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Reproductive Behavior and Vocalizations of the Bonin Petrel

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Reproductive Behavior and Vocalizations of the Bonin Petrel Wilson Bull., 95(4), 1983, pp. 522-539 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR AND VOCALIZATIONS OF THE BONIN PETREL GILBERT S. GRANT, JOHN WARHAM, TED N. PETTIT, AND G. CAUSEY WHITTOW The Bonin Petrel (Pterodroma hypoleuca) is an abundant, colonially- breeding seabird in the central Pacific Ocean. It breeds in winter and spring, being ashore between August and June. The population of this species in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands exceeds one million birds; about 10,000 breed at Midway Atoll (Harrison and Hida 1980). Until recent studies of egg development and chick growth (Pettit et al. 1982a, 1982b; Grant et al. 1982) the species had been little studied (mainly because it usually digs breeding burrows in loose sand and because it nests on islands of difficult access), although some details of breeding biology had been reported (Howell and Bartholomew 1961, Woodward 1972, Amerson et al. 1974, Clapp and Wirtz 1975). This paper deals with courtship behavior, vocalizations, pre-laying activities including the pre-laying exodus, egg- laying and hatching, and incubation shifts. METHODS Many nest burrows on Sand Island, Midway Atoll (28”13N,’ 177”23W)’ in the Leeward Hawaiian Islands are excavated under lawns. Burrows may be 3 m long and over 1 m deep. The single white 39-g egg is laid in an enlarged nest chamber which is lined with grasses and needles of the ironwood tree (Casuarina equisetifolia). The structural integrity of these sites allowed repeated examination of the same nests throughout the breeding season. Vertical shafts 15-20 cm in diameter were dug to the nest chambers. The shafts were covered with plywood and the nests inspected during the prelaying, incubation, and nestling periods-almost daily from 30 December 1979-25 March 1980 and from 10 December 1980- 23 May 1981. Small sticks were placed across burrow entrances to detect nocturnal visits. If the fences were disturbed the nest contents were checked. “Nest-days” refers to the number of nests examined multiplied by the number of days checked. Behavioral observations were made at dusk and after dark with the aid of street lights, moonlight, and partly obscured flashlights. We detected no differences in behavior of petrels nesting under dim street lighting and those in unlit areas. Recordings of vocalizations made with a Uher 4000 IC machine using a Nagamichi CM 300 microphone and a tape speed of 19 cm/set were analyzed with a Kay 6061B Sona-Graph. Most behavioral observations and vocal- izations were recorded in December and early January, prior to egg-laying. Times referred to here are local. The time of sunset was obtained from the U.S. Navy Meteorological Station on Midway Atoll. Color-marked birds were sexed by assuming that a bird on top during copulation was male. Where appropriate, means are given ? one standard error. STUDY AREA Much of Sand Island is covered with buildings, runways, and roads. The major petrel nesting colonies and the relative burrow densities are indicated in Fig. 1. Very few Bonin 522 Grant et al. * BREEDING OF BONIN PETREL 523 Scale(meters) I ’ , 0 100 FIG. 1. Sand Island, Midway Atoll, showing locations of Bonin Petrel colonies. Filled square = Burrow density > 1 nest/l0 m”; dot filled square = Burrow density < 1 nest/l0 m’; A = airport hangar; B = runways; C = harbor. Petrels breed on Eastern Island, Midway Atoll, due to the very dense rat populations (Grant et al. 1981). The largest petrel colonies on Sand Island are on the man-made hills near the harbor, under the Casuarina trees and on the fringes of the golf course, near the chapel and school, the area stretching northwest from the hangar to the dunes, and in Area 7 (a restricted zone). The Area 7 and golf course colonies support substantial Wedge-tailed Shear- water (Puf$nus ~.‘ucificus) nesting populations during the summer. The larger shearwater often evicts and may kill Bonin Petrel chicks when it takes over and enlarges the petrel burrow for its own use. Laysan Albatrosses (&m&n immu~abilis) nest on the surface of the ground above the petrel burrows in most areas but we saw little interaction between the albatrosses and petrels. The only impact of this association occurs when young albatross chicks occasionally become stuck in petrel burrow entrances. Typically the chick, if tightly wedged in the entrance, dies and blocks the passage of the petrels. We saw this happen only about 10 times during the course of our study. NIGHTLY ARRIVAL Bonin Petrels are strictly nocturnal in their activities over land. During 36 nights between 8 December 1980 and 28 January 1981, the first birds appeared overhead 13.2 ? 