-2, but similar refuse may occur at Union (Rouse, 1953a; letter of Bullbrook to Rouse, August 28, 1951) in the same general area (Fig. 4). The first three sites represent the remains of former Spanish/Amerindian missions, dating back to the late-seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, They were founded by Capuchin missionaries in an attempt of the Spanish government to assimilate the Trinidad Amerindians to Spanish culture and to convert them to Christianity. Until the 1780s Trinidad remained a remote and impoverished outpost of the in which a small group of white and settlers, concentrated in the NW part of the island, ineffectively tried to control the much larger population of Amerindians who lived scattered all over the island. Plantations were few: the Spaniards lacked the manpower, capital and implements for agricultural development and only temporarily the production and trading of cash crops such as cacao and tobacco flourished. In the early-seventeenth century the granting of to privileged Spaniards proved to be a failure as for obvious reasons most Amerindians preferred to live outside them. In order to get political control over the non-acculturated Indians the Spanish government allowed a group of Catalonian Capuchins to start missionary activities among the Trinidad Indians in 1687. They founded several mission villages in those parts of the island which were still densely populated with natives. Other missions were established by a group of Aragonese Capuchin fathers in 1758. Most of these mission villages were shortlived. However, a small number of them existed until the end of the eighteenth century and a few even as late as the first half of the nineteenth century, long after the colony had been captured by the British in 1797 (Newson, 1976:162-168,258-260). 123

By combining information from historical documents with topographic, cartographic and toponymical evidence it has been possible to discover several of these Spanish/Amerindian mission sites (Fig. 4). In 1953 Goggin and Rouse were able to locate the site of the mission of Nuestra Señora de Montserrate (1687-1789) at Mayo in SW Central Trinidad, that of L_a Divina Pastora (1758- 1849) at Siparia in the extreme SW and the mission of Santa Rosa de Arima (1758-1849) at Arima and that of La Divina Seflora de la Assunción (1758-1849) at Toco, both in the N part of Trinidad (Rouse, 1953a). Furthermore, in 1978 Anderson-Cordova could locate the mission of j_a Anuncíata de Nazaret de Savana Grande (1687-1849) at Princes Town and that of Santa Ana de Savaneta (1687-1789) in the cane area between Tortuga and Couva, S of the Savaneta river (Anderson-Cordova, 1978). The Mayo mission was excavated by Goggin in 1953 (Goggin, 1968:40-41; Rouse, 1953a, pers. comm.) and by Anderson-Cordova in 1978 (Anderson-Cordova, 1978; TTHSN, 2/78). Goggin's material could be studied at Yale's Peabody Museum, that of Anderson- Cordova in Trinidad. Similarly, the results of Anderson-Cordova's excavations at Princes Town could be analysed (Anderson-Cordova, 1978; TTHS-AR, 1977/1978; TTHSN, 2/78). Finally» the extensive surface collections made by Anderson-Cordova (1978), Harris (1978-1980) and the writer (1982) at Savaneta-2 were studied (Harris, pers. comm.; Anderson-Cordova, 1978; TTHSN, 3/78, 4/78, 2/79, 4/79, 5/79, 3/80). Unfortunately, the finds collected in 1953 by Rouse and Goggin at Arima, Siparia-Pastora Street and Toco-The Mission are kept at the University of and could not be studied. All three sites have been destroyed since the 1960s. The Mayo ceramic complex clearly shows a direct development out of Guayaguayare. Caraipé is the only tempering material used by the Indians of the three mission sites examined (Fig. 5; Table 1), while griddles, simple bowls and buck-pots with thin-walled (often 4-5 mm in cross section) necks represent their only pottery shapes (Fig. 16,B). Both bowls and necked jars have typically flat bases and flattened and/or 124

