A COMPARISON of the METHODS USED in DETERMINING AZIMUTH by SOLAR OBSERVATIONS by .Gerald E. Murphy a Thesis Submitted to The
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3 Rectangular Coordinate System and Graphs
06022_CH03_123-154.QXP 10/29/10 10:56 AM Page 123 3 Rectangular Coordinate System and Graphs In This Chapter A Bit of History Every student of mathematics pays the French mathematician René Descartes (1596–1650) hom- 3.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System age whenever he or she sketches a graph. Descartes is consid- ered the inventor of analytic geometry, which is the melding 3.2 Circles and Graphs of algebra and geometry—at the time thought to be completely 3.3 Equations of Lines unrelated fields of mathematics. In analytic geometry an equa- 3.4 Variation tion involving two variables could be interpreted as a graph in Chapter 3 Review Exercises a two-dimensional coordinate system embedded in a plane. The rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system is named in his honor. The basic tenets of analytic geometry were set forth in La Géométrie, published in 1637. The invention of the Cartesian plane and rectangular coordinates contributed significantly to the subsequent development of calculus by its co-inventors Isaac Newton (1643–1727) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). René Descartes was also a scientist and wrote on optics, astronomy, and meteorology. But beyond his contributions to mathematics and science, Descartes is also remembered for his impact on philosophy. Indeed, he is often called the father of modern philosophy and his book Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be required reading to this day at some universities. His famous phrase cogito ergo sum (I think, there- fore I am) appears in his Discourse on the Method and Principles of Philosophy. Although he claimed to be a fervent In Section 3.3 we will see that parallel lines Catholic, the Church was suspicious of Descartes’philosophy have the same slope. -
Chapter 7 Mapping The
BASICS OF RADIO ASTRONOMY Chapter 7 Mapping the Sky Objectives: When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to describe the terrestrial coordinate system; define and describe the relationship among the terms com- monly used in the “horizon” coordinate system, the “equatorial” coordinate system, the “ecliptic” coordinate system, and the “galactic” coordinate system; and describe the difference between an azimuth-elevation antenna and hour angle-declination antenna. In order to explore the universe, coordinates must be developed to consistently identify the locations of the observer and of the objects being observed in the sky. Because space is observed from Earth, Earth’s coordinate system must be established before space can be mapped. Earth rotates on its axis daily and revolves around the sun annually. These two facts have greatly complicated the history of observing space. However, once known, accu- rate maps of Earth could be made using stars as reference points, since most of the stars’ angular movements in relationship to each other are not readily noticeable during a human lifetime. Although the stars do move with respect to each other, this movement is observable for only a few close stars, using instruments and techniques of great precision and sensitivity. Earth’s Coordinate System A great circle is an imaginary circle on the surface of a sphere whose center is at the center of the sphere. The equator is a great circle. Great circles that pass through both the north and south poles are called meridians, or lines of longitude. For any point on the surface of Earth a meridian can be defined. -
Exercise 3.0 the CELESTIAL HORIZON SYSTEM
Exercise 3.0 THE CELESTIAL HORIZON SYSTEM I. Introduction When we stand at most locations on the Earth, we have the distinct impression that the Earth is flat. This occurs because the curvature of the small area of the Earth usually visible is very slight. We call this “flat Earth” the Plane of the Horizon and divide it up into 4 quadrants, each containing 90o, by using the cardinal points of the compass. The latter are the North, South, East, and west points of the horizon. We describe things as being vertical or “straight up” if they line up with the direction of gravity at that location. It is easy for us to determine “straight up” because we have a built in mechanism for this in the inner ear (the semicircular canals). Because it seems so “natural”, we build a coordinate system on these ideas called the Horizon System. The Celestial Horizon System is one of the coordinate systems that astronomers find useful for locating objects in the sky. It is depicted in the Figure below. Figure 1. The above diagram is a skewed perspective, schematic diagram of the celestial sphere with circles drawn only for the half above the horizon. Circles on the far side, or western half, of the celestial sphere are drawn as dashed curves. All the reference circles of this system do not share in the rotation of the celestial sphere and, therefore, this coordinate system is fixed with respect to a given observer. The basis for the system is the direction of gravity. We can describe this as the line from the observer on the surface of the Earth through the center of the Earth. -
