fall 2016 | volume xlvii | issue 4 President Joanne Rappaport Georgetown University

Vice President Aldo Panfichi Huamán Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú

Past President Gilbert Joseph Table of Contents Yale University Treasurer Patricia Tovar Rojas City University of New York, John Jay College

EXECUTIVE COUNCIL 1 From the President ON LASA2017 For term ending May 2017: by Joanne Rappaport 39 Las sesiones presidenciales en el congreso Evelina Dagnino, Universidade Estadual de Campinas de Lima 2017 Lauren “Robin” Derby, University of California, Los Angeles Maria Helena Machado, Universidade de São Paulo by Mauricio Archila and Juliet A. Hooker REPORT FROM LASA2016: AYOTZINAPA For term ending May 2018: 41 Film Festival Form Jo-Marie Burt, George Mason University 2 Mexico after Ayotzinapa: A Conversation Claudia Ferman, University of Richmond with the International Investigatory Group Daniela Spenser, CIESAS/Mexico City edited and translated by Elizabeth Oglesby SECTION NEWS Ex Officio Mauricio Archila, Universidad Nacional de Colombia 42 Student Section of LASA Juliet A. Hooker, University of Texas, Austin UPDATE ON THE COLOMBIAN PEACE PROCESS Philip Oxhorn, McGill University Milagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh 6 En Colombia hay una guerra verdadera y NEWS FROM LASA muchas paces artificiales LASA STAFF por Marco Palacios 42 Brazil Resolution Is Approved ADMINISTRATION OPERATIONS 43 Rolling Membership Dates Executive Assistant Congress Coordinator Jocelyn Inlay Assistant DEBATES: ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE 44 Survey Report CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA Angela Bejarano by Pilar Rodriguez Executive Director Coordinated by Mattias Borg Rasmussen Milagros Pereyra-Rojas Sections and Awards and Patricia Pinho 46 LASA Membership Report 2015 Operations Director Coordinator Ghisselle Blanco 8 Introduction: Environmental Justice and Pilar Rodriguez Blanco Congress Coordinator Climate Change in Latin America COMMUNICATIONS Emily Boal by Mattias Borg Rasmussen and Patricia LASA’S 50TH ANNIVERSARY Graphic Designer Pinho 48 Kalman H. Silvert Jason Dancisin, Contractor FINANCES Financial Administrator 12 Justicia climática y mujeres indígenas en by Henry M. Silvert, PhD Social Media Coordinator Paloma Díaz-Lobos Mirna Kolbowski América Latina Publications Specialist Accountant por Astrid Ulloa Sharon Moose, Contractor IN MEMORIAM Sara Lickey 17 Vulnerabilidad al cambio ambiental global: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY­­ MAESTROMEETINGS INC. Enunciados para un enfoque hacia la justicia 49 Judith Tendler, 1938–2016 Analyst climática Data Analyst John Meyers Shannon Agredo por Elma Montaña y Paula Mussetta Membership Coordinator Development Director Carlos Bustamante 21 Watching Brazil but Missing the Story: An Israel Perlov Amazonian Inferno Social Media Manager Paloma Diaz by Patricia Pinho President 26 “The Social Vindication of the Highlands”: Milagros Pereyra-Rojas Climate Change and Justice in Southern Peru Partner Engagement Director by Astrid B. Stensrud Alejandro Pinedo 30 On the Brink of Survival: The Climate Justice The LASA Forum is published four times a year. It is the official vehicle Movement in the Morales Era for conveying news about the Latin American Studies Association to its by Nicole Fabricant and Kathryn Hicks members. LASA welcomes responses to any material published in the Forum.

34 Cryoactivism Opinions expressed herein are those of individual authors and do not by Jorge Daniel Taillant and Peter Collins necessarily reflect the view of the Latin American Studies Association or its officers.

ISSN 0890-7218 From the President by Joanne Rappaport | Georgetown University | [email protected]

So much has happened in Latin America Latin American institutions. In this column during the past three months, that if I were I will focus on the intellectual reasons why to dedicate this column to these events Lima is such a good choice by very briefly I would not know where to begin. I will summarizing some of the research going on mention only a few of the most recent in various institutions in the city, in order developments. The Brazilian Senate opened to emphasize that Lima is not just a good the impeachment trial of President Dilma city to visit but a city with a long and rich led me to incorporate the field into one Rousseff, which will have concluded by the scholarly tradition. of the Congress tracks. Excavations at time this column goes to press. As many Pachacamac, a massive ceremonial center of you are aware, LASA sent a fact-finding Our host institution will be the Pontificia in the Lima region that was in operation delegation to Brazil in July and we are Universidad Católica del Perú. It was for a millennium, are currently being awaiting its report, which will be published the institutional home of Alberto Flores coordinated by Católica archaeologist in the LASA Forum, posted on our Galindo, the author of Buscando un inca, Krzysztof Makowski. website, and disseminated widely beyond recently translated into English, a wide- our organization; a link to the results of ranging reflection on Andean utopias, The other major university in Lima is voting on the Brazil resolution are posted beginning in the colonial period and the Universidad Nacional Mayor de on LASA’s main web page. The Colombian moving into the author’s present (he died San Marcos. Founded in 1551, it is the government and the FARC guerrillas have in 1990, only recently having turned 50). oldest university in the Americas. San concluded their peace negotiations and a Among the Católica’s faculty are a highly Marcos has a long genealogy of illustrious cease-fire has begun. The process will now regarded set of scholars in linguistics, alumni—among them, authors José María move from the negotiating table in Havana musicology, political science, literature, Arguedas and Mario Vargas Llosa, and to a national plebiscite in Colombia, a and history, many of whom are involved ethnohistorian María Rostworowski hopeful sign after more than five decades of in the planning of LASA2017. Given space de Diez Canseco—as well as a roster war, with several hundred thousand dead, limitations, I want to point out three of over the decades of well-known faculty over a thousand massacres, and millions the Católica faculty’s most impressive members, such as sociologist Aníbal displaced. We are currently working on a contributions to recent scholarship. One Quijano and anthropologist Julio Cotler, dossier for the next issue of LASA Forum of these is Gonzalo Portocarrero, the as well as historians Pablo Macera and that will include articles on the Colombian highly prolific founder of the university’s Manuel Burga. Many current members peace process. Finally, Donald Trump has master’s program in cultural studies and of the San Marcos academic community put forward (then rescinded, then put last year’s awardee of the Premio Nacional are contributing to the success of forward—I’m losing count) yet another de Cultura. A public intellectual whose LASA2017 as track chairs and members immigration plan. I urge those of you who influence ranges far beyond the Católica of prize committees. A center for Andean didn’t read the last issue of the Forum to go campus, Portocarrero has written books and Amazonian studies, San Marcos back to the excellent articles prepared by and essays on the educational system, has produced outstanding studies of Mexican scholars in response to Trump’s racism, Andean art and literature, and the Quechua language, indigenous call for a wall at the border. the place of intellectuals in Peru, among literatures, intercultural education, and many other topics that demonstrate the relationship between ecology and Notwithstanding these and other his bold transcendence of traditional cultural diversity. In the past few decades, developments in Latin America, I will disciplinary boundaries. I must also point San Marcos has also been a significant dedicate this quarter’s column to another to Scarlett O’Phelan Godoy’s highly academic space for research into political subject: why we chose Lima as the site of influential research into the late colonial violence and inequality. the 2017 LASA Congress. LASA members period and the independence era, as and the Executive Council have become an example of the major contributions Finally, the Instituto de Estudios Peruanos increasingly aware of the need to choose made by historians of the Católica to (IEP) is one of the major contributors Latin American locations for the Congress, our understanding of the emergence of to limeño intellectual life. A private especially given the fact that such a large nation-states in Latin America. Finally, the institution dedicated to research, teaching, proportion of our membership is based in preeminence of archaeology at the Católica and publication, the IEP was founded in

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REPORT FROM LASA2016: AYOTZINAPA

Mexico after Ayotzinapa: A Conversation with the International Investigatory Group

Edited and translated by Elizabeth Oglesby | University of Arizona| [email protected]

1964 as an interdisciplinary center for The disappearance of 43 students from lost, files misplaced. Or it can be pretend studies in the social sciences. Many of Ayotzinapa, Mexico, in September 2014 incompetence—police leaving footprints its most notable researchers have also grabbed worldwide attention. During in the victim’s blood, evidence lost, files taught concurrently at the Universidad its 2016 Congress in New York at the misplaced. Impunity can be silence before Nacional de San Marcos. For example, the end of May, LASA held a presidential the families of a disappeared. It can be a late Carlos Iván Degregori, who taught session featuring three members of the stonewalling, a cover-up. It can simply be anthropology at the Universidad Nacional Interdisciplinary Group of Independent “No,” a very firm no, an official no. de San Marcos while participating on the Experts (Grupo Interdisciplinario de IEP’s research team, was a member and Expertos Independientes, or GIEI), The experience of the experts in this case lead author of the report issued by the appointed by the Inter-American has implications that are both encouraging Comisión de Verdad y Reconciliación, the Commission on Human Rights to and troubling. On the one hand it signifies Peruvian truth commission. IEP researchers investigate the Ayotzinapa case. Chaired that “yes, we can”—we can create a concentrate on three key thematic by Elizabeth Oglesby (a professor of mechanism of international cooperation areas: democracy, governability, and Latin American studies at the University that investigates even the most sensitive decentralization; poverty and inequality; of Arizona), the panel included opening human rights cases to produce powerful culture and diversity. To give an idea of remarks by Kate Doyle, Senior Analyst results. But, on the other hand, the reaction what IEP members are working on, I at the National Security Archive, and of Mexico was deeply disturbing. It became will point to just three topics: a study of discussion with GIEI members Carlos clear that the Mexican government would ethnohistorical sources to comprehend the Martín Beristain, Francisco Cox, and only go so far in the Ayotzinapa case. development of a syncretic culture in the Claudia Paz y Paz Bailey. The fate of the There was a limit to Mexico’s willingness colonial Andes (a return to the original 43 students remains unknown, but the to support a true investigation. When pioneering research by IEP scholar María GIEI’s work, which concluded in April, the Group approached that limit, it was Rostworowski); research into state- lays bare the nature of impunity in Mexico terminated. sponsored extractive industries in Peruvian and provides a road map for what can Amazonia; and an evaluation of communal be done. The Ayotzinapa investigation is It can be said that the Mexican authorities decision making and negotiation with the an important precedent for human rights have a genius for impunity; they hold PhDs private sector in localities in Peru. struggles across Latin America. in the art of obstruction. The government learned its lesson long ago that it could There is also a rich tradition in Lima of For background on the GIEI and to mount a simulation of justice, human nonacademic research, most notably in the download the results of its investigation: rights, transparency, and international areas of human rights and collaborative http://prensagieiayotzi.wix.com cooperation, and most of the time that filmmaking, and we are hoping to plan /giei-ayotzinapa. For a full transcript of the would satisfy its critics. To paraphrase activities with some of these organizations LASA session in English or Spanish, write Nietzsche: The Group stared into the face at LASA2017. I will take these up in my to [email protected]. of impunity. And impunity stared back. next column. Kate Doyle: Impunity has many dimensions Carlos Martín Beristain: The GIEI’s in Mexico; it is multifaceted, like a crystal work had three components: the held up to the light. It can be abrupt and criminal investigation; the search for the brutal: the murder of a journalist who gets disappeared; and attention to the victims. too close to the truth. It can be furtive, These three things have to go together a quiet campaign designed to undermine so that the investigation is not seen the public’s faith. It can be calculating, separately from working with the victims like the electric shocks applied to the soles or continuing the search. In the end, the of a detainee’s feet in order to produce families are most interested in the search. what will later be called a confession. It can be true incompetence—police leaving In our first report in September 2015, footprints in the victim’s blood, evidence we tried to clarify the facts. The attack

2 was far more complex than just against attack they were stigmatized as being make a series of recommendations about the 43 students; it was an operation that students in that particular teacher’s college, structural problems we encountered lasted five hours and had 180 victims, which has a reputation as being rebellious, in the way these kinds of crimes were including the 43 disappeared students and similar to the revolutionaries from the investigated. six assassinations. All of that occurred Lucio Cabañas School. in ten different crime scenes. This gives The Mexican criminal system is incredibly you a sense of how vast the operational No investigation of this scope and type can formal; the number of duplicate, triplicate coordination was. be done without listening to the victims. declarations and documents swells the case We wouldn’t have been able to do anything file and makes it unmanageable. This has We were able to disprove many of the without the victims’ trust, without the trust serious consequences for the ability of a government’s allegations. The students were of the surviving students who were afraid third party, for example, a representative not infiltrated by the “Los Rojos” cartel. It to speak and had declined to speak with of the victims, to know what’s happening. can’t all be blamed on the municipal police the authorities many times, but who gave So, the level of formality and bureaucracy from Iguala and Cocula. The area was us a lot of information. If you want to do is one of the key obstacles. If I tell you saturated with governmental authorities: something serious in Mexico that helps to that there were 65 prosecutors working the state police was there, and the federal confront the circle of violence, criminality, on this case, you might think, well, that’s police had set up a roadblock at the time and human rights violations, you have a good thing because there are 65 people of the disappearance of the students. to understand the victims and establish leading the investigation. But the problem Military authorities were transmitting a clear alliance. That is the fundamental is that these 65 people don’t talk to each intelligence information at the various transformative energy of a case like this. other. They’re doing parallel tasks, taking spots where dozens of people were being parallel statements, but then there’s no joint detained. All this gives you a sense of wider The first priority is to make sure that the analysis of the whole problem. responsibilities. investigation doesn’t turn into another form of revictimization. In this case Another structural problem we saw is We showed the contradictions of and many others in Mexico, the official the excessive dependence on testimonial the official story. For example, we inquiries become another way to punish declarations. The confession is practically commissioned a study by a fire expert that victims. Part of the way to respect the only proof needed. This obviously demonstrated the scientific impossibility victims is to make sure they have access incentivizes torturing people, as we that the students had been incinerated to information about the case, so that determined happened in this case. That’s in the Colcula garbage dump, as the they don’t have to hear about it through why one of our recommendations is to government claimed. the press. It’s important to establish a create an independent office of technical relationship with the victims, so that they, services to help prosecutors collect other When we interviewed the students, we in turn, can establish a relationship of trust kinds of evidence beyond simply using discovered the existence of a fifth bus that with the institutions. confessions to convict people. didn’t appear in the official case file. Our hypothesis is that the students had taken In many cases, victims in Mexico are left Claudia Paz y Paz Bailey: Is it a problem over buses in order to go to a protest to search on their own for the disappeared, of know-how? Is it a problem of having march. This was something they routinely doing work that the state really should do. the right skills and training? Or is it a did, but that time they mistakenly took one At the same time, often the families have problem of will? Is it because the Mexican that had heroin or money. We found cases experience, they have contacts, they are authorities don’t know how to solve the of heroin trafficking between Iguala and good investigators, and all that needs to be case? Or is it because they don’t want to Chicago, using passenger buses that were taken into account. You have to listen to solve it? As Kate said, is it incompetence, or altered to hide drugs. That is our main the families. a pretend incompetence? hypothesis of why the attack occurred. In addition, there are elements that may Francisco Cox: From the beginning, our During our first six months, we had fairly have aggravated the violence against the goals were to write a report about what open access to information. The only “no” students: the fact that even before the had happened in Ayotzinapa, but also to we heard was when we asked to interview

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the army and have access to military detainees who had given his statement important. These are journalists who may documents. That was a resounding no. We ten hours earlier and who had lesions not appear in the mainstream press but couldn’t interview the army directly, and acquired after his detention. They were who do very important work, sometimes the military documents were considered a there without the presence of his defense risking their own lives. They helped us state secret. lawyer, without a judge’s order authorizing make sense of a lot of things. that this person could be transported there. At the same time, we did have access to They touched forensic evidence, and no Claudia Paz y Paz Bailey: The media a lot of information. We could interview record of this visit exists in the official campaign against us, especially after the federal police directly, as well as other investigation. According to the official December 2015, started with one person, authorities. We could interview the people inquiry, the events begin on October 29 the director of an organization that who were being accused of the crime. That at 8:00 in the morning, and a black bag works on topics of security in Mexico. opening slowly closed during the second containing ossified remains is found by A media source was an echo chamber half of our mandate in late 2015 and Navy divers in the San Juan River at 8:54. for his messages. I have to say that this early 2016. If the government had wanted But there’s no record of anything that had a gender bias, since the two women to, it could have worked with us in a happened on the 28th. in the GIEI suffered the most from the coordinated, planned way. campaign: Were we guerrillas, were we It’s not a matter of knowledge, or antimilitary, that sort of thing. . . . It was a In our second report in April 2016 we resources, but will. The case could be way to attack the messengers to destroy the documented that according to official solved. It’s possible to determine the message. We were discrediting the official information, including the medical forensic students’ fate, but they didn’t want us to go version of the case, so the media campaign reports in the case file, in 17 cases there forward. Why do I emphasize this, here at tried to discredit us, so the public would is strong evidence that suspects were LASA in New York? Because when political think “a pox on both houses.” The worst tortured. These cases include police from will is lacking, international monitoring— part was that the defamation campaign Iguala and Cocula. Very importantly, these the voices from outside—can push for this extended to the families. cases of torture include five detainees who will. It’s vital to keep accompanying the supposedly confessed that the 43 missing parents who are waiting for their children, Carlos Martín Beristain: The families students ended up being incinerated in the so that our departure doesn’t mean greater have a great deal of clarity, and they Cocula garbage dump. Those five suspects, vulnerability for them. All of us together are quite united, in part because of the presumed members of the Guerreros can make sure the case stays internationally accompaniment we’ve given and which Unidos criminal gang, suffered wounds that relevant. their lawyers continue to give. The were inflicted after they had been jailed. families have reacted very negatively to Carlos Martín Beristain: On the role of the government’s proposals for reparation. We also demonstrated that a high-level journalism and the media, sometimes People say, “No, we don’t want reparations. Mexican government official was present the press posed threats to our work, What we want is to keep searching. For us, at one of the key crime scenes, the San by defaming us personally at particular reparations mean getting the truth, and we Juan River, even though that information moments of the investigation. But there want justice.” They haven’t backed down, was not recorded in the official case file. were also journalists who helped us. and they’ve been consistent on that demand The San Juan River was where the only for justice. Obviously, like all families of DNA evidence was found: a bone fragment I want to mention the role of grassroots disappeared people, they feel an emotional from one of the disappeared students, journalism. When we saw that some ambiguity. They are afraid of finding a found in a bag in the river and identified things about the crime scene at the San grave; they want to find them alive. But the as belonging to Alexander Mora. Through Juan River weren’t clear, we contacted government’s offers have not made a dent photographs and video, we showed that on local journalists. One journalist showed us with the families. October 28—although it’s not in the file— photographs he had taken disproving the the director of the Criminal Investigations Mexican government’s version of events Francisco Cox: I think the families show Agency (similar to the Mexican FBI) was at the river. That’s how we started to see the importance of not forgetting about at the scene of the crime with one of the the big picture. So, grassroots journalism is the case. The big fear is that the pressure

4 subsides, since some people within the these cases open for so many years. That government only worry about international transformative energy goes beyond just the opinion. The families travel a lot; they go specific situation of the victims; it’s a motor abroad for acts of solidarity because it is force for democracy. a way to keep the case alive, which is just what some people don’t want, so it is very important.

We believe that the combination of local civil society with international pressure can make this case, and other cases, advance. The Ayotzinapa report establishes a methodology for how to do this type of investigation. Without a doubt there are many good organizations in Mexico, very solid, but we are contributing a road map.

Carlos Martín Beristain: One thing that stands out to us is what in psychology is called “learned helplessness.” In the case of Mexico, there is a learned helplessness on the part of many people, the idea that nothing can be done; there are no alternatives. But in our experience, yes, there are things that can be done. Clearly, you need a confluence of factors: an independent investigative team; a good relationship with victims; and a process in which victims feel respected, taken into account and able to push the investigation forward. And it’s also necessary to have an opening within the state to make this possible.