bevelled lips similar to those of the Guayaguayare complex. Decoration is confined to plain or nicked rim and wall knobs and rarely small rim lobes or simple red-painted designs (Fig. 14,C; Table 4). The food remains found at the Mayo, Princes Town and Savaneta mission sites include shellfish, animal bones and a few nut fragments. Shells are numerous in the Mayo and Princes Town deposits, less so at Savaneta. The shell species found at the Mayo site mainly include Codakia orbicularis, a bivalve at home in a brackish/marine sandy or muddy, shallow-water environment, mangrove oysters (Crassostreo rhizophoroe) and Melongena melongena snails. A few freshwater snails, Pomacea urceus and Marisa sp., have been found as well. The Melongena melongeno snails belong to the Pointe-a-Pierre variety (Percharde, pers. comm.) which points to a shell catchment area as far away as 7.5 to almost 10 km to the W. Bones are less numerous. Wing (1962:44-46,49-52) analysed the material Goggin excavated at Mayo and she mentions the armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), ant eater (Tamanduá longicaudata), red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus), porcupine (Coendú prehensilis), paca (Agouti paca), agouti (Ousyprocta aguti ), collared peccary (Pacari tajacú ) and brocket (Mazama americana) as the animals hunted for by the Mayo Indians. One bone specimen of the domesticated dog (Canis familiaris) may betray European influence (ibid.:49). The stone artifact inventories of the mission sites equally point to the continuation of a "prehistoric" pattern of subsistence and cultural tradition. They comprise anvils, hammerstones, grinding stones, polishing stones, a few chert flakes and cores, and rubbing stones of hematite. Potsherds showing grooves may have been used as arrowshaft polishers. Several sherds have blackened interiors due to cooking; a bone ring found at Mayo may represent a pendant. Finally, a few sand-tempered sherds, showing tiny quartz and micaschist grains, most likely represent trade items from an as yet unknown 125

Historic ceramic complex in Trinidad's Northern Range (Kuarsingh, pers. comm.), possibly Arima. European material is scarce at the sites of the Mayo complex. This seems to be a general feature of Spanish/Amerindian mission sites in the (Glazier, 1982), It is represented by rim and wall fragments of Spanish olive jars belonging to the Middle Style (Goggin, 1960), pieces of eighteenth-century maiolica and delftware, glazed and painted in various colours, darkgreen glass including case bottles, handforged iron nails of "rose head" type, etc. (Hill, pers. comm.). The presence of various nineteenth-century artifacts and potsherds point to continuity in settlement since Spanish times. This is born out also by the fact that the Mayo, Siparia, Arima, Toco and Princes Town deposits are located under or in close vicinity of the present Woman Catholic churches in these towns (Boomert, 1982). The ethnic affiliation of the Indians of Princes Town, Mayo, and Savaneta cannot be established conclusively. Throughout the eighteenth century the inhabitants of these villages and those of the Guayria (San Fernando) mission are referred to as the Naparima Indians (Caulin, 1966, 1:184-185; THSP, 52, 54, 55. 90, 141, 195, etc.). However, it is unlikely that Naparima represents a tribal name as it forms a still existing toponym indicating the region of SW Central Trinidad in which the four missions were situated. The name of the district is obviously derived from the name of the hill located in the centre of the present town of San Fernando, Mount Naparima (originally Anaparima), which was recorded as early as the 1590s (Thompson, 1959). Besides, the name Naparima as indicating an Amerindian tribal group does not appear before 1688 (THSP, 572) while it is used exclusively with reference to the mission Indians of this part of Trinidad. Instead, there is some evidence that the Naparima Indians belonged to the Nepoio (Nepuya, Nepyo, Napoy, etc.), an apparently Cariban-speaking tribe (Taylor, 1977:15) which is 126

mentioned in relation to Trinidad for the first time in 1573 (Newson, 1976:18,242). During the eighteenth century the Nepoio are repeatedly recorded as living in the former villages of NW Trinidad (THSP, 55, 378, etc.), while a late- eighteenth-century manuscript states that one of these encomiendas, Tacarigua, was inhabited by Naparima Indians (Anonymous, ca. 1780). In this respect Pionegro's remark of 1732 that "el idioma Común de los Indios reducidos" of Trinidad "es el Nepuyo, y Naparima que distan mucho de los idiomas de la ... Provincia de Cumana" (Pionegro, 1918, 11:237) is difficult to interpret. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Nepoio are recorded as "friends of Spain" and on various occasions they appear to have assisted the Spaniards on expeditions against hostile Indians. Apart from Trinidad, segments of this tribe lived on the Lower Orinoco and in the delta of this river. During the 1590s Antonio de Berrío, Trinidad's first Spanish governor, allowed many Nepoio to settle in Trinidad (Boomert, 1983). Interestingly, both Ralegh (1928:12) and Onsiel (THSP, 137) located the Nepoio tribe near Galeota Point in SE Trinidad in 1596 and 1637 respectively. This suggests a connection with the Guayaguayare site. Although it is generally assumed that at the end of the eighteenth century all Amerindians of Trinidad were christianized, Spanish-speaking and assimilated to Spanish culture (Laurence, 1980), the archaeological evidence recovered at the three mission sites is sufficient to show that the Nepoio were able to preserve at least part of their cultural heritage, including their traditions of manufacturing pottery and stone implements, until well into the eighteenth century. Moreover, in spite of all pressures they appear to have continued successfully a subsistence pattern which is basically "prehistoric" in character: combining hunting and swidden agriculture with the collecting of shellfish. 127

