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THE SONGS of SOULS by Mary Ellen Whitney Presented to The THE SONGS OF SOULS by Mary Ellen Whitney Presented to the American Culture Faculty at the University of Michigan - Flint in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements for the Master of Liberal Studies i n American Culture September, 1995 First Reader Second Reader The Songs of Souls i Table of Contents Page List of Music // Introduction 1 Chapter I 1 6 Worksong 16 Cornsongs, Ricesongs, Hammerin’ Songs and More 2 0 Rowing and Boat Songs 3 3 Song Leader 39 Chapter II 42 Spirituals 42 Great Awakening 47 Canaan Songs 62 Ring Shout 70 Jubilee 74 Chapter III 77 Cries, Calls and Field Hollars 77 Street Cries 83 Chapter IV 86 Songs of Satire and Derision 86 Patty Roller 91 Songs of Leisure 97 Possum and Hoecake 1 01 Children’s Songs 105 Funeral and Burial Songs 109 “Massa’s” Entertainment 112 Conclusion 114 Bibliography 117 The Songs of Souls List of Music Page 1 Roun de Corn Sally 25 11 Anniebelle 27 III Ragged Leevy 29 IV Michael Row the Boat Ashore 35 V Motherless Child 59 VI Foller De Drinkin’ Gou’d 65 VII Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd 67 VIII I’m On My Way 69 IX Little David Play On Your Harp 76 X Pay Me My Money Down 88 XI Run, Nigger, Run 93 XII Run, Nigger, Run 95 XIII Shortenin’ Bread 99 XIV An Opossum Hunt 102 XV Ransum, Scansum 108 XVI Lay Dis Body Down 1 1 1 The Songs of Souls List of Music Page 1 Roun de Corn Sally 25 11 Anniebelle 27 III Ragged Leevy 29 IV Michael Row the Boat Ashore 35 V Motherless Child 59 VI Foller De Drinkin’ Gou’d 65 VII Follow the Drinkin’ Gourd 67 VIII I’m On My Way 69 IX Little David Play On Your Harp 76 X Pay Me My Money Down 88 XI Run, Nigger, Run 93 XII Run, Nigger, Run 95 XIII Shortenin’ Bread 99 XIV An Opossum Hunt 102 XV Ransum, Scansum 108 XVI Lay Dis Body Down 1 1 1 The Songs of Souls Page 1 INTRODUCTION Little of beauty has America giving this world save i n the rude grandeur God himself stamped on her bosom! The human spirit i n this new world has expressed itself i n vigor and ingenuity rather than beauty. And so by fateful chance the Negro folk-song, the rhythmic cry of the slaves - stands today not simply as thesole American music, but as the most beautiful expression of human experience born this side of the seas. 11 has been neglected, i t has been, and i s half despised, and above a 11 i t has been persistently mistaken and misunderstood; but not withstanding, i t s till remains as the singular spiritual heritage of the nation and the greatest g if t of the Negro people. Dr. W.E.B. DuBois1 Chained ankle to ankle, in the bowels of vessels headed for the New World, hundreds of thousands of West Africans, most torn from their clans and tribes by warring tribal chiefs, were traded into slavery. This one-way passage to the Americas in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was “ a veritable nightmare.” A ship that should only carry ninety tons would carry over four hundred slaves, crew and provisions. Serious overcrowding prevailed even though there was a regulation preventing carrying more tonnage than 1 Maude Cuney-Hare. Negro Musicians and Their, Music (New York:DaCapo Press, 1 974) 120. The Songs of Souls Page 2 allowed. “The practice of overcrowding slaves became so common that the British Parliament fe lt compelled to specify that not more than five slaves could be carried for every three tons of the burden of a ship of two hundred tons.” Few, i f any, traders, lured by higher 2 profits, would not “resist the temptation to wedge in a few more.” Smallpox, fever, other diseases and epidemics accounted for the large death rate that took place on these vessels. These captive passengers were forced to live in spaces that could only equal that of a coffin because a waste of space was deplorable. Filth in these confining areas brought on more disease, and death occurred at an even more alarming rate. More deadly perhaps than smallpox was the 3 dreaded flux, “ a frequently fatal malady.” The stench in the slaves’ quarters was staggering and made its own contribution to the 2 John Hope Franklin and Alfred a. Moss, Jr. From Slavery to Freedom, Seventh Edition. ( New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994) 37. 