• Vol. 22, No.1 nternatlona January 1998 etln• Statistics, Mission, and HUlDan Rights eaders of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN look forward to parison ofProtestant andRomanCatholic Missionary Strategy(1965), R the January issue each year for the"Annual Statistical Protestant Crosscurrents in Mission (editor, 1968), Rediscovering Table on Global Mission," by David B. Barrett. One of the Christianity Where It Began: A Survey of Contemporary Churches in categories reported, since 1986, is "Average Christian Martyrs theMiddleEastandEthiopia (1974),A GuidetoChristian Churches in per year." In the early 1990s the figure dropped from more than theMiddleEast (1989),and MissionLegacies (co- editor, 1994). He 300,000martyrs per year to abouthalfthatnumber, reflecting the will be remembered not only as an outstanding scholar, author, collapse of Communismin easternEurope and the former Soviet and teacher,butas a gracioushumanbeingand winsome witness Union. for Jesus Christ. In this issue of the BULLETIN, Canadian researcher Paul Marshall examines the issue of the persecution of Christians from the perspective of human rights. The author of the 1997 volume Their Blood Cries Out, Marshall first presented this mate­ On Page rial last July to a U.S. State Department advisory committee. 2 Persecution of Christians in the Marshall states, "In the last five years, the persecution of Chris­ Contemporary World tians has taken place in approximately forty countries. . .. My PaulMarshall best estimate [is that] some 200,000,000Christians in the world are members of persecuted groups.... An additional400,000,000 8 William Carey, Modern Missions, and the live in situations of nontrivial discrimination and legal repres­ Moravian Influence sion." Marshall's thesis is that Christians are suffering "what is DavidA. Schattschneider probably the largestandwidest manifestation of religious perse­ 13 Shaking the Foundations: World War I, the cution in the world today." Western Allies, and German Protestant Marshall urges Christians and governments to confront all Missions religious persecution, whether of Christians or others. Govern­ Richard V. Pierard ments are the major perpetrators, reminding us of the Apostle's prayer request "for kings and all who are in high positions," that 20 The Legacy of Melvin L. Hodges the Gospel may prosper (lTim. 2:1-4). GaryB.McGee 22 Noteworthy Norman A. Horner (1913-1997) 26 Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission: Former associate editor of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN 1998 Norman A. Homer died on August 6, 1997, in Louisville, DavidB. Barrett and Todd M. Johnson Kentucky. He was 83. Afterservingas a Presbyterianmissionary 28 The Legacy of George Brown in Cameroon, West Africa (1939-49), he was professor of mis­ Charles W. Forman sions (1950-68) and simultaneously dean of Louisville Presbyte­ 34 Book Reviews rian Theological Seminary (1956-68), and then missionary in the Middle East, with residence in Beirut, Lebanon (1968-76). He 35 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 1997 for was associate director of the Overseas Ministries Study Center Mission Studies and associate editorof this journalfrom 1976to 1982. In addition 46 Dissertation Notices to his articles and reviews published in our pages, Dr. Homer is remembered for his books Cross and Crucifix in Mission: A Com­48 Book Notes of issionary Research Persecution of Christians in the Contemporary World Paul Marshall

The following essay is adapted from a presentation made to the percent; that is, 80 percent of the world's active Christians live in Advisory Committee to the U.S. Secretary of State on Religious non-Western countries.' It is these who are most likely to suffer Freedom Abroad, July 2, 1997. PaulMarshall is Senior Fellow in persecution in today's world. Political Theory at theInstitutefor Christian Studies, Toronto. He In addressing the persecution of Christians, we are focusing is also Adjunct Professor of Philosophy at the Free University of on what is probably the largest and widest manifestation of Amsterdam, Netherlands; Adjunct Professor at Fuller Theological religious persecution in the world today. The sites of this Seminary, Pasadena, California; and Academic Advisor on Reli­ persecution are many and varied, but we can group the main giousFreedom totheWorld Evangelical Fellowship. Hehastestified trends in four categories. onreligious persecution before theHelsinki Commission oftheU.S. Congress andlectured on humanrightsat theChinese Academyof The Islamic Countries Social Sciences, Beijing, China, and in othercountries around the world. His most recent book is a survey of religious persecution Muslims in North America and elsewhere have a legitimate worldwide, Their Blood Cries Out (Dallas: Word Books, 1997). concern that raising the question of Islamic persecution of Chris­ His writings have been translated into Russian, German, Dutch, tians can contribute to already present anti-Muslim and anti­ Spanish, Japanese, Malay, Korean, Indonesian, and Chinese. Arab prejudice. They are also properly concerned that the widespread persecution of Muslims should not be neglected or slighted. I wish to avoid contributing to either of these dangers. he persecution of Christians today is worldwide, mas­ That is why I explicitly point out, in my book Their Blood Cries sive, and underreported. Althoughit has received some T Out, more than fifty instances of Islamic tolerance of Christians increased attention recently, knowledge and concern about per­ and of cases where Muslims themselves are persecuted by Is­ secution of Christians is limited to relatively narrow circles. It is lamic regimes. As a matter of fact, most of the Islamic regimes still nota feature on ournewspages; the coveragehasbeenon the and groups thatI cite for persecution of Christians also persecute editorial opinion pages and has focused on people in Washing­ moderate Muslims and Muslim minorities. ton concerned about this persecution rather than on the persecu­ But while Islam in its history often has shown greater toler­ tion itself. Even in the contextof the recentcoveragein the United ance than its Christian counterparts, there are now intensifying States in regard to the Most Favored Nationstatusof China, there attacks on religious minorities, mostly Christians, throughout was comparatively little attention to what is actually going on in the Islamic belt from Morocco on the Atlantic eastward through China.' While we have received news of the courageous Chinese to the southern Philippines, and this situation desperately re­ political dissident Wei Jingsheng, the news of the arrests and quires systematic attention. This wave of persecution is not torture of China's leading Protestant house church leaders, with limited to, but has worsened because of, the activities of radical several million followers, has been passed by. Islamicists. The persecution is of three overlapping types. In what follows, I will focus only on situations where a Direct statepersecution. This takes place in countries such as person's religionis a significantcomponentof the persecutionhe Saudi Arabia, where any non-Islamic or dissident Islamic reli­ or she suffers. Hence I do not cover situations such as, for gious expression is forbidden. Christian meetings are outlawed, example,Rwanda,whosegenocidewasethnicallybased;or Iraq, and worship services held anywhere other than in the embassies where Saddam Hussein persecutes all without regard to creedf of certain powerful countries will be cracked down on by the or Central America or Peru, where the focus is on political mutawa, or religious police, and their members imprisoned. Any opposition to government or guerrillas per see It must, of course, Saudi who seeks to leave Islam faces the real prospect of death. be added that there are few cases where religion is the only factor In countries such as Mauritania, the Comoros, and Sudan, this giving rise to persecution: religion is usually intertwined with ethnic, political, territorial, and economic concerns. I demarcate religious persecution by asking whether some or all of the oppression and discrimination that people suffer would occur if Christians have been they were of a different religion. denied food and water It is important at the outset to say who Christians are, since unless they convert, and in North America there sometimes seems to be an implicit assumption that Christians are white European males. On the children are kidnapped to contrary, the Christian church is not predominantly a European be raised as Muslims. or American phenomenon. From its beginnings, Christianity spread into Africa and Asia. It was in Africa beforeEurope, India before England, and China before America. Currently, more not only is a threat from vigilantes but is part of the legal code Christians are engaged in Sundayworship in China than in all of itself. western Europe combined. The same is true in Nigeria and In Sudan, a major component of the complex civil war is an Brazil, and probably also India and the country with the world's effortby the Khartoum regime to impose its form of Islam on the largestMuslimpopulation,Indonesia. Two-thirdsof the world's largely Christian and animist South and on the Beja Muslims in Christians, as recorded by government census, live outside the the East. Over a million and a half are dead. Shari'a law is West. When one focuses more narrowly on Christians who are imposed,Christiansin refugeecampshavebeendeniedfood and active in their churches on a regularbasis, the ratio is closer to 80 water unless they convert, childrenare kidnapped to be raised as

2 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Muslims. and there is widespread enslavement of children from International Bulletin the South. There are probably several tens of thousands ofslaves in the Sudan. There are slave markets, and sometimes the effort of Missionary Research is made to sell child slaves back to their parents in order to get Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the better prices. Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary In other countries, such as Iran and Pakistan, the threat Research 1977. Renamed INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH comes from vigilantes or mob violence with greater or lesser 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by complicity by the government. In Iran there are strong indica­ Overseas Ministries Study Center tions that governmentdeath squadshave abetted the torture and 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. assassination of Protestant leaders in recent years. Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 Communal violence. Minorities in the Islamic world are often E-mail: [email protected]. Web: http://www.OMSC.org victimized not by the agents of government per se but by mob Editor: Associate Editor: Assistant Editor: violence, often prompted by radical Islamicist leaders: This is Gerald H. Anderson Jonathan J. Bonk Robert T. Coote true in Egypt, where the Coptic Church is increasingly subject to church burnings and local massacres. Such events are wide­ Contributing Editors: spread in Nigeria, Liberia, Ghana, and the Philippines. In Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. Graham Kings Lamin Sanneh Pakistan this year, one Christian town, Shantinagar, was virtu­ David B.Barrett Gary B.McGee Charles R. Taber ally razed to the ground; Ahmadiya Muslims suffer similar Stephen B.Bevans, S.V.D. Wilbert R. Shenk Tite Tienou Samuel Escobar Mary Motte, F.M.M. Ruth A. Tucker treatment. InIndonesia,whichhas long beena place oftoleration Barbara Hendricks, M.M. Lesslie Newbigin Desmond Tutu between Muslims, Christians, and other minorities, there has Paul G. Hiebert C. Rene Padilla Andrew F. Walls been an epidemic of church burnings. In some cases, as in Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. James M. Phillips Anastasios Yannoulatos Pakistan and Indonesia, the government and major Muslim David A. Kerr Dana L. Robert groups have sharply opposed such attacks. In others, such as Egypt, local (not national) authorities have been complicit or Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be quiescent. addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, by In Algeria, Islamicist stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. 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Taylor the situation in Cuba has eased somewhat in the last couple of 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106, U.S.A. years, the situation in the other countries has worsened. In these Telephone: (207) 799-4387 countries there may be relative freedom to worship in the state­ Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: controlled religious bodies, but any religious expression outside these bodies is ruthlessly suppressed. In Vietnam the govern­ Bibliografia Missionaria IBZ (International Bibliography of ment continues its crackdown on Buddhists and Christians, Christian Periodical Index Periodical Literature) especially among tribal peoples. In China, Tibetan Buddhists Guide to People in Periodical Literature Missionalia Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodica Islamica .and Uighur Muslims are persecuted, and priests and bishops of Periodical Literature Religious andTheological Abstracts the Roman Catholic Church have been imprisoned in the past IBR(International Bibliography of Religion IndexOne: Periodicals year in an intensifying crackdown, while several hundred lead­ Book Reviews) ers of the Protestant underground church have been jailed, and many have been tortured. Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases The pattern in these countries is that any religious believer providedby EBSCO,H. W. WilsonCompany,InformationAccess Company, who refuses to submit to official control in regard to the state's and UniversityMicrofilms. Also consultInfoTrac database at manyacademic choice ofreligious leaders, seminarians,pastors, priests,bishops, and public libraries. 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Second-class postage paid at New Haven, Connecticut. Christians, like other minority groups, suffer because of com­ POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF bined religious/ethnic nationalism, sometimes at the hands of MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. the state, more commonly by communal violence. Violence and ISSN 0272-6122 discrimination against minority religious groups is present in Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, India, Bhutan, Kampuchea, and in the central Asian republics that were formerly part of the Soviet Union, especially Uzbekistan. It is a growing phenomenon in