I don’t know if this experience is replicable. But we shouldn’t focus only on the obstacles to the GIEI’s investigation. It would be disastrous if that were the only lesson taken from our work. That’s only part of the story. The other part is that we had very significant advances, and we’ve shown a way of working with victims and doing this kind of investigation. We have to keep pushing those things to get even better results. Obviously, if there’s no political will that’s a problem. In Latin America, the families are the ones who have kept

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UPDATE ON THE COLOMBIAN PEACE PROCESS

En Colombia hay una guerra verdadera y muchas paces artificiales por Marco Palacios | El Colegio de México | [email protected]

El 26 de septiembre todo era jolgorio en fórmula alternativa creíble ni viable. De lado de las Farc, los jefes instalados en Cartagena. Un gobierno colombiano de Máxime cuando en el camino se sumaron La Habana deben ponderar la actitud de centro-derecha había logrado lo imposible: pastores de iglesias protestantes que miles de guerrilleros de base que hace una firmar un acuerdo con la organización rechazan los elementos feministas del pacto semana fueron dejando y desmantelando comunista Farc que daba término a una y reafirman un patriarcalismo bíblico o sus campamentos y ahora deben retornar guerra irregular de 52 años. Ningún “el modelo de familia.” Desde el 10 de a los sitios de partida oyendo a Uribe pedir mandatario colombiano había logrado agosto de 2010 Uribe, quien se sintió para ellos una amnistía especial que, de pactar ni derrotar militarmente a esa “traicionado” por Santos, se empeñó en todos modos, ya está contemplada en el guerrilla, ni al ELN. En el acto, cargado una oposición a ultranza que encontró en acuerdo. Es decir, que la unidad de mando de simbolismo, emoción y protocolo la mesa de negociaciones de La Habana el en las Farc puede peligrar si las concesiones tropical, el presidente Juan Manuel Santos blanco principal. Su objetivo era debilitar que hagan los comandantes guerrilleros entregó copia del pacto a Ban Ki-moon, al gobierno y tomar posiciones para la son muchas o muy pocas. Nadie sabe cuál habida cuenta del papel central que habría campaña electoral del 2018. es la dosis adecuada. Por ahora tanto los de jugar la ONU en una compleja fase voceros de la guerrilla como el presidente de desmovilización y entrega de armas. El presidente cometió el error de convocar han declarado la continuación del cese al El acuerdo se había conseguido después un plebiscito sobre la marcha, con gestores fuego, al menos hasta el 31 de octubre. de cuatro años de arduas negociaciones marchitos y mediocres, y, lo más grave, Es cuestión de tiempo saber en qué formales en La Habana y unos dos años de jurídicamente innecesario. Si se hubiese condiciones se mantendrá. acercamientos informales y conversaciones tratado de buscar un piso sólido de secretas que, de hecho, habían comenzado legitimidad política al proceso de paz, Uribe pide “rectificar” varias cláusulas bajo el gobierno del ultraderechista Álvaro hubiera bastado aducir lo evidente: que del pacto, precisamente las que fueron Uribe Vélez. la reelección del 2014 le había dado el más difíciles de negociar: que los jefes mandato popular de pactar con las Farc. paguen penas de prisión; que no puedan El domingo siguiente los colombianos, Todos saben que ese fue el meollo de esa ser representantes en cargos de elección convocados a plebiscito sobre un complejo elección. Es más, en la agenda de seis popular; que sus delitos de narcotráfico no acuerdo en torno a seis grandes asuntos puntos convenida con las Farc en el 2012, sean conexos del delito de rebelión y por que formaban un todo integral expuesto salvo mencionar la palabra, no se dice nada tanto que purguen por el narcotráfico. En en 297 páginas apretadas, dijeron “no”. sobre la “refrendación”. una retórica del demagogo experimentado Aunque el margen de mayoría fue mínimo, que es, Uribe dice que el pacto es se creó un hecho político y jurídico Y como parece llegada la hora de los “inconstitucional”. Demagogo porque contundente. El “no” ganó con un 0.4%; se abogados, ahora se dirá que por una en 1989 el senador Uribe fue el autor del abstuvo el 65% del electorado y los votos sentencia de la Corte Constitucional que proyecto de Ley de indulto total al M-19 y “nulos” y “no marcados” superaron, por contempla la hipótesis —cumplida— de en el 2005 pactó con los paramilitares una mucho, la diferencia entre el “sí” y el “no”. una victoria del “no”, el resultado es de impunidad prácticamente total a cambio de obligatorio cumplimiento solo para el la desmovilización. Pacto que se vino abajo Todos sabían, y el presidente Santos el presidente, aunque no para el Congreso en el Congreso y en la Corte Suprema de primero, que de haber ganado el “sí”, ni el poder judicial. Llevar el pacto al Justicia que no permitieron la impunidad. empezaría lo difícil. Y si bien el marco bloque de constitucionalidad y otorgarle jurídico del pacto estaba blindado por el estatuto de tratado internacional es vía Lo deprimente de todo este espectáculo es una reforma constitucional y diversas política cerrada. Jurídicamente el único que regresa a Colombia a lo más pernicioso sentencias de los más altos tribunales del camino es modificar el acuerdo, lo que de su política de los últimos treinta años: la país lo avalaban en su contenido, el triunfo no se puede hacer sin las Farc y, acaso, clase política de todos los colores manipula del “no” empuja al país al reino de una volver a otro plebiscito. En una perspectiva los asuntos de guerra y paz en función desazón profunda y acaso prolongada. optimista esto requiere un acuerdo político de intereses electorales. El resultado del del gobierno, el uribismo y el asentimiento plebiscito es un poderoso insumo para que La victoriosa y variopinta coalición del de las Farc. De producirse, tardará meses. Uribe, la extrema derecha y los adláteres, “no”, liderada por Uribe Vélez, no ofrece tomen posiciones fuertes frente al 2018.

6 Ahora la retórica patriótica combina temas un piso y acaso alcance la dureza del de reforma tributaria, “educación universal diamante. Preocupa la situación de la y de calidad”, “modelo cristiano de guerrilla: ¿se mantendrá la unidad de la familia” y, en fin, el esbozo de un programa jefatura con las bases? Es un asunto de de gobierno de una nueva coalición tiempo y de la forma como se desenvuelva electoral. Calculan que su línea dura en el “el gran pacto nacional” alrededor de fondo, suave en las palabras, desgastará a Santos-Uribe. un Santos obligado a atender dos frentes: “el pacto nacional” de la clase política y Oí decir al expresidente Pastrana el tinglado de La Habana. Quieren hacer (protagonista de uno de los peores ensayos ingobernable el país sobre la premisa de de diálogo con las Farc por su miopía, que el presiente debe gobernar y tiene la largueza, levedad y proclividad de salir responsabilidad del timón. siempre en la foto) que “se cayó la paz”; se refería a la “paz” de Cartagena. Pero Aunque esta extrema derecha toma la no dijo cuál es su fórmula de “paz” salvo vocería y representación de las víctimas, repetir lo que ha dicho Uribe. Así, pues, lo hace selectivamente. Pareciera que solo ¿cuál es “la paz” de Colombia? El acuerdo las Farc hubiesen producido víctimas. Y protocolizado el 26 de septiembre marcaba claro que en su guerra sucia e irregular un camino, difícil pero bien concebido. ejecutaron asaltos feroces e indiscriminados Desde la noche del domingo 2 de octubre a poblaciones inermes con gran cantidad de sabemos que el acuerdo con las Farc bajas; actos de guerra en confrontación con apenas se dibujó en la arena de las playas la fuerza pública abiertamente violatorios de Cartagena. del derecho internacional humanitario; secuestros extorsivos y políticos, individuales y masivos, generalmente Nota crueles y prolongados. Este artículo se publicó por primera vez en Letras Libres, http://www.letraslibres.com, el 6 Todos los agentes del conflicto colombiano de octubre de 2016. son responsables de una violación masiva y sistemática de los derechos humanos que ha dejado víctimas que exigen reparación, verdad, justicia y no repetición. La violencia pública implícita (y no solo las Farc) en el prolongado conflicto colombiano, produjo miles de muertos y lisiados; millones de desplazados, en su mayoría familias de campesinos pobres; miles de desaparecidos, ejecutados y torturados por la fuerza pública, a veces en alianza con grupos paramilitares de fuerte raigambre local. De estas víctimas no hablan los del “no”.

Es poco probable que el optimismo que hoy sale de las declaraciones presidenciales, de la oposición y de la guerrilla tenga

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DEBATES

Environmental Justice and Climate Change in Latin America

Coordinated by Mattias Borg Rasmussen and Patricia Pinho

Introduction: Environmental Justice and Climate Change in Latin America by Mattias Borg Rasmussen | University of Copenhagen | [email protected] and Patricia F. Pinho | University of São Paulo | [email protected]

Climate change is a growing concern that are maintained by the current global Environmental Justice as a Field of Inquiry for populations, politics, and science in political economy order of production, Latin America. Numerous studies report consumption, and commerce (Ribot Environmental justice highlights the on the currently observed impacts of 2010). This perspective is also reflected in nexus between environmental and climate change. These include receding the statement on regional aspects by the social differences (Walker 2012). It is glaciers, altered patterns of precipitation authors of the 2014 Intergovernmental an analytical perspective that emerged and hydrological regime (extreme floods Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report, out of the civil rights and environmental and droughts), cold and heat waves, and “Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerabilities,” movements in the United States in the ocean acidification, affecting both the saying: “In many [Central and South 1970s and 1980s. It initially focused quality and quantity of water, ecosystems, American] countries, a first step toward on how Native American and black and other natural resources. There is also adaptation to future climate changes is to communities suffered disproportionately considerable concern regarding effects on reduce the vulnerability to present climate” from the pollution of air and waterways. economic activities, human health, and (Magrin et al. 2014). Such a perspective The Texas-based sociologist Robert Bullard well-being. Local people, politicians, and effectively links the uneven distribution of (2000), who is often seen as the father scientists also highlight that climate change climate change impacts to the social and of environmental justice, suggests that has an uneven impact. political arrangements mediating individual “environmental racism” or inequalities and collective responses. It moreover have direct expressions in the physical In part, the uneven impacts of climate underlines the need for further study of form of environmental harm. While the change owe to its uneven biophysical the ties between environmental and social early environmental justice movement manifestations across the globe. While justice in the context of global climate arose from the efforts of local advocacy global average temperatures are rising, change. and rights-based groups, it has also some places experience cooling. While come to constitute an academic field that some see dryer conditions and periods of The linking of academic and activist responds to a diversity of ways in which prolonged droughts, others experience perspectives holds transformational environmental inequalities arise and are more rainfall and flooding or consecutive promise. It is a perspective that integrates maintained. The U.S. Environmental events of extreme drought followed by biophysical, social, and political causes of Protection Agency even has an explicit flooding. Thus, it is the increased intensity vulnerability and suffering. Recognizing environmental justice agenda and and frequency of extreme events that are this, we aim in this introductory essay to guidelines (https://www.epa becoming the norm. Much scientific and give a brief genealogy of environmental .gov/environmentaljustice). In other words, political energy goes into furthering our justice as it relates to debates in the United these particular concerns voiced by activists understanding of these manifestations. In States. We then turn to the specifics of the and academics have resulted in significant this context, a climate justice perspective Latin American context before directing policy change. highlights how the uneven distribution our attention to the articulations between of detrimental effects is not simply a environmental justice and climate change. Since Bullard’s initial efforts to establish biophysical phenomenon but a social and Finally, we suggest a set of relevant a field of study, the environmental justice political one, deeply contingent upon social questions for further scrutiny with regards framework has been broadened by other and political conditions. This perspective to climate justice as an object of study and scholars to focus on a wide array of maintains that climate change impacts a field of inquiry. environmental “goods and bads,” moving do not just “fall from the sky” but are from the extremes of chemical dump sites shaped by preexisting socioeconomic to conflicting interests in, for instance, and politically contingent vulnerabilities urban green spaces where the question

8 is not so much about the geographies of thereby naturalized. It also draws attention distinct environmental movements in hazard as the dynamics of exclusion. With to procedures and how justice is tightly Latin America. This is important when this has come an expanding focus that goes bound to political inclusion. considering the distribution of conflicts beyond spatial distribution to examine arising from economic, social, and procedures of decision making around the ecological phenomena and more recently environmental phenomena that determine Latin American Perspectives global environmental change that place both where the environmental issues are the burdens of development impacts on and what form they take. This includes Also in Latin America, environmental the poorest and most discriminated and the study of knowledge production about justice has become an integrating and excluded areas and populations of the and representations of the environment. mobilizing concept (Carruthers 2008), Latin American region. There are promises It thereby represents a movement toward connecting environmental, social, and but also limits of environmental justice in a more encompassing analytical interest ethical dimensions of sustainability and Latin America, both as flagship for popular in social differentiation around the development. In Brazil, social movements mobilization and as a set of principles for environment. since the early 1970s have articulated analysis, interpretation, and policy. In other environmental matters in their claims for words, there are many ways by which From its early years, environmental justice land rights as well as access and control Latin America’s popular movements fuse has been a hybrid, that is, it is a situated, over natural resources (Porto 2012). This environmental dimensions into community social, and political concept. Growing out was mostly stimulated by the Catholic struggles for social justice, mainly as of the civil rights movement, the concept pastoral social movement not only in Brazil a means to access and control natural has migrated into the worlds of NGOs but throughout the region. In this context, resources and to ensure land rights. and academia. It is therefore a discourse traditional communities—indigenous, for policy making, a social movement quilombolas (African slaves’ descendants), for change, and an analytical tool for and other native people who live from Fields of Action understanding the uneven distribution of forest gathering, agriculture, and fishing— socioenvironmental vulnerabilities related have been central. These peoples inhabit Within wider environmental justice to environmental change. territories that are disputed by powerful debates, climate justice is being advanced economic groups from the industries of as a topic of concern. As opposed to Its hybrid nature is both a weakness and agribusiness, mining, and hydropower. the site-specific focus common to much a strength, which has been discussed environmental justice scholarship (e.g., at length elsewhere. The partition of Environmental justice in Latin America the location of waste facilities), climate environmental justice into discourse, has become a unifying banner of reflection justice introduces a different scale social movement, and scholarly critique and mobilization. It has drawn together and need to respond to more elusive reflects parallel and converging intellectual the experience of struggle of diverse cause-effect relations than many other agendas. As a branch of applied individuals, communities, and entities environmental justice issues. Rather than philosophy, environmental justice has been including grassroots movements, traditional focusing on particular sites and locations tied to ideas of what constitutes social populations (indigenous), small farmers of environmental injustice, such as access justice. A central figure in that debate has and landless workers, environmentalists, and control over natural resources, climate been Nancy Fraser (2008), who suggested and scientists. Historical patterns of social justice connects disparate sites across a focus on redistribution and recognition, inequality and ethnic discrimination, and the globe. Climate justice links carbon and eventually representation, highlighting environmental conflicts in Latin America emissions and global warming to the that social justice works in different and are now broadly understood to have a uneven distribution of harm. Viewed thus, overlapping domains: how benefits and strong relationship with the conditions climate change is effectively a political harm are distributed among a diverse produced by the region´s insertion into the matter, contrary to representations of society, how institutionalized forms of international economy. climate change that portray it as a purely affirmative action may or may not ease scientific matter. or exacerbate social inequalities, and how Environmental justice works as a hierarchies be discursively constructed and critical theoretical framework for

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Both as a field for action and a field for offered by the broad scientific consensus very little to the furthering of the harms are inquiry, climate justice is still maturing. on the causes of climate change reveals those who suffer most. Works such as Naomi Klein’s 2014 the connections between the patterns of This Changes Everything have further consumption and commerce of the global Climate justice connects environmental sparked popular attention to the issue, economy and the unequal share of the concerns to a critique of global capitalism. as did the widespread public protests in environmental burdens. In this way, the Whether we look at climate justice as a relation to the different iterations of the climate justice movement has obvious links discourse, a social movement, or as uneven Conference of Parties under the United to the rich Latin American tradition of impacts, we are forced to consider the links Nations Framework Convention on social mobilizations and capitalist critique. between deeper patterns of production and Climate Change. In 2014, 300,000 people Persisting ecological neocolonialism, the lifestyle of affluent elites in both the gathered on the streets of New York for built on past patterns of plunder, attain North and the South, and the distribution the Peoples Climate March, and the same a new environmental dimension as the of climate-induced vulnerabilities. In 2010, year, thousands also marched in the streets lifestyle of the North spills directly into representatives from governments from the of Lima for the 2014 COP 20 meeting. processes of environmental change, driving South, civil society, and large environmental This is also true for other parts of Latin disadvantaged communities to change their NGOs met in Cochabamba at The Worlds America. Similar marches and campaigns lifestyles and livelihoods. People’s Conference on Climate Change have also been seen in different European and the Rights of Mother Earth. A central cities including the capitals of Scandinavian As suggested above, climate change outcome of that encounter was a statement countries, for example the climate action transforms ideas about environmental that expresses a profound critique of the and climate jobs campaigns in the United damage by effectively having the sites capitalist world order. Not unlike Klein, Kingdom and Norway. Internationally, of impacts physically and temporally this calls for fundamental changes in the large environmental NGOs and networks disconnected from the sites of consumption global political economy. While this is such as Oxfam and 350.org have pushed and extraction. The spatial distribution expressed in the social movements and for an agenda focusing on climate of harm is therefore very different from NGO networks of climate justice within justice. Reparations (“polluter pays”), traditional extraction or waste sites. Latin America, the case studies on impacts compensations, technology transfers, and “Adding insult to injury,” as Fraser would and adaptation display the articulation of so on are proposed as ways of easing the point out, climate justice debates reveal a different set of concerns that are much compounded impacts of industrialization. the intersections between the unequal more grounded in quotidian dynamics of Local social movements have also distribution of benefits and burdens, the making do and getting by. appropriated and reshaped discourses on global hierarchies of cultural politics, and climate and social justice, for example the continued exclusions from political the transition town campaigns aiming at processes. It is also worth remembering Frames of Interrogation creating sustainable cities, predominantly in that the burdens of climate change are the global North (see Transition Network, unequally shared not only among nations Environmental justice frameworks focus https://transitionnetwork.org/). of the global South and the global North, on distributive justice, procedural justice, but as important, among the different justice of recognition, and capabilities. Climate justice has also the potential to socioeconomic strata of these societies, When thinking about climate justice, feed into the long traditions of social which are among the most unequal on it can be helpful to direct our attention movements in Latin America. It connects the planet. The climate justice debate has to four empirical and interrelated areas to a new environmental concern within demonstrated that climate vulnerability for interrogation that address spaces the region that critiques global capitalism is not about North-South only but just for understanding problems and spaces anew. It thereby potentially connects and as much about a small global elite whose that may produce positive changes. First, recontextualizes the critique posed in consumption patterns drive processes that impacts and adaptations provide an Eduardo Galeano’s Open Veins of Latin harm them but who are relatively well analysis of the different ways in which America (2009) to the Latin American sheltered by their wealth. By contrast, the global climate change become rooted in debates about ecological debt from the large poor majority that contributes only particular places. While climate change early 1990s. The global perspective is a global phenomenon, it is always

10 located somewhere, aptly demonstrating How is climate justice useful as an Brazilian Amazon, Patricia Pinho shows that climate manifests itself locally in analytical approach to understanding the how representations of the region as an diverse and unequal ways. Second, we are entwinement of social and environmental empty space critically shape the possible concerned with the complex relationships difference in Latin America? policy interventions. Astrid Stensrud turns between environmental issues and climate our attention to the Peruvian Andes and change. Processes of land degradation The intimate relationship between the production of water scarcity at the through deforestation or desertification, environment and social difference calls intersections between climate change and for example, may be driven by logging attention to questions of equity and justice, water governance regimes. For the case concessions or agro-industries, but these or conversely, to the uneven distribution of of Bolivia, Nicole Fabricant and Kathryn effects can be exacerbated by changing harm and benefits and the production and Hicks document recent developments of climatic patterns. Similarly, extractive maintenance (and sometimes, contestation) the Climate Justice Platform, a grassroots industries and small-scale mining, both of injustices. Bullard’s environmental initiative voicing concerns over the impacts intensive in water use, incur further water racism attains a neocolonial attire within of climate change. Finally, Jorge Daniel stress. Thus environment degradation and the global political economy. Whether Taillant and Peter Collins chronicle the climate change are compound phenomena focusing on distribution, inclusion, or work towards creating a policy framework with multiple, ambiguous, and interrelated procedure, questions of rights and the for glacier protection in Argentina, showing drivers. Third, we are interested in how historical responsibility become linked how this not only concerns fragile and vital climate change is mobilized in social to the production of uneven geographies ecosystems but also human well-being. struggles for justice. This is linked to of environmental degradation and social the rich scholarly tradition on social development. As such, they display obvious movements and emphasizes how ideas continuities between climate justice References about justice are mobilized to confront scholarship and engaged political ecology, Bullard, Robert the adverse effects of global climate science and technology studies, cultural change. This is particularly relevant in studies, and environmental history. 2000 Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and the Latin American contexts of vivir bien. Environmental Quality. Boulder, CO: Last, we are interested in frameworks for This collection seeks to explore the Westview. action and how a focus on the uneven potentially fertile grounds for cross- Carruthers, David, ed. distribution of burdens and benefits pollination between such established may serve climate justice advocacies disciplinary traditions and the nascent 2008 Environmental Justice in Latin America: seeking to improve the living conditions analytical and empirical focus on climate Problems, Promise, and Practice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. of marginalized populations. Thereby justice in Latin America. We have divided aiming at understanding the potentials of a this debate section in two parts: one that Fraser, Nancy climate justice approach to environmental takes an environmental justice approach degradation and conflict in Latin America, to understanding the impacts of climate 2008 Adding Insult to Injury: Nancy Fraser Debates Her Critics. Edited by Kevin Olson. we pose the following questions: change in terms of vulnerability and London: Verso. adaptation, and one that specifically What contrasting expressions of climate addresses the local articulation of climate Galeano, Eduardo justice exist? How is climate justice defined justice/injustice. Highlighting recent 2009 Open Veins of Latin America: Five and articulated by different actors, and linkages between social movements Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. what are the results of these in the policy working also outside the region, Astrid Translated by Celdric Belfrage. London: domain? How are the big NGOs pushing Ulloa suggests that the inequalities related Serpent’s Tail. for a climate justice framework? How are to gender and ethnicity must come to the ideas about climate justice linked to other fore in analysis of climate justice. Elma Klein, Naomi issues of social justice and environmental Montaña and Paula Mussetta make a 2014 This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs. degradation? To what extent does the case for vulnerability-focused analysis the Climate. New York: Simon and Schuster. attention to climate justice seep into other for understanding uneven distribution of spheres of these highly segregated societies? environmental harm. Working out of the

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ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

Justicia climática y mujeres indígenas en América Latina

por Astrid Ulloa | Universidad Nacional de Colombia | [email protected]