3. Conclusions

As N Trinidad is practically terra incognita archaeologically speaking, it has not been possible to sketch a geographically balanced picture of the late-prehistoric to protohistoric development of the island. Our conclusions are necessarily limited to the S and SW parts of Trinidad about which we are much better informed. Furthermore, as N and S Trinidad differ sharply from each other in many environmental characteristics, the N sequence r\eed not to be an exact copy of the cultural development in the S and other types of adaptation can be expected, especially in the Northern Range. Nevertheless, a few patterns are beginning to emerge. The immediate post-Barrancoid period in N as well as S Trinidad appears to be characterized by the establishment of Guayabitoid an Arauquinoid-derived pottery series, closely related to various similar complexes in the Lower Orinoco Valley and on the coasts of NE Venezuela and the Guianas. The inception of the Arauquinoid tradition in these areas led to a quick decline of the Barrancoid trade network in the S Caribbean, what is echoed by the disappearance of Barrancoid ceramic traits in the Windward Islands around 1350 BP. Undoubtedly the Guayabitoid people established their own trade network, encompassing most of the former Barrancoid interaction sphere, as is born out by various similarities in pottery between Trinidad, NE. Venezuela, the W Guiana coast, Tobago and the S Windwards. As decoration is reduced to almost the absolute minimum on their ceramics, the Arauquinoid/Guayabitoid trade routes are difficult to trace although some can be suggested, The last few centuries before the discovery saw the inception of a new pottery series in S Trinidad, Mayoid. For reasons explained above it is felt that this was due to a small population influx from the mainland, probably from the Orinoco delta or the W part of the Guiana coastal zone. As Mayoid ceramics are found back at several Spanish/Amerindian mission 128

sites in SW Central Trinidad, it is possible to identify their makers as probably belonging to the Nepoio tribe, a Cariban- speaking group known to have lived in Trinidad, on the banks of the Lower Orinoco and in the delta of this river in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. From the material remains found at these mission sites it can be concluded that the Nepoio were able to preserve part of their cultural heritage well into the eighteenth century, reflecting the lack of effective colonization of Trinidad by the Spaniards until the 1780s.

Acknowledgements

First of all I wish to thank Professor Irving B. Rouse who generously allowed me to analyse the archaeological finds from Trinidad kept in the Peabody Museum of Yale University, New Haven, and Mr Peter O'Brien Harris (Texaco Trinidad, Ltd, Pointe- a-Pierre) for his permission to study those kept in the depot of the Trinidad and Tobago Historical Society (South Section) and for his co-operation during field work at the sites in S Trinidad mentioned in this paper, I am indebted also to the following persons for valuable assistance at various stages of the research: Miss Yasmin S. Baksh (National Herbarium of Trinidad and Tobago, St Augustine), Professora Inés Ezcurra de Drago (instituto Nacional de Limnologia, Santo Tomé, Santa Fé, Argentina), Miss Martha Hill (Department of Anthropology, Yale University, New Haven, U.S.A.), Dr Richard Hubbard (institute of Marine Affairs, Chaguaramas), Dr Harry Kuarsingh (Geological Laboratory, Texaco Trinidad, Ltd, Pointe-à-Pierre), Mrs Amy Leong-Pang (Port-of-Spain), Professor Julian S. Kenny (Department of Zoology, University of the West Indies, St Augustine), Mr Peter L. Percharde (Trinmar, Ltd, Point Fortin), and Dr Erika Wagner (Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas, Caracas, Venezuela). 129

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TABLE 1. Frequencies of pottery temper categories at sites of the Guayabitoid and Hayoid series in Trinidad. Abbreviations: CR - coroiprf; PS - potsherd; SH - shell; CX » couixf; CiS - quartz sand ; UC - unclassified; HS - sand containing mica and/or micaschist particles. T » total number of sherds found.