January 1998 3 Myanmar (Burma); there the military regime, lacking popular 28million Christians inIndia) are explicitly excluded. Similarly, support and legitimacy, is trying to wrap itself in a cloak of in Malaysia the "affirmative action" program for bumiputras Buddhism as part of its war against tribal minorities, especially (ethnic Malays) explicitly excludes non-Muslims, the majority of the Rohingya Muslims in the west and the Karen and other tribes whom are Christians (others are Hindus, Buddhists, and minor­ in the eastern part of the country, where Christians constitute a ity Muslim groups). Sometimes this discrimination can border large proportion of the minorities. on the absurd. In Egypt, the permission of the state president is required before a church can be built or even repaired. One Persecution of Christians by Christians church, having failed to obtain such permission after a year of trying, wentahead and repaired its toilet. For this"offense" they This fourth categoryis less a distinctarea of religious persecution were fined heavily, and the repaired toilet was demolished. than it is a collection of persecutions worldwide. I mention it The categories of state persecution, communal persecution, separately, however, to emphasize the idea that persecution is terrorist persecution, legal control, and discriminationcan shade not done simply by "other" religions. In Ethiopia, Protestants into one another, in that countries manifesting communal vio­ and Muslims have been attacked and sometimes killed by mobs lence are often ones in which there is systemic discrimination, urged on by local clergy of the Coptic Church. In the Mexican such as in Egypt, Pakistan, Iran, Uzbekistan, Sri Lanka, and state of Chiapas, Protestant tribespeople have been driven off India. their land and killed by local renegade "Catholic" leaders. In In the last five years, the persecution of Christians has taken most othercases, the phenomenon is more one of discrimination. place in approximately forty countries, and legal repression and This is an increasing pattern in Russia, where repressive religion discrimination in an additional thirty countries. Reliable esti­ laws also have the effect of abetting violence against religious mates of the number of religious believers in various countries minorities, including Jews, Protestants, Catholics, and dissident are hard to achieve, and in any case they are subject to wide Orthodox groups. variation depending on definition. My best estimate of the overall situation is that, in total, some 200,000,000 Christians in Discrimination the world are members of persecuted groups in countries where religious persecution includes imprisonment, beatings, torture, Apart from outright persecution, there is also widespread, non­ mob violence, and death. An additional 400,000,000 live in trivial discrimination and oppressive legal control. For example, situations of nontrivial discrimination and legal repression.' India has"affirmative action" laws to ease the plight of the dalits, And this persecution is increasing, notably in China, Vietnam, or untouchables. Dalits among Hindus, Sikhs, and Buddhistsare Uzbekistan, and parts of the Islamic world, especially Pakistan, aidedby suchlaws, butChristianuntouchables (a majorityof the Egypt, and Indonesia.

Definition of Terms

Christian especiallyas persecutionis oftendifferentfor different groups. It is usually people in the fourth category who suffer the most The word "Christian" can be used in a variety of ways. Most intense persecutionandwhobelongto undergroundor "house" of the meanings shade into one another, but we can usefully churches in China and other places of repression. The mem­ distinguish four or five common meanings. One is what can bers of the third group are often given more lenient treatment be called "census Christians." These are people who, in as long as they keep quiet, but they still suffer significant answer to a question of what their religion is, would say disabilities. It is usually only the most rigid regimes, such as "Christian." It says nothing at all about what they actually in Saudi Arabia, thatmake specific efforts to target the first and believe or whether they participate in any real way in the life second groups. of a Christian community; it may function as a virtual cultural It may be useful to note a fifth category, people who term. The second can be called "member Christians." These believeas Christiansbutfor fear ofpersecutionkeep thatbelief are people who claim membership in a particular Christian entirely to themselves, hidden even from family and friends. church. It does not necessarily imply that they have ever David Barrett has labeled such believers"crypto-Christians." actually shown up in such a church. It probably means that We know of such people in the history of Japan, China, India, they want to get baptized, married, and buried by one. The and Saudi Arabia. Such people do not suffer direct attack, but thirdcategorycan be called "practicingChristians." These are this is simplybecauseexternalthreathas driventheirreligious people who participate in the life of the church, attend wor­ life totally inward, itself an intense form of persecution. ship services, and maintain the basic forms and rituals of the Christian faith. The fourth may be called "believers" or Religious persecution "committed believers." These are people for whom their Christian faith is a central aspect of their life and who are The term "religious persecution" requires careful definition. committed as much as possible to living out their faith and The fact that people suffer is not in and of itself a sign of communicating it to others. persecution, since, after all, people suffer in war, famine, and We maynot always take pains to distinguish these group­ the other myriad forms of human misery. Nor is the fact that ings, since they can shade imperceptibly into one another, and believers are persecuted itself a sign of religious persecution, people may be one or the other at different times in their lives. since Christians may be persecuted alongside and in the same Nevertheless, we should be aware of the different meanings, way as others who do not share their faith. What I mean by

4 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Taking Effective Action within the State Department and in institutions that educate foreign affairs personneL Clearly, the U.S. government's ability to respond to these situa­ 3. Use appropriate sources of information. In addition to the tions depends on the degree to which governments are them­ better known human rights groups, there are many religious selves the persecutors, or else are complicit or acquiescent, and groups that monitor situations of persecution. Usually the best therefore responsible, in this persecution. This is mostclearlythe sources of news are fellow religionists because they have con­ case with the Communist powers and in several Islamic coun­ tinual and trustful contacts. In some cases these organizations tries. Given the diversity of situations, our response needs to be have a focus on prayer and providing support rather than news equally varied and proportionate. per se and so have fewer checks on their reports, but most I urge Christians everywhere, as well as governments con­ produce highly reliable information. (A compilation of religious cernedaboutthe situation, to take the following stepsin the effort organizations involved in gathering information on this issue to deal with persecution. appears in Their Blood Cries Out.) 1. Apply universal standards. We must deal with religious 4. Appoint religious attaches. Larger U.S. embassies should persecution in terms of universal standards. While I have con­ have a religious attache just as they now have cultural or eco­ centrated on the situation of Christians, we need to address nomic attaches. The role of such attaches would be to maintain religious persecution more generally. Guidelines for such stan­ contact with religious groups who want such contact. In smaller dards exist in the International Covenant on Civil and Political embassies, other staff should have this as part of their responsi­ Rights and the 1981United Nations Declaration on the Elimina­ bility. tion of all Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on 5. Make public pronouncements. There should be public ac­ Religion or Belief. 5 knowledgment of today's widespread and mounting persecu­ 2. Raise knowledge and awareness. We need to make fellow tion and the adoption of policies condemning religious persecu­ Christians, and especiallyforeign- policyprofessionals, aware of tion, whether it results from official policy or from unchecked the seriousness and extent of persecution of Christians and other communal or terrorist activity. This acknowledgment should religious minorities. As Stephen Carter has noted, there is still a include a major policy address by the president or the secretary widespread tendency among U.S. elites to trivialize religion," of state initiating a new public-diplomacy commitment to con­ More to the point, religion has been treated as almost irrelevant demn persecution openly wherever it occurs and going beyond to the dynamics of societies, something that has adversely af­ the current reliance on private diplomacy and case-by-case ap­ fected U.S. policy in countries as diverse as Iran, Poland, Viet­ peals to curb such persecution. Without this public step, it is nam, and the Philippines. Knowledge of religion, and especially unlikely that U.S. media and opinion formers will take religious of religiouspersecution,shouldbe partof foreign-policy training persecution as an important matter in its own right.

