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Fracture Analysis of a Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide-Related

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Fracture Analysis of a Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide-Related ©2007 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc. Economic Geology, v. 102, pp. 667–690 Fracture Analysis of a Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide-Related Hydrothermal Cracking Zone, Upper Bell River Complex, Matagami, Quebec: Application of Permeability Tensor Theory S. E. IOANNOU†,* AND E. T. C. SPOONER Department of Geology, University of Toronto, 22 Russell Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3B1 Abstract Located in the Matagami mining district of the Abitibi greenstone belt, Quebec, the Bell River Complex is a >5-km-thick tholeiitic layered gabbro and/or anorthosite body (2724.6 +2.5/-1.9 MaU-Pb), which likely acted as the heat source that drove hydrothermal convection and volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) hydrothermal mineralization in the area. Abundant fractures and veins crosscutting the western lobe of the Bell River Complex formed over a range of temperatures from 250° to 700°C. The 250° to 400°C assemblage, quartz-epidote ± sericite ± chlorite ± pla- gioclase, is the most widespread and occurs as orthogonal, anastomosing, and random vein sets. Vein densities average between 15 and 25 veins per m2, locally reaching as high as 40 to 60 veins per m2. These veins, typi- cally 1 to 3 mm wide, are interpreted to represent thermal cracking associated with hydrothermal fluid miner- alization in the district. Furthermore, they crosscut earlier higher temperature pyroxene-plagioclase (>600°C) and magnetite-rich (300°–600°C) veins (1–10 mm wide; densities commonly ~0–5 veins per m2). Detailed field measurements of quartz-epidote vein geometries coupled with permeability tensor theory have produced a first-order approximation of the maximum model permeability structure (veins unfilled) of the hydrothermal cracking zone. Representative district-wide values indicate maximum model bulk permeabilities of 10–10 to 10–8 m2 for the hydrothermal cracking zone; similar to permeabilities calculated for the fractured sheeted dike complexes of the Semail and Troodos Ophiolites. However, a high-flow zone located within the central parts of the hydrothermal cracking zone is characterized by a maximum model permeability of 10–7 m2. Locally (<1 m2), the high-flow zone reaches maximum model permeability values as high as 10–6 to 10–5 m2 where two or more veins occur with apertures in excess of 2 cm. Mapping has shown that the hydrothermal cracking zone is confined to an ~350-m-thick interval located within a strongly layered gabbro and/or anorthosite horizon of the Layered zone, upper Bell River Complex. The base of this interval is 1,000 m below the top of the Bell River Complex. Furthermore, in and around the town of Matagami, the dominant orientation of quartz-epidote veins parallels the orientation of the layering (110° ± 15°). This parallelism is further reflected in the orientation of the calculated quartz-epidote vein per- meability tensors (94° ± 30°, 1σ, n = 71). The parallelism suggests that heterogeneities associated with the layer contacts provided planes of low tensile strength along which the hydrothermal cracks preferentially developed. Such an interpretation further explains why the hydrothermal cracking zone appears to be restricted to the strongly layered zone; there are many more low tensile strength planes. Zones of quartz-epidote veining approximately orthogonal to layering are also present. The orthogonal veins are usually less continuous and commonly truncated (but not crosscut) by layer-parallel veins. The orthogonal subset of veins is interpreted to represent short pathways that allowed fluids to travel between adjacent layer- parallel veins. However, locally, longer layering-orthogonal quartz-epidote veins, showing offsets of 10 to 30 cm normal to the layering of the Bell River Complex, may represent initial conduits that allowed fluids to travel into overlying stratigraphy and through to the paleosea floor. Although volumetrically small in comparison with the permeability structure of the bulk sea floor, the sig- nificantly higher permeability of the hydrothermal cracking zone indicates its importance in controlling the flow paths and fluxes of fluids deep within the hydrothermal system. Introduction magma chambers that can be envisioned as a hydrothermal IT HAS long been recognized that subvolcanic intrusions play cracking front or zone into which fluids are focused. a key role in the formation of volcanogenic massive sulfide First described by Lister (1972, 1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, (VMS) deposits. Not only do such intrusions provide the heat 1986) and later analyzed and modeled in more detail by Cath- source necessary to drive large-scale hydrothermal convec- les (1983, 1993), the hydrothermal cracking zone forms in tion, but it has also been suggested that they may contribute rocks that are cooled during thermal contraction along the directly to the metal budget of the system (e.g., de Ronde, margin of a thermal boundary layer adjacent to (within ~180 1995; Alt, 1995; Yang and Scott, 1996; Schardt et al., 2005; m for a dike model) the hot parts (>1,200°C) of an intrusion. Ioannou et al., 2007). Moreover, a temperature dependence The hydrothermal cracking zone acts as a primary zone of en- on permeability has been recognized in the direct vicinity of hanced permeability which allows significant volumes of con- vecting fluid to flow around the intrusion, acquiring heat (>350°C) and dissolved components, including metals (e.g., † Corresponding author: e-mail, [email protected] *Current Address: Haywood Securities Inc., 181 Bay Street, Suite 2910, Norton and Knight, 1977; Ioannou et al., 2007), before sub- Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5J 2T3. sequently discharging through sea-floor black smoker vents. 