Sites CR PS SH CX QS UC T Notes

Savaneta-2 (Surface 1529 1329 — coll. 1978/1982) Moyo (Excav. 1953/ 2338 1 — — 31 -- 2342 (1 ) 3 x MS. 1978) Guayaguayare (testpit 38 ~ 9 3 2 2 54 -- D, surface; 1983) ibid, (testpit D, 223 3 29 4 6' 6 271 (1 ) 4 x MS. uTTs cm levels; 1983) Sylvester Trace 26 841 2 — 4 —— 116 (1) many PS grains contain (Surface coll. 1978) CX. Marac-2 (Surface 59 361 ' 26 -- 61 9 516 (2) PS grains often coll. 1963/1978) include CR, rarely CX. Grant's Trace (Surf. 4 82 26 4 64' -- 180 (1) 5 x MS. coll. 1973/1978) Guayaguayare (testpit 15 21 89 3 71 7 142 (1) 1 x MS. D, 15-30 cm; 1983) Point Radix-1 9 6 110 1 97* — 222 (1 ) 5 x CX in surf. coll. (testpit; 1983) X (2) 3 x MS. Bâtiment Crasé* (Surf. 386 9 651 —— 460 (1) 2 x MS coll. 1973/1978 4 testpit 1983) Los Iros (testpit -- 991 529 24 13 23 688 (1) many PS grains contain 1978) CX. Bontour (Excav. 1 , 1 3 1070 4 441 6 1128 (1) 7 x MS. 0-40 cm level; 1946) ibid. (Excav. 1, —— 1 201 4 101 2 218 (1) 1 x MS. 40-80 cm level; 1946) Guayaguayare (testpit — 13 125 3 — 2 143 — 6. 3u-o0 cm; 1983) 1 Icacos (testpit; 9 295 21 91 1 417 (1 ) 36 x MS. i9?o) Uuinam East (surface — 349 97 189 635 collection; 1983) 1 Quinam (Trench 4; — 26 204 77 154 37 498 (2) 7 x MS. Í94¿) 1 St Joseph-2 (Trench 23 67 114 25 836 15 1080 (1) 824 x MS. European 2, 0-30 cm; 1953) pottery excluded. 1 St Joseph-2 (Trench 5 46 5 227 1 284 (1) all MS. European 2, 30-60 cm; 1953) pottery excluded. 134

TABLE 2. Frequencies of vessel form categories at sites of the Guayabitoid and Hoyoid series in Trinidod. T - total number of rimsherds found.

CM r- o> r- n m 1 vO »• CM * CM r>- o\ ,- T" m * *" 1 CM m T- ^

T- i 1 1 i i 1 1 i CM 1 OJ i- i f- i 1 1 i i 1 ' i 1 1 i

o i 1 1 •v T- 1— m o co m T OJ n r- »• i 1 1 T" ^

a o o OJ t- •a- 00 N m CM m O N » m r- o. O •n ." OJ T o T- o; n CM *•

CO

r>. lili 1 1 1 1 1 O 1 lili i i i i i i

OJ OJ m r- GD OJ OJ r"

* co M 1/1 1 f« •«r ao 1 m t- CM m 1 CM

ro o in CO

m r" t- O o o OJ ^ T- •o T- o

CM o 1" *- 1 1 1 1 i 1 i l i 1 r- 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 i l l

in O o 1

•f ^M) V i-* • 4J ^-N •*4 w •*a« H-• •H •o ^O .- O a 0 - •»•—» L a N u• r- £ o <"•* O *U- « rn 3 V ^» ©i 0 o 0 ~^m . *«>i »-^• > 00 3 e co «J •M •• •i n w *—* •• C H- <-•* m • LD N o l/>—» +• ON •H *• • ao .- L m L CM o. <-> 3 00 a o ^co »»«» 00 a V 0\ *J 3 ao •^ L• 3 CO t- — moi U• r o t^ —'*- rs +* • -H in o\ £ 1- (A Ov 0 a »0• 0>~^ m 0> O. *-* T- O —' *—' t" «3 ^ L »- O• «i- ri • 0 r- m c o ••> •> C • •L 1- ~i • <- 0 X L -^co +* X L• F «1 •w e CM CM ^00* 0> O t c -H 1- m -H **O t) m o\ •»—* Ui 0 O «I .. <- i 1 N o O O L. 0 -_-c¿uo t- s •o u r>- »- • n % »- £ m 0 O X O> •H o N a 0 *J o> m 0> <-> u 'H —• a m T- U 3 m v •!-•> CM Ov n rx C «- +» 0 c 3 s ^ e o *» a *- o O 1 r" *• • •H u 3 O 1 *O• V- V •-I •>l E * tl c• 0 i e • O •--. - •> u f • a 0 0 ir» o Se 0 o e 0 ^H• ole^o^ • i. 0 m C »-4• c 3 •H ^ +» 00 *J VO u c c -» #H o> o -**H > L •o O *+ •^ M 0 m r- c •9 0> -H -* •H C.M_ •*H» > 0 >K - 0 Ji3 o\ u O 0 « *0< o e 0 • o -*

Sy l «5 « 03 ° ¿¡ o ¿fe 5 o u 2 o a. o *> z 3 o "-M 1 S 01 u» •6 Sites 13 14 15 16 17 18 UC Notes

Sovoneto-2 1 53 316 (1) All probably Form 2.