Magrin, Graciella O., José A. Marengo, Jean- En América Latina, el cambio climático naturaleza bajo una racionalidad particular Philipe Boulanger, Marcos S. Buckeridge, Edwin ha implicado no sólo transformaciones y una lógica económica como una nueva Castellanos, Germán Poveda, Fabio R. Scarano, ambientales, sino también respuestas mercancía global, que llamo “naturaleza and Sebastián Vicuña y acciones políticas que tienen efectos climatizada”1. Por otro lado, se sustenta en 2014 Central and South America. In: Climate desiguales de acuerdo con género, etnia la idea de un ciudadano neutral, que llamo Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and y territorialidad. Las políticas globales- un ciudadano cero carbono, cuyo uso de Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. nacionales-locales sobre el cambio la naturaleza está mediada por las nuevas Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth climático generan diferentes dinámicas para nociones de valoración dentro de los Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Barros, Vicente los procesos locales. Estos procesos unidos mercados de carbono del cambio climático, R., Christopher B. Field, David J. Dokken, a las transformaciones ambientales, que se y a un consumo que se compensa con Michael D. Mastrandrea, Katharine J. Mach, han dado históricamente desde la colonia reducción de emisiones. Bajo estas visiones T. Eren Bilir, Monalisa Chatterjee, Kristie.L. asociados a los extractivismos (minerales, las diferencias étnicas y de género no se han Ebi, Yuka O. Estrada, Robert C. Genova, agua, hidrocarburos, monocultivos, considerado plenamente en los programas Betelhem Girma, Eric S. Kissel, Andrew entre otros), han contribuido al cambio y políticas tanto globales como nacionales N. Levy, Sandy MacCracken, Patricia R. Mastrandrea, and Leslie L.White (eds.). ambiental global. (Ulloa 2013, 2014). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. En estos contextos, los territorios de Para hacer frente a estos procesos, en 1499-1566. pueblos indígenas han sido afectados por América latina los pueblos indígenas han la variabilidad climática y las diversas exigido el reconocimiento de sus formas Porto, Marcelo Firpo transformaciones ambientales. Asimismo, de pensar y sus maneras de conocer los 2012 “Movements and the Network las políticas globales de cambio climático procesos climáticos y ambientales, y de of Environmental Justice in Brazil.” también han tenido efectos entre pueblos sus derechos con base en sus nociones de Environmental Justice 5, no. 2. DOI: 10.1089/ y mujeres indígenas, dado que no han sido territorio, los no-humanos como afines, env.2011.0012. parte de los procesos de toma de decisiones la autonomía y la autodeterminación Ribot, Jesse y no han participado en las propuestas ambiental, así como sus propuestas de globales-nacionales. justicia ambiental-climática. De igual 2010 “Vulnerability Does Not Fall from the manera, las mujeres indígenas de América Sky: Toward Multiscale, Pro-Poor Climate Por las anteriores razones, que vinculan Latina junto a la red de justicia climática Policy.” In Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Equity and Vulnerability in a al cambio climático con otros procesos han resaltado los efectos diferenciados Warming World, edited by Robin Mearns and ambientales, las demandas de los pueblos del cambio climático y demandan justicia Andrew Norton, 47–74. Washington, DC: indígenas se han centrado en la autonomía climática que reconozca sus derechos y World Bank. y autodeterminación política y en el diferencias. En particular, en Colombia, derecho de decidir sobre sus territorios. los pueblos indígenas demandan sus Walker, Gordon Recientemente, estas demandas se han derechos frente a procesos extractivos 2012 Environmental Justice: Concepts, articulado también con demandas de y el reconocimiento como autoridades Evidence and Politics. New York: Routledge. autodeterminación ambiental, y con ambientales para decidir sobre sus demandas de justicia ambiental y climática. territorios. Asimismo, las mujeres indígenas plantean, que es necesario: “Reconocer el Los desconocimientos y falta de papel de las mujeres, garantizar la equidad participación en la toma de decisiones en la tenencia de tierras y asegurar la de los pueblos indígenas se deben a la participación equitativa y diferencias de las emergencia de una ecogubernamentalidad mujeres en los diferentes espacios de toma climática, la cual se basa en políticas de decisiones, en las políticas públicas, y, globales y genera unas relaciones en las estrategias, planes y proyectos de específicas de producción de adaptación y mitigación” (Censat Agua conocimientos. Asimismo, está articulada Viva 2016:11). con representaciones específicas de

12 Para desarrollar el argumento, el texto centrados en los bosques en territorios Es necesario complejizar los análisis sobre presenta en una primera parte, los efectos de pueblos indígenas, en el contexto la generación de las políticas globales en territorios indígenas de las políticas latinoamericano. sobre cambio climático, al igual que sobre globales de cambio climático. En la su implementación local, y replantear segunda parte se discutirán las demandas Dichos proyectos están sustentados una manera dominante de producción de de justicia ambiental desde los pueblos en nociones de mercantilización de la conocimientos que desconoce relaciones indígenas centradas en autonomía y naturaleza que implican contractos legales de género y etnia. En la formulación de autodeterminación ambiental. En la tercera específicos entre empresas y representantes políticas y programas contra cambio parte se discutirán los planteamientos de los pueblos indígenas en torno a los climático, las mujeres solo se incluyen de las demandas de mujeres indígenas bosques. Acuerdos contractuales se realizan parcialmente, mientras que los pueblos y en en torno a justicia climática, resaltando basándose en la generación y venta de particular las mujeres indígenas, tampoco los ejes que han generado desigualdades certificados de carbono, transferencia de aparecen representados. de género. Finalmente, se presentarán títulos de las reducciones y obligaciones propuestas frente al cambio climático desde entre las partes, no solo en torno a los De igual manera, en los programas y una perspectiva de los pueblos y mujeres bosques, sino a sus procesos de manejo. políticas opera una única dimensión indígenas. En dichos contratos, además, se borra la cultural y solo un tipo de relación con relación con los indígenas como pueblos la naturaleza, que desconocen otras con derechos culturales y territoriales. maneras de producir conocimientos y de Políticas globales de cambio climático: De esta manera, se fragmenta el territorio concebir las relaciones humanos y no- Controlando bosques, territorios y culturas bajo la consideración de que los bosques, humanos. Esto se debe a que tanto las en cuanto sumideros de carbono son discusiones como las mediadas globales Si bien hay acuerdos internacionales lo importante. Se trata de procesos sobre el cambio climático se han basado culturales y ambientales que reconocen los que generan una reconfiguración de la en una visión surgida del conocimiento conocimientos y derechos de los pueblos naturaleza bajo una lógica neoliberal, experto, que no consideran los diversos indígenas y las diferencias de género, ellos según la cual las relaciones culturales conocimientos, concepciones culturales ni no han sido centrales y menos transversales con lo no-humano son irrelevantes. realidades ambientales locales. De hecho, a todos los acuerdos ambientales, dado que Igualmente se desdibujan las diferencias se implementan estrategias de adaptación, las desigualdades de género persisten2. De étnicas y de género para dar paso a un que no parten de las prácticas ni de los hecho, actualmente, las transformaciones ciudadano neutro cuyo uso de la naturaleza manejos locales. Y que no responden a climáticas presentan nuevos matices está mediado por el mercado, en una escenarios climáticos a escalas puntuales, para los pueblos y sus territorios. El resignificación del sujeto moderno. La dado que en la mayoría de los casos no hay cambio climático implica tanto efectos política del clima crea una nueva forma datos o información detallada de variables ambientales (transformaciones en ciclos de ciudadanía global: el ciudadano cero climatológicas. Tampoco concretan productivos y aumento de vulnerabilidad carbono, aquel que busca mitigar o estrategias para afrontar las consecuencias de sus territorios) como la introducción compensar sus emisiones de gases efecto de los acelerados cambios ambientales que de los pueblos en escenarios de invernadero (Ulloa 2013). viven las comunidades locales, como la transnacionalización y globalización de disminución de sus posibilidades de acceso la naturaleza, la incorporación en los La producción de conocimientos en torno y manejo de recursos, lo que compromete mercados verdes y servicios ambientales al cambio climático reproduce nociones sus territorios, su soberanía alimentaria, (sumideros de carbono, proyectos de occidentales sustentadas en visiones duales su autonomía y su autodeterminación. En reforestación, y de Reducción de Emisiones y en relaciones de poder que excluyen los síntesis, las políticas de cambio climático por Deforestación y Degradación-REDD, conocimientos y prácticas locales, generan han generado desigualdades que demandan por ejemplo), mediante la mercantilización nuevas desigualdades entre hombres y por otras visiones de justicia ambiental y del clima. El marco de incentivos mujeres y perpetúan o exacerban las ya climática. económicos asociados a cambio climático existentes (Ulloa 2015). y actualmente a REDD ha permitido la generación de empresas y procesos

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Demandas de justicia climática desde la implementados nacionalmente, tanto para transformaciones ambientales que las perspectiva indígena los pueblos indígenas (Colombia, Ecuador, afectan. Bolivia, entre otros) como los derechos Desde el inicio de los programas de de la naturaleza (Ecuador, Bolivia), con Naciones Unidas en torno al cambio particularidades y especificidades en Justicia climática desde la perspectiva de las climático, los pueblos indígenas han sus alcances; sin embargo, en torno a mujeres indígenas demando su participación. De hecho, en lo ambiental se han generado múltiples el 2009, se articularon al movimiento de acciones y demandas por el reconocimiento Las políticas globales de cambio justicia climática promoviendo un tribunal de sus derechos a tomar decisiones sobre climático afectan de manera diferenciada internacional, a saber: la naturaleza y sus territorios. Los pueblos a las mujeres indígenas, generando indígenas reunidos en la Conferencia desigualdades, dado que género y “[…] diferentes actores de la sociedad civil, Mundial de los Pueblos sobre el Cambio etnicidad articulado a lo ambiental incluyendo muy especialmente los pueblos Climático y los Derechos de la Madre tiene implicaciones de invisibilización y naciones indígenas, afrodescendientes, Tierra Cochabamba, Bolivia en abril 22 y exclusión no solo de los pueblos movimientos campesinos y de pescadores del 2010, plantearon que “Los países indígenas sino también de las mujeres. de América Latina y el Caribe, de los desarrollados, principales causantes Por ejemplo, los conocimientos Andes y la Amazonía en particular, del cambio climático, asumiendo su diferenciados entre hombres y mujeres hemos decidido promover un Tribunal responsabilidad histórica y actual, deben no son incluidos, ni las maneras en que Internacional de Justicia Climática que reconocer y honrar su deuda climática en mujeres manejan la variabilidad climática. contribuya a identificar y juzgar a los todas sus dimensiones, como base para Estos procesos han sido cuestionados verdaderos responsables de los crímenes una solución justa, efectiva y científica al en los espacios internacionales, lo que contra la Madre Tierra y sus habitantes, cambio climático” (Acuerdo de los pueblos a su vez ha permitido que las políticas la humanidad y el conjunto de los seres 2010). de cambio climático y los resultados en vivos, así como a controlar y exigir la torno a políticas y programas incluyan no repetición de los hechos que forman En sus propuestas los pueblos indígenas parcialmente a las mujeres, aunque no parte de la acusación. Así, este tribunal articulan demandas de autodeterminación y completamente a las mujeres indígenas. se propone como un espacio donde autonomía, al igual que de gobernabilidad Sin contar que el acceso a la información los movimientos sociales y los pueblos cultural. Las demandas y propuestas, es mínimo para diversos pueblos, quienes promuevan la Justicia Climática llamando además, se encuentran ligadas a los hablan otros idiomas. la atención de quienes están decidiendo conocimientos y las estrategias de manejo en las actuales negociaciones para lograr ambiental, por ejemplo, en torno a la Dado que las políticas globales y aún no solo mayor firmeza en el cumplimiento recuperación de semillas, la soberanía nacionales en torno al cambio climático de los compromisos, sino también la alimentaria y el control territorial, así como no contuvieron las diferencias de género, necesidad de promover nuevos mecanismos la producción económica propia, como organismos internacionales iniciaron vinculantes que refuercen el Convenio estrategias de resistencia cultural. Todo ello programas tendientes a la inclusión de las Marco sobre el Clima, y que permitan una contribuye a posicionar sus conocimientos mujeres tanto en procesos de participación verdadera justicia climática”. (CSUTCB et y legitimar sus autoridades ambientales en como en visibilización de los impactos al. 2009) los territorios colectivos. De esta manera, del cambio climático hasta la búsqueda sus demandas se relacionan con territorios, de fondos para desarrollar programas Frente a las políticas de cambio climático, lugares específicos y saberes localizados. acordes a las diferencias que implican el en particular, y ambientales, en general, cambio climático para las mujeres (véase los pueblos indígenas han demandado Si bien en las demandas de los pueblos Aguilar 2009, Jungehülsing 2012, FMICA el reconocimiento de sus maneras de indígenas reclaman sus derechos colectivos 2010, Davis, Roper y Miniszewski 2015). concebir los problemas ambientales y a la autodeterminación ambiental, A partir de las críticas a la ausencia de de sus derechos sobre sus territorios. las mujeres indígenas han planteado análisis de género y cambio climático, En América Latina, hay diversos igualmente el reconocimiento diferenciado se han desarrollado diversos enfoques procesos y reconocimientos de derechos de sus derechos, frente a los efectos y que hacen un llamado para superar los

14 estereotipos o las inclusiones mecánicas de • Implementar la eficiencia energética y problemáticas legales y los alcances de las mujeres, con el ánimo de compensar medidas de conservación en todos lados y los derechos reconocidos en contextos las desigualdades de género (Röhr 2007). por parte de todos. internacionales-nacionales locales, e incluir No obstante, desde la perspectiva de las las demandas culturales y las múltiples • Reducir en forma urgente y drástica los mujeres, continúan las demandas de su perspectivas (véase Ulloa 2014, 2015). patrones de producción y consumo de inclusión, como señala Hindou Oumarou Estos procesos se plantean dado que todas las personas, especialmente aquellas Ibrahim, Coordinadora de la Association en la toma de decisiones las mujeres no que más han contribuido a este problema des femmes peules et autochtones du están presentes, y muchas veces sus voces en el mundo desarrollado. Tchad (AFPAT) [Asociación de Mujeres no son consideradas por los tomadores Indígenas Fulani de Chad]: “La idea de • Comprometer a los países desarrollados de decisiones, procesos que se dan en que el género es un tema transversal no a liderar la lucha contra la crisis climática diferentes contextos locales, regionales, existe en Naciones Unidas. Las mujeres y a brindar a los países en desarrollo los nacionales y globales. deberían estar participando activamente en medios necesarios para mitigar el cambio las negociaciones, inclusive más allá de los climático y adaptarse a este, con un En particular sobre justicia climática, las grupos específicos” (Ghorbani 2015a). espíritu de solidaridad y justicia.3 mujeres indígenas proponen perspectivas que incluyan lo humano y lo no-humano, Por las anteriores razones, han surgido los En la COP 21 en París, la movilización que evidencie las diversas articulaciones movimientos de mujeres que claman por de las mujeres indígenas y movimientos entre procesos económicos, extractivos y una justicia climática. En los escenarios sociales demandaron la inclusión de la los cambios ambientales sustentadas en de cambio climático las mujeres indígenas perspectiva de género; sin embargo, como relaciones desiguales de poder. Asimismo, tienen muy poca participación y acceso plantea Ghorbani (2015b), el acuerdo final demandan la articulación entre diversos a la información, y sus demandas se han de la COP no incluyó género de manera movimientos locales, nacionales y globales incrementado con el paso de los años frente transversal. para proponer nuevas relaciones entre a la falta de respuestas vinculantes y que hombres y mujeres, y generar propuestas tiendan a revertir las causas del cambio que transformen las políticas globales climático. Por lo tanto, en el 2015 frente a Propuestas desde la mirada de las mujeres y nacionales sobre cambio climático. la COP 21, se incrementó el movimiento de indígenas Estas demandas responden a la relación mujeres indígenas exigiendo su inclusión que hay entre género y desigualdades en las discusiones. Las mujeres indígenas se Para repensar la justicia ambiental, así socioambientales, que surgieron desde las unieron a las mujeres alrededor del mundo como su relación con pueblos y mujeres relaciones coloniales. en la declaración “Llamamiento global de indígenas, es necesario considerar las las mujeres por la justicia climática” para la dimensiones económicas, ambientales, De esta manera, los pueblos y mujeres COP 21, y sus demandas fueron: políticas, legales y culturales en indígenas se enfrentan a la naturaleza contextos locales, y su articulación climatizada, proponiendo otras • Cambiar el sistema y evitar el cambio con las transformaciones globales- concepciones de naturaleza, y del climático. locales. De igual manera, repensar las ciudadano cero carbono, proponiendo geopolíticas ambientales: conocimientos, reconocimiento de las diferencias • Evitar el aumento de 1,5 º en la representaciones, y relación con lo no- culturales, es decir confrontan la temperatura global. humano. Paralelamente, implica una ecogubernamentalidad climática. Estas • Asegurar la igualdad de género y los reconfiguración de las perspectivas de críticas a la mirada de género y cambio derechos humanos en todas las medidas justicia ambiental. Por lo tanto, sus climático requieren reconfigurar los contra el cambio climático. propuestas se pueden analizar en cuatro escenarios globales de toma de decisiones dimensiones que implican replanteamientos • Mantener el petróleo y los combustibles sobre cambio climático y la apertura de en torno a: reversar las desigualdades fósiles en el suelo. espacios de reconocimientos de otras basadas en las nociones duales de cultura y visiones frente al cambio climático. • Cambiar al uso de energía 100 % segura naturaleza; repensar las políticas globales y renovable. ambientales y climáticas; reconfigurar las

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De esta manera, los pueblos y mujeres Referencias FMICA (Foro de Mujeres para la Integración indígenas pueden posicionar los territorios Centroamericana) Acuerdo de los pueblos como vivos, las naturalezas relacionales, 2010 Género y cambio climático: Aportes y los seres humanos y no-humanos como 2010 Conferencia Mundial de los Pueblos desde las mujeres de Centroamérica a las seres políticos y como afines, y proponer sobre el Cambio Climático y los Derechos políticas regionales sobre cambio climático. alternativas para enfrentar el cambio de la Madre Tierra, 22 de abril de 2010, San José, Costa Rica: FMICA. climático basadas en conocimientos Cochabamba, Bolivia. http://tinyurl.com /c293ff2. Ghorbani, Mégane propios y en prácticas culturales. Asimismo, replantear las dinámicas de los Aguilar, Lorena 2015a “COP 21: las mujeres se movilizan procesos extractivistas de apropiación, por una justicia climática que respete sus globalización y desposesión, al demandar 2009 Manual de capacitación en género y derechos”, La Asociación para los Derechos cambio climático. San José, Costa Rica: de las Mujeres y el Desarrollo (AWID), 28 justicia ambiental en torno a los territorios Unión Internacional para la Conservación de de septiembre de 2015. http://www.awid y los no-humanos. En particular para la Naturaleza (UICN) y el Programa de las .org/es/noticias-y-an%C3%A1lisis/cop-21- América Latina, se puede plantear que Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) las-mujeres-se-movilizan-por-una-justicia- las demandas de justicia ambiental y de en colaboración con la Alianza Género y climatica-que-respete-sus. justicia climática han movilizado las luchas Agua (GWA), la Red Internacional sobre 2015b “Justicia climática: Por qué las mujeres territoriales y ambientales, sobre todo Género y Energía Sustentable (ENERGIA), la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la deben estar incluidas”, La Asociación para cuando confrontan políticas globales que Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO), los Derechos de las Mujeres y el Desarrollo afectan su autonomía y autodeterminación, la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para (AWID), 16 de diciembre de 2015. evidenciando los conflictos que subyacen la Agricultura y la Alimentación (FAO) y http://www.awid.org/es/noticias-y-análisis en dichas articulaciones, pero a la vez la Organización de Mujeres para el Medio /justicia-climatica-por-que-las-mujeres- permitiendo la emergencia de propuestas Ambiente y el Desarrollo (WEDO) como parte deben-estar-incluidas. de la Alianza Mundial de Género y Cambio que repiensan lo territorial y ambiental y la Röhr, Ulrike posibilidad de la construcción de políticas Climático (GGCA). ambientales y climáticas desde perspectivas 2007 “Gender, Climate Change and Censat Agua Viva Adaptation: Introduction to the Gender y propuestas culturales. 2016 “Propuestas de las mujeres indígenas Dimensions.” http://tinyurl.com/bsdncbo. colombianas frente al cambio climático-agua”. Bogotá: manuscrito. Ulloa, Astrid Notas 2013 “Controlando la naturaleza: Este texto retoma conceptos que he elaborado CSUTB (Confederación Sindical Única de ambientalismo transnacional y negociaciones y presentado en otros textos (véase Ulloa 2013, Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia), et al. locales en torno al cambio climático en 2014, 2015). 2009 “Por un Tribunal Internacional de Justicia territorios indígenas, Colombia.” Revista Iberoamericana (Instituto Ibero-Americano 1 Utilizó en inglés el concepto “carbonized Climática”. Cochabamba, 17 de octubre de Berlín) 49: 117–133. nature”, y en español opté por “naturaleza 2009. http://www.alainet.org/es/active/33098 climatizada”. 2014 “Diferencias de género y etnicidad en las Davis, Allison, Laura Roper y Ursula políticas globales-nacionales-locales de cambio 2 Convenios los cuales, por separado, tiene sus Miniszewski climático”. Revista Crítica y Emancipación propios enfoques en temas de género, por (CLACSO) 12: 277–294. ejemplo, el Convenio en Diversidad Biológica 2015 Justicia climática y derechos de las (CDB), el Convenio Marco de las Naciones mujeres: Una guía para apoyar la acción 2015 “Environment and Development: Unidas sobre Cambio Climático (CMNUCC), comunitaria de mujeres. Boulder: Fundación Reflections from Latin America”. En The o herramientas para la inclusión de género Ford, el Fondo Global Greengrants, el Fondo Routledge Handbook of Political Ecology, como la generada por la Convención del Global Wallace, Red Internacional de Fondos editado por Tom Perreault, Gavin Bridge Clima (Censat Agua Viva 2016). de Mujeres y Alianza de Fondos. y James McCarthy, 320–333. London: Routledge. ³ The Women’s Global Call for Climate Justice, http://womenclimatejustice.org/wp-content /uploads/2015/08/The-Womens-Global-Call- for-Climate-Justice_SpanishFinal_Design.pdf.