Solar Engineering Basics
Solar Energy Fundamentals Course No: M04-018 Credit: 4 PDH Harlan H. Bengtson, PhD, P.E. Continuing Education and Development, Inc. 22 Stonewall Court Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677 P: (877) 322-5800 [email protected] Solar Energy Fundamentals Harlan H. Bengtson, PhD, P.E. COURSE CONTENT 1. Introduction Solar energy travels from the sun to the earth in the form of electromagnetic radiation. In this course properties of electromagnetic radiation will be discussed and basic calculations for electromagnetic radiation will be described. Several solar position parameters will be discussed along with means of calculating values for them. The major methods by which solar radiation is converted into other useable forms of energy will be discussed briefly. Extraterrestrial solar radiation (that striking the earth’s outer atmosphere) will be discussed and means of estimating its value at a given location and time will be presented. Finally there will be a presentation of how to obtain values for the average monthly rate of solar radiation striking the surface of a typical solar collector, at a specified location in the United States for a given month. Numerous examples are included to illustrate the calculations and data retrieval methods presented. Image Credit: NOAA, Earth System Research Laboratory 1 • Be able to calculate wavelength if given frequency for specified electromagnetic radiation. • Be able to calculate frequency if given wavelength for specified electromagnetic radiation. • Know the meaning of absorbance, reflectance and transmittance as applied to a surface receiving electromagnetic radiation and be able to make calculations with those parameters. • Be able to obtain or calculate values for solar declination, solar hour angle, solar altitude angle, sunrise angle, and sunset angle. -
Analysis of Graviresponse and Biological Effects of Vertical and Horizontal Clinorotation in Arabidopsis Thaliana Root Tip
plants Article Analysis of Graviresponse and Biological Effects of Vertical and Horizontal Clinorotation in Arabidopsis thaliana Root Tip Alicia Villacampa 1 , Ludovico Sora 1,2 , Raúl Herranz 1 , Francisco-Javier Medina 1 and Malgorzata Ciska 1,* 1 Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Ramiro de Maeztu 9, 28040 Madrid, Spain; [email protected] (A.V.); [email protected] (L.S.); [email protected] (R.H.); [email protected] (F.-J.M.) 2 Department of Aerospace Science and Technology, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 34, 20156 Milano, Italy * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-91-837-3112 (ext. 4260); Fax: +34-91-536-0432 Abstract: Clinorotation was the first method designed to simulate microgravity on ground and it remains the most common and accessible simulation procedure. However, different experimental set- tings, namely angular velocity, sample orientation, and distance to the rotation center produce different responses in seedlings. Here, we compare A. thaliana root responses to the two most commonly used velocities, as examples of slow and fast clinorotation, and to vertical and horizontal clinorotation. We investigate their impact on the three stages of gravitropism: statolith sedimentation, asymmetrical auxin distribution, and differential elongation. We also investigate the statocyte ultrastructure by electron microscopy. Horizontal slow clinorotation induces changes in the statocyte ultrastructure related to a stress response and internalization of the PIN-FORMED 2 (PIN2) auxin transporter in the lower endodermis, probably due to enhanced mechano-stimulation. Additionally, fast clinorotation, Citation: Villacampa, A.; Sora, L.; as predicted, is only suitable within a very limited radius from the clinorotation center and triggers Herranz, R.; Medina, F.-J.; Ciska, M. -
A Decadal Strategy for Solar and Space Physics
Space Weather and the Next Solar and Space Physics Decadal Survey Daniel N. Baker, CU-Boulder NRC Staff: Arthur Charo, Study Director Abigail Sheffer, Associate Program Officer Decadal Survey Purpose & OSTP* Recommended Approach “Decadal Survey benefits: • Community-based documents offering consensus of science opportunities to retain US scientific leadership • Provides well-respected source for priorities & scientific motivations to agencies, OMB, OSTP, & Congress” “Most useful approach: • Frame discussion identifying key science questions – Focus on what to do, not what to build – Discuss science breadth & depth (e.g., impact on understanding fundamentals, related fields & interdisciplinary research) • Explain measurements & capabilities to answer questions • Discuss complementarity of initiatives, relative phasing, domestic & international context” *From “The Role of NRC Decadal Surveys in Prioritizing Federal Funding for Science & Technology,” Jon Morse, Office of Science & Technology Policy (OSTP), NRC Workshop on Decadal Surveys, November 14-16, 2006 2 Context The Sun to the Earth—and Beyond: A Decadal Research Strategy in Solar and Space Physics Summary Report (2002) Compendium of 5 Study Panel Reports (2003) First NRC Decadal Survey in Solar and Space Physics Community-led Integrated plan for the field Prioritized recommendations Sponsors: NASA, NSF, NOAA, DoD (AFOSR and ONR) 3 Decadal Survey Purpose & OSTP* Recommended Approach “Decadal Survey benefits: • Community-based documents offering consensus of science opportunities -