Moyo 1 30 422 (1 ) ibid.

Guoyoguoyore 23 260

Sylv. Troce 1 19

Moroc-2 6 204

Qront's Tr. 4 56

P. Rodix-1 1 40 (1) All probably Form 3

Bot. CrogMÍ 7 95 (1) ibid.

Los Iros 12 1 190 (1) ibid.

Bontour 7 e 307 (1) ibid. (2) present in surface coll. 1982/3. Guoyoguoyore 1 46 (1) All probably Form 3

Icocos 2 58 (1) ibid. (2) present in surface coll. 1976 Quinom Eost 1 135 (1) All probably Form 3

Qu inom 5 79 (1) ibid.

St Joseph-2 12 281 European material excluded.

NOTE. Form 2/3 includes rimsherds which con belong either to Form 2 or Form 3. 136

TABLE 3. Frequencies of base form categories and handles at sites of the Guayabitoid and Moyoid series in Trinidad. T - total nurtoer of base sherds found! HA •» handles.

CM •o e ^ •o ^ai> >- 3 L •H 0 • o CD > X 0 e c o •H X FH e 0 •H *C> 1. L e e e e +» V e u t- 0 «1 au l +•> L•. 0 1 i i 1 1 1 1 i i *--*>f- . 1 1 1 i 3 1 i i 1 1 1 1 i i 1 1 1 i z *" LU

r~ 1 r- i 1 1 •* 1 i CM X r" 1 t— CM X< 1 i 1 1 1 i 1 %—

H M m NO CO N \0 CM c- o •- 00

IP» CvJ \ù (M n 1 -o O n t- rn M CO C\ r- ^ CM « T" r- CM

f> 1 (S) tn tr 1 -O uo n •v ~C in N u 1 T- 1 f r- CM

1 y-

1 1 i m 1 i i UI t- o i 1 1 e i 1 1 l 1 co •<* -o o n ». CA r^ r- m m in M

o> ^ vO vO o n (\j in vO t- o '—• Ov 0 •\ u> »- —* *-CO^ 3 • co (71 «3 +> r•-• m ro r- • m trt^-s •*4 »L-. 1• • »- *"*» in • L. m r^ +* a e oo L. o> •> 3 c o> • o\ ^co 4-» • -H 1/) 3 00 T~ •— «> o» o r- 0 f- t>- r~ c tfl O 0 V 0\ o> r" »l/•> o-^ tl >0 **^ ^ a ü >- 0 4 ^ L. t- r- o• f- 1 t->• 0 T- . 0 •^ X ~4 L v»0O ••> X L E•» n CM CM ^CO^ 0> 0 *H LO •^•^ UI 0 o L• 1 o V• •) n 1 r«- u 0 o l- 0 ^-%o K r- TJ o N r- •"•* O 00 K £ 0 X 0> •H e o o o\ 0 •M o> m 0> o Ld Oi a &• —' V "*^ 4-> r Id 3 m +> V CM c «- *> 0 t> 3 o «- o a i « ^ a: • •H 3 o 1 : • *-~» 0 • • o *» *J -• 0 10 O § . (A t 2 • a 0 0 m cO r+ oleo o »-• »L- 0 C *H c 3 •H -i *> O v O O C cI 0> > L. ^ 0 •** «1 N C 0> «- 0 -) 3 • 0 0 L 0 0 0 o e 0 0> 0 o> O 0 *> 0 âlc> I-I CD o *• i- CD Û Qu i Sa v O Sit < o O O Í 2 o o a. «3 o 5 137

TABLE 4. Frequencies of modes of decoration at sites of the ôuayabitoidand Hayoid series in Trinidod. T - total number of decorated sherds found; % - percentage of decorated sherds.

r- o> It t- CM Cvl f- O m ON , *r- CM CO M ^ o T- *- CM CM ^ CM (NI M (NI m m CM CM * l- <9 T- ON ^* CM ^ ON K ON CO n o V r m ^ (M n m T- CM r

1 s»6opu«ddo i f- 1 t- T- 1 1 1 peXT»POiu xejduOD r T- r- X X r- r»

M S}»tTTJ- enbTxddD 1 m t- X r 1 1 1 <»

s6n-[ UJTJ PSSTOJ CM •w OS «- (NI (NJ m NO m m CM

pes TOUT T- CD 1 r- 1 (NI \0 CM a h- r>- 1 r"

psjutod pej 1 *r 1 1 1 1 N 1 CM 1 i 00 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i t