16 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

Vulnerabilidad al cambio ambiental global en los Andes Centrales: Enunciados para un enfoque hacia la justicia climática por Elma Montaña | IAI | [email protected] y Paula Mussetta | INCIHUSA-CONICET | [email protected]

etc. El estudio de la vulnerabilidad en el contexto del cambio ambiental es una Por su impronta política, el concepto de Este artículo propone la vulnerabilidad al perspectiva que ha cobrado importancia justicia ambiental posiciona el cambio cambio global como una categoría capaz en las últimas décadas y su trayectoria está climático y todas sus variables biofísicas de reconocer situaciones diferenciales marcada en gran medida por los trabajos en pleno campo de lo social. Los asocia entre grupos sociales según raza, género, del Intergovernmental Panel on Climate al respeto por los derechos humanos, clase, ricos y pobres, hegemónicos y Change. Una base común a la gran mayoría incluyendo el derecho a desarrollarse o subordinados, etc., habilitando una de definiciones de vulnerabilidad en este lograr el “buen vivir”, a la necesidad de perspectiva analítica ajustada a los contexto es la identificación de tres grandes distribuir equitativamente sus impactos principios de la justicia ambiental y la dimensiones: la exposición a la variabilidad positivos y negativos, de asegurar tomas justicia climática. y a los extremos climáticos, la sensibilidad de decisiones transparentes, responsables y la capacidad adaptativa de los sistemas y participativas; de promover igualdad El artículo advierte la diversidad de sociales a esos estresores. El enfoque y equidad entre géneros, razas, clases; y acepciones del concepto y enuncia presenta a priori un potencial crítico para de aprovechar el poder transformador de 5 dimensiones necesarias para que promover los principios de la justicia la educación para la gestión de procesos éste consiga evidenciar esos clivajes ambiental porque tiende a explicar cómo y sensibles al clima. fundamentales, ilustrándolas con por qué algunos grupos están sometidos de situaciones relativas a productores forma dinámica y heterogénea a procesos Como ocurre con otros conceptos agropecuarios de tierras secas en ambas que deterioran su bienestar. Es decir, formulados desde la perspectiva de los vertientes de los Andes Centrales, en evidencia que la situación de indefensión, derechos humanos, resulta más fácil cuencas de régimen pluvio-nival en las que riesgo o inseguridad son rasgos propios de reconocer su legitimidad de manera la sequía constituye una de las principales nuestras sociedades. abstracta que aplicarlos en decisiones amenazas asociadas al cambio climático. concretas. Ejemplo de ello es la Finalmente, se señala que un concepto de Sin embargo, muchas de las imposibilidad de cumplir el derecho vulnerabilidad al cambio ambiental en conceptualizaciones de la vulnerabilidad humano al agua en el marco de la Metas sintonía con la noción de justicia climática no se apartan de una visión fisicalista, del Milenio. Los Estados suscriben estos devela raíces profundas de problemas biofísica y técnica del problema, incapaz tratados como miembros de un colectivo socio-ecológicos en el contexto del cambio de visibilizar los vínculos entre la crisis internacional, presuponiendo que ello ambiental global que ponen en cuestión el climática y las relaciones sociales de conlleva la voluntad política necesaria sistema económico capitalista vigente. poder (de clase, de raza, de género, de para hacer cumplir esa determinación. etnias) (Lampis 2012, Dietz 2013). Así, los Sin embargo, la única forma de constituir resultados de muchos de los estudios de el derecho humano y universal al agua ¿Qué vulnerabilidad? vulnerabilidad no constituyen un camino es trascender los intereses político- para promover genuinas transformaciones administrativos del recurso, las provincias Vulnerabilidad es un fenómeno social con en las condiciones de desigualdad, Argentinas y el Estado nacional en Chile, una nutrida trayectoria en las ciencias simplemente porque no están diseñados ámbitos en los que se constituye el valor sociales así como en los organismos para captar las diferencias entre unos estratégico del recurso (Marín et al. 2006). internacionales. De manera general, ha sido actores, grupos o regiones y otros. abordada en relación a la pobreza y a los Es un desafío hoy para los académicos problemas del desarrollo; pero también Una mirada que supere estas debilidades desarrollar marcos conceptuales para esos a partir de procesos globales, regionales debería partir de la idea que la abordajes de derechos humanos, de modo o nacionales más específicos, como la vulnerabilidad al cambio climático es un que constituyan herramientas analíticas desigualdad y la inequidad en los ingresos, proceso tan configurado por privaciones con valor científico a la vez que resulten el desempleo y la inserción laboral, existentes como por amenazas climáticas operativos y útiles para el fortalecimiento la privación o restricción de derechos futuras, determinado por un acceso de una gobernanza ambiental respetuosa de humanos y/o de ciudadanía, el riesgo y los desigual a los recursos y no exclusivamente los derechos humanos. desastres naturales, los flujos migratorios, por impactos de eventos naturales. Sobre

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esta base, capturar los principios de la neutralizada por pérdidas de rentabilidad gravedad, sino que son reforzadas por los justicia ambiental requiere considerar asociadas a precios bajos fijados por patrones de localización de los actores en múltiples estresores y reconocer la mercados cada vez más integrados y el territorio. En ese ejemplo, los capitales espacialidad, la historicidad y las relaciones crecientemente exigentes que desvalorizan de la nueva vitivinicultura globalizada de poder subyacentes, en una mirada toda producción que no cumple con tienden a migrar o expandirse sobre tierras inherentemente política y difícilmente altos estándares de calidad así como por altas, dejando a los pequeños productores cuantificable. mercados oligopólicos de fruta y hortalizas y campesinos menos exitosos cautivos que operan en ausencia de políticas locales de localizaciones que los hacen más de protección de la agricultura regional. vulnerables; y cuanto más se extiende el Reconceptualizando la vulnerabilidad para oasis aguas arriba, más deterioro ambiental instrumentar la justicia climática Los ganadores y los perdedores de la se produce en las colas del sistema de globalización (Benko y Lipietz 1992 y riego. Estos procesos de segregación Vulnerabilidad a múltiples estresores 2000) son candidatos a convertirse en socio-espacial ocurren también en ganadores y perdedores frente al cambio ciudades y zonas periurbanas, polarizando Los abordajes de la vulnerabilidad que climático. La consideración de dobles espacialmente la vulnerabilidad y la focalizan en un solo estresor no logran exposiciones y múltiples estresores pone el resiliencia. captar la realidad de la mayoría de los análisis de la vulnerabilidad en sintonía con sistemas (Eakin y Luers, 2006). Las las preocupaciones de la justicia climática y Los factores locacionales de la exposiciones vinculadas al clima y al ambiental. vulnerabilidad son múltiples y operan a mundo biofísico se combinan con otras través de las escalas espaciales, anulando exposiciones del ámbito social. Así, más o exacerbando la vulnerabilidad de unos que de cambio climático, hablamos de La espacialidad de lo global y otros grupos, en una complejidad difícil cambio ambiental global. Leichenko y de desentrañar. Aun así, los análisis de O’Brien (2008) introdujeron la idea de La “geografía” de la vulnerabilidad suele vulnerabilidad que integran la dimensión las dobles exposiciones, afirmando que el ejemplificarse marcando contrastes norte- espacial tienen más probabilidades de cambio ambiental global se acopla con el sur. Como se menciona en la introducción develar asimetrías y diferenciaciones fenómeno de la globalización para influir de Mattias Borg Rasmussen y Patricia sociales que deben ser reconocidas para en los procesos sociales, económicos F. Pinho, “Environmental Justice and capturar los principios de la justicia y ecológicos de maneras complejas, Climate Change in Latin America”, análisis ambiental. multidireccionales y potencialmente válido, pero que oblitera asimetrías y inesperadas. Hoy se habla de exposiciones desigualdades que surgen en escalas de múltiples en las que interactúan factores mayor detalle. Por ejemplo, los viticultores Historicidad naturales y sociales. Más aún, estos autores y productores hortícolas de las zonas —y muchos otros tras ellos— reconocen distales de los oasis de riego de los ríos Un análisis de vulnerabilidad que la incidencia de fenómenos asociados a la San Juan, Mendoza, Tunuyán, Diamante, contemple relaciones sociedad-naturaleza globalización (o sea al capitalismo actual) Atuel, en la vertiente atlántica de los del pasado visibiliza desigualdades en el y de las políticas en la capacidad de hacer Andes centrales son más impactados por acceso y el control político de recursos frente y adaptarse al cambio climático. los eventos de sequía que los localizados que, en el contexto del cambio climático, en las cabeceras de esos oasis. Aguas muchas veces son interpretadas como Por ejemplo, un pequeño productor fruti- abajo, los productores reciben menos desigualdades naturalizadas y no social e hortícola de Mendoza o San Juan, en caudales, la sequía se potencia con las altas históricamente construidas (Dietz 2013). Argentina, o de las regiones de Atacama temperaturas de las tierras bajas, y/o la y Coquimbo en Chile puede haber salinización y el revenimiento limitan los Por ejemplo, se asume como natural la desarrollado la capacidad de adaptarse a la atributos agroecológicos de sus tierras. No escasez hídrica que afecta a los campesinos disminución de caudal del río construyendo siempre se advierte que estas asimetrías de las áreas no irrigadas de las cuencas un pozo y optimizando su sistema de no se explican sólo por los azares de la argentinas y chilenas de los Andes riego. Pero esta capacidad adaptativa se ve geografía física, el clima o la fuerza de Centrales. Se considera lógico que deban

18 Capricultores de las subcuencas tributarias del rio Elqui, Región de Coquimbo, Chile. Sólo los abuelos permanecen en las tierras de la familia, que merma día a día su productividad. Hija y nietos han debido migrar al valle, en busca de trabajo asalariado que permita la subsistencia. Foto: Elma Montaña, trabajo de campo.

la que marca la diferencia entre los grupos que logran estar mejor preparados para afrontar los cambios, y así ser menos vulnerables. Que la vulnerabilidad sea un fenómeno político significa que ella es producida por múltiples relaciones de poder (Swyngedow 2009) y por mecanismos de exclusión y de negación de derechos adquiridos (Dietz 2013).

Son estas lógicas de poder las que definen quiénes ganan y quiénes pierden, y establecen las diferencias entre quienes solamente pueden reaccionar a los impactos de los cambios, quienes pueden prevenirlos, y aquellos tienen la habilidad para sobreponerse y/o modificar las condiciones estructurales que los vuelven sufrir la escasez, puesto que viven en el frente a los eventos de sequía exacerbados vulnerables. Es sobre estas relaciones y desierto. Una mirada histórica muestra por el cambio climático, poniéndolos mecanismos sobre los que es necesario que los magros o inexistentes caudales al borde de la extinción. Es la mirada poner atención para que la vulnerabilidad que hoy les llegan son el resultado de histórica la que devela una injusticia que no sea un enfoque capaz de reconocer y aprovechamientos aguas arriba efectuados es reconocida en el sistema de gobernanza explicar situaciones diferenciales. por actores que, si bien llegaron después del agua vigente. que ellos, lo hicieron con el poder de capturar esos caudales. En las cuencas de Implicaciones metodológicas Mendoza y San Juan, en Argentina, fueron La producción política de la vulnerabilidad vitivinicultores y desarrollos urbanos que Las tres dimensiones básicas de la construyeron oasis de riego sobre base de Cuando la vulnerabilidad es vulnerabilidad (exposiciones, sensibilidades derechos de aguas que se establecieron conceptualizada principalmente desde la y capacidad adaptativa) facilitan la a fin del siglo XIX ignorando los usos sola dimensión de los impactos biofísicos operacionalización del concepto y dan pie ancestrales de pobladores originarios en la sobre los sistemas sociales, éstos se a una cantidad de estudios cuantitativos parte baja de esas cuencas. En el caso de presentan como fenómenos externos, afanosos por medir la vulnerabilidad a las cuencas de los ríos Copiapo, Huasco, objetivos y apolíticos, es decir, alejados partir de índices e indicadores. Para ello, Elqui, Limari en las regiones de Atacama y de sus determinantes políticos y sociales cuantifican las dimensiones del problema Coquimbo en Chile, el mercado de aguas o de sus consecuencias. Por el contrario, y plantean generalizaciones y relaciones permitió a las compañías mineras comprar desde una perspectiva sensible a los de causalidad entre eventos y dimensiones los derechos. procesos que producen desequilibrios (Pahl-Wostl et al. 2013). Esto resulta sociales, la vulnerabilidad —así como las útil para la comparación entre ciudades, En ambos casos, pequeños productores y formas de resolverla— necesariamente regiones o países, clasificando las unidades campesinos, privados del acceso al agua tiene que ser definida como un fenómeno de análisis en categorías discretas (por de los ríos y arroyos, debieron renunciar inherentemente político porque implica ejemplo, zonas rojas, verdes o amarillas) a sus pequeñas economías diversificadas procesos de disputa por el acceso a los o continuas, ya sean numéricas o de para contentarse con la única actividad que bienes naturales (tierra, agua) y los recursos clase. Y aunque se reconoce la pérdida pueden desarrollar sin esos caudales: una materiales (económicos) y simbólicos de información detallada, la popularidad capricultura extensiva de subsistencia que (gobernanza, participación, conocimiento, de los indicadores reside en que aportan les deja muy escaso margen de maniobras etc.). La posibilidad de acceder a ellos es el tipo de información que los decisores

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de políticas demandan, especialmente los debilidades de los estudios cuantitativos cuando deberíamos haber apuntado a algo organismos internacionales que financian la son mayores que sus bondades. mucho más profundo: la lógica básica de política del cambio climático. Los rankings nuestro sistema económico”. Un concepto de vulnerabilidad son claves para quien de vulnerabilidad en sintonía con los tiene que asignar recursos para solventar Develar causas profundas de problemas de principios de la justicia ambiental expone acciones de mitigación y adaptación. cambio ambiental global esta situación, contribuyendo a focalizar en lo que verdaderamente está en juego. Pero lo que para algunos resulta Las 5 dimensiones presentadas otorgan a información valiosa, para otros es los análisis de vulnerabilidad al cambio información desvirtuada, imprecisa. Por global potencia explicativa de las asimetrías Referencias un lado, existen debilidades metodológicas y situaciones sociales diferenciales Dietz, Kristina propias de la construcción de datos. Por relevantes para la justicia climática y ejemplo, los indicadores utilizan datos ambiental. Esa base conceptual es capaz de 2013 “Hacia una teoría crítica de creados para otros fines; la información inspirar acciones adaptativas que buscan vulnerabilidad y adaptación: aportes para disponible es a escalas agregadas (nacional, operar integralmente sobre los problemas una reconceptualización desde la ecología política”. En Culturas, conocimientos, regional) o a escalas que no coinciden socio-ecológicos del cambio ambiental políticas y ciudadanías en torno al cambio con las unidades de análisis pertinentes global. climático, 19–46. Bogotá: Universidad a algunos estudios de vulnerabilidad al Nacional de Colombia. cambio ambiental (es difícil que existan Pero no resulta una categoría fácil de datos a nivel de cuencas), además de las utilizar o “cómoda”, ni en la academia Eakin, Hallie, y Amy Lynd Luers limitaciones de acceso a los datos y de ni en el plano de las intervenciones, 2006 “Assessing the Vulnerability of Social- confiabilidad. porque expone variables sociales que Environmental Systems”. Annual Review of visibilizan poderes hegemónicos y develan Environment and Resources 31: 365–394. Pero el punto más crítico de las mediciones la inviabilidad de los sistemas económicos de vulnerabilidad es su incapacidad y políticos vigentes, sugiriendo que los Hickel, Jason para dar cuenta de las dimensiones que objetivos de sustentabilidad sólo pueden 2016 “Clean Energy Won’t Save Us—Only a desarrollamos en este artículo y creemos ser alcanzados mediante cambios de fondo New Economic System Can”. The Guardian, hacen de la vulnerabilidad un concepto y radicales. Como se los conceptualiza July 15, 2016. https://www.theguardian potencialmente crítico: las mediaciones aquí, los análisis de vulnerabilidad al .com/global-development-professionals- network/2016/jul/15/clean-energy-wont-save- sociales y políticas, las particularidades cambio global ponen al descubierto la us-economic-system-can?CMP=share_btn_link de su espacialidad y su historicidad. incapacidad de los sistemas económicos, Estas dimensiones de la vulnerabilidad políticos y sociales para ser socialmente Hinkelammert, Franz, y Henry Mora Jiménez no admiten análisis lineales y deberían justos o ambientalmente sustentables 2005 Hacia una economía para la vida: ser abordadas mediante metodologías y llaman la atención sobre el driver Reflexiones sobre Economía Crítica. San José: cualitativas. En el mismo sentido, los fundamental de los problemas de cambio DEI. indicadores de vulnerabilidad tornan global: la economía capitalista dominante. invisibles los procesos que importan a la Se trata de una mirada profunda, menos Lampis, Andrea justicia ambiental y que enunciamos en tecnocrática y más política, postulada 2012 “Vulnerabilidad y adaptación al cambio este artículo. Desentrañar estos procesos desde la academia (Hinkelammert y Mora climático: Debates acerca del concepto de y pensar futuros cursos de acción Jiménez 2005, entre otros) pero también vulnerabilidad y su medición”. Cuadernos implica considerar análisis cualitativos materia de discusión pública. Como lo de Geografía (Universidad Nacional de Colombia) 22, núm. 2, 17–33. con potencia explicativa para revelar expresa The Guardian (Hickel 2016) las dinámicas no lineales y complejas en una reciente editorial respecto de las Leichenko, Robin, y Karen O’Brien entre actores y recursos y que aporten soluciones energéticas al cambio climático: 2008 Global Environmental Change in an Era información para pensar futuros cursos de “El movimiento climático cometió un of Globalization: Double Exposure. Nueva acción. Desde una perspectiva que advierta enorme error. Centramos toda nuestra York: Oxford University Press. los vaivenes de la justicia climática, las atención en los combustibles fósiles,

20 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

Watching Brazil but Missing the Story: An Amazonian Inferno

by Patricia F. Pinho | University of São Paulo | [email protected]

Marín, Juan Carlos, María Luisa Torregrosa, As I write this essay, hundreds of millions impacted by extreme variability in the Karina Kloster y Jordi Vera worldwide have their TVs tuned to the region. 2006 “La doble alianza”. En La gota de la vida: Olympics’ opening while immense forested Hacia una gestión sustentable y democrática areas of the Brazilian Amazon are laid bare. The insistence on dehumanizing Amazonia del agua, 385–395. México: Fundación August 2016 might be remembered by the has been reproduced over centuries by Heinrich Böll. Amazonian people as foreboding events science and political elites both nationally that are now unfolding; an unprecedented and internationally. The accounts presented Pahl-Wostl, Claudia, Carlo Giupponi, Keith dry season has begun: “It’s the driest we’ve in this essay set the stage to claim that Richards, Claudia Binder, Alex De Sherbinin, Detlef Sprinz, Theo Toonen y Caroline Van Bers observed in the last 15 years at the onset of inasmuch as socioenvironmental justice the dry season” (Grossman 2016). movements have had a long story of 2013 “Transition towards a New Global struggle in Amazonia, climate anomalies Change Science: Requirements for Global circulation models have predicted are bringing another formidable challenge Methodologies, Methods, Data and Knowledge”. Environmental Science & Policy an increasing drying of the Amazon to its population. 28: 36–47. region that could be severe enough to compromise forest structure, resulting The concept of justice shows the Swyngedow, Eric in dieback (Cox et al. 2004; Lapola and disconnection between causes and impacts 2009 “Immer Ärger mit der Natur: Ökologie Norby 2014). Climate change in Amazonia associated with climate change. The als Opium für’s Volk”. PROKLA 39 (3): will increase tree mortality, a biomass loss traditional peoples of the Amazon, the 371–389. that leads to carbon emissions. Regardless overall majority, are among those who of the uncertainties associated with these contribute the least to global warming yet projections, Amazonia is expected to suffer significantly from climate anomalies. experience rainfall reduction, an increase Squeezed between large development of 4 to 6 degrees Celsius in temperature, impacts, the implementation of different and an altering hydrological regime with categories of protected areas (which in extreme droughts expected to occur more some cases exclude some groups over often, increasing human suffering and others and impose strategies that might economic losses. Very little is discussed act against local cultural ideas), and, more both in the media and scholarly literature recently, climate adversities, those living in about the socioeconomic impact of a Amazonia experience constant struggles possible Amazon dieback (Vergara and and confrontations. In fact, they are among Scholz 2010). This lack of attention the poorest and most remote in Brazilian may be a result of the fact that climate society (Pinho et al. 2014, Pinho, Marengo, change impacts in the Amazon are poorly and Smith 2015). explored, despite extreme drought (and floods) affecting the region, economy, and In this essay I present some evidence population in recent years. as to whether there is a real increase in the potential for an Amazonia dieback Climate change in Amazonia must consider because of climate change, investigating global circulation models; land use change, what scientists are saying on the topic. I its forest impact, and responses to it; local, provide evidence of socioeconomic impact regional, and global CO2 balance and using the extreme droughts of 2005, emissions debates; and their importance 2010, and 2016 as proxy for climate for overall global climate stability. In that anomalies. This evidence will show the list a very important component is missing: closely linked phenomena of climate humans and their institutions, economy, change and socioenvironmental justice infrastructure, and livelihood, which as the population’s ability to cope with over the past decade have been severely these events in the near future is severely

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compromised. It can be seen, not only in models suggest that the area affected by that carbon sequestration is threatened, the North and the global South but in mild and severe drought will nearly triple resulting in impacts beyond national developed versus developing nations and by 2100, and the continued emissions of borders. “The loss of biodiversity in the within national domains, that impacts of greenhouse gases will increase extreme world’s largest rainforest justifies serious climate anomalies are unevenly distributed, events and degrade Amazonian forests concern. But even more is at stake, as the and disadvantaged communities bear (Duff et al. 2015). In fact, it is difficult Amazon holds a staggering stockpile of (or fail to bear) the costs of massive to define what constitutes a catastrophic carbon sequestered in tree trunks and soil” global, national, and local environmental change in drought frequency and intensity (Grossman 2016). The views are deceptive transformation. I show how scientific for the stability of Amazonian forests, as in that they portray Amazonia as an intact studies, regardless of their tremendous well as in the socioeconomic effects on the system, passively susceptible to accelerated importance, have contributed to the idea population. pressures from land use change and recent that Amazonia is only a forested area and policy changes. In fact, from a climate important in the climate change context In any case, climatic feedback associated change perspective, it suggests a lack of for its ability to provide carbon sink for with an Amazon dieback suggests that the human agency in Amazonia. I argue that global benefit. The policy domain has also widely understood role of the Amazonia these representations of Amazonia are ignored the social experience that exists in forest as the “world’s lungs” would limited, and when they acquire a grand Amazonia, thus limiting action responses be compromised. During the extreme narrative status within discourse, as Isabelle from government to support local needs in droughts of 2005, 2010, and 2016, both Stengers suggests, they can have dire results times of climate adversities. international and national media sources for human understanding (Davis and broadcast numerous reports about the Turpin 2013). In the next section I show droughts’ effects on Amazonia in terms of how society has been impacted by climate Amazon Forest: From Green to Brown by the forest’s planetary role and its carbon change on a daily basis. 2100? release into the atmosphere. As a prominent scientist stated: “Without this ‘carbon A synthesis of the literature shows a level sink’ the world’s ability to lock up carbon Social Reverberations: Impact of Extreme of uncertainty about the Amazon’s future will be reduced, compounding the effects Droughts in 2005, 2010, and 2016 in the context of climate change. Results of of global warming.”1 The social impact global circulation models have predicted of these droughts are only mentioned During the years of extreme drought, an increased precipitation level for the in the context of accelerated land use scholarly and media coverage both Amazon, while other studies suggest a change, specifically, the incidence of fire portray Amazonia’s social domain as only drying scenario (Marengo et al. 2010). outbreaks promoted by local farmers’ a destructive force. However, evidence Among the most accepted results are need to clear the land for crop plantation. shows that deforested areas are dominated models suggesting that rainfall reduction “Almost all fires in the Amazon are started by larger properties (greater than 500 in Amazonia might be so severe that forest by landowners clearing fields and forests hectares) with only a small percentage structure and dynamics are compromised. for cultivation and livestock” (Tollefson from smallholder’s properties, which In that model, a forest dieback scenario 2016). These views portray social factors as represent a greater proportion of people takes place. The uncertainties are responsible for impacts on the forest, but (Godar et al. 2014). Of around 30 million associated with land use changes such still the forest is largely described as “free” people living in the region, 29 percent of as deforestation, biomass burning, from human pressure: “While the Amazon the population is indigenous, but there is and forest fragmentation, which affect is bisected in parts by navigable waterways also a rich diversity of other ethnic groups, local and regional climates. These may and roads, and is increasingly encroached including Afro-Brazilian communities, compound the effects of global climate by settlements and industrial agriculture traditional inhabitants, and migrants from change on the stability of the Amazonian much of the Amazon is still free of human other regions of the country. Income- rain forest, accelerating dieback as it pressures” (Venter et al. 2016). based poverty in Amazonia affects up to provides feedback for higher temperatures 42 percent of the population, whereas for and lower humidity (Nobre, Sellers, and If Amazonian forest is severely impacted the entire country it is 28 percent. The Shukla 1991). Recent global circulation by climate change, the implication is livelihoods of the poor residing in these