1.3 min after sunset, range 11 min before sun- set-26 min after sunset. Only three birds, however, appeared before sun- set, all under dark, rainy skies with 100% cloud cover. In general, the lighter the sky and the less the cloud cover, the later the time of arrival. The first birds overhead at dusk flew quite high. As the light faded their 524 THE WILSON BULLETIN * Vol. 95, No. 4, December 1983 numbers increased, and aerial pursuits with their associated chattering cries were heard. Soon many were circling just above the tops of the Casuarina trees and before long some were skimming the ground, partic- ularly in open places near the burrowed areas; 15-25 min after the first high-flying birds had appeared, some had alighted, the earliest before the last daylight had gone. On the Snares Islands, New Zealand, Mottled Petrels (Pterodroma inexpectata) (Warham et al. 1977) tended to arrive later with respect to sunset than did Bonin Petrels on Midway; but skuas (Cathuructu skuu) kill petrels at the Snares Islands whereas there is no natural predator on Midway Atoll. BURROW EXCAVATION Burrows in hard substrate were used year after year while those dug in loose coral sand frequently collapsed between breeding seasons. Bonin Petrels returned to Midway and nearby islands in August and September (Woodward 1972, Amerson et al. 1974, Clapp and Wirtz 1975) and began excavating new burrows or cleaning out old ones. When we arrived in early November digging had begun; some burrows were nearly completed but digging continued well into the laying period. Late season digging may have been done by prospecting pre-breeders or failed breeders. Both mem- bers of a pair dug. They picked with their bills to loosen the soil and then kicked it backwards with their webbed feet. The wrists and the unused foot supported the bird while the other foot kicked back the sand. Up to 3.3 kicks/set were given and the ejected sand thrown 0.3-1.0 m beyond the burrow entrance. The bird typically kicked a few times with one leg, then a few times with the other, and so on. In three instances, burrows were lengthened apparently because of our daily checks of burrow occupancy. The earlier lining was buried in these nests and the burrows were extended up to 0.4 m. The nest-chambers were relined 4-11 days later. Lengthening of the burrow in response to human disturbance has also been reported in Leachs’ Storm-Petrel (Oceunodromu leucorhou) (Gross 1935) and in Wedge-tailed Shearwaters (Shallenberger 1973). Burrow entrances were often packed with vegetation both before and during incubation. The bird at the burrow entrance tugged and tore at grass stems and tossed them over its shoulder or packed them around the opening. The result was an eliptical hole about 10 X 7 cm through which the petrel had to squeeze to enter and leave. Nest blocking has been re- ported in several other petrels (e.g., Warham 1958, 1960, 1967; Warham et al. 1977; Bartle 1968). Bartle (1968) suggested that nest blocking dis- guised the burrow from predators and Warham (1960) thought it might be related to a preference for darkness while on land. Pterodromu hypoleucu Grant et al. - BREEDING OF BONIN PETREL 525 may block the larger shearwater burrows so that they match their own smaller profiles. OLFACTION We were struck by the frequency of the “beak to the ground” posture when Bonin Petrels were near their burrows. Sand removed from burrows was “investigated” by the petrels who adopted this posture. Crude ex- periments indicated that olfaction may play a role here. On 14 December 1981 Warham placed both fists on the ground about 0.6 m apart, upwind of a pair of excavating birds. Both petrels ceased activities at their nest entrance and walked 1 m from the petrel burrow entrance, nibbled his fingers and investigated his notebook with the “beak to the ground” pos- ture. He had handled another petrel extensively an hour earlier. The next night Grant repeated this experiment by handling a petrel (over 30 m from the experimental site) with his left hand only. He knelt down 2 m upwind from a burrow entrance where the male was digging and the female was below. The male immediately stopped and walked toward his right hand but then turned toward his left hand which the male nibbled (ignoring his right one). From this crude experiment, we suggest that olfaction is useful near the burrow entrance but not inside as the birds accepted domestic chicken (Gallus &lus) and other petrel eggs placed in the nest. This experiment extends the use of chemical communication by procellariiform birds (Wenzel 1980). LOCOMOTION NEAR THE NESTING AREAS Some petrels landed in open spaces and then walked to their nests where these were under trees, but the canopy was open enough to allow many to land through the trees at their burrows. Birds usually landed 3- 7 m from burrows. They walked easily with a rather rolling gait, holding their bodies low and horizontal, head and neck outstretched and wings folded to the body.
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