religious persecution is persecutionthat stems, at leastin part, vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of from the fact that the targeted people are believers of a particu­ Genocide, genocide includes"any of the following acts com­ lar religion. A possible demarcation point of religious perse­ mitted with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, cution is to ask whether, if the persons had other religious ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: (a)killing members beliefs, they would they still be treated in the same way. If the of the group; (b) causing serious bodily or mental harm to answer is yes, we probably should not call it specifically members of the group; (c)deliberately inflicting on the group religious persecution, though not for a second should we conditionsoflife calculatedto bringaboutits physicaldestruc­ forget that it is real persecution and that it is real people who tion in whole or in part; (d) imposing measures intended to suffer it. Examples of this might be the sufferings of Quechua prevent births within the group; (e) forcibly transferring chil­ Christians under both the Shining Path guerrillas and the dren of the group to another group." (For an able discussion

brutal Peruvian military responses, or the death of hundreds of these meanings, see David Rieff, IIAn Age of Genocide," of thousands of Tutsi Christiansin the genocide in Rwanda, or NewRepublic, January 29, 1996, pp. 27-36.) On occasion, I use the murder of nuns and priests engaged in human rights work the term "persecution" as a general expression to cover the in Central America. whole range of denial of rights, including instances that are Use ofthe term"religiouspersecution" does notnecessar­ severe but are somewhat less serious than genocide. ily implythat the religious identityof the persecutedis the only reason for their persecution. Since religious freedom involves Harassment; discrimination the freedom to live out one's religion, it is also a question of what people's faith leads them to be and to do, so that their By "harassment" I mean a situation where people, although actions rather than their identity can become the object of perhaps not systematically imprisoned or denied the basic others' rage. Nor does the fact of religious persecution imply possibility of following their faith, nevertheless suffer from that religion is the only factor involved in the persecution. legal impediments and are interfered with by the authorities There may also be ethnic tensions, territorial claims, economic or others and face arbitrary arrest and possible physical as­ advantages, and myriad other forms of human perversity sault. By "discrimination," I mean a situation where people, involved. But it does meanthatidentityand religious commit­ although perhapsbeing guaranteedbasic freedom of worship ment is one of the real factors. and other forms of religious freedom, nevertheless suffer Acts of religious persecution certainly include, as a mini­ consistent civil and economic disadvantage under the law for mum, genocide. According to the 1948 United Nations Con­ exercising such freedoms. -Paul Marshall

January 1998 5 6.Particular stepsforgovernment officials. Instructions should along the Silk Road. Other religions, including Manichaean be issued to the U.S.delegate to the United Nations Commission Christianity, Nestorian Christianity, and Islam, traveled the on Human Rights to regularly and forcefully raise the issue of same route and also left their mark on the country. The present religious persecution at all appropriate commission sessions. At form of "Yellow Hat" Tibetan Buddhism did not arrive until the U.S. embassies consular officials should be informed of the thirteenth century, when Kublai Khan, then emperor of China, mounting evidence of religious persecution, and they should be named a Buddhist lama from Beijing as the head of the faith for instructed to provide diligent assistance when the victims of Tibet, Mongolia, and China. Today the monasteries function in religious persecution seek refugee status. Human rights officers the Tibetan language, look to the Dalai Lama as a spiritual should be instructed to distinguish between the treatment of authority, and in the 1990s,havehad the ambassador from India different religious groups and, especially, subgroups within as a leading spiritual source. In short, the current leading countries; they should no longer assume that all groups within religious forces have their seat of authority outside the country one religion receive similar treatment by their government. The and are only the most recent of the successive religions that have annual reports published by the U.S. Human Rights Bureau had influence. This is not intended as any slight on their should include explicit findings of religious persecution wher- legitimacy; it is simply a fact about their history. Nevertheless, Mongolian governments in the 1990s have sought to prevent further changes and have given legal preeminence to Buddhism. Any attempt to freeze A 1993 law asserts the "predominant position of the Buddhist religion," forbids the "propagation of religion from outside," present religious and bans "religious activities alien to the religions and customs demographics flies in the of the Mongolian people."? We can sympathize with Buddhist attempts to defend their face of justice, history, and beliefs, and Mongolian Buddhists have every freedom to argue faith itself. against newer beliefs and to seek to refute them. However, the attempt to repress other beliefs is illegitimate. First, it treats a peoples' religious beliefs as if they had simply been dominant ever it occurs. The role of embassy human rights officers should from time immemorial. In fact, however, many countries and be clarified and upgraded, particularly in countries where reli­ regions of the world now have different beliefs from those of gious persecution is ongoing and pervasive; we should have previous centuries, or even previous decades. Second, it ignores assurance that such officers are carefully monitoring religious the fact that typically the currently predominant religion dis­ liberty violations on an ongoing and prioritized basis. placed a previous religion. Third, most religions in most of the Nonhumanitarian assistance should be terminated to coun­ world have their point of origin "outside." tries that fail to take vigorous action to end religious persecution. Religions are fluid, and theyspread. Anyattemptby repres­ Resumption of assistance should be permitted only after a writ­ sive means to freeze present demographics flies not only in the ten finding is made that the countries have taken all reasonable face of justice but in the face of history and of faith itself. steps to end such persecution and arrangements are made to Religions, like political and other ideas, interact, evolve, and ensure that religious persecution is not resumed. Whenever change. We cannot seize a point in time as representing the just senior officials are engaged in trade or other international nego­ religious distribution, so that attempts to change it are "intru­ tiations with officials of countries that engage in religious perse­ sions." We should treat repression of the spread of religion as we cution, they should vigorously object to such religious persecu­ should repression of any other belief. Liberal North Americans tion and link negotiations with the need for constructive change. should consider how they react when conservatives complain, The attorneygeneralshouldissuean acknowledgmentof mount­ for example, that the traditional Judeo-Christian basis of the ing religious persecution, and officers of the Immigration and country is being undercut. While they would acknowledge the Naturalization Service shouldbe directedto processthe claims of right of conservatives to seek the maintainence of valued tradi­ escapees from such persecution with priority and diligence. tions, theywould surelysay thatany conservativeattemptto ban anything "untraditional," or to imprison anybody who argues Religious Repression in Light otherwise, is a violation of human rights. We should react the of Historical Reality same way when Hindus in India, Buddhists in Nepal, Muslims in Egypt, or Copts in Ethiopia attempt to do the same. Many persecutors try to justify their actions by claiming to Even claims about "outsiders," illegitimate as they are, do defend a tradition against "foreign" or novel ideas. But even not usually apply. Christianity has native adherents in almost apart from the fact that this is no justificationfor denying human every country and territory on the globe. There is an almost rights, sucha claim ignores the nature, geography, and history of comic quality in claims that Christianity is being spread only by most religions. Religious beliefs spread and change. Over half foreigners. This claim is made even in India, where the indig­ of Europe was under Islamic rulers for centuries. We may have enous Christian population outnumbers all foreign workers by a forgotten this fact, butto the griefof many,the Serbs havenot, nor factor of some 12,000 to 1. have the Russians. Shouldwe claimthat the retreat of Islam from The idea thatChristian ideas are being "imposed" on people Europe or Christianity from the Middle East in the last five is also faintly ludicrous, since in the situations we are discussing, hundred years is a historical mistake? Should we go back to the Christians are usually minorities, are often poor, and invariably status quo of, say, the year 1400? are the victims of coercion, not its practitioners. It is also Changes in religion can be illustrated by Mongolia. Accord­ noteworthy that most of the regimes that repress "foreign reli­ ing to tradition, Mahayana Buddhism was introduced into gions" are those governments that repress anything that might Mongolia over two thousand years ago by Buddhists traveling weaken their grasp on power.

6 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH The freedom to express views and to attempt to persuade in Nationalism as a Factor in Religious Persecution the religious field is the same. As Michael Roan puts it, "The right to hold and assert truth claims is precisely what the freedom of In writing TheirBlood CriesOut, I debated a long time whether religion or belief is about.:" Nor should minority groups, even to include persecution in the name of nationalism as a discrete minority groups that many people find annoying, be stigmatized category. I decided not to do so, since such a category would as sects. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on Religious take up nearly all of the countries that I discuss. Situations of Intolerance notes that there is no meaningful legal distinction persecution often involve a government or a community between religion and sects. Religions are merely sects that have claiming it is defending a nation or a traditional culture from become successful. The repression of sects is simply one more "foreign religious influence." This is true for countries as form of religious persecution and should be opposed. The fact varied as Mexico,Egypt, India, andVietnam. For example, the that most of us encounter Jehovah's Witnesses only when they government of Egypt has treated Islam as part of its national knock on our door at what may be an inconvenient time is no character. Radical Hindus view Hinduism as the essence of excuse for failing to realize that they are simply exercising Indian culture. Mongolians see Christianity as a threat to religious freedom and, worldwide, are among the most perse­ national traditions. cuted people. One particular problem arises with the countries of east­ Many religious zealots indeed can be insensitive and/or ern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Many of these intensely annoying to the objects of their attention. Manyobserv­ countries manifest a chauvinism that tries to screen out for­ ers, including Russian and Western evangelicals, found the rapid eign influences. The governments are often simply holdovers, influx of some American organizations into the former Soviet at least in personnel, from the old Communist days. Govern­ bloc after its political collapse to be ill advised, insensitive, and ment functionaries, such as, for example, some of the leaders appalling. But this is no grounds for the legal repression of ofthe Bosnian Serbs,use nationalism andreligion as a rallying organizations that upset others. There are no laws against being cry to shore up their faltering legitimacy and to instill national annoying. Journalists are frequently annoying; often it is part of loyalty. The Bosnian Serb example is a particularly striking their job. Human rights activists are annoying. Political oppo­ case, since former Communists such as Milosovic in Serbia nents, especially radical ones, are annoying. Infact, anyone who and Radovan Karadzic and General Ratko Mladic, who were challenges a given situation usually annoys people who are thoroughgoing Communist cadres, now wrap themselves in happy within that situation. the cloak of the Orthodox Church, though without any obvi­ In any situation where we are tempted to advocate repres­ ous manifestation of piety. Obviously, there would be an sion of an unpopular religious group, we should ask ourselves artificial quality to categorizing persecution of religious mi­ whether we would accept similar controls if the group was norities under these circumstances as "Orthodox" instances of journalists or feminists or was advocating the defense of other persecution. The problem is further exacerbated when we human rights. We should be as reluctant to control groups in the consider Albania, which until recently combined an authori­ religious sphere as we are in any other sphere. tarian post-Communist government with attempts to use The right to free speech includes a right to be annoying, since nationalism and Islam in order to reject Western, Greek, and if the speechin question never upsetor challenged anybody, then Orthodox influences. In any case,itshould be understood that the issue of restricting it would never even arise. In the religious in the discussion of causes of persecution religious categories sphere as in other spheres, the proper response to annoying are intertwined with forms of reactionary nationalism. people is to seek to be reconciled to them, criticize them, argue -Paul Marshall against them, or ignore them. But not to imprison or kill them. There are, of course, instances where attempts to assert beliefs A Simple Matter of Human Rights involve coercion or manipulation. But such events involve a minuscule proportion of what is described in this article. These Beyond all these considerations is the fact that the people being instances should not lead to any blanket condemnation of, or persecuted are simply exercising their human rights as outlined restriction on, freedom of expression in the religious field. As the in any genuine democratic constitution and as defined in inter­ U.N. special rapporteur notes, "These instances properly fall national human rights law. These are fundamental human under the strictures of good criminal law." This covers "respect­ freedoms. There is no law or valid norm that forbids people from ful public order, trickery, fraud, non-assistance, prostitution, believing that their beliefs are true and from trying to share those illegal practice of medicine, etc. Genuine hazards posed by beliefs with others. This is precisely what human rights activists, religious sects are adequately covered by such laws; laws which journalists,intellectuals,environmentalists, democrats, and femi­ specifically target smaller religious groups are not needed, and nists of all stripes do-committedly, persistently, and continu­ raise dangers of their own." He adds, "In the last analysis it is not ally. This is the core of free speech, free expression, and free up to the state or any community to assume the guardianship of association. the conscience of people or to censure religious beliefs."? Notes ------­ 1. A majorstory in the June 9, 1997, issue of Newsweek casts doubt on be a surprise to SenatorsArlen Specterand Joseph Lieberman. thewholematterand, usingfiguresfromthe Encyclopedia Britannica, 2. While it is one of the worst human rights violators in the world, stated that there are only 2.4 millionChristiansin China. Eventhe there is no indication that Iraq singlesout its Christian population Chinese government, however, gives figures five times this large fortreatment anyworsethan itinflictsonthe population ingeneral. for the legalchurch alone. A story in the WallStreet Journal ofJune Indeed, there have been signs that Saddam Hussein has given 26, 1997, is headlined "China Shows New Tolerancefor Religion." favorabletreatment to Christian Iraqis. Thisdoes not seemto stem Apart from A. M. Rosenthal's columns in the New York Times, the from any warmth toward Christianity or any desire for religious prestigemedianeglectthe issue. Thedevelopingmediaspin seems freedom but from an attempt to counterbalanceand undercut the to be that this is a "Christian Right" issue-something that would country's Shi'ite population.