22 areas are highly dependent on and sensitive products with low water levels. Energy government has implemented rationing to changes in the provision of resources availability is interrupted given the lack of water. Throughout the basin, passenger by the prevailing ecosystem, closely tuned of fuel that is delivered by the river to boat trips were canceled, leading to to the hydrological cycle. The flow of the most of the municipalities. It is true that physical isolation. Authorities anticipate a river dictates ecological patterns, human the acclaimed social program for poverty shortage in fuel delivered to major urban settlements, land tenure, productive systems reduction in Brazil, which has the largest centers in the states of Amazonas, Acre, (economy), and social organization in direct cash transfer scheme in Latin and Rondônia. Community leaders of Amazonia, and it is central for food access America, has certainly contributed to local the state of Amazonas say the population and production. livelihoods in Amazonia; but it does not hasn’t seen a drought like this in 30 years, act as a buffer given the reasons pointed and many are “praying” that government Some of the severe impacts suffered by out, such as lack of physical access to does not forget about them again, as most of Amazonia’s population during markets. These facts support the idea that food and water insecurity are scaling up extreme droughts can be summarized strategies designed for the northeast that (Souza 2016). In the context of a historical as both environmental disruptions and acted as a buffer, reducing climate impacts absence of governance in the region, local disruptions in the provisions of services on vulnerable populations (Eakin, Lemos, responses during severe droughts has and infrastructure. As part of the negative and Nelson 2014), do not translate well to increased migration to urban areas, as feedback loop associated with extreme Amazonia under climate adversities and migrants hope municipalities will be safer droughts, with river transportation risks. in terms of climate anomalies. However, interrupted, local communities could migrants’ vulnerability actually tends to not get access to market products that No official estimates exist of the costs increase in cities, as access to food, jobs, otherwise would support their needs in associated with these droughts for most markets, education, and health are still times of adversity. Additionally, the market of the Amazon region. In 2005, Acre precarious. Additionally, migrants occupy prices for staple crops such as manioc registered smoke pollution that affected urban margins, as in the case of Manaus, severely increased and were not affordable more than 400,000 people, and fire where human problems such as lack of by most of the riverine population even damaged more than 300,000 hectares clean drinking water, contamination, waste when they could be reached. There was an of forest, with direct costs of more than accumulation, crimes, and violence are on increase in mortality of fish due to the low US$50 million (Brown et al. 2006). the rise. water (and dissolved oxygen) levels, and In 2010, there was slightly more data increased competition among fishermen as available, with 40 out of 62 municipalities On the topic of climate change governance they anticipated a collapse given the low of the state of Amazonas declaring a state for Amazonia, policy responses are still water; thus collective action to safeguard of emergency; the government released very limited in preparing society for endangered fish species was compromised US$12 million for relief to support these impacts. Civil defense is charged (Pinho and Orlove 2010). As an effect, impacted communities. The majority of the with giving technical and financial fisheries’ productivity will be compromised people impacted by the 2010 drought that support, evaluating and reducing risks, in the next dry season of the hydrological were interviewed revealed that they had no and being ready for actions to reduce year. An impact on health is associated knowledge of support from the government human suffering. The reality is a lack of with an increase in fire incidents, namely (see Pinho, Marengo, and Smith 2015). individual and municipal capacity and of respiratory diseases, especially in small The year 2016 will be also remembered as coordination among higher levels, delaying children and the elderly, and incidences another dramatic drought: “In Manaus, actions during extreme droughts. The relief of diarrhea as a result of contaminated more than 40% of the food supply depends support delivered in times of adversity water (Smith et al. 2013). Small-scale exclusively on the river transportation. in most cases doesn’t get to the impacted agriculture is severely compromised, as it Food that would be delivered in four communities (given interrupted access). In is difficult and or impossible to cultivate days is taking twice the amount of time other instances, relief is used as currency staple foods. Resource extraction (forestry, given the low water levels—as a result, for political campaigns during elections. National Forest Programme or NFP, and it is getting more expensive” (Folha de S. Moreover, governmental bodies tend to others) also suffers a decline in productivity Paulo 2016). In the capital of Acre, Rio dismiss the critical abnormal drought, and impediments to transportation of the Branco, due to the low water level, the attributing the need for more robust

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measures of the hydrological regime for salient in other regions of Latin America, Marengo, and Smith 2015). The extent action.2 At the same time, civil defense such as glacier retreat in the Andes (Gagné, to which these people can resist future executive directors are “worried about Rasmussen, and Orlove 2014). Perceiving climate adversities will depend on the communities’ well-being given the shortage the Amazonian region as suffering from strategies designed to support them in and interrupted access to food supply” climate change is relatively new, to the facing climate risks. Certainly it could be (Souza 2016). In Acre, regarding the low point that hydrological anomalies are still achieved with the active engagement of visibility of the impact of the extreme not completely linked to climate change by the scientific community, policy makers, droughts on populations and the absence the prestigious national science community. and communities at different scales of authorities’ responses, sources claim, “With three events in a hundred years it of governance. Nonetheless, it seems “People are deaf when we talk about rivers is difficult to do statistics” (Paulo Artaxo, important now to step back and conceive in Amazonia. Our kids will go thirsty if no interview for Folha de S. Paulo, 2016). of Amazonia as a social domain, regardless action is taken” (AcreNews 2016). In contrast to the novelty of the climate of our tendency to dehumanize it. change concept for the Amazon and of attempts to prove the dieback hypothesis, it Connecting the Dots: Seeing the Amazon seems that social struggles in the area have Notes but Missing the Story persisted throughout the years. 1 T. Patterson, quoted in “Amazon: Lungs of the Planet,” BBC Future, November 18, 2014. Given this evidence, I argue that the 2 “There is nothing abnormal about this narratives of Amazonia as a pristine What Would a Projected Increase of 4–6 drought. We are in the onset of the water environment relatively free from human Degrees Celsius Mean for the Amazon? level reduction, and we cannot confirm which pressure have acted against a more robust phenomena are taking place, we need to strategy to improve socioeconomic Future projections and scenarios for the continue to follow the daily measurements” conditions in the region. In times of climate Amazonian dieback confirm that it is (chief of Hydrological Service of Manaus, in Souza 2016). adversity, the dieback hypothesis has been likely that extreme drought events will be shown to reverberate, impacting both more frequent and severe (IPCC 2014). 3 Bates and Wallace, naturalist (1848), in Slater forest and the socioeconomic domain given Socioecological systems will have to 2003, 116. the consecutive extreme droughts. adapt. But what does adaptation mean for the human population in Amazonia? References However, as long as these narratives It means to continue to strive for better fail to conceive of Amazonia as a social living conditions at the murky intersection AcreNews landscape, they will fail to capture daily of development, ecosystem protection 2016 “O povo é surdo quando se fala de struggles and the detrimental importance agendas, and climate change, where Rio Acre, nossos filhos vão passar sede.” of the population to forest stewardship. residents are still perceived as outsiders. Acrelândia News, August 3, 2016. http:// Such conspicuous disparities between the Thus, ethical issues and challenges www.acrelandianews.com/2016/08/o-povo-e- tremendous natural capital and widespread connected to climate change come to the surdo-quando-se-fala-de-rio.html. social hardship has already been described fore. Justice includes broad considerations Brown, I. Forster, Wilfrid Schroeder, Alberto a long time ago, “so striking was the of human well-being, not limited to Setzer, Monica De los Rios Maldonaldo, Nara mixture of natural riches and human health, safety, access to material resources, Pantoya, Alejandro Duarte, and José Marengo poverty.”3 As with environmental justice satisfactory social and kin relationships, 2006 “Monitoring Fires in Southwestern movements elsewhere, environmentalism aspirations and opportunity, fairness, Amazonia Rain Forests.” Eos 87: 253–259. in Latin America takes shape in the arenas and sense of purpose in life. All these are most directly salient to people’s lives and absent in the region, growing as preexisting Cox, P. M., R. A. Betts, M. Collins, et al. livelihoods. Environmental resistance vulnerabilities outside climate change. 2004 “Amazonian Forest Die-Back under weaves into existing struggles for social Consecutive years of social hardship as Climate-Carbon Cycle Projections for the justice because people face environmental a consequence of extreme droughts have 21st Century.” Theoretical and Applied threats in every corner of their daily lives. shown the limits of cultural practices Climatology 78: 137–156. Climate change has already been more among the Amazonian population (Pinho,

24 Davis, Heather, and Etienne Turpin 2014 Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Pinho, Patricia F., José Marengo, and Mark S. Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global Smith 2013 “Matters of Cosmopolitics: On the and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Provocations of Gaïa; Isabelle Stengers in Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the 2015 “Complex Socio-Ecological Dynamics Conversation Heather Davis and Etienne Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. during Extreme Events in the Amazon.” Turpin.” In Architecture in the Anthropocene: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Regional Environmental Change 15 (4): Encounters Among Design, Deep Time, 643–655. Science and Philosophy, edited by Etienne Lapola, David M., and Richard J. Norby Turpin. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/o/ Slater, Candace ohp/12527215.0001.001. 2014 “Amazon-FACE: Assessing the Effects of Increased Atmospheric CO2 on the Ecology 2003 Entangled Edens: Visions of the Amazon. Duffy, P., P. Brando, G. P. Asner, and C. B. Field and Resilience of the Amazon Forest.” In Berkeley: University of California Press. Science Plan and Implementation Strategy, 2015 “Projections of Future Meteorological edited by David M. Lapola and Richard Smith, L., Luiz Aragão, Clive Sabel, and Tomoki Drought and Wet Periods in the Amazon.” J. Norby. Brasília: Ministério de Ciência, Nakaya Proceedings of the National Academy of Tecnologia e Inovação. Sciences (112) 43: 13172–13177. 2013 “Drought Impacts on Children’s Respiratory Health in the Brazilian Amazon.” Marengo, José A., Tercio Ambrizzi, Rosmeri da Scientific Reports 4:3726. Eakin, H. C., M. C. Lemos, D. R. Nelson Rocha, Lincoln Alves, Santiago Cuadra, María 2014 “Differentiating Capacities as a Means Valverde, Roger Torres, Daniel Santos, and Souza, Silane to Sustainable Climate Change Adaptation.” Simone Ferraz Global Environmental Change 27:1–8. 2016 “Dimensão do início da seca nos rios do 2010 “Future Change of Climate in South Amazonas é revelada em relatório.” A Crítica, America in the Late Twenty-First Century: Folha de S. Paulo Manaus, July 25, 2016. Intercomparison of Scenarios from Three 2016 “Forte Seca pode fazer Amazônia ter Regional Climate Models.” Climate Dynamics Tollefson, Jeff recorde de queimadas.” July 7. 35 (6): 1073–1097. 2016 “Amazon Set for Record Fire Season: Gagné, Karine, Mattias B. Rasmussen, and Ben Nobre, Carlos A., Piers J. Sellers, and Jagadish Warm Oceans Presage Intense Blazes in Orlove Shukla Rainforest.” Nature (535), July 7. 2014 “Glaciers and Society: Attributions, 1991 “Amazonian Deforestation and Regional Venter, Oscar, Eric W. Sanderson, Ainhoa Perceptions, and Valuations.” WIREs Climate Climate Change.” Journal of Climate 4 (10): Magrach, James R. Allan, Jutta Beher, Kendall R. Change 5: 793–808. 957–988. Jones, Hugh P. Possingham, William F. Laurance, Peter Wood, Balázs M. Fekete, Marc A. Lev, and Godar, Javier, Toby A. Gardner, E. Jorge Tizado, Pinho, Patricia F., and Ben Orlove James E. M. Watson and Pablo Pacheco 2010 “Seasons as Temporal Units for Natural 2016 “Sixteen Years of Change in the Global 2014 “Actor-Specific Contributions to the Resources Management: Perspective from Terrestrial Human Footprint and Implications Deforestation Slowdown in the Brazilian Fishery Management in the Central Brazilian for Biodiversity Conservation.” Nature Amazon.” Proceedings of the National Amazon.” In Fifth Symposium on Policy Communications 7:12558 (doi: 10.1038/ Academy of Sciences 111: 15591–15596 and Socioeconomic Research, Second AMS ncomms12558). Conference on International Cooperation Grossman, Daniel in the Earth System Sciences and Services, Vergara, Walter, and Sebastian M. Scholz Atlanta, GA, January 17–21. 2016 “The [Olympics] Year the Rain Forest 2010 Assessment of the Risk of Amazon Burned.” Yale Climate Connections, August Pinho, Patricia, Genevieve Patenaude, Jean P. Dieback.” Washington, DC: World Bank. 16, 2016. Ometto, Patrick Meir, Peter M. Toledo, Andrea Coelho, and Carlos E. F. Young IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 2014 “Ecosystem Protection and Poverty Alleviation in the Tropics: Perspective from a Historical Evolution of Policy-Making in the Brazilian Amazon.” Ecosystem Service 8: 97–109.

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ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

“The Social Vindication of the Highlands”: Climate Change and Justice in Southern Peru by Astrid B. Stensrud | University of Oslo | [email protected]

We send water and send water, and the and drought. The greatest concern is the the highlands perceive this as structural [people on the] coast do not even worry ever-decreasing water supply due to melting injustice (see also Stensrud 2016). whether the water is drying up in these glaciers, drying springs, and irregular parts, whether there are no trees or whether rainfall. The impact of climate change is My argument in this article is threefold. there are filtrations, or whether a mining unevenly distributed, both geographically First of all, I suggest that climate justice company comes in. [. . .] The poorest and socially, and in the Andes, it adds to is not only about relations between the areas of the Peruvian Andes are those that existing challenges of living in poverty and global North and the South, but that a provide water to the coast. in a harsh mountain environment. While range of actors in developing countries– peasant farmers suffer from drought in the for example extractive industries like (Mayor of Caylloma province, interview, headwaters at more than four thousand agribusiness and mining companies October 12, 2011) meters of altitude, water is dammed in (Bebbington 2015; Li 2015)–should be the Condoroma Reservoir and directed accounted for in questions of justice across into the Majes Canal and down to the local, regional, and global scales. Second, Earlier the seasons were respected [by the irrigation project in the flat, arid lands of I argue that environmental inequality and rain], but the climate has changed and Majes. Some water is also transferred to injustice result from multiple structural it affects the agriculture. The earth has the Quilca-Chili watershed, which provides practices: people living in the climate- transformed too much. water to Arequipa City, hydropower sensitive areas in the Peruvian highlands stations, and the Cerro Verde copper mine. are simultaneously suffering from poverty, (Farmer and market vendor in Chivay, This unequal distribution of water shows discrimination, and the consequences of interview, November 13, 2013) how the Peruvian state gives priority to climate change, and measures of adaptation large-scale export-oriented agriculture, inspired by neoliberal ideas about mining, and energy production over small- payments for user rights to water are also If we don’t get the project through, we will scale farming. imposed on them. Third, I suggest that new make a water war. forms of political claims that are based on Water management has become politically ideas of ownership, reciprocity, distributive (Activist from Callalli, interview, February significant during the past decade because justice, and non-anthropocentric natures 2, 2014) of climate change, urban population are emerging and should be included in growth, the mining boom, and the discussions about environmental and increasing numbers of socioenvironmental climate justice.2 Along with the rest of the global South, conflicts related to water. As a response, most Peruvians contribute very little of the the National Water Authority in Peru is world’s carbon dioxide emissions: Peru introducing stricter control with permit Climate Change and Economic was number 133 in the Carbon Dioxide systems. In 2009, the government passed Development in Colca and Majes Information Analysis Center (CDIAC)’s a new law on water resources inspired by 2011 ranking of the world’s countries per the global paradigm of integrated water “The world is upside-down,” Miriam said capita fossil fuel CO2 emission rates.1 resources management, which emphasizes when she was telling me about how the Yet global warming produces changes in that water has economic value. In addition seasons had changed: this year it rained temperature, precipitation, seasonality, to tariffs for irrigation water, farmers have in the dry season, and the frost continued glacier retreat, and water supply. These to register and pay for the right to use a into what was supposed to be the rainy changes have adverse effects on the certain amount of water measured by litres season. It was November 2013 and all the livelihood of small-scale farmers in the per second (Paerregaard, Stensrud, and farmers in Colca Valley were waiting for Colca Valley and especially in the highlands Anderson 2016). Seeing that the authorities the rain. Like most of these farmers, she of Caylloma Province in the Arequipa prioritize the economic value of water, and and her husband, Pedro, perceive the effects region of southern Peru. The farmers that this water is transferred down to the of climate change in terms of seasonal perceive the effects of global climate change urban and industrialized coastal lowlands instability, belated rains, longer drought as the loss of stability—changes in the while the highlands continue with poverty periods, melting glaciers, decreasing known seasonal cycle of rain, frost, heat, and environmental disasters, people in water supply, sudden frosts that come

26 at unexpected times, and more extreme Caylloma Province have declared states 2014. In January 2016, an Emergency shifts in temperature: “the sun seems to of emergency several times since 2011, Coordination Committee was established be closer to the earth.” Pedro complained after large quantities of crops have been in Majes because of the drought-related that they must irrigate more often because ruined and thousands of animals killed risks, and the discharge from Condoroma the heat makes the earth dryer than usual. by extreme weather events. In April 2014 was reduced from 9.5 cubic meters per In 2011, Victor from Callalli told me that a group of mayors from the highland second to 6 cubic meters per second from the glaciers and snowfields that could be districts travelled to the capital, Lima, to February. The farmers were encouraged to seen on the mountaintops ten years earlier present their complaints and demands to use the water more efficiently, but they also had disappeared: “When there used to be the government: financial compensation, needed to reduce their areas of cultivation. snow, there were water cushions [colchones insurance for camelids, and agrarian de agua] where each mountain deposited insurance. However, they were bought off Still, in the upcoming second phase of water. So the springs were maintained all with Band-Aid measures like medicines the irrigation project Majes-Siguas II, the year. Today there are no snowfields, and for the alpacas in the highlands and two private Consortium Angostura Siguas, thus there are no water cushions deposited kilos of seeds to each farmer in the valley. made up of Cobra Instalaciones y Servicios under the mountains.” Responses like these only exacerbate S.A. (Spain) and Cosapi S.A. (Peru), has a pervasive yet ambivalent feeling of been awarded the concession to build the It is getting increasingly harder to earn abandonment, which is a common idiom Angostura Dam, which will have a capacity a living as farmers because “it is not by which relations between Andean of 1,140 million cubic meters (MMC) at profitable” due to climatic uncertainties communities and the Peruvian state are 4,220 meters of altitude. The amount of and insecure product prices. Small-scale described (Rasmussen 2015). Many water running through the Majes Canal agriculture is still the main economic families see no other choice than to will be doubled and enable the construction activity in Colca Valley, but there has been move away, and many end up in Majes, of two hydropower stations, in addition to a transition from subsistence farming to which is seen as a place of opportunities the irrigation of 38,500 hectares of land market production of potatoes, quinoa, where everyone could get a piece of the in the arid pampa of Siguas, next to the beans, barley, and maize. “We used to “progress” and “modernity” that the already irrigated pampa of Majes. This cultivate to consume, but now everything government envisions for this place. land will be sold in units of two hundred, is money,” Miriam said. Like many others, five hundred, and one thousand hectares, Miriam and her husband had to find Starting in the 1970s, the Majes Irrigation which means that big agribusiness will alternative income strategies in addition to was a state project for colonizing and dominate. The consortium will administer farming. Miriam made embroidered clothes cultivating the desert lowlands. The goal the infrastructure for 20 years, and the to sell at the market, and Pedro found odd was to create export-oriented agriculture small and middle-sized farmers fear jobs for the municipality and others. and agro-industry that would generate increased water tariffs. “We call this economic growth and development for privatization,” a farmer told me. No matter Upriver in the headwaters above four the southern region of Peru. Farmers were how strongly the government argues that thousand meters of altitude, the situation given the opportunity to buy land in family the water is still public property according is even worse. The highland inhabitants units of five hectares at subsidized prices, to the law, the farmers know that the are among the poorest in the region and they received technical and financial operator that administers the infrastructure as they are struggling to make a living support from international agencies, like also controls the water flow. on alpaca pastoralism in the extremely the European Economic Community, climate-sensitive highland environment. to transform the desert into fertile land. Glaciers have disappeared, springs and Today, Majes is bustling with economic The Value of Water: Struggling for pastures are dry, the rain is more irregular, activity and the population has rapidly Compensation and Justice and when it finally comes, it falls so hard grown. However, because of the frequent that it erodes the soil. The incidents of absences of rain in the Colca headwaters The project was delayed for several years strong frost periods and heavy snowfall in the past few years, the water levels because communities in Espinar, a highland are more common than before and harder in the Condoroma Dam had sunk to province in the neighboring Cusco region, to anticipate. The local authorities of 60 percent of its maximum capacity in contended that the Angostura Dam