3.- the Geographic Position of a Celestial Body
Chapter 3 Copyright © 1997-2004 Henning Umland All Rights Reserved Geographic Position and Time Geographic terms In celestial navigation, the earth is regarded as a sphere. Although this is an approximation, the geometry of the sphere is applied successfully, and the errors caused by the flattening of the earth are usually negligible (chapter 9). A circle on the surface of the earth whose plane passes through the center of the earth is called a great circle . Thus, a great circle has the greatest possible diameter of all circles on the surface of the earth. Any circle on the surface of the earth whose plane does not pass through the earth's center is called a small circle . The equator is the only great circle whose plane is perpendicular to the polar axis , the axis of rotation. Further, the equator is the only parallel of latitude being a great circle. Any other parallel of latitude is a small circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of the equator. A meridian is a great circle going through the geographic poles , the points where the polar axis intersects the earth's surface. The upper branch of a meridian is the half from pole to pole passing through a given point, e. g., the observer's position. The lower branch is the opposite half. The Greenwich meridian , the meridian passing through the center of the transit instrument at the Royal Greenwich Observatory , was adopted as the prime meridian at the International Meridian Conference in 1884. Its upper branch is the reference for measuring longitudes (0°...+180° east and 0°...–180° west), its lower branch (180°) is the basis for the International Dateline (Fig. -
Solar Activity Affecting Space Weather
March 7, 2006, STP11, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Solar Activity Affecting Space Weather Kazunari Shibata Kwasan and Hida Observatories Kyoto University, Japan contents • Introduction • Flares • Coronal Mass Ejections（CME) • Solar Wind • Future Projects Japanese newspaper reporting the big flare of Oct 28, 2003 and its impact on the Earth big flare (third largest flare in record) on Oct 28, 2003 X17 X-ray Intensity time A big flare on Oct 28, 2003 （third largest X-ray intensity in record） EUV Visible light ＳＯＨＯ／ＥＩＴ ＳＯＨＯ／ＬＡＳＣＯ • Flare occurred at UT11:00 on Oct 28 Magnetic Storm on the Earth Around UT 6:00- Aurora observed in Japan on Oct 29, 2003 at around UT 14:00 on Oct 29, 2003 During CAWSES campaign observations (Shinohara) Xray X17 X6.2 Proton 10MeV 100MeV Vsw 44h 30h Bt Bz Dst Flares What is a flare ? Ｈα chromosphere 10,000 K Discovered in Mid 19C Near sunspots＝＞ energy source is magnetic energy size～（１－１０）x 104 ｋｍ Total energy 1029 -1032erg （~ １０5ー108 hydrogen bombs ） (Hida Observatory) Prominence eruption （biggest： June 4, 1946） Electro- magnetic Radio waves emitted from a flare (Svestka Visible 1976) UV 1hour time Solar corona observed in soft X-rays (Yohkoh) Soft X-ray telescope （1keV) Coronal plasma 2MK-10MK X-ray view of a flare Magnetic reconneciton Hα X-ray MHD simulation of a solar flare based on reconnection model including heat conduction and chromospheric evaporation （Yokoyama-Shibata 1998, 2001) A solar flare Observed with Yohkoh soft X-ray telescope （Tsuneta) Relation between filament (prominence) eruption and flare A flare -
2 Coordinate Systems
2 Coordinate systems In order to find something one needs a system of coordinates. For determining the positions of the stars and planets where the distance to the object often is unknown it usually suffices to use two coordinates. On the other hand, since the Earth rotates around it’s own axis as well as around the Sun the positions of stars and planets is continually changing, and the measurment of when an object is in a certain place is as important as deciding where it is. Our first task is to decide on a coordinate system and the position of 1. The origin. E.g. one’s own location, the center of the Earth, the, the center of the Solar System, the Galaxy, etc. 2. The fundamental plan (x−y plane). This is often a plane of some physical significance such as the horizon, the equator, or the ecliptic. 3. Decide on the direction of the positive x-axis, also known as the “reference direction”. 4. And, finally, on a convention of signs of the y− and z− axes, i.e whether to use a left-handed or right-handed coordinate system. For example Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276 BC c. 195 BC) was a Greek mathematician, elegiac poet, athlete, geographer, astronomer, and music theo- rist who invented a system of latitude and longitude. (According to Wikipedia he was also the first person to use the word geography and invented the disci- pline of geography as we understand it.). The origin of this coordinate system was the center of the Earth and the fundamental plane was the equator, which location Eratosthenes calculated relative to the parts of the Earth known to him. -
Celestial Coordinate Systems