January 1998 7 3. For statistical information, see David B. Barrett, World Christian tions on religious liberty" and 225 millionChristians"experienc­ Encyclopedia (Oxford Univ. Press, 1982); see also Barrett's"Annual ing severe state interference in religion, obstruction or harass­ Statistical Table on Global Mission," below on pp. 24-25. Barrett ment." These would correspond roughly to what I have called distinguishes "Christians, all kinds," "affiliated church members," "discrimination" and "persecution" respectively. The current "church attenders," and "Great Commission Christians." These numbers would be similar, reflecting both the decrease of perse­ groups roughly parallel the categories I have used in this essay, cution with the collapse of many Communist countries and the namely "census Christians," "member Christians," "practicing corresponding expansion of the church and rise of increased Christians," and "committed believers." According to Barrett's persecution in the rest of the world. breakdown by continents of "affiliated church members," 60 per­ 5. Other recognized standards include the 1950 European Conven­ cent of Christians live in the non-Western world. If one were to tion on Human Rights, which states in Article 9, "Everyone has speakonlyof the Christiansin westernEurope, NorthAmerica, and the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this Australasia, they would be about 25-30 percent of total"affiliated" right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and Christians. freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public But we must add a further consideration. The category of or private, to manifesthis religion or belief, in worship, teaching, "member," or "affiliated," Christians inflates the proportion of practice and observance." Christians in the West as compared with the picture produced The 1969 American Convention on Human Rights says in when one focuses more precisely on "active" Christians. "Affili­ Article 12: "1. Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience ated" Christians include those for whom membership is a formal and of religion. This includes freedom to maintain or to change matter,perhapssimplydenotingbaptismas a child. Whilethereare one's religion or beliefs, and freedom to profess or disseminate such people in many countries, including the Middle East, Latin one's religion or beliefs either individually or together with America, Africa, and Asia, they form a conspicuouslylarge propor­ others, in public or in private. 2. No one shall be subject to tion of the European population, where the number of "active restrictions that might impair his freedom to maintain or to Christians" is sometimes less than 5 percent of the "member Chris­ change his religion or beliefs. . . . 3. Parents or guardians, as the tians." But in the restof the world, wherebeingChristiancan create case might be, have the right to provide for the religious and problems, there is less likelihood that anyone who claims a Chris­ moral education of their children or wards that is in accord with tian commitment would do so in a purely formal way. If it meant their own convictions." little to them, they would more likely abandon it than face discrimi­ 6. The Cultureof DisbeliefHow American Lawand Politics Trivialize nation. This implies that church attendance and active Christian Religious Devotion (New York: Basic Books, 1993). commitmentinvolve a higher proportion of non-Western "member 7. AbdulfattahAmor, SpecialRapporteur on Religious Intolerance, Christians." Consequently, it is likely that the Western world 1995 Report to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights contains a fifth or less of the world's"activeChristians." Inanycase, (Geneva, December 1994), p. 62. Christianity may be the largest religion in the non-Western world, 8. "Briefing" on "Report on Global Freedom of Religion or Belief," having slightly more adherents in that part of the world than Islam, prepared for the U.S. Commission on Cooperation and Security and it is far beyond Hinduism and Buddhism, the next largest in Europe by Michael Roan, W. Cole Durham, and Craig Mousin categories. (The Tandem Project), Minneapolis, September 27, 1995, p. 3. 4. In the World Christian Encyclopedia Barrett gives, for the year 1980, 9. Ibid., p. 5. the figure of 605 million Christians "living under political restric­

William Carey, Modem Missions, and the Moravian Influence David A. Schattschneider

n his exuberant biography of William Carey, George more recent scholars. Stephen Neill in his Historyof Christianity I Smith refers to Carey as "the Founder and Father of in India, 1707-1858, after reviewing the events of Carey's early Modem Missions" and places him at the end of a list of English career, notes, "English writers have tended to exaggerate the worthies beginning with Chaucer (the father of English verse) importance of these events. This was not the beginning of mod­ and just after Newton (the father of English science).' Historians emmissions, not even the beginning of Protestantmissions ... [it of the Moravians have occasionally been tempted to a similar meant that] the immense forces of Anglo-Saxon Christianity exuberance. J. E. Hutton, in his otherwise generally reliable would now be released for missionary service; this was signifi­ account of Moravian mission work, issues this introductory cance enough."! As Christopher Smith has recently claimed, "A invitation to his readers: "Let us haste at once to the fountain­ scholarly quest for the 'historical Carey' is long overdue. Inspite head, and follow the romantic story of the eighteenth century of the fact thatscores ofbiographieshavebeenwrittenabouthim, pioneers."? His pioneers were largelyMoravians, although he also layers of popularmythologystill remainto be cutthroughbefore included Carey. the actual contours of his careeras a pre-Victorianmissionleader The claims Of fatherhood and pioneer status put forth by will be uncovered."! these early twentieth-century historians have been tempered by The contribution of the Moravians, beginning half a century before Carey, was to produce a shift of emphasis of missionary awareness within Protestantism. As Kenneth Scott Latourette DavidA. Schattschneider isDean andProfessor ofChurch HistoryatMoravian suggests, "Here was a new phenomenon in the expansion of Theological Seminary, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Christianity, an entire community, of families as well as of the