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would take water from the headwaters the contrary, we come to contribute; we that make money on water that is born of Apurímac River and thus leave them want to invest here. in the highlands: the Cerro Verde copper without water. Their struggle has recently mine, the electric company EGASA, and inspired people in Callalli, the district (Victor, interview, February 2, 2014) agribusiness companies in the Majes where the Condoroma Dam is located, to Irrigation Project. They base their claim initiate a collective claim for land rights Victor and the rest of the group from on the principle of valuation of water as in Majes. They claim this right because Callalli claim the right to own land, work, formulated in the water resources law, but they have not received any benefits from and invest in Majes because the irrigation also in the principle of reciprocity that is the dam, and they will no longer silently project exists thanks to the water from practiced in the Andes, as explained by the accept that agribusiness companies make Callalli. This claim is based on a sense of mayor of the province in an interview in profit on the water from their territory ownership toward the water emerging from 2011: “I give you water, so you should give while they suffer from drought. A group their local springs. This water is seen as me something back. . . . They should pay of three hundred families have organized being owned by the mountains and given us, and we will make schools and restore and aim to obtain the legal property rights to them by the mountain lords (Apus). The agricultural terraces and build dams. But to four hundred hectares of land and to world of the farmers and pastoralists in the idea is that we sow water with a large get infrastructure and water to irrigate Caylloma is a relational world in which all percentage of that money. We will sow, for and produce on this land. Their goal is human and other-than-human entities are example, native plants around the water to grow fodder and other crops with the interdependent. Water belongs to the Apus sources. In other words, this is all work to water that comes from their home district. and the territories of which the Apus are preserve and harvest the water.” With the If their project is not accepted, they are guardians. money they will preserve the headwater willing to start what they call “a water environment, which consists of a particular war.” The leader of the group, Victor, These relations of ownership to water have kind of wetlands (bofedales) that serve expressed a profound feeling of structural also in recent years been articulated in as pastures for alpacas. Projects of tree injustice because of the uneven distribution political claims for financial compensation. planting and building microdams are of climate vulnerability, economic The water resources law, which is partly called “sowing and harvesting of water.” opportunities, and access to water, legitimized by climate change, stresses the The microdams replace the glaciers that agricultural land and markets between the significance of water as resource and value, have disappeared; they collect water when headwaters and the Majes Project: especially for economic development. the heavy rains come in short periods, The law also aims to foster a new “water protecting the soil against erosion and This is the social vindication of the culture,” embedded in ideas of modernity, enabling a more even distribution of water highlands. The Majes Project I was efficiency, and productivity, and which is throughout the year (see also Stensrud a project for integration of the high connected to the payment of licences to 2016). part, the middle part, and the lower water use rights (Paerregaard, Stensrud, part [of the basin]. The project has and Andersen 2016). The promotion of the The claim for compensation for water broken this principle. . . . The high new “water culture” is part of the Water echoes the environmental justice part has absolutely been abandoned Resources Management Modernization movements, in Latin America also called from the project. . . . Therefore we as program that has been financed by the environmentalism of the poor (ecologismo proprietors of the water, as owners of World Bank.3 Referring to the principle of de los pobres), which address conflicts the water, owners of the earth, owners economic value, the mayor of Caylloma about unequal access to nature’s services as arequipeños and as cayllominos– Province in the period 2011–2014 said and resources, connecting economic and who we are because these lands belong that water is their wealth: “When the ecological distribution to political power to Caylloma–we have taken this world gives value to the water, we can (Martínez Alier 1992). The struggle for democratic and legal option in order to say that our water costs [money].” Hence, environmental justice in Peru is mainly be able to take on this project with the district mayors and leaders of water user directed against multinational mining regional government. . . . We have not committees in Caylloma Province have companies (Chacón 2003). When water come to beg for charity from anyone; on started to organize in order to demand scarcity is caused by global warming, financial compensation from companies however, there is no local industry that can

28 be held directly responsible. Instead, claims that would allow for disagreements on the References for justice are addressed to the industries definition of nature itself, and accept nature that make profit from water which has as multiplicity (De la Cadena 2010). When Bebbington, Anthony become a scarce resource. the highlanders adeptly appropriate the 2015 “Political Ecologies of Resource developmentalist, market-oriented way of Extraction: Agendas Pendientes.” European arguing, while embedding the argument Review of Latin American and Caribbean Conclusion in the interrelations of earth, mountains, Studies 100: 85–98. water, and people, multiple worlds emerge Chacón Pagán, Raúl In Peru, the urgency of climate change has as interlinked and overlapping in new grown massively the past decade and has and creative ways. Hence, I argue that 2003 “El nacimiento del ecologismo popular en become a matter of great concern among responses to the climate crisis must be el Perú, o la lucha sin fin de las comunidades de Vicco y San Mateo.” Ecología Política 24: both governmental institutions and NGOs, embedded in a systemic critique with a 113–127. and not least among the peasant farmers view to justice. Furthermore, I suggest who are most severely affected by them. that alternative forms of environmental De la Cadena, Marisol However, there are no projects concerning governance should be taken seriously in 2010 “Indigenous Cosmopolitics in the Andes: environmental vulnerability that seriously approaches to environmental justice by Conceptual Reflections beyond ‘Politics.’” address the problems of structural acknowledging that all entities and beings Cultural Anthropology 25 (2): 334–370. inequality. The programs for development in the world, both human and nonhuman, and modernization of water resources are intrinsically connected and mutually Li, Fabiana management in Peru are often justified dependent. 2015 Unearthing Conflict: Corporate Mining, by climate change, yet mostly focus on Activism, and Expertise in Peru. Durham, NC: individual user rights and payments rather Duke University Press than the complexities of local systems for Notes 4 Martínez Alier, Joan water governance, poverty, and inequity. 1 Peru had 0.49 metric tons of carbon per capita This pattern is confirmed by dominant in 2011, according to the CDIAC: http://cdiac. 1992 De la economía ecológica al ecologismo political arenas and media, where concerns ornl.gov/trends/emis/top2011.cap. popular. Barcelona: Icaria. with efficiency and growth overshadow 2 The ethnographic data referred to in this debates on inequality and justice. An Paerregaard, Karsten, Astrid B. Stensrud, and article was generated during two long-term Astrid O. Andersen important question is whether making the fieldwork sessions (March–October 2011 and peasant farmers pay for water is a solution November 2013–April 2014) in Chivay and 2016 “Water Citizenship: Negotiating Water for water scarcity and climate change. other villages along the Camaná-Majes-Colca Rights and Contesting Water Culture in the watershed. Peruvian Andes”. Latin American Research Review 51 (1): 198–217. Local initiatives of adaptation, on the 3 World Bank, Peru, 2016: Water Resources other hand, can be articulated with ideas Management Modernization, Implementation Rasmussen, Mattias B. related to, or similar to, environmentalism Completion and Results Report (IBRD- of the poor and climate justice. When 77010), http://documents.worldbank.org/ 2015 Andean Waterways: Resource Politics in Highland Peru. Seattle: University of leaders of local organizations in highland curated/en/912691467955228834/pdf/ ICR3535-P107666-Box396273B-PUBLIC- Washington Press. Caylloma claim compensation for the disclosed-7-6-16.pdf (accessed September 2, water that is born in their territories and 2016). Stensrud, Astrid B. used downstream for value extraction, 4 2016 “Harvesting Water for the Future: they address the unequal relations to the In June 2014, Peru passed the Payments for Ecosystem Services Law (Ley de Mecanismos Reciprocity and Environmental Justice in the powerful others in the watershed. These de Retribución Ecosistémico), and the Politics of Climate Change in Peru.” Latin demands also emerge from relational regulations of the law were approved in July American Perspectives 43 (4): 56–72. worlds where all entities are mutually 2016. It remains to be seen what the practical connected, and can thus be seen as allied implications of the law will be in Caylloma to a new kind of politics, identified as Province and the rest of Peru. “pluriversal politics,” which is a politics

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ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

On the Brink of Survival: The Climate Justice Movement in the Morales Era by Nicole Fabricant | Towson University | [email protected] and Kathryn Hicks | University of Memphis | [email protected]

As part of a general leftward political the “redistributive agenda of Morales” lies Globally, critics of the plan point out a turn in Latin America in the twenty-first upon extractive industries, which wreak number of potential weaknesses. The century, Bolivia elected social democratic havoc upon the natural environmental main issue for many is the vague and president Evo Morales in 2005. A former and have social, economic, and labor voluntary nature of the agreement. While leader of the coca grower’s union, consequences for majority indigenous and the text acknowledges differentiated Morales was seen by many early on rural communities. We examine some of the responsibility and capability, sustainable in his presidency as advancing a social conflicts between members of the Morales development, and climate justice, all movement agenda. He sought to advance administration and members of the climate concepts pushed by countries in the the interests of the majority indigenous justice movement in Bolivia based on the global South, their implementation is left peoples and trade unionists, for example, competing demands of mitigation of and open to interpretation (Robins 2016). by opening up space for their participation adaptation to climate change, and efforts The text makes no real mention of which in government. The Bolivian Platform to push for a more ecologically sustainable countries and industries are responsible for against Climate Change, which formed development model to improve the welfare GHG emissions and contains no legally in the early years of his presidency, is a of marginalized communities. This is an binding targets and timelines (Morgan civil society coalition designed to address important question for environmental 2016). Further, many acknowledge that the unjust effects of global warming. The activists throughout the global South as the the agreement and Intended Nationally Platform worked in creative tension with world works toward finalizing a climate Determined Contributions (INDC) thus far the Morales administration to demand change agreement with no binding targets. submitted are insufficient for achieving the better environmental protection within stated aims (Clémençon 2016). Hope seems Bolivia and to put pressure on the major to rest on the willingness of nations to carbon emitters of the global North to Global Context of Climate Change develop more ambitious targets over time, take responsibility for their actions. This and on appeals to technological solutions collaboration has led to strong and visible Since the end of the Kyoto Protocol in that remain largely unspecified (Morgan Bolivian leadership on the global stage, 2012, the international community has 2016). pushing climate change negotiators to been working slowly and painfully toward acknowledge the rights of Mother Earth, a new deal to avert the worst effects of Representatives of Bolivia, a signatory to and the climate debt owed by more human-induced climate change. These the Paris Agreement, have been aggressive powerful to less powerful nations. Recently, negotiations culminated in the Paris in pushing nations in North America and however, there has been a major break Agreement in the spring of 2016, which Europe to recognize their responsibility in this relationship due to concerns on will take force only after it is ratified by at for climate change and their “climate the part of environmental activists that least 55 nations, collectively responsible debt” to the global South. In advance of the Morales administration is violating for at least 55 percent of greenhouse the negotiations in Paris, Evo Morales its own alternative vision of sustainable gas emissions (GHG). As of September convened a second World Peoples development. 2016, both the United States and China Conference on Climate Change and the have committed to the agreement. Social Defense of Life to discuss approaches to In this article, we explore Bolivia’s role movement actors and environmentalists climate change that recognize indigenous in global climate change negotiations. have been mixed on the value of the rights and knowledge and the rights Morales, alongside Platform for Climate agreement, with some relieved that the of Mother Earth, and address climate Change actors, played a critical role need for action is finally being formally justice. The Morales administration in focusing global conversation on the acknowledged. The agreement calls for has consistently maintained an overtly structural and systemic problems of limiting the rise in global temperature to anticapitalist position. When Morales was hypercapitalism in industrialized nation no more than 2 degrees Celsius above elected in 2005, he had a two-pronged states and holding them accountable pre-industrial levels and expresses the national strategy to undo the long history for CO emissions. Closer to home, the 2 desirability of aiming for 1.5 degrees. It of neoliberal reforms by nationalizing Morales administration has struggled to calls on all nations to develop and regularly key industries like oil and gas, and to maintain an anticapitalist stance in its submit plans on how they will contribute incorporate native peoples into the economic and social practices. Much of to these efforts. new state through the rewriting of the

30 constitution. His administration has taken CAFOD (a British development agency), of the Morales administration and its advantage of key natural resources (oil, along with rural Bolivian social movements economic policy. Vilela argues that “it gas, soy, minerals), in what Linda Farthing like CONAMAQ (National Council of became ever more obvious post-TIPNIS2 and Benjamin Kohl (2014) have called Ayllus and Markas of the Qullasuyu), that Evo Morales’ party Movimiento al a form of “progressive extractivism,” in the Bartolina Sisa Movement (rural Socialismo (Movement toward Socialism) order to redistribute some portion of the peasant women’s movement), CIDOB (MAS) was going to put everything up revenue to disadvantaged populations (Confederation of Indigenous Peoples for sale. . . . Everything we had worked and create a social welfare system. While of Bolivia), CSUTCB (Unified Syndical so hard for would be undermined by Bolivia contributes minimally to GHG Confederation of Rural Workers), and the overarching economic agenda of the emissions compared to hyperindustrialized CPESC (Regional Federation of Indigenous administration.” In 2013, the government nation-states largely dependent upon Peoples of Santa Cruz)—were critical unveiled its new national development nonrenewable fossil fuels, its economic actors at the climate summit and helped plan called La Agenda Patriótica 2025 policy heavily depends upon natural draft the People’s Accord. They also helped (the Patriotic Agenda for 2025). In it, the resource extraction, which has social and organize the first Tribunal Internacional de government describes how it hopes to environmental consequences. Justicia Climática (International Tribunal make Bolivia a “sovereign and dignified” on Climate Justice) in Cochabamba in country. Mining and hydrocarbons will 2009, and have worked on issues of continue to figure largely in the picture, Bolivia’s Climate Change Priorities adaptation to climate change within but Bolivia will also develop new, Bolivia. La Plataforma proposed seven important sources of income. First, it When climate negotiations in Copenhagen critical development goals leading up will become a major exporter of energy, failed to produce a binding agreement that to the United Nations Conference on drawing on its hydroelectric potential as could protect nations like Bolivia from Sustainable Development, known as well as its renewable energy capacities. radical environmental changes,1 Morales Rio+20. The official discussion at Rio+20 Conversations have already begun about led a stinging denunciation of the entire focused on building a green economy building a mega-dam similar to those in process. He declared, “We come from the to achieve sustainable development. Chile. Second, it will become a producer culture of life, whereas the Western model From this perspective, the solution to and exporter of food products, converting represents the culture of death. At these the current ecological crisis is in large its artisanal farming processes into summits, we have to define whether we are part tied to “green economics,” or the mechanized, irrigated, and technologically on the side of life or on the side of death” idea that economic policies should build advanced systems. This is part of a larger (Aguirre and Cooper 2010, 1). It was in environmental costs into the price of push toward food sovereignty aimed, response to the failure in Copenhagen to products and services. This outlook is on one hand, at ensuring food security reach this binding international agreement also evident in the Paris Agreement. among Bolivians, but on the other hand, that Morales convened the first World La Platforma took a critical stance on at massively industrializing food, forest People’s Conference on Climate Change the green economy, once again using products, and biodiversity resources. He and the Rights of Mother Earth in April indigenous worldviews and the People’s explains that it was in the aftermath of 2010, in which 30,000 activists, including Accord to challenge market-based the TIPNIS controversy and the unveiling labor organizers and NGO representatives, approaches: “Putting a price on nature is of this development plan that some came together in Tiquipaya, Cochabamba, not a solution and will only benefit big members of La Plataforma split from to propose an alternative legal framework capital” (Global Alliance 2012). Morales and from the international NGOs; drawing on indigenous knowledge and some members formed international values. After Rio+20, according to Martin Vilela coalitions with Climate Justice Action, (former director of Aguas Sostentable a network of international (mainly The Platform for Climate Change, or and member of La Platforma) and European) grassroots movements fighting La Plataforma—a loose organization other active members of La Plataforma, for global climate justice. The intent comprised of international NGOs such climate justice activists have become was to link grassroots efforts in order as Oxfam International, Christian Aid (a increasingly uncomfortable with the to have a more powerful international British relief and development agency), contradictions between the rhetoric presence. Other large NGOs like Oxfam

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International remained aligned with the Growing Tensions between Morales scale genetically modified soy production is MAS government. Morales’s economic and La Plataforma wreaking havoc environmentally, on soils, policy does not necessarily contradict waterways, and even food sovereignty. the Paris Agreement, as the agreement Critics (some from within La Plataforma) recognizes that developing countries have pointed out that these development Alongside soy expansion lie governmental will take longer to limit their growth plans have dangerous implications for the plans for more oil and gas exploration, in carbon emissions in order to achieve environment and are inconsistent with which will include more deforestation, development goals. Bolivia’s INDC begins this anticapitalist rhetoric. For example, opening up remote rural areas, making with the argument that the commitment in 2014, Morales declared that by 2025, it easier to slash and burn, and polluting of developing countries to their targets the country should increase hectares water basins and drinking water. As will depend on aggressive action from of production from the current level anthropologist Bret Gustafson (Fabricant more powerful nations, and that in the of 3.5 million hectares to 10 million. and Gustafson 2016) documents, rural shorter term, economic development To accomplish this, the government communities in the Chaco region bear will take priority (Estado Plurinacional has recently agreed to allow people to the burden of gas extraction: rivers and de Bolivia 2015). It also credits climate deforest up to 20 hectares without any streams are now tapped by industry to change to the global capitalist system permission from the Forest Ministry, as provide water for drilling as toxic waste and a drive toward unlimited growth, long as they use the land to produce food. increases. There is even talk of possible and proposes an alternative model. It This represents a radical departure from fracking, which will continue to exacerbate argues, “the capitalist system seeks profit previous regulations and promises a rapid environmental inequities for rural and without limits, strengthens the divorce deforestation of fragile Amazonian lands. indigenous communities. The possibility between human beings and nature; This past summer (2016) when talking of reconstructing the climate justice establishing a logic of domination of to lowland social movement activists movement is challenging in a place like men against nature and among human like former Landless Peasant (MST-B, Bolivia today. beings” (Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia El Movimiento Sin Tierra) leaders, they 2015). Thus, “Bolivia presents its intended explained this development plan as one contribution consistent with its vision of the great fracasos (failures) of this An Uncertain Future for Bolivia of holistic development of the Rights of government. Silvestre Saisairi (former Mother Earth and Integral Development leader of MST-Santa Cruz) describes Where does this leave us in terms of to Live Well. . . . Bolivia understands it as an ecological disaster waiting to thinking about radical social movements Living Well as the civilizational and happen. Some think that the combination in Bolivia, particularly a climate change or cultural horizon alternative to capitalism, of deforestation and the expansion of climate justice movement? Martin Vilela, linked to a holistic and comprehensive monocultures are key drivers of the former member of La Plataforma, argues vision that prioritizes the scope of holistic drought this year. Even the big agro- that “we must rearticulate a movement that development in harmony with nature industries are suffering because animals has the capacity to understand complex and as a structural solution to the global (particularly cattle) are dying from lack systemic relations, the structural causes of climate crisis” (Estado Plurinacional de of water in the lowlands. Saisairi, along the climatic crisis and the limitations of the Bolivia 2015). It puts forward a Climate with others, argue that much of the governing structure of the UN. This would Justice Index to determine each nation’s “food sovereignty” plans (expansion of be a movement capable of confronting the share of emissions budgets, recognizing small-scale agriculture for peasant family powerful states and businesses [fossil fuel historic responsibility for GHG emissions, consumption) of the government have been industries], but a movement that could and colonial and neocolonial exploitation. undermined by proposals to continue to put into effect an alternative practice of It proposes that non-Annex 1 countries deforest large parts of the Amazon and solidarity and complementarity” (Skype (those least responsible for historic carbon expand monocultures like soy. Places like interview by Nicole Fabricant, March emissions) retain 89 percent of future Santa Cruz (the agro-industrial capital of 2016). He argues for the importance carbon emissions, and Annex 1 countries Bolivia) are referred to as the epicenter of building a climate movement more 11 percent. of export-oriented soy production independent from the nation-state and (Fabricant and Gustafson 2016). Large- capable of confronting the internal

32 inconsistencies of the MAS development large-scale resource extraction to finance Clémençon, Raymond strategy. Finally, he supports a strategy that social welfare, all the while hoping that 2016 “The Two Sides of the Paris Climate brings together distinct political ideologies the largest carbon emitters will act in time Agreement: Dismal Failure or Historic in order to create a broad-based climate to prevent imminent ecological disaster. Breakthrough?” Journal of Environment and justice movement centered on alternatives As Vilela articulates, a strong climate Development 25 (1): 3–24. to capitalism. This anticapitalistic stance justice movement coming out of a place seems key, particularly in a place like like Bolivia—but expanding toward other Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia Bolivia. How and in what ways can nations in the global South—proves critical 2015 “Contribución Prevista Determinada alternative agricultural and energy projects for holding highly industrialized nation- Nacionalmente del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia.” http://www4.unfccc.int/Submissions survive and thrive? What might cooperative states in the North accountable for CO2 or collective laboring relations look like in emissions and demanding critical resources /INDC/Submission%20Pages/submissions. aspx. (Accessed September 6, 2016). rural highland and lowland regions? for adaptation and mitigation programs. Fabricant, Nicole, and Bret Gustafson Vilela’s vision comes out of his positionality as a former NGO worker and urban Notes 2016 “Revolutionary Extraction? Mapping the Political Economy of Gas, Soy, and Mineral mestizo in La Paz; yet articulating this 1 Bolivia, along with other nations in the Production in Evo Morales’s Bolivia.” NACLA anticapitalistic vision and implementing it global South, has contributed negligibly to Report on the Americas 48 (3): 271–279. in rural regions of Santa Cruz, La Paz, or greenhouse gas emissions but is beginning Cochabamba seems a bit more challenging. to experience their effects, particularly Farthing, Linda C., and Benjamin H. Kohl in indigenous communities. Impacts of Many rural peasants are focused on daily 2014 Evo’s Bolivia: Continuity and Change. survival. As a former MST organizer from climate change will be complex, given the country’s ecological diversity. The country is Austin: University of Texas Press. Santa Cruz told us this past August, “Antes experiencing radical retreat of glaciers in the de usos y costumbres uno es comerciante highlands and major droughts in the lowlands. Global Alliance buscando como vivir/sobrevivir” (before 2 2012 “Bolivian Climate Change Platform usos y costumbres [indigenous uses and In 2010 Morales announced his proposal to build a major highway from the tropics Proposes Alternatives to Green Economy.” customs] one is a merchant searching for through the Amazon to the Brazilian border, Global Alliance for the Rights of Nature, a way to live/survive” (interview, August right through the Isiboro Secure Indigenous May 11, 2012. http://therightsofnature.org 2016). This seems to be the big question Territory and National Park. Many in the /conferences/bolivian-climate-change-platform- today in some of the poorest nation-states lowlands feared that the road, funded by proposes-alternatives-to-green-economy/. Brazilian development dollars, would create in the Western Hemisphere: short-term Morgan, Jamie and daily survival versus reigniting a more significant ecological destruction and native displacements. It is important to note that not radical climate justice movement that 2016 “Paris COP 21: Power That Speaks the all indigenous communities in the lowlands Truth?” Globalizations 13 (6): 945–951. DOI: incorporates local and daily struggles and were opposed to the highway; however, many 10.1080/14747731.2016.1163863. articulates a coherent and practical vision objected to the fact that Morales failed to for more sustainable futures. While Bolivia carry out prior consultation with them as Robins, Anthony might have represented a kind of hope for required by the new constitution. 2016 “How to Understand the Results of the global South in terms of proposing a the Climate Change Summit: Conference of radical alternative to the fossil fuel industry, References Parties 21 (COP 21) Paris 2015.” Journal of they too remain tied into the tentacles of Public Health Policy 37: 129–132. the global resource regimes; today many Aguirre, Jessica Camille, and Elizabeth rural communities and indigenous peoples Sonia Cooper are teetering on the brink of survival. 2010 “Evo Morales, Climate Change and the The Bolivian context illustrates the Paradoxes of a Social Movement Presidency.” impossible set of choices for nations in the Latin American Perspectives 37 (4): 238–244. global South between a noninstrumental relationship with nature and protection of the rights of Mother Earth, and using