0361-0128/07/3673/667-24 667 668 IOANNOU AND SPOONER Furthermore, the cracking zone provides a site for the gener- MaU-Pb: Mortensen, 1993), which is overlain by a dominantly ation of saline brines through hydrothermal fluid phase sepa- mafic volcanic package known as the Wabassee Group (>13 ration; brines that are important for the dissolution and trans- km thick). A thin (2–4 m thick) unit of pyritic laminated port of metals in solution (Cathles, 1993; Ioannou et al., cherty tuff known as the Key Tuffite marks the division be- 2007). tween the two groups (Davidson, 1977; Liaghat and Debate exists regarding the temperature over which hy- MacLean, 1992). The unit is a chemical exhalative sedimen- drothermal cracking develops. For example, Fournier (1987, tary rock averaging 1.4 wt percent Zn and 0.1 wt percent Cu 1988) suggested that cracking fronts may develop in quasi- (Davidson, 1977), which has been interpreted to be geneti- plastic crystalline rocks at temperatures as high as 750° to cally related to the VMS deposits that also occur, for the most 800°C. However, calculations and computer simulations by part, at the contact between the Watson Lake and Wabassee Cathles (1983, 1993) and Barrie et al. (1999) indicate that Groups. most hydrothermal cracking occurs at temperatures between The Bell River Complex, originally described by Freeman 275° and 375°C. At temperatures greater than 375°C, per- (1939), is a >5-km-thick, layered tholeiitic gabbro and/or meability within the hydrothermal cracking zone decreases anorthosite body (2724.6 +2.5/-1.9 MaU-Pb: Mortensen, 1993) from rapid dissolution of fracture contact points at the irreg- that intrudes the lower Watson Lake Group. Many, including ularities along fracture walls, with subsequent fracture clo- Piché et al. (1990) and Maier et al. (1996), have suggested sure at higher temperatures, thereby preventing the hy- that the Bell River Complex acted as the heat source respon- drothermal cracking from penetrating the thermal boundary sible for driving Archean VMS-related hydrothermal circula- layer of the intrusion except on a transient basis (Brantley et tion in the area. Supporting evidence includes the fact that al., 1990; Cathles, 1993; Wilcock and Delaney, 1996; Zhang et Bell River Complex granophyre, found in the uppermost level al., 2001). Conversely, heat balance and thermal buoyancy at- of the intrusion, and the Watson Lake Group rhyolite are tract the hydrothermal cracking front to the margin of the compositionally identical and have ages that overlap within thermal boundary layer (Cathles, 1993). low uncertainties (+2.5/-1.9 MaU-Pb: Mortensen 1993). In ad- Hydrothermal cracking is a well-documented phenomenon dition, geochemical similarities to the Watson Lake and (e.g., Grímsvötn geothermal system, Iceland: Björnsson et al., Wabassee Group tholeiitic basalts suggest that these litho- 1982). Field observations support thermal cracking in and logic units were derived through fractionation processes asso- around well-preserved intermediate and mafic intrusions ciated with the Bell River Complex (Scott, 1980; MacGeehan (e.g., Manning and Bird, 1986; Schiffries and Skinner, 1987), and MacLean, 1980a, b). A relatively continuous Mg-Fe frac- in ophiolite settings (e.g., Nehlig and Juteau, 1988; Nehlig, tionation trend across the Bell River Complex suggests that it 1994; van Everdingen, 1995; Gillis and Roberts, 1999), and in was formed primarily through one large continuous intrusive deep exposures of in situ oceanic crust (e.g., Gillis, 1995; event (Maier et al., 1996). However, gabbro sills cut the VMS Manning et al., 1996). However, despite documentation of deposits, Watson Lake Group rocks, and Wabassee Group thermal cracking in numerous geologic environments, little rocks, indicating that less voluminous Bell River Complex- has been done to quantify the physical properties associated like magmas (based on field relationships and similar REE with this process. Accurate modeling of VMS and other ore- patterns) were emplaced after VMS formation and (early) de- forming systems requires a thorough understanding of key position of the Wabassee Group (Scott, 1980; Maier et al., physical input parameters, including representative perme- 1996). Multiphase intrusions spatially associated with VMS ability values (e.g., Carr, 2004). Without realistic inputs, sup- systems, which include pre- and/or syn- and post-VMS phases, ported by field data, the validity of any given model is ques- are not uncommon (e.g., Galley et al., 2000a, b).
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