8 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH unmarried, devoted to the propagation of the faith. In its single­ ings,and the Practicability of Further Undertakings, are Considered. ness of aim it resembled some of the monastic orders of earlier In May 1792 Carey was the preacher for a meeting of Baptist centuries ... a fellowship of Christians, of laityand clergy, of men ministers at Nottingham. His sermon was a stirring challenge to and women, marrying and rearing families . . . but with the acceptChrist'scommissionto preachtheGospel to all nations. At spread of the Christian message as a major objective, not of a their next meeting, in October in Kettering, the ministers re­ minority of the membership, but of the group as a whole.:" sponded by creating the Particular Baptist Society for Propagat­ ing the Gospel Among the Heathen. It was this society that The Evangelical Network accepted Carey's offer of himself as a missionary and that spon­ sored him in hiswork in India." Rather than continue to debate who was first to do what, a more productive approach is one suggested by Susan O'Brien in her Moravians in England 1986 article"A Transatlantic Community of Saints: The Great Awakening and the First Evangelical Network, 1735-1755." Although I have not yet been able to verify that Carey ever According to O'Brien's analysis, participants in revivals in actually met a Moravian, members of this group had been active America, England, and Scotland were all connected with each in England since the late 1720s. But their history reaches much other through the exchange of personal letters, the public read­ further back than that. The Unity of the Brethren-or the ing of letters, the publishing of newspapers and magazines, and Moravians, as they became popularly known-traced their ori­ the organizing of coordinated prayer days. O'Brien's concern is gins to the religiousgroupsthatarosein fifteenth-century Bohemia that historians move beyond studies of only local or national and Moravia in the wake of the upheavals causedbythe trial and revivals to what she terms "the history of connection, intercon­ death of the reformer John Hus. The Unity emerged as a distinct nection, and direct assistance between evangelicals in different entityin 1457and enjoyed a separateidentityuntil the beginning countries and across generations.:" of the seventeenthcentury, thoughit washeavily influenced first The idea of an evangelical network, with its suggestion of points of contact among otherwise separate movements, is use­ ful in eXamining Carey and the Moravians. In their contacts they Unlike their Catholic brought together strands of the English Evangelical Revival and German Pietism, providing points of contact between these two contemporaries, early post­ movements so essential to the beginnings of Protestantmissions. Reformation Protestants The life of William Carey is so well known that only the briefest summary is necessary here. Born in the village of had little missionary Paulerspury,Northamptonshire,in 1761,Careylivedin England outreach. for thirty-twoyears andtraveled little. In 1793,aftera five-month voyage, he arrived in India, where he lived the remaining forty years of hislife. Never returning home, he died in Serampore in by the Lutheran Reformation and then by Calvinist ideas. A 1834. Despite only a very modest formal education, Carey was flourishing branch of the Unity was also established in Poland. driven by a thirst for knowledge throughout his life. His uncle With the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1618 came was a gardener, and Carey developed a lifelong interest in repression and an underground existence for the Brethren in botany. He taught himself first the classical languages, then Bohemia and Moravia, with occasional nourishment from several modern European languages. He eventually undertook Lutherans in neighboring Germany. In 1722 Brethren refugees Bible translations in twenty-five Indian languages and dialects began to cross the border permanently and settle on the land of and served as a professor of Indian languages for thirty years at the Saxon Pietist Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendo", From Fort William College in Calcutta. this pointon, the story of the Moravians is perhapsbetter known. His first employment was as an apprentice shoemaker. But Under Zinzendorf's all-inclusive leadership, the Moravians in 1779 this nominal Anglican experienced an evangelical con­ developed a stronglyChristocentricpietisttheologyanda unique version and four years later joined the Baptists. His remaining community structure to carry out their various activities. Settle­ timein Englandwasspentcobbling,teachingschool,andserving ment congregations were organized as self-contained, self-sup­ as pastor of small Baptist congregations. His first years in India, porting towns that were expected to be centers of outreach. until 1800,were difficult. In addition to preaching' he worked as Within the settlements people lived in groups according to age, superintendent of an indigo factory and translated the New sex, and marital status in the so-called choir system. Evangelical Testament into Bengali. outreach took two forms: the diaspora and foreign missions. In In 1800, with the arrival of additional missionaries and the the diaspora, Moravian workers would organize pietistic re­ establishment of missionheadquarters in Serampore, the Baptist newal groups within existing congregations of established state work was set upon a firm foundation. Despite some later set­ churches. Foreign missionary outreach began in 1732 with the backs, by the time of Carey's death the Baptist mission was well sending of two men to work among black slaves on the island of established. St. Thomas in the West Indies. Three events, all occurring just before Carey left England, As we focus now on points of contact in the network of are of extreme importance in his story. Thoroughly convinced of relationships between Carey and the Moravians, we may note the need for foreign missionary work, and after study of what first a similarity rather than an influence. Roman Catholic com­ both Roman Catholics and Protestants had already done, Carey mentators, most notably Robert Francis Cardinal Bellarmine, in published a small book in 1792. The contents are summarized in his controversial writings published from 1586 to 1593, had its full title: An Enquiry into the Obligations of Christians to Use insisted that a vital missionary outreach was one sign of the true Means for theConversion oftheHeathens, in whichtheReligious State church. The Catholics had sucha program, and the Protestants of oftheDifferent Nations oftheWorld, theSuccess ofFormer Undertak- the post-Reformation era did not. Without additional comment,

January 1998 9 we simply remember that Zinzendorf, in his reactions to ortho­ convincing to do. What he actually said has been variously dox Lutherans, and Carey, in his debates with hyper-Calvinistic reported. Hutton writes that Carey "flung down on the parlour Baptists, both played a significant role in awakening this aware­ table some numbers of a missionary magazine entitled Periodical ness within large segments of the Protestant world. This aware­ Accounts, and ... exclaimed: 'See what these Moravians have ness was also stirred in John Wesley through his initial contacts done!"?" S. Pearce Carey, William's grandson and biographer, with Moravians in a 1735 missionary venture to Georgia and his suggests a longer speech: "See ... what Moravians are daring, "heart-warming experience" among them in London in 1738. and some of them British like ourselves, and many only artisan Geography may also have played a role in the relationship and poor! Can'twe Baptists at least attempt something in fealty to between Carey and the Moravians. In the earlier years of the the same Lord?1/15 (To complicate matters with regard to these eighteenth century the Moravians had been much involved in reports, Mary Drewery, in her recent biography of Carey, sug­ the Evangelical Revival as it moved through England. They had gests that maybe he was not at the meeting at all, since "his name established settlementcongregations at Fairfield, nearManches­ does not appear among the list of subscribers to the projected ter, at Ockbrook in Derbyshire, and at Fulneck in Yorkshire. By 1741 they had gathered a society in Nottingham and by 1769 had congregations in Northampton and preaching stations in neigh­ Carey challenged British boring towns including Towcester," A glance at the map will show that these were all towns in Carey's neighborhood. Baptists to be as daring as Moravians in spreading the Carey's References to Moravians Gospel in distant lands. Carey's first written mention of the Moravians occurs in his 1792 Enquiry. He begins by arguing that Christ's command to preach to all is still valid and thatonly the impossibilityof doingit would Mission. If he was there," she continues, "no doubt he would excuse us. But it is not impossible to do. "Have not the popish have pointed to the successful work of the Moravians in Africa missionaries surmounted all those difficulties which we have and the West Indies.")" generally thought to be insuperable? Have not the missionaries The full title of the magazine referred to by Hutton is of the Unitas Fratrum, or Moravian Brethren, encountered the Periodical Accounts Relating to the Missions of the Church of the scorching heat of Abyssinia, and the frozen climes of Greenland, UnitedBrethren Established Among theHeathen. It first appeared in and Labrador, their difficult languages, and savage manners?"? 1790 under the editorship of the well-known British Moravian He concludesbynoting thatEnglish traders have already proved Christian Ignatius LaTrobe. It was published by the Society for how it is possible to get around in the world. the Furtherance of the Gospel, a Moravian society organized in Next comes a survey of the efforts to expand the church, 1741.17Both the society and the magazine had been started to beginning with Pentecost and continuing up to his own time. acquaint British evangelicals with Moravian work and to solicit "But none of the modems have equalled the Moravian Brethren their financial support. The first number in volume 1 contained in this good work; they have sent missions to Greenland, Labra­ a twelve-page history of Moravian missions and survey of the dor, and several of the West-Indian Islands, which have been contemporary scene as well as a statistical summary of the blessed for good. Theyhave likewise sentto Abyssinia, in Africa, enterprise." Subsequent numbers printed lengthy reports, let­ but what success they have had I cannot tell."!" ters, diary extracts, and short news items about the expanding Section 3 is his "Survey of the Present State of the World." Moravian mission work around the world. The first volume There are twenty-three pages of lists, giving in parallel columns contained eighteen parts issued from 1790 to 1796. The introduc­ the name of the country, its length and breadth in miles, number tion to volume 2, which began appearing in 1797, notes with of inhabitants, and religion. Greenland is listed, thoughits length appreciation the financial contributions received from friends, and breadthare "undiscovered." It has 7,000 inhabitants who are including "the Baptist Society for the propagation of the Gos­ either "pagans" or "Moravian Christians."!' peLI/19 The final sections of the book attempt to dispose of the practical arguments against undertaking missions and to sug­ Mission Community After the Moravian Model gest very specific things that can be done to aid the cause. To counter the objection that one might be killed in mission service, When Carey and the other missionaries (six families in all) Carey wrote, "No wonder if the imprudence of sailors should established themselves in the Danish colonial port of Serampore prompt them to offend the simple savage, and the offence be in 1800, the Moravian influence was once again evident in resented; but Elliot, Brainerd, and the Moravian missionaries have Carey's plan. The group was organized into an intentional com­ been very seldom molested.T" munity at Carey's direction. Though each family had modest By1800, eightyearsafterCarey'spublication,the Moravians quarters, meals were taken together, everyone's earnings were were still at work in most of the places he mentioned as well as put into a common treasury, decisions were decided by majority in several other locations, with 161 missionaries in service." The vote, and responsibilities ranging from housekeeping duties to mission in Abyssinia (Ethiopia), about which Carey apparently leading devotional exercises were rotated on a monthly basis. A lacked the latest information, had been begun in 1752 and was weekly meeting, on Saturday evening, was held to allow any abandoned in 1782. member of this extended family to air grievances thatmighthave ButwheredidCareyget the informationaboutthe Moravians arisen against another during the week." This arrangement, that he used? Reports of the October 1792 meeting of Baptist though not eliminating all interpersonal frictions, would effec­ ministers in Kettering give evidence of another instance of tively serve the needs of the original missionary group. Moravian influence. This group would eventually agree to form The missionaries informed the Baptist Mission Society in the Baptist Missionary Society, but first Carey still had some 1800, "We have therefore on mature deliberation determined to

10 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Mission and Evangelism Institute June 15-26 Luke-Acts: Biblical Foundations for Mission Mary H. Schertz, Ph.D., AMBS

Summer School July 24-31 June 1-12 Worship and Mission Expository Preaching Eleanor Kreider, M. Mus., and David Greiser, Ph.D., pastor, Souderton, Pa. Alan Kreider, Ph.D., Regent's Park College, Religious and Psychological Assessment Oxford, England; mission workers in England Ruth Lesher, Ph.D., clinical psychologist, Weekend conference, Worship and Lancaster, Pa. Mission, July 24-26, is partof this course. Contemporary Spirituality For more information, callthe number below. Marcus G. Smucker, Ph.D., AMBS Foundations of Hebrew Exposition: Prophets July 27 - August 7 Perry Yoder, Ph.D., AMBS Contemporary Theologies of Mission (Course begins May 26) Wilbert Shenk, Ph.D., Fuller Theological Seminary June 15-26 Holistic Community Development Luke-Acts: Biblical Foundations for Mission Boyd Johnson, Ph.D., Indiana Wesleyan Mary H. Schertz, Ph.D., AMBS University Clergy Ethics Joe Kotva, [r., Ph.D., pastor, Allentown, Pa. July 31-August 7 Aging and Pastoral Care Turn-around Strategies for Declining Churches David Brunner, D.Min., chaplain, Goshen, Ind. Art McPhee, Ph.D., AMBS Anabaptist History and Theology Arnold Snyder, Ph.D., Conrad Grebel College August 7-8: Weekend symposium Karl Koop, Ph.D. candidate, AMBS . Proselytism and Evangelization Walter Sawatsky, Ph.D., AMBS June 26-July 3 Fr. Leonid Kishkovsky, Ecumenical Office Conflict, Communication, Conciliation for the Orthodox Church in America John Paul Lederach, Ph.D., Eastern Several world-wide mission leaders Mennonite University

