Villes Et Violence En Afrique Noire

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Villes Et Violence En Afrique Noire Marc-Antoine Pérouse de Montclos Villes et violence en Afrique noire IRD - KARTHALA VILLES ET VIOLENCE EN AFRIQUE NOIRE Collection « Hommes et Sociétés» Conseil scientifique: Jean-François BAYART (CERI-CNRS) Jean-Pierre CHRÉTIEN (CRA-CNRS) Jean COPANS (Université Paris-V) Georges COURADE (IRD) Alain DUBRESSON (Université Paris-X) Henry TOURNEUX (CNRS) Directeur: Jean COPANS KARTHALA sur internet: http://www.kartha1a.com Paiement sécurisé Couverture: La police anti-émeutes à Lagos, Nigeria. Photo M.A. Pérouse de Montclos. © IRD (ex-Orstom) © IRD Éditions et KARTHALA, 2002 ISBN (IRD) : 2-7099-1479-4 ISBN (KARTHALA) : 2-84586-168-0 Marc-Antoine Pérouse de Montclos Villes et violence en Afrique noire IRD Éditions KARTHALA 213, rue La Fayette 22-24 bd Arago 75010 PARIS 75013 PARIS Introduction L'auteur de cet ouvrage n'a pas l'intention d'effectuer une descente aux enfers dans quelque Bronx tropical. Plutôt que de « visiter» des ghettos à l'américaine, il entreprend de partir à la rencontre d'une humanité vivante pour y découvrir une solidarité recentrée sur la communauté proche. Il entend surtout rendre compte de la montée de la peur dans les cités d'Afrique noire. En effet, l'explosion de la violence urbaine préoccupe de plus en plus et va de pair avec une crise majeure du développement des villes, qui est de moins en moins contrôlé par l'État. L'un ne va pas sans l'autre et un des objectifs de cet essai est justement de souligner la corrélation existant entre les deux termes de cette équation. La question n'a d'ailleurs pas manqué d'être abordée pendant la conférence d'Habitat II à Istanbul en 1996.Les décideurs s'étonnent àjuste titre: ces agglomérations sont pour la plupart assez récentes et étaient paisibles il y a encore peu de temps. Le phénomène est relativement nouveau et de ce fait insuffisamment étudié sur un continent où les analyses de la violence collective ont longtemps privilégié la jacquerie paysanne au détriment du banditisme urbain. La difficulté en la matière est que l'investigation est brouillée par de nombreux signaux divergents, parmi lesquels le caractère multiforme de la violence, la confusion des domaines politique et criminel, la prégnance des discours ethniques, les interdépendances de la ville africaine avec la campagne, l'illusion d'un «complot permanent» qui présiderait au déclenchement des troubles, etc. Lié à des croyances en des forces occultes et invisibles, ce dernier trait est significatif car il nie la réalité des dynamiques locales de la violence urbaine. Celle-ci est mise sur le compte des effets pervers de la mondialisation en général et des politiques d'ajustement structurel du Fonds monétaire international en particulier, voire de l'exploitation impérialiste des grandes puissances occidentales. Les affrontements devraient beaucoup aux luttes pour le pouvoir d'une 6 VILLES ET VIOLENCE EN AFRIQUE bourgeoisie compradore au service du capital mondial. Sur les barricades, le « petit peuple» serait largement manipulé par les manœuvres politiciennes des élites. Bien entendu, une telle vision des problèmes cache des pans entiers de la violence urbaine: des processus complexes et difficiles à appréhender, tels que les relations de voisinage, les réseaux de patronage ou la dissolution de l'encadrement social. La fabrique urbaine nécessite en fait une analyse pointue au niveau du quartier, de la rue et même de l'unité d'habitation. Elle requiert notamment une étude approfondie de ces zones informelles que, par facilité de langage, on appellera des bidonvilles sans y mettre là une connotation péjorative. Quatre cercles permettent de cerner la question en ayant à l'esprit une optique comparatiste eu égard aux précédents européen et nord-américain. Le premier remet en perspective la place de la ville par rapport aux conflits qui agitent un pays à l'échelle nationale. Le second s'attache à souligner les spécificités de l'urbanisation en Afrique subsaharienne. Inspiré de l'école des sociologues de Chicago, le troisième explicite la relation de l'homme à l'espace dans la cité, à commencer par la formation du ghetto. Un qua­ trième cercle, enfin, prend en compte les particularités propres à chaque agglomération, ce qui permet d'affiner le concept d'une violence produite par la ville et pas simplement importée dans des espaces urbains. Le démultiplicateur de la violence dépend en effet pour partie de la taille des agglomérations. Une ville de 100 000 habitants constitue, semble-t-il, le seuil minimal en dessous duquel la violence urbaine « typique» ne peut pas se développer. Bien sûr, la ville provinciale ou frontalière a ses délin­ quants. Mais seule la grande ville sert de champ de bataille aux foules en colère, seules les véritables métropoles comme Lagos ou Johannesburg produisent des émeutes « dignes» de ce nom. A cet égard, Port Harcourt, où tout se prête pourtant à une explosion sociale, reste relativement épar­ gnée par de telles formes de violence à cause de