COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes. o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017). EVALUATING THE LIFE OF WANGARI MAATHAI (1940–2011) USING THE LENS OF DARK GREEN RELIGION BY LOUISA JOHANNA DU TOIT A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE: MASTER OF ARTS IN BIBLICAL STUDIES IN THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR H. VIVIERS JUNE 2019 DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation, Evaluating the Life of Wangari Maathai (1940–2011) Using the Lens of Dark Green Religion, is my own work and that all sources used and quoted have been duly recognized and referenced. I also declare that this work or part thereof have not been previously submitted by me at this or any other university. 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A journey into the academic world is not a simple one, and one that cannot be attempted without the help and support of others. Since a journey is as much about the trip as about the destination, it presents many unexpected turns and obstacles and provides opportunities to learn more about yourself, others and the subject matter of the research project. On my journey towards my goal, I received help and support from many people. I wish to thank my fellow-students who experienced the same journey as I did and shared their thoughts and wisdom with me. This also applies to friends and family members who supported and encouraged me, my supervisor who guided me, and other academics who inspired me. I am also thankful to have had this chance to explore my topic and to find my own voice. 2 SUMMARY This study is an attempt to evaluate the life and work of Wangari Maathai (1949-2011) using the lens of Dark Green Religion (DGR). Wangari Maathai received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 for her environmental activism, starting in her native Kenya and spreading globally. She initiated the planting of trees in an effort to combat the environmental degradation severely impacting on the lives of rural women in Kenya. She encouraged the planting of trees since they provide in the basic needs of the community, enabling them to sustain themselves and achieve a better quality of life, while restoring their environment. The Green Belt Movement established by Maathai succeeded in planting more than 30 million trees across Kenya, but the movement also became involved in issues of social justice. Maathai strove to demonstrate that a link exists between the environment, peace and democratic governance. The recognition she received from the Nobel Peace Prize committee reflects an acknowledgement of this aspect of her advocacy. While preparing for the Dark Green Religious analysis of the research into the life and work of Maathai, I investigated theoretical concepts such as “religion”, “ecology”, “nature religion” and “spirituality” as well as the background of the environmental crisis, and the role which religions play in aggravating the crisis. The origin of the phenomenon of Dark Green Religion and the various manifestations of it in modern society are traced to specific literature. The concept of Dark Green Religion as formulated by Bron Taylor is studied in detail. Although it is possible to distinguish four different types of DGR they all reflect the following principles: belonging, interconnectedness and sacredness. The analysis of Wangari Maathai’s life, work and publications evidences that the DGR principles (belonging, interconnectedness, kinship, a deep-seated appreciation, reverence and awe) are well-known to her and part of her worldview. These principles are clearly identifiable in the published literature of Wangari Maathai which includes her autobiography. The analysis also took note of the core values of the Green Belt Movement since this is one of her legacies. A secondary outcome of the study concerns the type of DGR which Maathai epitomizes. It is evident that she is an exponent of Gaian Naturalism. 