July 24-30 Creation and Spiritual Renewal Associated 3003 Benham Avenue Perry Yoder, Ph.D.,AMBS Mennonite Elkhart, Indiana 46517-1999 Includes canoe trip in boundary waters. Biblical 1 + 800 964-AMBS (2627) • Seminary [email protected] purchase a house. Accordingly, we have purchased a large one Karl FriedrichSchmidt,a preacher, andJohannesGrassman, withnearly 2 Acres of Land for 6,000rupees, the Hall of which is a physician,weresentby the Moravians andarrivedin Serampore large enough for a commodious Chapel. Here with very little in 1777.They learned the Bengali language and began a transla­ additional Expense, there will be Room for all our Families and tion of the Bible. But since they had to earn their own living, they from hence may the Gospel [illegible] pervade all India! 1121Soon had little time for traditional missionary activities. The caste afterward Carey described this arrangement to a friend in an­ system kept them from coming into close contact with the other letter. "I have also laid down a Plan for the future manage­ Indians. Although under the flag of Protestant Denmark, there ment of the Temporal Concerns of the Mission which I strongly were very few Protestants in town, and the Moravian presence recommend as the most Eligible way that I can think of and was opposed by Roman Catholic and Armenian Orthodox citi­ similar to that of the Moravians."22 zens. In 1792, after fifteen years, the Moravian mission was From the beginnings of their activity the Moravians had abandoned." favored communal living arrangements for their missionaries. Perhaps, though, this Moravian effort was notentirelywith­ These arrangements had been described in detail by Augustus out consequence. In December 1800, Carey baptized his first Gottlieb Spangenberg, their leader after the death of Zinzendorf Indian convert, Krishna Pal, a Hindu carpenter. Pal had first in 1760.By1788severalof Spangenberg'sGermanwritings about heard about Christianity from Grassman while doing carpentry the missions had appeared in English translation, including his work for him." Instructions for theMembers ofthe Unitas Fratrum, whoMinister in theGospel Among theHeathen. Chapter 7 is entitled, "Relations of Conclusion the Missionaries to Each Other-Joint Housekeeping and Trades-Household Churches-Conferences."23 Here was the WilliamCarey and the Moravians thus worked as part of a single description of missionary life that Carey adapted for his situa­ network. They all labored at crucial turning points in the devel­ tion. opment of Protestant missions, and their stories qualify as great A final pointof contactin this networkwasrealizedby Carey moments in missionary history. Additional points of contact onlyafter he andhis friends begantheirworkin Serampore.They include geographic proximity in both England and India, a were establishing themselves on the very site where there had variety of connections as revealed in documentary evidence, previously been a Moravian mission. In the early decades of and, finally, the personal history of an early Indian Christian. Moravian activity the Brethren established many mission sta­ Ileave the last wordto WilliamCarey,as expressedin a letter tions, andiftherewasno responseafter a few years, the effort was to a friend. "I rejoice much at the missionary spirit which has closed out and the personnel assigned elsewhere. This was the lately gone forth: surelyit is a prelude to a universal spread of the practical resultof Zinzendorf'sview of the HolySpiritas the only Gospel! Your account of the German Moravian Brethren's affec­ real missionary. If there was no response, it meant the Spirit had tionate regards towards me is very pleasing. I am not much not yet prepared the people to hear the message of the human moved by what men in general say of me; yet I cannot be missionaries, and so they were free to move on. insensible to the regards of men eminent for godliness.":" Notes------­ 1. George Smith, TheLifeof William Carey: Shoemaker andMissionary 10. Ibid., p. 37. (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1909), pp. 315,317. 11. Ibid., pp. 38, 41. 2. Joseph E. Hutton, A Historyof Moravian Missions (London: 12. Ibid., p. 71. Moravian Publication Office, [1923]),p. 3. 13. Periodical AccountsRelatingto theMissions of the Church of the 3. Stephen Neill, A HistoryofChristianity in India, 1707-1858 UnitedBrethren Established Among theHeathen 2, no. 32 (London: (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985), pp. 503-4 n. 3. The Brethren's Society for the Furtherance of the Gospel, 1801), p. 4. A. Christopher Smith, "William Carey, 1761-1834, Protestant 502 (hereafter referred to as Periodical Accounts). Pioneer of the Modem Mission Era," in Mission Legacies: Biographi­ 14. Hutton, Historyof Moravian Missions, p. 3. calStudiesof Leaders of theModern Missionary Movement, ed. Gerald 15. S. Pearce Carey, William Carey, D.D., Fellow of the Linnaean Society, H. Anderson, Robert T. Coote, Norman A. Homer, and James M. 3d ed. (New York: George H. Doran, 1924), p. 90. Phillips (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1994), p. 245. 16. Mary Drewery, William Carey, Shoemaker and Missionary (London: 5. Kenneth S. Latourette, A Historyof the Expansion ofChristianity, Hodder & Stoughton, 1978), p. 41. vol. 3, Three Centuries ofAdvance, A.D. 1500-A.D. 1800(New York: 17. Hutton, Historyof Moravian Missions, pp. 189, 194-95. Harper & Brothers, 1939), p. 47. 18. Periodical Accounts1, no. 1, pp. 5-16.

6. Susan O'Brien, 1/A Transatlantic Community of Saints: The Great 19. Ibid. 2, no. 1, p. v. Awakening and the First Evangelical Network, 1735-1755," 20. S. Pearce Carey, William Carey, pp. 185-87. American Historical Review91, no. 4 (October 1986):831. See also 21. W. Carey, J. Fountain, J. Marshman, and W. Ward to the Baptist W. R. Ward, TheProtestant Evangelical Awakening(New York: Missionary Society, January 25, 1800, Baptist Missionary Society Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992). Archives, 1972-1914, London, LU70 B222A Reel 36, 1981 (hereaf­ 7. There are many accounts of these events. A recent summary is in ter BMS Archives). Neill, Historyof Christianity in India, pp. 186-88. 22. W. Carey to Stedman, May 17, 1801, BMS Archives. 8. J. Taylor Hamilton and Kenneth G. Hamilton, Historyof the 23. Augustus G. Spangenberg, Instructions for Missionaries of the Moravian Church: TheRenewed Unitas Fratrum, 1722-1957 Church of the Unitas Fratrum, or UnitedBrethren, trans., 2d ed., rev. (Bethlehem, Pa.: Interprovincial Board of Christian Education, and enl. (London: Brethren's Society for the Furtherance of the Moravian Church in America, 1967), pp. 121,209. Gospel Among the Heathen, 1840), pp. iv-v, 56. 9. William Carey, An Enquiryinto the Obligations of Christians, to Use 24. Hutton, Historyof Moravian Missions, p. 165; S. P. Carey, William Means for the Conversion of theHeathens, in whichtheReligious State Carey, p. 185; E. Daniel Potts, British Baptist Missionaries in India, of the Different Nations of the World, the Success of Former Undertak­ 1793-1837 (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1967), p. 5. ings,and thePracticability of Further Undertakings, areConsidered 25. Potts, British Baptist Missionaries, p. 35; S. P. Carey, William Carey, (Leicester, England, 1792;facsimile ed. with introduction, p.194. London: Carey Kingsgate Press, 1961), p. 11. 26. W. Carey to Sutcliff, January 16, 1798, BMS Archives.

12 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Shaking the Foundations: World War I, the Western Allies, and German Protestant Missions Richard v Pierard

he Protestant missionary movement had flourished for Council of Churches, the center of gravity shifted to the conser­ T two centuries when the catastrophe of World War I vative, pietistic, evangelical groups that pursued a more indi­ created the greatest crisis it had ever experienced. The German vidualistic approach to mission. Since mostof these missionaries segment of the undertaking was left in shambles, and every­ whowent outafter the warwere premillennialists, theyhad little whereit wasseenthatthe countriesof the Westdidnotlive by the interest either in promoting unity and cooperation or in extend­ Gospel of their missionaries. Furthermore, since the missionary ing Christian culture to all parts of the world as had their communityprovidedthe primarystimulusfor a globalChristian predecessors, who thereby had hoped to prepare the way for fellowship that crossed denominational and national bound­ Christ's return. aries, World War I also constituted a fundamental threat to the fledgling ecumenical movement. Missions and Ecumenism The background can be summarized quickly. In the seven­ teenth century some work had taken place among the North The modem-day ecumenical movement originated out of the American Indians; in addition, the Dutch East India Company missionary enterprise. The initial step in inter-mission coopera­ and a few free-lance missionaries had engaged in minor efforts. tion was the formation ofthe LondonSecretaries' Association in However, serious Protestant endeavor did not begin until the 1819,whichbeganas an informalmeetingof the secretariesof the eighteenth century when the Society for the Propagation of the four British mission societies headquartered in London. It even­ Gospel was founded in Britain in 1701 and the first German tually came to involve many others and in 1912was transformed missionariesdepartedin 1705for the Danishcommercialenclave into the Conference of Missionary Societies in Great Britain and of Tranquebar, South India. Ireland. Other factors contributing to ecumenical awareness Over the next two centuries the undertaking steadily in­ were the missionary conferences in Britain held under the aus­ creased in size, and on the eve of the Great War thousands of pices of the Evangelical Alliance beginning in the 1850s, meet­ Protestantmissionarieswere laboringin mostparts of the world. ings of Scandinavian Lutherans (the first was in 1863), the qua­ During the course of the nineteenth century dozens of mission drennial Continental Missions Conferences that met in Bremen societies were founded in Europe and North America, many of starting in 1866 and that inspired the creation of the Standing which were interdenominational in character,while others were Committee (Ausschuss) of the German Protestant Missionary closely linked with or served as the missionary arm of specific Societies in 1885, the General Dutch Missionary Conference denominations. Although the differences among the sending (1887), the U. S. Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Mis­ churches were great, these did not seem so significant on the sions (1886), and the Foreign Missions Conference of North mission fields, since workers pursued the common goal of com­ America (1893). municating the Christian message to peoples who adhered to Another important source of ecumenical awareness was the other faiths. cooperative missionary conferences that occurred on the fields World War I had an enormous impact on this international themselves. In India this started in the 1820swithlocal consulta­ Christian expansion. For one thing, the German segment of the tions, and by the 1850s regional conferences began to take place undertaking was largely ruined. Before the war 1,417 Germans both in North and in South India. During the late nineteenth comprised 6.7 percent of the total Protestant missionary force century similar field conferences met in Japan, China, South from Europe, Britain, and NorthAmerica.' Moreserious than the Africa, and Mexico. Further manifestations of the movement for materialdestructionof the Germanmissionstationsandremoval cooperationin spreading the Gospelwere the CentenaryConfer­ of theirworkers was the spiritualdamage to the entire Protestant ence on foreign missions in London in 1888 and the Ecumenical missionary movement. The conflict revealed that the ultimate Missionary Conference in New York in 1900;all of these efforts loyaltyof thosewhoproclaimedthe Gospelwasnotto Christand culminatedin the World MissionaryConferenceat Edinburgh in his church but to national states and their ideology, which June 1910. becamea substitutefor the Christianfaith. The waralso shattered At the conclusion of the Edinburgh meeting a Continuation the postmillennial, "kingdom of God" optimism of the Anglo­ Committee was formed to carry forth the work that began there American missionary leaders. Although many of them contin­ and to pave the way for the establishment of a permanent ued to foster Christian cooperation in the postwar years and laid international missionary committee or council.' On the various the groundwork that resulted in the formation of the World mission fields these efforts resulted in comity agreements that allocated"unoccupied"areas to the varioussocietiesandthereby reduced competition, while other cooperative ventures were launched in education, literature work, missionary journalism, Richard V. Pierard is Professor of History, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana. He is the co-author of Two Kingdoms: The Church and and research and statistical data gathering. After Edinburgh, Culture Through the Ages (Moody Press, 1993).Heserved in Germany asa some Christian leaders in China, Japan, and India even began short-term teacher withGreater Europe Mission andasaFulbright Professor at moving in the direction of organic church unity. theUniversity ofFrankfurt amMainandtheUniversity ofHalle-Wittenberg, However, an important theoretical difference existed be­ and has been a lecturer at the Moscow Theological Seminary of the Russian tween the Germans and British, which caused serious Union of Evangelical Christians-Baptists. missiological difficulties. Following the lead of the eminent