son échelle: c'est la plus petite des trois villes que nous étudions. De la sinistre réputation dont sont affublées les mégalopoles du Nigeria, il faut certes faire la part entre fantasme et réalité. L'état de délabrement de Mogadiscio ou de Monrovia n'est évidemment pas comparable. Kinshasa, Nairobi ou Abidjan sont aussi en passe de rejoindre le peloton des villes les plus criminelles au sud du Sahara. Les taux d'homicides des townships d'Afrique du Sud, eux, rivalisent avec les records mondiaux de la Colombie. De ce point de vue, les agglomérations du Nigeria, les plus grosses d'Afrique subsaharienne, retiennent en fait l'attention à cause de l'ampleur inégalée de leurs problèmes urbains. Trois sites ont été étudiés: Port Harcourt, Lagos et Kano. Leur situation géographique respecte les grands équilibres de la fédération nigériane tels qu'ils ont été posés pendant la colonisation, respectivement dans l'Est à dominante ibo, l'Ouest à dominante yorouba et le Nord à dominante INTRODUCTION 7 haoussa. Elle permet d'envisager les variables qui affectent la violence urbaine et couvre les différents aspects du phénomène: un no man's land social à Port Harcourt, « cité-jardin» (c'est le slogan de la municipalité) ravagée par la guerre du Biafra, repeuplée avec la ruée sur l'or noir et où la tension vient de l'absence de convivialité; une démesure «lagosienne », record toute catégorie en matière de population (six millions d'habitants, plus que dans la république voisine du Bénin) et de désordre (du banditisme armé aux embouteillages) ; une crispation ethno-confessionnelle à Kano, terrain de bataille des factions politico-religieuses. Il est à noter qu'aucune de ces agglomérations n'a été le chef-lieu des trois régions découpées par le colonisateur (Enugu pour l'Est, Ibadan pour l'Ouest et Kaduna pour le Nord), sans doute parce que les Britanniques se défiaient qui du port, qui de la capitale fédérale, qui de la vieille cité haoussa rebelle, et poursuivaient la logique bien anglo-saxonne d'une ville administrative à l'écart des subver­ sions (à l'époque, même Ibadan ne présentait pas de danger, tandis qu'Enugu et Kaduna sont encore aujourd'hui relativement « calmes »). Ces monographies font ressortir des agglomérations où les facteurs urbains de la violence dominent - Lagos, Kano - et d'autres où les facteurs régionaux l'emportent - Port Harcourt. Notre objectifest en effet de centrer l'analyse sur les causes proprement urbaines de la violence. Il s'agit d'en démonter les rouages plus que de décrire des phénomènes comme la délin­ quance juvénile, l'émeute ou les conflits communautaires de ghettos, déjà étudiés par ailleurs. Autrement dit, cet ouvrage s'intéresse moins aux mani­ festations de la violence qu'à sa genèse urbaine. PREMIÈRE PARTIE LES CAUSES DE LA VIOLENCE: LA VILLE, L'AFRIQUE, LE MONDE ET L'ÉTAT Plusieurs facteurs contribuent à la violence en Afrique et il est difficile d'en appréhender la complexité car ils font intervenir pêle-mêle des questions de classes, d'ethnies, de religions et/ou de races (Olivier, 1992 : 4-8). Vendettas, rivalités claniques, luttes pour le pouvoir, disputes à propos de femmes et litiges fonciers, par exemple, enflamment traditionnellement le pays zoulou en Afrique du Sud (Minnaar, 1991 : 31). Robert Melson, lui, retient dix variables pour expliquer l'explosion de la violence au Nigeria: forte compétition, sentiment d'insécurité et d'impuissance à se défendre, déshumanisation et dislocation des relations sociales, lenteur de l'information, toute-puissance de la rumeur, absence d'autorité et inefficacité des institutions, facilité à obtenir des armes (1971 : 674). Quand on s'interroge plus particulièrement sur le rôle de la ville dans la fabrication de la violence, deux visions s'affrontent. La première envisage la ville comme un facteur de déstructuration sociale, de désordre et de désarroi (chapitre 1). Dans cette optique, la violence est d'essence urbaine. C'est la concentration de population qui l'amplifie ou la crée, ainsi que des éléments matériels tels que la surpopulation, la chaleur, le bruit, la pollution, la promiscuité sexuelle, l'environnement architectural ou la hauteur des immeubles (Bartol, 1986; Newman, 1972). Autant que la forte densité de population, l'anonymat et la remise en cause de l'autorité traditionnelle confrontée à la modernité contribuent à la hausse de la criminalité. Bien que la cellule familiale devienne plus étroite en ville, les liens conjugaux s'affaiblissent et suscitent le relâchement de l'éducation des enfants, voire la délinquance juvénile. La violence accompagne alors le développement urbain. La corrélation est troublante. Bien que n'étant pas en guerre, l'Afrique du Sud et le Nigeria comptent parmi les pays les plus urbanisés du continent africain et les plus « dangereux », Entre le chaos nigérian et l'ordre sud-africain, une comparaison par les extrêmes a d'ailleurs fait l'objet d'un précédent ouvrage qui essayait de cerner un peu mieux la « gamme» des violences urbaines (Montclos, 1997).
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