CM pe>|3Tu/p»)D)3und CM o vO 1 vO (Ni 'O (NJ CD X O o CM CO (M 1

OUJS •* -H • o o -o sqoux; CM -O f- •<» in m T- TI in X ri n 1 oo r1 CM T- 1

^K i-i +j ^~* l-H 03 OD te d se l B coll e » coll e ixclud e f- *H. r- 0 O U 0 •r*>t *H •*-* . ON •^ ^^vO a a u e o o >> e T- a O . •''-^ «1-. 1- -«a^ N ^*NO* u *J . ü %L.- « Cl 3 +"^ ON "H -1 L. I_ C 0 ^m «i »- 3 e s 10 «3 •u T•»- m n f" «V. Ov *- *-» in • <- o t/»^ +> ON •H • CO l- r" e i. CM a *» 3 o ^00 *—'0 9 a *> ON 3 L 0 3 00 r* •-- « 0 h- **-*»- N« t^ . *—* T» -*H> L0 h- 10 O w e a m ON^ *> >0 CL • • C •0"-^ L u r* ^1 ^H• 0 «- Cl « u C V —' ^ • L n 3 0 X i-H L ^00 V• X i. b»- M V (M t CM ~-00 . 0> O l/l"- L. m •rt O O m ON u O u e «t 1». 1 N u Oe O«N ^00 t- s •o o N r- •^** >• •> 0 K o 0 O X 0> 1- N ON 0 +» 0\ m •*-* 0 o U r- 111 3 in o t- 3 -o *—* *—* n *>e *• -• 1 a . *H 3 O i «ti L. in t m c # o U *• , *> 0 -* ol \pparen t 'resen t 'resen t luropea n ? • a -» o 0 n (M e 0 t-t O m c <-l c 3 •w ^ +» >o > r- u| c ro cl ^H °l 0> o **i-i L o 0 «1 •4J -c «i ti *> 0 •H CD -H *> > i. ^ •»< 0c n o 3 ^ — — ^_ ^ -^ 0 0 H 3 • 0 O o- O o 0 o e 0 Ov ¿1 T- CM n •» •** T- O * M| 10 w O z" 1 O o o Z o u aw m o *• -I m? ¡è ° O •• ol (A »" z TABLE 5. Connection between modes of decoration and vessel form categories of the Guoyabitoid end Mayoid series in Trinidad.

vessel forms decoration 1 2 2/3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 X 1 X t 1 knobs 1 X 1 X small rim lobes punctated/nicked X X - red painted _2 incised - X X raised rim lugs - - X appliqué' fillets - _2 complex modelled X 1 X 1 X 1 I X 1 X I 1 X appendages 1 X

Notes (1) Present in ¡cacos, surfoce coll. 1976. (2) Present in Guayaguayare, surface coll. 1982. 139

TABLE 6. Radiocarbon datas for sitas of tha Guayobitoid and Mayoid •arias in Trinidad. All datas ora raportad in radiocarbon yaars BP (Before Prasant, i.a., AD 1990). Tha half-lit» of radiocarbon is taken as 5568 years and 95% of the activity of the N.B.S. oxalic acid has been used as the modern standard. The quoted errors are from the counting of the modern standard, background, and sample being analysed.Most samples have been corrected for isotope fractionation (C13/C12) in nature. The dates have been calibrated for temporal variations in the radiocarbon content of atmospheric carbon dioxide (De Vries-effeet) according to the method of Klein et al. (1982).

0 (1) BATIMENT CRASE (County of St Patrick) Combined sample of charcoal collected from testpit A, levels 20-40, 40-60 and 60-80 cm, by Boomert & Harris, February 1983, associated with marine shells, mainly Tivelo moctroides. animal bones, nut fragments, and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayobitoid series. Conventional datei 650 ^ 50 BP (laboratory No. Beta-6808). C13/C12: -26.02 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 1255-1400.

(2) BATIMENT CRASE (County of St Patrick) Combined sample of (marine) shells, all Tivelo moctroides. some burned, from testpit A, levels 40-60 and 60-80 cm, collected by Boomert & Harris, February 1983, associated with animal bones, nut fragments and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayobitoid series. Conventional date: 990 • 50 BP (Beta-6809). C13/C12: +4.00 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 900-1205.