3 The results of the DGR analysis support the hypothesis that Wangari Maathai may be considered a representative of DGR. The lens of DGR was chosen as a means to analyse and reflect on her contributions since Maathai did not express her adherence to any particular confessional religion. She merely uses religious-like language, emotions and values in combination with scientific insights. The study is subjected to certain limitations. Due to the amount of contributions by Wangari Maathai to various fields, it was not possible to do an in-depth analysis of all her contributions. Aspects such as “eco-feminism”, “transformative leadership” and the “decolonial debate” are only touched on since they do not belong to the primary focus of the research. Although some research in these fields have been done, sufficient scope remains for others to focus on them and to further highlight how this remarkable person touched the lives of so many people. 4 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations are used in this study: DGR Dark Green Religion GBM Green Belt Movement IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change NCWK National Council of Women of Kenya SAFCEI Southern African Faith Communities’ Environment Institute UN United Nations 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION p 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS p 2 SUMMARY p 3 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS p 5 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction p 10 1.2 Wangari Maathai, the Green Belt Movement and the ecological crisis p 11 1.3 Theoretical concepts p 13 1.3.1 Religion p 13 1.3.2 Dark Green Religion p 14 1.3.3 Ecology p 14 1.3.4 Nature religion p 15 1.3.5 Spirituality p 15 1.4 Background: The global environmental crisis p 16 1.4.1 The escalating environmental crisis p 17 1.4.2 The role of religion in the environmental crisis: The emergence of Dark Green Religion as religious phenomenon p 18 1.4.2.1 Greening of religion: The Earth Bible 1.4.2.2 Arguments against a change in religious outlook 1.4.3 Tangencies of other religions with DGR: African Religion p 21 1.5 Contribution of this study p 22 1.6 Research problem and research question p 23 1.6.1 Research question p 23 1.6.2 Methodology p 24 1.7 Limitations of this study p 24 1.7.1 Women and the environment: Ecofeminism p 24 1.7.2 Transformational leadership p 26 6 1.7.3 The decolonial debate p 26 1.7.4 Conclusion p 28 1.8 Background and context of the researcher p 28 1.9 Trustworthiness and code of ethics p 28 1.10 Conclusion p 28 1.10.1 Structure of the study p 29 2. METHODOLOGY: DARK GREEN RELIGION 2.1 Introduction p 30 2.1.1 Forerunners of DGR p 30 2.1.2 Twentieth century: The worsening environmental crisis p 32 2.1.3 Reaction from organized religion p 34 2.2 Principles of Dark Green Religion p 35 2.2.1 Expanded definition of DGR p 35 2.2.2 Principles of DGR p 36 2.2.2.1 The principle of kinship / belonging 2.2.2.2 The principles of interconnectedness / interdependence 2.2.2.3 The principle of sacredness 2.3 Types of Dark Green Religion p 38 2.3.1 Animism p 38 2.3.1.1 Spiritual Animism 2.3.1.2 Naturalistic Animism 2.3.2 Gaian Earth Religion p 39 2.3.2.1 Gaian Spirituality 2.3.2.2 Gaian Naturalism 2.4 Applications and demonstrations of Dark Green Religion p 41 2.4.1 Films with an environmental message p 42 2.4.2 Leaders expressing environmental messages p 43 2.5 Using Dark Green Religion as a lens p 43 7 3. WANGARI MAATHAI (1940 – 2011): A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY 3.1 Introduction p 45 3.2 Born into a changing world p 45 3.3 Education: Early years p 48 3.4 Dangerous times p 49 3.5 Further education: Kennedy Airlift to America p 51 3.6 Post-graduate studies p 53 3.7 Return to Kenya p 54 3.8 Married life p 56 3.9 The start of a great river p 57 3.10 The Green Belt Movement p 59 3.11 Concluding remarks p 60 4. ANALYSIS OF WANGARI MAATHAI USING THE PRINCIPLES OF DARK GREEN RELIGION 4.1 Introduction p 64 4.2 Principles of Dark Green Religion p 65 4.2.1 The principle of Belonging p 65 4.2.1.1 Introduction 4.2.1.2 Indications of the principle of Belonging in the life of Wangari Maathai 4.2.1.3 Conclusion 4.2.2 The principle of Interconnectedness p 72 4.2.2.1 Introduction 4.2.2.2 Indications of the principle of Interconnectedness in the life of Wangari Maathai 4.2.2.3 Conclusion 4.2.3 The principle of Sacredness p 77 4.2.3.1 Introduction 4.2.3.2 Indications of the principle of Sacredness in the life of Wangari Maathai 4.2.3.3 Conclusion 4.3 The GBM as embodiment of the principles of DGR p 84 8 4.3.1 Core values of the Green Belt Movement p 85 4.4 Type of Dark Green religion represented by Wangari Maathai p 87 4.4.1 Spiritual foundations p 88 4.4.2 Spiritual values for an Environmental worldview p 88 4.4.3 Type of Dark Green Religion p 89 4.5 Conclusion p 91 5.