January 1998 13 missiologist Gustav Warneck (1834-1910), most Germans re­ the radiotelegraph stations in Togo and Southwest Africa men­ jected what they saw as an uncritical linking of missionary 'aced Britain's possessions and naval strength. Moreover, the advance with the progress of Western civilization. They also Australians, New Zealanders, and British South Africans main­ regarded the slogan of the Anglo-American student movement, tained that the German territories were threats to their own "the evangelization of the world in this generation," as romantic security; in fact, theyweretemptingopportunitiesfor expansion. Schwiirmerei (enthusiasm) designed to hasten the second coming NewZealandforces occupiedSamoaon August30,1914,andthe of Christ, and they insisted that too much activism, individual­ Australians captured New Guinea and the neighboring ism, and idealism prevailed in the Anglo-American approach. Melanesian islands two weeks later. The Japanese also saw the The German alternative was to promote a de-Westernization of Christianity and the utilization of native or folk ties to build an indigenous church. The churchmustnotbe a foreign structureof German missionaries­ individuals removed from their environment but a Volkskirche (people's church) that elevated all the basic social structures into unlike Anglo-American the new work of the Holy Spirit. German thinkers said that a counterparts-did not link church, instead of functioning as an imported institution mod­ missionary advance with eled on Western ideas, must root itself in the customs and structures of the people, and these would determine how it the progress of Western developed. In building a congregation, the national character civilization. and indigenous social and cultural institutions would be as important as the ministry of the Word of God and the sacra­ merits." possibilities for national aggrandizement. They besieged the The tensions were evident as early as 1888, when Warneck German naval base at Kiaochow (China) in a campaign lasting proposed an international missionary committee that would ten weeks, and in October they seized the German-owned is­ plan regular conferences, publish a scholarly journal, and arbi­ lands (Marianas, Carolines, and Marshalls) in Micronesia. trate differences between missions, and in this way the "pious The Allied takeover of the German African possessions was expression" of unity would be "outwardly recognizable in our more difficult. Because the British perceived German Southwest practical relations with each other." This idea, which was ig­ Africa (present-day Namibia) as jeopardizing their colonial he­ nored at the time but later was more or less put into effect with gemony in the region, they encouraged the Union of South the formation of the International Missionary Council, reflected Africa's government to undertake military action against the very clearly his uneasiness about the direction in which Anglo­ colony. Although an Afrikaner rebellion delayed the Union's American missions were going and his feeling that they lacked military action, the colony was finally occupied in July 1915. contextual understanding. In fact, he refused to attend the 1900 French as well as British forces engaged in the conquest of Togo gathering in New York but sent a paper to it criticizing the and Cameroon, the former falling with little resistance, while allegedly"American" interpretation of missionary work.' hostilities in the latter lasted until early 1916. The two powers However, German mission leaders did play an active role in tentatively partitioned the colonies, pending a final decision at the Edinburghconference, andWarneck'ssuccessoras the doyen the peaceconference. The strugglein GermanEast Africa was the of German missiologists, Julius Richter of Berlin, was vice­ most arduous and dramatic. The colonial militia, led by the chairman of its thirty-five-member Continuation Committee. resourceful Colonel Paul von Lettow Vorbeck, tied down a large Three other German-speaking mission leaders (Gottlob number of British and colonial troops. Although the conquest Haussleiter, former head of the Rhenish Mission and Warneck's was virtually complete by the summer of 1916, he continued a successor as professor of missiology at Halle; Paul Hennig, guerrilla-style hit-and-run campaign for the duration of the war. director of the Moravian [Herrnhut] Mission; and Friedrich The picture was complicated by the Belgian military adventure Wurz, director of the Basel Mission) joined him on the Continu­ in Rwanda and Burundi, which not only captured this distant ation Committee, and an additional nine Germans were ap­ corner of German East Africa butalso endangeredBritishcontrol pointedto variousspecialcommitteeswhenthe bodymetat Lake of the colony's central portion," Mohonk, New York, in 1912.5 As soon as the Allies subdued the colonial possessions, they began rounding up the missionaries who served under the Destruction of German Mission Work German boards." Able-bodied men were often interned, ostensi­ bly to ensure that did not end up in their country's army back in The powder keg of Europeexplodedafterthe assassinationof the Europe, while women and children were usually repatriated. In Austro-Hungarian crown prince on June 28, 1914,and the great Togo, where the North German Mission had a flourishing work powers were quickly sucked into the greatest military conflict among the Ewe, all their workers were expelled except Ernst hitherto seen in history. The Germans hoped that their overseas Burgi, aveteranmissionaryof Swiss nationalitywhohadbeenon holdingswouldnotbe involved,as the Berlin Act of 1885implied the field since 1880.8 In Cameroon, all the Basel Society mission­ that countries holding territories in the central strip of Africa aries except an Australian citizen, R. Rohde, were removed, and runningbetween the Atlantic and IndianOceans could proclaim similar treatment was meted out to the German Baptists. How­ the neutrality of these in the event of a European war. However, ever, the British occupation authorities in West Cameroon al­ on August 5, the day after they entered the war, the British lowed CarlJ.Bender, whowasa U.S.citizen, to remain in charge decided to launch military operations against the German terri­ of the Baptistmission until 1919.9 The Paris Evangelical Mission­ tories. Britain's command of the seas made the colonies a natural ary Society assumed part of the Basel operation in 1917,and the target, but the actions they took were allegedly to protect its AmericanPresbyterians,whowerealreadyworkingin the colony, seapower. The claim was that the German undersea cables and helped to fill the gap. The largest number of German missionar­ coaling stations, the cruisers that roamed the Indian Ocean, and ies were laboring in East Africa. Here six Protestant societies