(3) GUAYAGUAYARE (County of Mayaro) Marine shells, Donax sp. and Melongeno melongeno. from testpit D, level 5-10 cm, collected by Boomert & Harris, February/ March 1983, associated with animal bones, stone artifacts and pottery of the Guayaguayare complex, Mayoid series. Conventional date: 550 +_ 50 BP (Beta-6823). C13/C12: +2.77 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 1320-1425.

(4) GUAYAGUAYARE (County of Mayaro) Marine shells, Donax sp., Tivelo moctroides and Melongeno melongeno. from testpit D, levels 10-15 ond 15-20 cm, collected by Boomert ft Horris, February/March 1983, associated with animal bones and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayobitoid series. Conventional date: 780 + 60 BP (Beta-6824). C13/C12: 43.37 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 1190-1315.

(5) GUAYAGUAYARE (County of Mayaro) Marine shells, Donax sp. and Tivelo moctroides. from testpit D, levels 30-35 and 35-40 cm, collected by Boomert & Harris, February/March 1983, associated with animal bones ond pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayobitoid series. Conventional datet 1200 + 60 BP (Beta-6825). C13/C12: +2.60 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 635-905. 140

(6) GUAYAGUAYARE (County of Mayoro) Charcoal from testpit C, 0-25 cm level, collected by Harris in 1969, associated with pottery of the St Catherine's complex (?), Guayabitoid series. Conventional date: 1260 «• 100 BP (IVIC-785) Calibrated date: AD 595-910. Note: date probably not corrected for isotope fractionation. Source: Tamers (1973), Harris, pers. corn. (7) ICACOS (County of St Patrick) Charcoal from testpit A, levels 50-75 and 75-100 cm, collected by Harris, September 1976, associated with (marine) shells, mainly Donox sp. and Tivela mactroides. and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayabitoid* series. Conventional date: 1130 + 50 BP (Beta-6807). C13/C12: -27.84 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 770-1025.

(8) POINT RADIX-1 (County of Mayaro) Marine shells, Donox sp., Tivela mactroides and Astroeo tuber. from testpit A, level 15-20 cm, collected by Boomert & Harris, January/February 1983, associated with animal bones and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayabitoid series. Conventional date: Modern (Beta-6826). C13/C12: -1.51 0/00. (9) POINT RADIX-1 (County of Mayaro) Marine shells, Donox sp.. Tivela mactroides and Astrosa tuber. from testpit A, level 20-25 cm, collected by Boomert & Harris, January/February 1983, associated with animal bones and pottery of the Bontour complex, Guayabitoid series. Conventional date: 960 • SO BP (Beta-6827) C13/C12: - 0.57 0/00. Calibrated date: AD 910-1220. 141

es* VTOBAGO uwc»* nemeMa

Zmm

Fiq. 1. Archoeological sites in the S Caribbean area mentioned in the text. Legend: (1) sites; (2) 1000 m contourline; (3) political boundaries.

J- * i3

COPOWITO

umitNCAl IMUNCOI OUaMUMTO | >*OT*O«O I i 6 I TT •T leesPM

,i I» PLVMOUTM 1—r it 1

Fig. 2. Revised chronological chart of Trinidad ond adjacent areas. Complexes in small lettering and within brockets not yet sufficiently defined. RCYBP > radiocarbon years Before Present, i.e., AD 1950. 142

Fig. 3. Sites of the Guayobitoid series in Trinidqd. Legend: (1 ) St Catherine's complex; (2) St Catherine's and Bontour complexes; (3) Bontour complex; (4) St Joseph complex; (5) Marac complex; (6) other Guayabitoid sites, complex not yet determined; (7) 200 feet contourline.

Fig. 4. Sites of the Mayoid series in Trinidod. Legend: (1 ) Guayaguayare complex; (2) Mayo complex; (3) other Mayoid sites, complex not yet determined; (4) other Historic- Amerindian sites, complex nor series determined; (5) 200 feet contourline. 143

srras

uvan 151»

«uro «42

ri oo 15

iriv n m

«MAC >i« •MITST

l-l-OU -30 1*0 7iO f 60 142 f ««HI »*0 • SO

UT ca m f650 t SO Uw j SO i iws

ld O 40 lili '•> 40-40 IK -G4X-6C 14] 1100 f 60 ICACOS 417 1130 » 50

OWWUKi 415 auioui 4W

Fig. 5. Seriotion diagram of the pottery temper categories of the Guayabitoid and Mayoid series in S and S Central Trinidad. CR - coroiprf; PS » potsherd: SH • shell; CX - couixí; QS - quartz sand; UC - unclassified; RCYBP - radiocarbon years Before Present; T » total number of sherds found; G - Guayaguoyare; BO » Bontour.