3 Flux was the frequent evacuation of the intestines resulting i n fluid stools, more commonly referred to as diarrhea. A doctor that accompanied many slave voyages reported that “the floor of their rooms, was so covered with the blood and mucus which had proceeded from them in consequence of the flux.” Peter Kolchin, American Slavery - 1619 - 1877 (New York: HilI and Wang, 1993) 21. The Songs of Souls Page 3 appalling conditions aboard ship. Olaudah Equiani, a slave, reported: I was put down under the decks and there I received such a salutation i n my nostrils as I had never experienced i n my I if e. I now wished for the last friend, death, to relieve me.4 Many died as they were “denied the food and sanitary facilities 5 necessary for life.” If disease did not strike or cause death, suicide was an alternative many chose. On a good weather day, slaves would be taken to the top deck and during their “airings” were forced to dance, which was “ a painful exercise for those in chains [and] 6 thought to combat scurvy.” If an opportunity arose, jumping overboard sealed their destiny. Murder among themselves was not uncommon. A fellow slave i n chains may have, in a frenzy, killed his partner to gain more space to breathe. “ 11 was common to find a dead 4 The Saginaw News. A 14, Sunday, March 19, 1995. 5 James Haskins, Black Music an America (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1987) 4. 6 Kolchin 21. The Songs of Souls Page 4 slave and a living slave chained together.”7 The eight to ten week journey saw many suffocate or go mad. So many died on these ships of suffering and were thrown overboard that sharks were constant companions and followed them on their voyages to America. Cruelty took on a different dimension when a captain on one of the slave ships was reported to have thrown one hundred thirty-one slaves 8 overboard, all in order to claim the insurance. Before any slaves had left their homeland, all possessions and dignity had been removed. Tribesmen and relatives were quickly and deliberately separated because they could organize and execute revolts i f I eft together. Even religions were banned. This practice continued when they arrived in America just in case there had been any that had slipped through this indoctrination. In addition, slave holders bent over backwards to make sure there would be no communal language. Slaves were then broken in by brutality and fright in order to render them submissive and docile. This seasoning could take from two to three years as new slaves were 7 Lerone Bennett, Jr., Before The Mayflower - A History of Black America (New York: Penguin Books, 1988) 49. 8 The Saginaw News A 14. The Songs of Souls Page 5 forced to learn a new language, new customs and their new names. Some suicides took place when slaves reached their destination in America. Eighteen slaves, upon learning their fate when they arrived on St. Simon Islands, bound themselves together and drowned in Dunbar Creek. These men sang this song while they went down: Freedom over me Before I be a slave, I be buried in my grave, And go home t o my Lord and be free. No mo’ cryin over me, Before I be a slave. .9 What could not be taken away from these men, women and children were the memories, souls, cultural traditions, and music of 1 o the “Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, and the Slave Coast” of West Africa. Therefore, music became a means for their communication. Theirs was the music of tradition: music to that accompany the hunt, religious ceremonies, death, and war; music to make work easier and 9 Folktales and Story Festival - Summer, 1 992, as told by the Quimbys’. 10 Frank Tirro. Jazz - A Flistory (Now York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1977) 31. The Songs of Souls Page 6 to celebrate the small things in life, such as a first tooth of an infant. Their music was “woven into the culture, forming a part of ordinary living almost as ubiquitous as speech.”11 This musical tradition allowed them to survive the initial indignity of slavery, and is through this music that slaves documented their culture and consciousness. For a time, once settled in the New World, slaves were permitted, or even encouraged, to keep their music alive. The 1 2 premise was that it kept them happy and docile.” Blacks had an exceptional interest and ability in music, so, as much as possible when they f i rst arrived, they continued t o practice their own African music. African cultures placed strong emphasis on the rhythmic aspect of thier music. The result was a diverse range of highly complex, intricate thythm patterns so refined that most whites could not derive meaning from them. The African’s original source of rhythm was the dance. Negroes were adept at changing rhythms, skipping beats, doubling beats, sudden tempo 11 Barry Kernfield, Ed., The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz (London: Macmillan Press Limited, 1 988) 580.
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