33 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND CLIMATE CHANGE IN LATIN AMERICA

Cryoactivism by Jorge Daniel Taillant and Peter Collins | Center for Human Rights and Environment (CHRE) [email protected], [email protected]

One of the telltale signs of climate change that currently melting glaciers will result larger rivers) that flow year-round thanks in recent years is the rapid acceleration in significant sea level rise in the coming to the slow cyclical melt of the perennial of the retreating of glaciers and polar ice decades. Ice stored in melting glaciers cryosphere will become barren during dry at our planetary extremes. Most people is important to humanity and to the seasons. We will have very distinct wet have likely seen the image of a polar bear ecosystem in part because it stores most and dry seasons, and once the winter snow cornered onto a small piece of floating ice, of the world’s freshwater. This ice is in has melted away, no more water will be the looming and threatening predicament reserve for when our ecosystems need the available to the ecosystem until the next of a collapsing cryosphere, that is, our water most. Many of the glaciers that are winter snow cycle begins. It could, and “world of ice,” captured in a single image. directly relevant to the daily existence of likely will be, devastating for millions if not Few have posed one important question, millions if not billions of people; that are billions of people. however: What are we doing about relevant to their water consumption, their withering glaciers? Can we actually do agriculture, and their industry; are not the So one would presume that societies something about it? large glaciers at the polar extremes but around the world, especially those with rather much smaller and more numerous glaciers and periglacial areas, would be In this article we explore the emerging glaciers that are much closer to home, in doing something to protect this sensitive arena of what glaciologist Bernard Francou mountain ranges like the Swiss Alps, the ecosystem. Ironically, this is not so. recently dubbed “cryoactivism,” that is, Pyrenees, the Andes, the Himalayas, the As Alejandro Iza and Marta Brunilda environmental advocacy steered toward Rocky Mountains, or the Sierra Nevada of Rovere of the International Union for the protecting the complex dimensions of the California. Conservation of Nature (IUCN) discovered planet’s frozen environments, including in their 2006 review of seven key Latin glaciers and subsurface ice of the periglacial Additionally, periglacial areas, which American legal systems (perhaps the first environment (such as permafrost), as they contain extensive frozen swaths of earth legal analysis of glacier protection ever melt away amid the rapid acceleration of known as permafrost (defined in this written), few if any laws offer protection global warming. context as perennially frozen ground), for glaciers. In fact, until recently, not a like glaciers, also play a significant, if not single country in the world had a law on While most people are able to recognize more important, role in capturing and the books to protect glaciers. that our cryosphere is falling victim to administering water to the environment in climate change, surprisingly little has been smaller doses than otherwise occurs during It is in this context that cryoactivism was done to date to address the anthropogenic springtime snowmelt periods. born, that is, a movement of individuals, destruction of some of our most important legislative representatives, scientists, top-of-the-pyramid hydrological resources. We depend on glaciers and periglacial areas academics, NGOs, and other actors, A new breed of environmentalists, much more than we realize. In addition to awoken to the vulnerability of our emerging cryoactivists, are beginning to providing water, glaciers reflect solar rays, cryosphere, who are now attempting to take up this challenge, uncovering some of thereby cooling our climate; they keep adopt international and/or regional laws the anthropogenic activity that is directly climate-impacting methane gases trapped and policy to raise social awareness and impacting glaciers and permafrost, but also under the ice; they cool our climates to develop government and civil society coming up with creative ways to protect because their cool mass retro-nurtures programs to protect our perennially frozen and even to restitute this critical dimension their glaciosystems,1 conserving their cold world and our human right—why not?—to of our ecosystems. environments. glaciers (Taillant 2013).

Advancing climate change places these The Endangered Cryosphere cryospheric glaciosystems in deep peril, The Birth of Cryoactivism particularly glaciers and permafrost in The shrinkage of glaciers all over the high-mountain environments, which will The birth of cryoactivism can possibly world has been documented since the likely die off en masse in some populated be traced to a single moment in time, 1970s; a clear trend of retreating ice mass areas in a few decades or less. From that involving the publication of a cartoon is apparent. Scientists already recognize moment on, small streams (and even by a multinational mining company in

34 the high Central Andes of Chile. It was the first time that a mining company had launched a quest to mine minerals at over 5,000 meters (over 16,000 feet) above sea level, where it’s bitterly cold (usually below freezing), where the air is thin, where altitude makes human existence miserable, sometimes impossible, and also where glaciers and periglacial environments thrive.

The mining company had struck gold beneath three small glaciers on the border between Argentina and Chile in the Central Andes, the Toro 1, Toro 2 and Esperanza Glaciers.2 Their plan was to remove the glaciers to get at the gold. Ironically, the company claimed the glaciers were “a threat to the environment.” Glaciers move, they’re fragile, they can collapse if you chip away at them with heavy equipment, and the sort of work that mining companies do at and near the glaciers would destabilize them, putting anyone near them at risk of serious harm. Mark Carey, who could be dubbed a cryoactivist, working at the University of Oregon, has studied glacier Figure 1. Cartoon depiction in brochure distributed by an international mining company to local communities showing rigs and dump trucks destroying and hauling away glacier ice spawned a global cryoactivist movement to protect glaciers. lake outburst floods in Peru and has Source: Barrick Gold. researched and published an account of a prolonged period of collapsing glaciers that have killed thousands when massive would be carried out, to downstream enough water to supply the entire glacier chunks larger than large buildings community stakeholders (including 300,000-strong population of the Atacama calve off of cliff-hanging glaciers perched indigenous communities) near the Region of Chile—near the project site— over lakes up at 4,000 meters. The waves operations, who were already concerned with enough drinking water (two liters per that ensue on impact with the lake surface with the potential impacts to their water day) for nine years! come rushing down mountain gorges at supply and to their delicate ecosystems due breathtaking speed, taking out anything to the arrival of what would have been one Few people knew of the existence of such and everything in their path. of the world’s largest gold mining projects glaciers in this region of the world. But ever. as the first steps of emerging cryoactivism The glaciers sitting over gold on the would uncover, tens of thousands of similar Argentine-Chilean border were in the While small compared to the colossal glaciers existed in this ecologically delicate way, and so, with little consideration of glaciers of the polar regions, these three and very dry region of the world (and the critical value of the cryosphere, the small glaciers comprised roughly 40 city about 400 of them in the mining company’s mining company proposed to dynamite blocks of ice containing some 2 billion direct area of influence). Giving free rein to them and haul off the ice in dump trucks. liters of water. To get a sense of the mining companies willing to blow up these They distributed brochures, with a cartoon implications for people living downstream dynamic and very critical water towers (Figure 1) depicting how the operation from the mining project, that’s essentially didn’t seem to be a reasonable proposition.

35 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

happened to spawn a desperate attempt to save our glaciers, to protect our right to glaciers, and to protect our planet’s frozen environments from irrational industrial behavior and from a melting climate.

In Chile, with the help of leading environmental groups like Chile Sustentable, as well as forward-looking legislative representatives like Antonio Horvath, a civil engineer with a strong environmental background, an attempt to pass a glacier law was made. It would have been the world’s first, if it had not been struck down by the mining lobby. Figure 2. This debris-covered glacier in Nepal is an example of how colossal deposits of ice may be entirely covered by The Chilean legislative failure to protect a thick layer of rock, protecting it from the warmer environment above. Note the size of the trekkers for proportion. Photo: its glaciers, however, planted a seed for Jorge Garcia-Dihinx. innovation across the border.

A wandering Argentine legislative The fight to protect these glaciers took on learn that a mining company was willing representative named Martha Maffei had monumental proportions and spilled into to blow up glaciers to get at gold. But as visited Chilean communities struggling communities up and down the Andes on an environmental lawyer, she was even with water access at the time the debates both sides of the border. The very names of more surprised to discover that the world were ongoing in the legislature over the the glaciers took on new meaning for this had never taken up the protection of the glacier law. She met with Sara Larrain of cryoactivist movement. glaciers of our cryosphere. Climate change Chile Sustentable, coauthor of perhaps the was placing our ice at risk, and now mining first “cryoactivist” publication, Chilean It was just about this time, in the first companies were aggravating the situation. Glaciers: Strategic Fresh Water Reserves several years of the century, and largely Jurisdictionally, there was little she could for Society, Ecosystems and the Economy, derived from local communities mobilizing do about it despite being Argentina’s a book that underscored the urgent need to protect local water resources from highest environmental authority. to protect Chile’s glaciers. Maffei quickly expanding mining operations in the recognized the importance of protecting Central Andes, that the environmentalist The remoteness of our perennial cryospheric resources and sympathized and activist slogan “water is worth more cryosphere, glaciers, permafrost, high- with local Chilean communities fighting than gold” appeared in environmental altitude wetlands, and other cryogenic corporate dominance of water access, circles and became the flag for nascent resources in high-mountain environments something that was also occurring in cryoactivists in Chile and Argentina set are simply too far removed to have come provinces like Mendoza and San Juan in on stopping this mining project as well as onto the radar screens of legislatures and Argentina. others that were placing glacier resources policy makers, environmentalists, or the at risk. This no doubt was the birth of public consciousness. We simply don’t fight And so, mirroring the stunted Chilean legal cryoactivism. to protect what we don’t know exists. (See initiative, Maffei trekked back across the Figure 2.) border and sought help from Argentina’s Across the border in Argentina, Romina glacier experts. She found just the person Picolotti, a young human rights lawyer to help her at Argentina’s IANIGLA (the turned environmentalist, and recently An Expanding Horizon for Cryoactivists national glacier institute). She would team named to head Argentina’s federal up with Dario Trombotto, a geo-cryologist Environment Secretariat, hearing of Since a mining company perforated a who helped Maffei expand on the developments in Chile, was astounded to glacier in search of gold, lots of things have

36 Chilean glacier bill adding the periglacial they were or how they worked. CHRE, an and pioneering scientific work on glaciers environment to protected territories (a NGO based in Cordoba, Argentina, a good by creating a national institute with the significantly broader area of protection that 500 kilometers from the nearest glacier official task of studying and protecting the included permafrost), and Ricardo Villalba, but very much engaged in the cryoactivist country’s glacier resources. the IANIGLA director, who was willing fight (Picolotti, the former environment to wave one of the first flags of political secretary, was CHRE’s founder and The United Nations recognized the cryoactivism as he toured from city to city, president at the time), decided to take on growing concern for the collapsing speaking to whomever was willing to listen, the technical challenge to learn the science cryosphere in Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, calling for the creation of a national glacier around glaciers and map out an advocacy Chile, and Argentina, and some countries protection law. strategy for their protection. not commonly known for possessing glaciers such as Mexico, Venezuela, and Maffei submitted the draft Glacier With initial help from a handful of socially Colombia. In 2010, for the first time ever, Protection Law to Congress in 2005, minded glaciologists around the world and responding to growing discussions in but with little priority from political willing to cross over into the realm of countries like Chile and Argentina about circles, it was quickly filed into legislative social and environmental advocacy, such the deteriorating cryosphere, the UN oblivion, until Picoletti, then Argentina’s as Alexander Brenning (Germany), Cedo brought together young glaciologists to environment secretary, hungry for Marangunic (Chile), Juan Pablo Milana discuss methodologies to study glaciers legislation to protect glaciers, discovered and Juan Carlos Leiva (Argentina), and periglacial environments. A technical it to be a perfect solution to address the Benjamin Morales Arnao (Peru), Bernard training course offered to these students mining sector’s impacts to high mountain Francou (France), and lots of technical also exposed them to evolving public glacier systems. She began a quiet lobby help from a young geo-cryologist at policy and laws steered to conserve the in Congress to get the bill passed into law. the University of Córdoba, Mateo planet’s cryosphere. The course was held It was supported unanimously in 2008, Martini, CHRE staff learned to use GPS again on two consecutive occasions. A few becoming the first glacier and periglacial technology to map glaciers and published years later, the community fight for glacier environment protection act to be passed by a series of reports focused on glacier and protection in the Andes began to echo a working Congress.3 periglacial vulnerability to extractive sector across the continents. operations. Other NGOs in Argentina The struggle was not over, however, as and Chile also embarked on advocacy In 2012, James Balog, the acclaimed nature shortly after its adoption, Argentina’s campaigns to highlight glacier vulnerability photographer, released his award-winning, president, bowing to pressure from mining and bring attention to the advancement must-see documentary, Chasing Ice, in companies, vetoed the law. Picolotti of large-scale mining into sensitive high- which Balog, with relentless drive and resigned, and cryoactivists like Maffei, mountain glacier environments. With a creativity, successfully documented the Trombotto and his colleagues at the handful of glacial and periglacial laws daily retreat of glaciers around the world IANIGLA, CHRE,4 and others went back established in Argentina, and much interest by installing automated reflex cameras at to the drawing board to figure out how to in other countries to follow suit, by 2010 strategic viewpoints, taking thousands of get the law back. and the years immediately following, a new pictures in mini-increments over a period of road was being paved, setting the stones several years. He also captured some of the Mounting social pressure brought the of a nascent cryoactivism geared to make most incredible footage of a calving glacier law back in 20105 and it was written glacier vulnerability visible and promote ever filmed, in Greenland,6 with pieces of into the books permanently. Several policy to protect glacier resources. millenary ice half the size of Manhattan local government laws followed, also falling into the sea. Balog was effectively establishing local protective legal In 2016, Chile is again considering a glacier bringing the withering remote glacier frameworks to promote the sustainability protection law to ensure the conservation environments into our living rooms, calling of our cryosphere. of its cryospheric resources along the attention to our collapsing cryosphere. Andes. Peru, a country with an important But the environmental NGO community pedigree of contribution to glaciology, The same year, a workshop organized by didn’t know much about glaciers, where has added political leverage to its historic CHRE at the World Summit for Sustainable

37 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

Development in Brazil (Rio+20) extended hydrological relevance of periglacial areas Notes the UN’s glaciologists in harnessing their in climate-stricken regions of California’s 1 See ”Definition of the Glacier Ecosystem or efforts to the environmental advocacy Sierra Nevada. Glaciosystem,” February 1, 2012, world, and brought together glaciologists http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content and environmentalists to discuss advocacy In sum, cryoactivism was born from the /uploads/2012/07/Definicion-de-Glaciosistema- channels and policy courses to attend to concern of many seeking environmental version-1-febrero-2012-english.pdf the demands of cryoactivism. One of those justice as advancing climate change 2 You can see the exact location on Google present that day was Kalia Moldegazieva and other anthropogenic activity place Earth at: 29°19'53.50" S 70°00'56.99" W of Kyrgyzstan, who was concerned with our cryosphere at risk. As climate 3 See Ley de Glaciares, http://wp.cedha.net mining impacts to glacier resources in change progresses, and as our mountain /wp-content/uploads/2013/05/Proyecto- her own country. Following this early environments become more delicate, Maffei-Ley-de-Glaciares.pdf. cryoactivism event in 2012, and seeing this critical natural resource will become 4 the experiences in Chile and Argentina, increasingly fragile. Originally established in Argentina and now expanded to the United States, the Center for Moldegazieva and some of her cryoactivist Human Rights and Environment (CHRE) is colleagues put in motion an effort to Cryoactivists are emerging to take on the a nonprofit organization working to create get a glacier protection law passed in challenges of a deteriorating cryosphere, a more harmonious relationship between Kyrgyzstan. As in Argentina and in Chile, a shedding light on anthropogenic impacts the environment and people. Programs and presidential veto fueled by mining interests that can be stopped or reduced, and putting activities including defending the human rights and by a mining project already advancing forth ideas to recuperate this dwindling of communities affected by environmental over massive glaciers stopped the glacier but important dimension of our global degradation, and promoting more sustainable public policies on issues such as climate law at the parliamentary level. The Kyrgyz ecosystem. change, corporate accountability, extractive cryoactivists, however, are not relenting, industries, the oil and gas sector, and and they are now proposing the creation of We can understand the work of protecting glacier and periglacial resources. a Kyrgyz National Glacier Park and listing cryoactivists as yet another dimension of 5 Argentine National Glacier Act, their glacier-rich Tian Shen mountains as the climate justice movement, one that is http://wp.cedha.net/wp-content UNESCO-protected terrain. tackling a little-understood but very visible /uploads/2012/10/Argentine-National-Glacier- concern of our deteriorating planetary Act-Traducción-de-CEDHA-no-oficial.pdf. In India, another cryoactivist, Chewang climate. Cyroactivists are having to 6 See Chasing Ice, “Glacier Watching Day 17,” Norphel, also known as the “glacier develop skills and learn quickly about the https://www.youtube.com man,” has actually devised a way to cryosphere and how this hitherto unknown /watch?v=hC3VTgIPoGU. dam winter snow on small streams and dimension of our earth is suffering climate promote its survival into the summer change, the reasons for the decline, and months, effectively “fabricating” glaciers how anthropogenic forces are affecting the References in areas where winter snows are melting dynamics of the cryosphere. Iza, Alejandro, and Marta Brunilda Rovere faster than usual due to climate change. Eduardo Gold, a Peruvian mountain We are learning that the cryosphere can be 2006 Aspectos jurídicos de la conservación de los glaciares. Gland, Switzerland: International enthusiast, is also worried about climate protected, that it can be repaired in some Union for the Conservation of Nature. change. He is painting mountainsides white circumstances, and that efforts to build in hopes of increasing solar reflectivity bridges between science and environmental Taillant, Jorge Daniel and helping spawn perennial ice fields, policy advocacy can have beneficial 2013 “The Human Right . . . to Glaciers?” which essentially is an effort to create outcomes. For now, the experience of Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation glaciosystems. In Chile, experiments are cryoactivism is nascent, and cryoactivists 28: 59. under way by the group Geoestudios to are only beginning to explore the policies create subsurface rock glaciers, which and laws that can, and in some cases do, are basically permafrost features of the govern our frozen Earth. periglacial environment. In California, Connie Millar is avidly studying the

38 ON LASA2017

Las sesiones presidenciales en el congreso de Lima 2017 por Mauricio Archila | Universidad Nacional de Colombia | [email protected] y Juliet Hooker | University of Texas at Austin | [email protected]

Redactamos esta nota a finales de agosto En contextos similares se debaten los en forma explícita en las siguientes de 2016, mientras los afiliados de LASA movimientos sociales latinoamericanos, sesiones presidenciales. Así el panel están inscribiendo sus ponencias, paneles, pues si bien algunos apoyaron en el pasado sobre Pensamiento Latinoamericano mesas redondas o sesiones especiales para a los partidos progresistas, se distanciaron (contribuciones, desafíos y nuevas el congreso del siguiente año en Lima. de ellos en aspectos como el verticalismo y direcciones) organizado por Juliet Hooker, Por tanto la programación preliminar el mesianismo de muchas de las izquierdas analiza la trayectoria del pensamiento del evento no se conocerá sino hasta la políticas. Por esa vía clamaron por formas latinoamericano y su creciente distancia publicación del próximo LASA Forum, en más simétricas y equitativas de producción de los tradicionales centros de poder diciembre. En esta ocasión hemos decidido de conocimientos tendientes a transformar intelectual. Igualmente se pregunta por los escribir sobre las sesiones presidenciales la sociedad en mayor armonía con la diálogos horizontales que se establecen con que estamos programando para Lima naturaleza. Ese es el tema de la sesión otras corrientes críticas del pensamiento 2017. dedicada a los movimientos sociales y como el africano o el feminista. Contará el diálogo de saberes, organizada por con la presencia de expertos como Nelson Con el propósito de entender la situación Martha Cecilia García, investigadora del Maldonado-Torres (Rutgers University), actual de América Latina, junto con la CINEP de Colombia, que contará con Lewis Gordon (University of Connecticut) presidenta de LASA Joanne Rappaport y la participación de analistas como Raúl y Yuderkys Espinosa (investigadora un grupo de colegas de distintas disciplinas, Zibechi (investigador independiente, independiente). hemos planeado seis sesiones presidenciales Uruguay), Xochitl Leyva (CIESAS, que en forma articulada cubren varios México), Massimo Modonesi (UNAM, Muy relacionado con el anterior tópico tópicos de la actual coyuntura del México) y Rosalba Velasco (Resguardo está el del panel coordinado por Mauricio continente. Todas se inscriben en el tema Indígena de Canoas, Cauca-Colombia). Archila designado “Desafíos para las central del congreso “diálogo de saberes” y Este panel se llevará a cabo fuera de la sede ciencias sociales hoy en América Latina” son interdisciplinares. del Congreso de LASA2017, buscando la que tendrá la participación de Pablo Gentili amplia participación del público. (CLACSO), Catherine Walsh (Universidad Una primera sesión tiene que ver con el Andina Simón Bolívar, Quito), Charles giro político reciente hacia la derecha en Atención especial merecen las luchas Hale (Universidad de Texas, Austin) y Argentina, Brasil y Perú, pero también populares libradas en el país anfitrión en Martín Tanaka (Instituto de Estudios con los signos de debilitamiento de contra del neoliberalismo y su particular Peruanos). Como sugiere el título, se busca las izquierdas en otros países, aun allí expresión autoritaria en un pasado que no reflexionar sobre la trayectoria de las donde no están en el poder. Se pregunta es tan remoto como se vio en las pasadas ciencias sociales en el continente desde la por el significado de este giro y si elecciones. La reflexión sobre este tema ruptura con el positivismo hace ya más éste representará un retorno crudo al la harán dirigentes populares peruanos de 50 años hasta los recientes llamados neoliberalismo arrasando con los logros vinculados a movimientos urbanos a diálogos con las voces subalternas de los gobiernos progresistas. Pero más de y rurales, indígenas y ambientalistas, que irrumpen en escenarios públicos fondo, esta sesión coordinada por Raúl quienes también son productores de para romper con la compartimentación Madrid, de la Universidad de Texas en conocimientos. Por ahora los organizadores disciplinaria y con el aislamiento Austin, se interroga sobre qué es ser de de esa sesión, Jesús Cosamalón y Javier académico. izquierda o de derecha hoy en América Puente, profesores de las Universidades Latina. Para ello contará con la presencia Católicas de Perú y Chile respectivamente, Por último, pero no menos importante, de expertos como Daniela Campello proponen nombres como Máxima Acuña habrá una sesión presidencial enfocada (Fundación Getulio Vargas), Julio Cotler (campesina de Cajamarca), Guillermo en el tema de las historietas o los cómics (Instituto de Estudios Peruanos), Juan Nolasco (vendedor ambulante de Lima), como productores de conocimiento con Pablo Luna (Pontificia Universidad Alberto Pizango (indígena shawi) y Victoria gran peso intelectual y ético en America Católica de Chile), Gabriel Vommaro Quispesibama (dirigente agraria de Cuzco). Latina. El panel presidido por Felipe (CONICET y Universidad Nacional Gómez de la Universidad Carnegie de General Sarmiento) y Steve Stern El tema central del congreso Lima 2017, Mellon y Silvia Kurlat Ares, investigadora (Universidad de Wisconsin en Madison). el diálogo de saberes, es retomado independiente, convoca a reconocidos

39 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

productores de historietas para hablar de sus experiencias y de la recepción de sus trabajos en diferentes medios en la región, entre quienes están: Pablo Guerra (Colombia), Edgar Clement (México), Juan Acevedo (Perú) y PowerPaola (Colombia y Ecuador).