I* 17 II 4 • II 14 7 UC

StVM 114

•UTO 421

CM 1(1 160

•tute 104

BMHUT 56

WT a t»

i w> l»0

107

Si

US

^

Fig. 6. Seriotion diagram of the vessel form categories of the Guayabitoidond Mayoid series in S and S Centrol Trinidad. UC - unclassified; T - total number of rim sherds found; G're (G) indicates Guayaguoyare, testpit D, 0-15 cm & surface coll. (coroipe"-tempered potsherds). 144

c 21 E^o no— » o t u. co o I. U. 3 m •• o O <-» V CM ~m ,- Co '— m «E E «- O o ï " Í-- o f^ o U. — t-

Ec — o o ;-E E «-0 0 • • E^~ o o o

•o o « '2 E • 8 s 9 SÎ 0 -2 r - N- &P&B ^^ •¿CC* •H f *. L. >-' O K IA IA H f C *- *O- 1>. °I

e

2 1» "f * s° o o o > Í c IA _ O » ï U t 'o > a v_ ) 145

*.Ö 0® -H /y?7 •C?®», D IPs' ui'

W0,

FA f »-T? Figure 9. Figure 10.

Fjq, ot vessel forms, base forms and handles of the Bontour complex — ' (A) and the St Joseph complex (B). Legend: (A,1) Form A; (A,2) Form B; (A,3) Form C; (A,4) Form E ; (A,6-9) handles; (A,5) figurine foot; (A.10) Form 15; (B.1) Form 1; (B.2) Form 4; (B.3) Form 5; (B,4) Form 8; (B,5) Form 3; (B,6) Form 12; (B,7) Form 10; (B.8) handle; (B,9) Form 9; (B.10) Form 15; (B.11 ) Form A; (B.12) Form B; (B.13) Form E.

Fia- 10- Decorated «herds of the Bontour complex. Provenance- ?!n«Vr T i1'3^^.11.15-18.21.23-24), Los Iros (2.4,'6.10, 14.22), Icocos (8.19), Guayaguayore (9), Bâtiment Crasé- (12), Quinam East (13,10). 146

\ ^ B & ' ^

'ff

Figure 11. Figure 12.

FJQ- 11 • Oocoroted shsrds of th« Bontour complex. Provinoncc Los Iros (1-2,5,9,12), Bontour (3-4,8), Quinom East (6, 11,15,16,18), Guayaguayars (7,14), Quinom (10), Icacos (13.17).

Fiflj12. Dscoratsd shsrds of ths Bontour complsx. Provsnancsi — Bontour (1,3,8,11,18), Guayaguayars (2,4,6,9), Quinom East (3,12), Quinom (7,16), Los Iros (10), Batim«nt Cros* (13), Icacos (14,17). Point Radix-1 (15). 147

Figure 13. Figure 14,

Fig. 13. Decorated sherds of the St Joseph complex (A) and the Morac complex ÍB). Provenance: St Joseph-2 (A,1-11); Grant's Trace (B.1-5), Maroc-2 (8,6-9).

Fia^_M. Decorated sherds of th. Maroc complex (A). Guayo0uoyor. complex (B). and the Mayo complex (C). Provenance" T C 1 Mor ?B°i%î.(B.1-3); £nMay*o (C.1-4)ti'ï'î'S'V, Savaneta-«-2(A,2,5)2 (C.5-7)!. Guayaguayor. 148

•<«. *,

CM

iï

Figure 15. Figure 16.

Fig. 15. Vessel forms, base forms and handles of the Marac complex (A) and vessel forms of the Guayaguoyore complex (B). Legend: (A.1) Form 1; (A,2) Form 3; (A,3) Form 4; (A,4) Form 5; (A,5) Form 9; (A,6) Form 10; (A,7) Form 8; (A,8) handle; (A,9) Form 12; (A,10) Form 15; (A.11) Form E; (A,12) Form D; (B,1) Form 1; (B,2) Form 4; (B,3) Form 2.

Fig. 16. Vessel forms of the Guayaguoyore complex (A) and ve»»el form», bas* form» and handles of the Mayo complex (B), Legend A,1) Form 3; (A,2) Form 122; (A,3) Form 5; (A,4) Form 9 A,5) Form 15; (B,1) Form 1 ; (B.2) Form 2; (B,3) Form 9 (B,4) Form 12; (B,5) Form 13; (B,6) Form ¿; (B,7) Form ÍJ ; (B,8) handle; (B, 9) Form'lS.