Celestial Coordinate Systems Craig Lage Department of Physics, New York University, [email protected] January 6, 2014 1 Introduction This document reviews briefly some of the key ideas that you will need to understand in order to identify and locate objects in the sky. It is intended to serve as a reference document. 2 Angular Basics When we view objects in the sky, distance is difficult to determine, and generally we can only indicate their direction. For this reason, angles are critical in astronomy, and we use angular measures to locate objects and define the distance between objects. Angles are measured in a number of different ways in astronomy, and you need to become familiar with the different notations and comfortable converting between them. A basic angle is shown in Figure 1. θ Figure 1: A basic angle, θ. We review some angle basics. We normally use two primary measures of angles, degrees and radians. In astronomy, we also sometimes use time as a measure of angles, as we will discuss later. A radian is a dimensionless measure equal to the length of the circular arc enclosed by the angle divided by the radius of the circle. A full circle is thus equal to 2π radians. A degree is an arbitrary measure, where a full circle is defined to be equal to 360◦. When using degrees, we also have two different conventions, to divide one degree into decimal degrees, or alternatively to divide it into 60 minutes, each of which is divided into 60 seconds. These are also referred to as minutes of arc or seconds of arc so as not to confuse them with minutes of time and seconds of time. -
Vertical and Horizontal Transcendence Ursula Goodenough Washington University in St Louis, [email protected]
Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Biology Faculty Publications & Presentations Biology 3-2001 Vertical and Horizontal Transcendence Ursula Goodenough Washington University in St Louis, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/bio_facpubs Part of the Biology Commons, and the Religion Commons Recommended Citation Goodenough, Ursula, "Vertical and Horizontal Transcendence" (2001). Biology Faculty Publications & Presentations. 93. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/bio_facpubs/93 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Biology at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Biology Faculty Publications & Presentations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRANSCENDENCE Ursula Goodenough Draft of article published in Zygon 36: 21-31 (2001) ABSTRACT Transcendence is explored from two perspectives: the traditional concept wherein the origination of the sacred is “out there,” and the alternate concept wherein the sacred originates “here.” Each is evaluated from the perspectives of aesthetics and hierarchy. Both forms of transcendence are viewed as essential to the full religious life. KEY WORDS: transcendence, green spirituality, sacredness, aesthetics, hierarchy VERTICAL TRANSCENDENCE One of the core themes of the monotheistic traditions, and many Asian traditions as well, is the concept of transcendence. A description of this orientation from comparative religionist Michael Kalton (2000) can serve to anchor our discussion. "Transcendence" both describes a metaphysical structure grounding the contingent in the Absolute, and a practical spiritual quest of rising above changing worldly affairs to ultimate union with the Eternal. -
Optical and Radio Solar Observation for Space Weather
2 Solar and Solar wind 2-1 Optical and Radio Solar Observation for Space Weather AKIOKA Maki, KONDO Tetsuro, SAGAWA Eiichi, KUBO Yuuki, and IWAI Hironori Researches on solar observation technique and data utilization are important issues of space weather forecasting program. Hiraiso Solar Observatory is a facility for R & D for solar observation and routine solar observation for CRL's space environment information service. High definition H alpha solar telescope is an optical telescope with very narrow pass-band filter for high resolution full-disk imaging and doppler mapping of upper atmos- phere dynamics. Hiraiso RAdio-Spectrograph (HiRAS) provides information on coronal shock wave and particle acceleration in the soar atmosphere. These information are impor- tant for daily space weather forecasting and alert. In this article, high definition H alpha solar telescope and radio spectrograph system are briefly introduced. Keywords Space weather forecast, Solar observation, Solar activity 1 Introduction X-ray and ultraviolet radiation resulting from solar activities and solar flares cause distur- 1.1 The Sun as the Origin of Space bances in the ionosphere and the upper atmos- Environment Disturbances phere, which in turn cause communication dis- The space environment disturbance phe- ruptions and affect the density structure of the nomena studied in space weather forecasting Earth's atmosphere. CME induce geomagnet- at CRL include a wide range of phenomena ic storms and ionospheric disturbances upon such as solar energetic particle (SEP) events, reaching the Earth's magnetosphere, and are geomagnetic storms, ionospheric disturbances, believed to be responsible for particle acceler- and radiation belt activity. All of these space environment disturbance events are believed to have solar origins.