Esperamos que con este variado panorama de sesiones presidenciales haya suficientes temas para todos los públicos, obviamente sin contar aún con la amplia oferta de paneles y mesas redondas en las 33 líneas temáticas que cubren el congreso de 2017 y que están en proceso de inscripción y aprobación. ¡Nos vemos en Lima!

40 LASA2017 FILM FESTIVAL – SUBMISSION FORM

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lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

SECTION NEWS NEWS FROM LASA

Student Section of LASA Brazil Resolution Is Approved by Graduate Student Representatives Marcus Rocha UFRGS | [email protected] and María Cristina Monsalve | University of Maryland [email protected]

We are glad to announce the creation of the Student Section of The resolution on Brazil approved by the Execute Council at its LASA (SSLASA), after an initial meeting at the 50th Congress May 2016 meeting to be presented to the membership for a vote in New York City. The SSLASA recognizes that students are an did meet the requirements specified by the LASA Bylaws and essential part of LASA and have specific needs and interests. It therefore passed. aims to provide a space for students to exchange experiences with one another and to contribute to the organization as a whole. At As stated by the LASA by-laws, Article VI, Item #7: All proposed the same time, the SSLASA facilitates students’ integration into resolutions shall be automatically emailed for electronic voting the scholarly community through activities that contribute to to each individual who is a member during the year in which professional and intellectual development. These activities include, the Congress is held, no later than 15 days after the close of the but are not limited to, opening an additional space for students’ Business Meeting. Votes must be received within sixty days of presentations, mentoring, advising regarding the job market, receipt of the email transmission. Twenty percent of the current information sharing, standards and suggestions on publications, LASA membership must vote regarding a proposed resolution and academic contacts, timely communication on scholarship and the majority must vote in favor of it for the resolution to pass. The employment offers, and so on. results of the vote shall be posted in the subsequent issue of the LASA Forum and posted on the LASA Internet site. We would like to invite student members of LASA to join this new section and help us to build the SSLASA together. The group is open to graduate students as well as undergraduate students. Results

2016 individual members (as of August 9, 2016): 7,457

Total votes received: 2,589 or 35% of the membership

In favor: 2,263 or 87% of members voting

Against: 326 or 13% of members voting

42 NEWS FROM LASA

Rolling Membership Dates

Effective June 1, 2016, LASA is FAQs implementing rolling membership dates (including current 2016 memberships) to How will I know when it is time to renew facilitate the process of paper proposal my membership? submission (due in September) and Congress registration (due in March– Before your membership is due to expire, April of the following year) under one when you log in to a member exclusive membership cycle. area of the LASA website, a message will be displayed prompting you to renew your This means that an individual membership membership. LASA will also email you will be effective for a year after the reminders when the time to renew your payment is processed. If a membership is membership draws closer. not renewed before the year ends, the new expiration date of the membership will I am a current LASA member, with a be one year after the renewal payment is membership expiration date of September received. 30, 2016. How can I make sure my membership will always have an expiration The following specific examples and FAQs date of September 30? should explain the process. If you renew your membership each year before September 30, your expiration date Examples will always be September 30. You will receive renewal reminders upon logging in Member A is a current LASA member. to the LASA website as well as via email. She renewed her membership for 2016 on December 15, 2015. Her membership expiration date is December 14, 2016. Provided she renews before December 15, 2016, her membership will be extended through December 15, 2017. If she forgets to renew her membership by December 15, and instead renews on January 15, 2017, her membership will be good from January 15, 2017, through January 14, 2018.

Member B is a new LASA member. He joins LASA for the first time on March 13, 2016. His membership is valid through March 12, 2017. Provided he renews before that date, his membership will be extended through March 12, 2018. If he forgets to renew his membership by March 12, 2017, and instead renews on March 31, 2017, his membership will be good from March 31, 2016, through March 30, 2017.

43 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

NEWS FROM LASA

LASA2016 Survey Report

by Pilar Rodríguez, Congress Coordinator | [email protected]

Our 50th anniversary Congress was filled The three survey categories captured were We realize that many sessions occur at the with exciting panels, stimulating debate, demographics, LASA2016, and future same time, and some of the same topics and wonderful networking opportunities. Congresses. simultaneously, but due to the high volume Overall, from our perspective, it was a of sessions allowed in the Congress, to be successful Congress. We were honored to able to honor the spirit of inclusiveness, have among us the honorable presidents Demographics multidisciplinary, and diversity of LASA, Luis Guillermo Solís, president of Costa this overlap is bound to happen. We hope Rica, and Ricardo Lagos, former president This year, there were more respondents that the multiple simultaneous sessions of Chile, as well as theorist and activist from Latin America (46 percent) than permit a wide range of session options in Noam Chomsky, to name a few. For the from the United States and Canada (43 which you can participate and grow. Gran Baile, LASA went all out to put percent), this is an 8 percent increase in together an animated dance party, inviting participation for our Latin American the famous Nuyorican salsa musician colleagues, which we appreciate as your LASA2016 Willy Colón and Milly Quezada, the feedback is very important in preparing us “Queen of Merengue.” Regardless of all for Lima, Peru. Similar to previous years, Most respondents noted the slight change the enthusiasm around the Congress we our respondents focus mainly on research in session times this year. We went from wanted to ensure that our most important activities (60 percent) and 30 percent in an hour and forty-five minute sessions to constituents (our members) agreed on education. However, unlike previous years, an hour and thirty minutes. The reason the success of LASA2016 and thus our which were heavy on first-timers’ feedback, for this change was to include plenaries yearly online survey was sent to collect this year first-timers were tied (31 percent) (sessions with no other competing panels) demographic information and respondents’ with seasoned attendees (attended five that included VIP guests such as Alejandro feedback, and to measure the overall or more LASA Congresses). Both groups Mayorkas of the Department of Homeland experience during our time in the Big are important to us as you evaluate the Security and Julia Preston of the New York Apple. We thank the 667 participants who Congress with new lenses as well as with Times. To avoid the sessions running too responded, who represent 10.4 percent of experienced ones. The trend continues to be late in the day and competing with business all of the LASA2016 registered participants that most participants attend between four meetings and receptions (as well as New (a 6 percent drop from 2015). and seven sessions during the Congress. York’s gastronomy), the sessions were

How many sessions did you attend at LASA2016? How many LASA Congresses have you attended in the past (including LASA2016)?

More than 10 More(11%) than 10 (11%) 1 to 3 (21%) 1 to 3 (21%) Over 5 (31%) Over 5 (31%) 1 (31%) 1 (31%)

8 to 10 (22%) 8 to 10 (22%)

4 to 7 (47%) 4 to 7 (47%) 4 to 5 (14%) 4 to 5 (14%) 2 to 3 (24%) 2 to 3 (24%)

44 Present ideasPresent ideas Learn about recentLearn about recentLearn about recentLearn about recentAttend governance/Attend governance/Network andNetwork and and/or informationand/or informationwork in Latin work in Latin work in otherwork fields in other fieldsbusiness meetingsbusiness meetingsmake contactsmake contacts American StudiesAmerican Studies with colleagueswith colleagues 100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

LITTLE LITTLEN/A N/NEUTRALA NEUTRALSOME SOMEVERY LITTLE VERY LITTLEVERY MUCH VERY MUCH More than 10 (11%) 1 to 3 (21%) Over 5 (31%) 1 (31%)

8 to 10 (22%)

4 to 7 (47%) 4 to 5 (14%) 2 to 3 (24%)

LASA2017 provided an opportunity to...

Present ideas Learn about recent Learn about recent Attend governance/ Network and and/or information work in Latin work in other fields business meetings make contacts American Studies with colleagues 100

80

60

40

20

0

LITTLE N/A NEUTRAL SOME VERY LITTLE VERY MUCH

shortened by fifteen minutes. Your concern Overall, 77 percent of the participants were after year to provide partial travel grants to for additional discussion time was noted satisfied with LASA2016, 13 percent were our participants. We were able to sponsor and Lima will have the usual allotted time. neutral, and 10 percent were dissatisfied. over 400 participants this year to come to This was a decrease of 4 percent over last LASA2016 and share their research. Another common concern which was year’s satisfaction rate. The slight decrease mentioned again this year is that the size of in satisfaction from Puerto Rico, based on the room was inadequate for the number the feedback, may be due to the discussion Future Congresses of attendants in a session. Unfortunately, it time having been reduced and the fact that is impossible for us to predict the number New York City, though a great location, Around 41 percent of the survey of attendees for a particular session, was a bit expensive. Surprisingly enough, respondents are planning to attend thus this factor is not usually considered 79 percent of respondents were satisfied LASA2017 in Lima, Peru. We are looking when assigning rooms. Additionally, since with the registration process and most forward to the exciting theme Diálogos de LASA2013, to further allow networking commented on how it has been the fastest Saberes as LASA returns to Latin America. opportunities between colleagues in the registration in years. Clearly this group was LASA2017 will be held in the Pontificia same disciplines, we started assigning not at the registration area during the first Universidad Católica del Perú, PUCP; we neighboring rooms by program tracks/ hour of opening, when we encountered are excited to partner with the PUCP as it similar themed tracks. Sometimes this an unexpected computer glitch due to celebrates its 100th birthday. practice risks having small meeting rooms over-usage. We apologize to those who had next to each other. However, we have to endure the wait and thank all for your We thank all those who took the time to received very positive feedback on having patience and understanding. complete the survey. Your feedback helps track-designated rooms as it has improved us improve by acknowledging situations networking opportunities. We hope this Our LASA Congress app continues to that we may have not been aware of, and additional networking compensates for the grow in popularity: 66 percent of our thus allows us to focus on our members sometimes crowded rooms. respondents used the app this year (a and their needs. As always, please feel free 5 percent increase from last year). We to reach out to us with any questions or As the graph illustrates, LASA Congresses continue to work with our vendors to further suggestions. We hope to see you at continue to be first a networking make it as user-friendly as possible. LASA2017! opportunity and then an opportunity to learn about work in Latin America, which As in every Congress, LASA is very grateful is directly linked to LASA’s mission. to our faithful sponsors/foundations and to the Endowment Fund, which continue year

45 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

NEWS FROM LASA

LASA Membership Report 2015

LASA’s 2015 individual membership the membership. The number of student History, political science, and literature Figure 3. 2015 individual members Figure 4. 2015 member residency increased by 27 percent from 2014 to members, at 3,061, represent an increase continue to be the disciplines with highest a record-high total of 12,324 members. of 268 percent from just five years ago in representation followed by sociology, Individual membership has been steadily 2010. anthropology, Latin American studies, Renewed growing throughout the last years with a and to a lesser extent economics, cultural lapsed members Other significant jump in 2015. The charts that More than half of the members in 2015 studies and international relations. 12% 11% follow show the growth in membership in had been members the previous year, and New the last few years along with a breakdown 32 percent (4,017) were new. The number members by member type, new versus renewed/ of new members has increased significantly Institutional Membership 32% lapsed members, residency, and discipline. in the last couple of years. New members U.S. The last chart shows institutional only represented 15 percent of the As the following chart shows, LASA residents 42% membership. membership in 2005. institutional membership continues to decline. There were 302 institutional Based on their country of residency, 42 members in 2015, most of them (199) Latin Individual Membership percent of the members in 2015 resided in located in the United States and 35 in American the United States (compared to 61 percent Latin America. residents Student representation continues to in 2005) with most of the increase seen in 47% increase and is currently the highest it Latin American residents which, in 2015, Renewed has ever been representing 26 percent of represent almost 47 percent. from last year 56%

Figure 1. Individual members Figure 2. 2015 member composition Figure 5. 2015 members by discipline Figure 6. Institutional members

700 12000 Life members Joint members 112 105 Political science 11% 600 10000 Student members Literature 13% 3,016 Other 40% 500 8000

Traditional 400 6000 members 9,036 History 12% 300 4000 Cultural Studies 3% 200 International Relations 3% Sociology 9% 2000 Economics 3% 100 Latin American studies 7% Anthropology 8% 0 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

46 Figure 3. 2015 individual members Figure 4. 2015 member residency

Renewed lapsed members Other 12% 11% New members 32% U.S. residents 42%

Latin American residents 47% Renewed from last year 56%

Figure 1. Individual members Figure 2. 2015 member composition Figure 5. 2015 members by discipline Figure 6. Institutional members

700 12000 Life members Joint members 112 105 Political science 11% 600 10000 Student members Literature 13% 3,016 Other 40% 500 8000

Traditional 400 6000 members 9,036 History 12% 300 4000 Cultural Studies 3% 200 International Relations 3% Sociology 9% 2000 Economics 3% 100 Latin American studies 7% Anthropology 8% 0 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

47 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

LASA’S 50TH ANNIVERSARY

Kalman H. Silvert by Henry M. Silvert, PhD

My father, Kal, was many people to me— or whom to contact once I was there. I From the time I was a teenager, my father loving father, mentor, intellectual role did bring my dad’s letter of introduction always advised me never to label myself or model, and educator. Both my dad and my when I went to the Socialist Party’s other people. I don’t think that I ever heard mom, Frieda, instilled in me an awareness headquarters. When I met with the director him categorize anybody in a derogatory of the symbiotic connection between the of communications, I handed him the letter way except during my very last dinner health of the self (the individual) and the and said, “Soy yanqui, soy estudiante en la with him before he died. I was a visiting health of others (the society at large), or, Universidad de Oxford en Inglaterra pero professor at the Colegio de México and as C. Wright Mills put it, the link between no soy imperialista.” After looking at the teaching a course on the comparative private matters and public issues. How did letter, he gave me a smile, turned around, politics of Latin America, and he was in this happen? A lot of this awareness came and took out my dad’s book on the history Mexico City on Ford Foundation business. from just living with them and listening of Chile. “Kalman es su padre, pues no One of his Ford Foundation contacts to and participating in their intellectual puede ser imperialista,” he said. invited us to have dinner at his home on conversations, debates, and, sometimes, my father’s last night in the city. A Chilean even arguments. On my way back to England, I stopped friend of Kal’s colleague who taught at in Norwich to complete the first draft of the Universidad Autónoma de Mexico But while I learned a great deal from them, my thesis. In discussions with my father (UNAM) was also at the dinner. After my parents also let me develop my own during that visit, I developed the notion, cordial introductions, the “friend” began intellectual authority. During the summers which by no means is exclusive to me, that to grill my father about how in the world of my high school years in Hanover, New progressives in Chile were in a constant a Yankee could ever think himself capable Hampshire, and Norwich, Vermont, Kal commitment to the maximization of of understanding anything about Latin would make reading lists for me, and we individual and collective liberty for all American politics or culture. I could see would discuss the books I read. Many Chileans. This was the central theme of the unease in my father’s body as he began of these books became a significant part my thesis. We can, and Kal did, take this to explain his work. The aggressive tenor of my intellectual memory. One of the commitment to democratic thought and of the conversation continued throughout most important was Sabine’s anthology of action and extend its applicability to the evening. Finally, while we were political theory. While clearly a reference the entire world. We can also logically having dessert, the friend declared, “Qué book, my assignment was to read it from conclude that those who are not interested podemos hacer cuando las demandas de los cover to cover, as I did with volumes by in continuing to maximize individual and estudiantes nos empuja más y más hacia la Marx, Weber, Cassirer, Bolívar, Neruda, and collective liberty are antidemocratic. derecha? No soy fascista.” (What can we countless others. But the anthology’s ideas do when students’ demands push us more that the wealth of the nation is dependent One of my father’s constant concerns was to the [political] right? I am not a fascist.) on many people working together, and that the question of what environmental factors My father turned to her and said in an even this collaboration can occur differently enable people to think democratically. I voice, “¡Pues, Usted es fascista!” (Well, you in diverse places, became part of my think that his two seminal works on the are a fascist!) He was right! He might have consciousness. So did the concept that this role that educational attainment plays said these words to someone’s face before, process never proceeds in a linear fashion in social and economic development but I had never personally heard him say but always does so disjunctively. and political identification provide some anything like that before that evening. insight into this question. He concluded During my time reading for a bachelor of that education, especially primary and All of my memories of my father are philosophy in Latin American studies at secondary education, provides the potential part of my life now and continue to help Oxford University, I had the opportunity to develop democratic ideas and concerns me better understand today’s world. His to travel to Chile to work on my thesis. for “the other,” but it does not necessarily writings are no less important to me. In one As many of you know, my father was well lead to the adoption of those beliefs. of his books—I don’t remember whether known in Chile, but, at the time, I had no This answer won’t please everyone, but it it is the volume on education, class, and idea how widely. He gave me a letter of certainly provides food for thought for us nation that he coauthored with Leonard introduction to use in case I needed it, but all. Reissman or his wonderful little book on he never elaborated on the people he knew the reasons for democracy—he argues

48 IN MEMORIAM

Judith Tendler, 1938–2016

that Chile, on September 11, 1973, was an Judith Tendler was born December 30, sector performance in contrast to the extreme case of the contradiction within 1938, in Detroit, Michigan, and passed increasing criticism of government from capitalism between interest in developing away July 25, 2016. She was the daughter both the right and left. Her legacy at MIT and furthering the wealth of the nation and of first-generation Jewish immigrants from covers not only a broad range of academic the desire for the individual accumulation Ukraine and Russia. Her family was very talks, articles, and pathbreaking books, of capital. Can the same be said about close and she loved her parents dearly. Her including Good Government in the Tropics where the United States is now? I hope not. father was a newspaper man who worked (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), for the Detroit News in the beginning of but she was also known for her dedication When I was a student, most of my the civil rights era, and she was deeply to her students. instructors, and especially those in political affected by the power of his words, his science and sociology, knew who my activism, and his love of language. Judith Excellent students came to MIT from father was. There were a few who did not always wanted to be a good writer and around the world so that they might but were familiar with the last name. I to make him proud with the power of work with Judith. Many are now in remember one time when I was having a her own words. Her mother was also an highly influential positions, continuing her cup of coffee and a donut with one of my activist who taught Judith the importance tradition of intellectual rigor and public professors before class. Out of the blue, he of connecting to people, listening to their service. Judith derived a deep sense of remarked that there had been a professor in stories, and working for the powerless. meaning from mentoring, and her devotion the politics department who had died in the Judith’s mother went to work, after her to her students inspired them to excellence. mid-1970s and wondered whether I was husband died very young, to teach illiterate She was known for her insistence that her any relation to him. On a more memorable adults to read. Judith was clearly impacted students adhere to the highest standards occasion, about eight years after my father by many of these early experiences and in their work. Her students had to know died, I ran into one of my undergraduate dedicated her own life to listening, writing, the subjects they were studying intimately. philosophy professors, someone I hadn’t and empowering the disadvantaged. Moreover, she impressed upon them the seen in many years, on the corner of Her father, Louis Tendler, mother Mollie understanding that some outcomes are Bleecker Street and LaGuardia Place in Medow Tendler, and sister RoseAnna unexplainable by orthodox theories of Greenwich Village. He told me that there Tendler Worth all predeceased her. economics, and that such cases demand had been a very nice person whose last more of the conscientious researcher. Judith name was also Silvert who taught at NYU Judith had many early academic successes. was very selective in accepting advisees, and asked whether I knew him. When I She graduated summa cum laude from the but once she took anyone under her wing, said that I was his son, he told me that he University of Michigan and then did her they found in her a lifelong supporter and had no idea and said that he was very sorry PhD work at Columbia on a scholarship friend. that he had not put both of us together. But from the Ford Foundation. She was an I wasn’t sorry at all, and I don’t think that economist for the United States Agency Although Judith never had her own Dad would have been either. In fact, I thank for International Development (USAID) children, she was a dedicated aunt who that person for not putting us together in in Brazil, worked as an economist for the provided much love and guidance to her his mind. One of my father’s goals for me Oakland Police Department, was a fellow family. She is survived by Laura Susan, was to become a worthy intellectual in my at the Center for the Behavioral Sciences Greg, and Melanie Jensenworth; Nancy own right. He succeeded! at Stanford, and taught at UC Irvine and Lou, Drake, Mollie Rose, and Isaac UC Berkeley before moving to Boston Emerson Meadow; Sarah Elizabeth Worth; Thank you. to work at MIT in 1984. She taught at William Royce Price, William Tendler Price, MIT for 30 years and influenced a large and Charles Rabon Price. cadre of graduate students in development economics, local and regional development, and organizational theories, particularly regarding public sector performance. She was an optimist and instilled in her students an appreciation for good public

49 lasaforum fall 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 4

50 The Latin American Studies Association (LASA) is the largest professional association in the world for individuals and institutions engaged in the study of Latin America. With over 12,000 members, 60 percent of whom reside outside the United States, LASA is the one association that brings together experts on Latin America from all disciplines and diverse occupational endeavors across the globe. LASA’s mission is to foster intellectual discussion, research, and teaching on Latin America, the Caribbean, and its people throughout the Americas, promote the interests of its diverse membership, and encourage civic engagement through network building and public debate. 416 Bellefield Hall University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260

lasa.international.pitt.edu