14 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH wereactive-theMoravian,Berlin, Leipzig, Breklum(Schleswig­ through its many schools and the trading company that mar­ Holstein), Neukirchen, and Bethel-and the German Seventh­ ketedits cocoa production,conductedthe mostsignificantChris­ day Adventists also had a small work. The Leipzig Evangelical tian enterprise in the territory. For a time the colonial governor Lutheran Mission Society, which ministered among the Chagga was able to protect the society's personnel from an internment people in the Kilimanjaro foothills, had a staff of twenty-nine order (although the small contingent of North German mission­ missionaries, all of whomweresoonbehindBritishlines. Several aries serving there was forced to leave) while negotiations took males of military-service age were conscripted into the German place to convert it into a purely Swiss enterprise. When these fell militia and ended up in prisoner-of-war camps, but a few older through in December 1917,London ordered the expulsion of all men were allowed to continue their work until 1920,when they the Basel missionaries, but arrangements were made with the were sent back to Germany. Although no financial support was United Free Church of Scotland to carryon the endeavor. Ger­ received from the homeland, Lutherans in the United States did man missionaries working in the British territories of Kenya, send some help. The Bethel Mission's work in Rwanda was UpperEgypt,HongKong, andNorthBorneo werealso removed. eliminated in 1916,when Belgian forces moved into the area and Especially noteworthy were the actions in India, the largest the missionaries were expelled. Its other field in Usambara of all the German fields. The Gossner Mission in the Ganges remained more or less operational, but many of its workers had region, the Breklum Mission in the Vizagapatam district, the been drafted into the German forces, and in 1917 the British Hermannsburg and Leipzig works in South India, and the Basel interned all males under the age of forty-five. The Breklum and enterprise on the southwestern coast were all substantial opera­ Neukirchen stations in Burundi were also abandoned at this tions. A total of overfour hundred menand womenwere serving time." on 114stations. Soon afterthe warbeganthe governmentof India In the southernhighlandsofGermanEast Africa,the Lutheran ordered the detention of all civilians (including missionaries) of Berlin Missionary Society and the Moravians had thriving edu­ Germannationality. They weretransportedto internmentcamps cational works. When British forces occupied the region in 1916, at Ahmednagar, Bellary, and Belgaum; the men of military age they rounded up the missionaries and transported them to were segregated from the older ones and placed in a "prisoner of Blantyre in Nyasaland. Later, the men were separated and sent war" compound, and family units were often separated. In 1916 to detention camps on the coast and eventually in Egypt, and the the Golconda, a small and antiquated steamer, made two harrow­ women and children were taken to South Africa." The Berlin ing voyages to Europe repatriating women, children, and old Mission work in Dar es Salaam and the region west of the capital men. Only fifty-two German-speaking missionaries who held and the Moravian field at Urambo, northwest of Tabora, were Swiss, British, or other non-German passports were allowed to also dislocated. The Berlin missionaries at all but one station remain in India. American, Swedish, and Danish Lutherans and were imprisoned, while the Moravians were interned by the some British mission societies provided financial help and work­ Belgians in 1917, removed to the Belgian Congo, and finally ers to enable some of these ministries to continue functioning. repatriated. In the Union of South Africa, where the Berlin and The situation in Southwest Africa was somewhat different. Hermannsburg societieshad their major fields and the Moravian The Rhenish Mission Society was the only board working here, and Rhenish boards were also involved, the picture was more and after the German surrender in 1915 the South African au­ ambiguous. Althoughsome missionarieswere interned,particu­ thorities allowed most of the missionaries to resume their labors. larly those living near the coast, and the others placed under Because the new rulers were fearful of an uprising by the indig­ restrictions as to movementand activities, for mostof themit was enous Herero such as had occurred in 1903-6, it believed that the businessas usual. Local officials, manyofwhomwereAfrikaners, mission could help them to keep things under control. Only two essentially protected the German missions from extremists who senior missionaries (Olpp and Vedder), whose influence the wanted to eliminate them. regime apparently feared, were forced to leave and go home, but German missions fared best in the neutral countries. For they returned in 1921. example, in China pressure began to mount only after the coun­ The missions in the Pacific fared somewhat better. The tryjoined the ranks of the Allies in 1917.In the Dutch East Indies Rhenish and Neuendettelsau Missions both had major works in the German operations were undisturbed, and the Neukirchen New Guinea, and the missionaries were allowed to stay. Consid­ stations in Java and the Rhenish work on the islands of Sumatra erable financial supportwas provided by Lutherans in Australia and Nias experienced substantial growth. In the Ottoman Em­ and the United States, and church growth actually occurred pire,Germany'sally, the social serviceenterprises-orphanages, during the war. The Japanesepermitted the modestoperationsof hospitals, and schools-for a time operated unhindered, but the the Liebenzell Mission in the Caroline Islands and the Berlin Armenian massacres and the advance of British forces in the Mission in the Kiaochow enclave to continue. Middle East eventually forced several of them to close. With some exceptions, German Protestant missions in the possessions of the Allied powers were ill treated. None were End of Ecumenical Solidarity allowed in any of the French territories, and Portugal expelled the four Rhenish missionaries working in Angola in 1917 but The fond hope of ecumenicalcooperationin spreading the Chris­ authorized the Finnish Missionary Society to take charge of their tianGospelwasshatteredby the outbreakofwar. Althoughthere work. The Japanese did not disturb the small contingent of had been much talk about the "supranationality of missions," workers from the General Evangelical Protestant Missionary that is, the idea that missionary work was the task of the entire Society (the one liberal German mission, renamed East Asian church and was not to be linked with any specific nation or Mission in 1929), while the Chinese government left the Basel, country, the Allies simply ignored this concept as they pro­ Berlin, andRhenishstationsin the southandthe Liebenzelleffort ceeded to conquer Germany's colonies. As mentioned above, in HunanProvince intact until 1919when mostof the missionar­ both there and in their ownpossessions theyconfiscated mission ies were deported. properties and interned or expelled missionaries of German or In the Gold Coast (modem-day Ghana), the Basel Mission, Austro-Hungarian nationality. At the same time, Christian lead­

January 1998 15 ers on both sides of the English Channel hurled charges and launching the war, and the bitterness in the church circles of both countercharges about responsibility for the war, treatment of camps only deepened with the passage of time. However, the civilians, and misuse of Christian institutions. secretary of the Continuation Committee, J. H. Oldham, tried The Germans threw down the gauntlet in a sharply worded desperately to keep the lines of communication open between manifesto entitled "To Evangelical [Protestant] Christians Christians on both sides of the battlefields. He published articles Abroad," which was drafted by Karl Axenfeld, director of the and tracts that affirmed his belief in one another's good faith and Berlin Missionary Society, and distributed to the press in late calledfor the coolingof passions,the maintenanceof the mission­ August 1914 by the German Evangelical Missions Assistance ary enterprise, and the recognition that God will work out his Agency (Evangelische Missions-Hilfe), the charitable trustthatwas purposes in the end. He kept up a steady correspondence with created to administer the funds raised for mission support dur­ Richter, Axenfeld, and others through the intermediary of ing Kaiser Wilhelm's jubilee in 1913. Appended to it were the FriedrichWilrz of Basel, in whichhe regularlyreferred to the war signatures of twenty-nine prominent theologians and mission­ as a "terrible calamity," called for "penitence and contrition" on ary leaders, including Adolf von Harnack, Wilhelm Herrmann, both sides, insisted that the "international fellowship" should Wilhelm Wundt, the heads of all the major societies except the remain unbroken because "we are already one in Christ," and Basel Mission (whose seat was in Switzerland), and the three declared "warm affection for our friends in Germany.?" German members of the Edinburgh Continuation Committee. A major player in the effort to hold the ecumenical mission­ An English translation of the documentwas widely circulated in ary effort together was the American John R. Mott, chairman of the United States and other neutral countries. the Continuation Committee. Because Mott had so many other irons in the fire due to his leadership roles in the Young Men's ChristianAssociationandthe World'sStudentChristianFedera­ Christian leaders on both tion, Oldham actually carried most of the Continuation sides of the English Channel Committee's work load. However, as a citizen of a neutral country, Mott was able to visit Germany on YMCA business in hurled charges about October 1914 and June 1916, and while there he had long and responsibility for the war. frank discussions with the missionary leaders. The Germans made it clear they were quite unhappy withhim for not using his close personal relationship with President Woodrow Wilson to The statement spoke of a "methodical web of lies" that had seek an end to the American arms sales to the Allies and for not beenspun to place the blamefor the outbreakof the war upon the publicly pressing the British government to stop dismantling German people and government and insisted that the record German missions and deporting their personnel. Although the must be set straight. The Germans were a peaceful people who Germans sharplycriticizedMott, a few of them did acknowledge hadto protectthemselvesfrom beingcrushedby "Asiaticbarbar­ that he was doing his best to hold the ecumenical enterprise ism," that is, the Russian attack, which had already "violated" together. Moreover, by late 1916 and early 1917 some people in their neutrality. Also, Germans living abroad-women, chil­ the neutral countries and even Britain had begun to call for the dren, the wounded, and even physicians-"were suffering un­ restoration of the principle of the supranationality of missions." nameable horrors, cruelties, and shamelessness such as not had But the United States' entry into the war made Mott's posi­ been seen in many a heathen and Mohammedan war." It then tion virtually untenable, and he lost whatever credibility he had denounced military actions in the German African colonies, with the German missions leaders whenhe agreed to take part in which was "ruining thriving mission fields," and the alliance a special diplomatic mission to Republican Russia in May-June with "heathen Japan"; expressed regret about the failure of 1917 at the request of PresidentWilson. After receiving a garbled international Christian cooperation; and rejected any responsi­ account of a speech Mott made on the trip that was printed in a bility on the part of Germany for the outbreak of the war. German-language newspaper in China and a copy of an address When the Westminister Gazette published this manifesto on by Continuation Committee member J. N. Ogilvie in which September 9, an outpouring of righteous indignation took place Ogilvie called German missions "a hissing and a shame," the in British church and mission circles."The archbishop of Canter­ German members of the international body and its subsidiary bury, Randall Davidson, drafted a long reply defending his sections issued a declaration (Erkliirung) on July 29, 1917, ex­ country's position on the war; it was signed by forty-two British pressing their grievances. By this device they shifted the respon­ church leaders and theologians and published on September sibility to the Continuation Committee for what had transpired 23.13The German group answered this on November 20 with"A and made it clear that it would have to either reestablish the Further Word to Evangelical Christians Abroad." It rebutted the principles thatwerenecessaryto maintaininternationalcommu­ charges contained in the statement by citing British and other nity or accept the blame for the resignation of its German mem­ Allied documents that demonstrated England had taken the bers. moves that made war inevitable. It expressed the hope that The declaration opened by relating violations of neutrality British Christians would intervene to prevent their government on Mott's part, the Ogilvie speech, and actions taken by the from continuing the war, registered indignation at the way the British against German missions. It then condemned the forced German troops were being labeled as "Huns and Barbarians," closure of the German missions as illegal and a violation of and prayed "for a purified and renewed Christianity, one that missionary respect and friendship and expressed regret that will enable all to live in peace, the healing of the wounds of war, "those with whom we felt so closely bound in faith and common and the resumption of our task to reach all of mankind with the work could have so denied the Christian ideals on which this Gospel."14 community rested." The signatories said that they no longer The files of the Continuation Committee and the German recognized Mott as chairman and Ogilvie as a member of the mission agencies are full of letters, tracts, and articles clipped Continuation Committee and would not regard statements and from magazines and newspapers that blamed the other side for actions by them as binding. The declaration concluded by reaf­

16 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH r----World Mission Studies-e-.

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THE MISSIONARY MISSION IN THE MOVEMENT NEW TESTAMENT IN AMERICAN An Evangelical Approach WILLIAM J. LARKIN, JR. CATHOLIC and JOEL F. WILLIAMS, Editors HISTORY A cogent arg ume nt for reco vering ANGELYN DRIES, O.S.F. the " m iss io n horizon" of the Ne w T his re ma rkabl y com pre he ns ive Testame nt. " Des pite the ce ntrality first ge neral history of A meric an of the Scriptur es in understan d in g Catho lic mi ssion treats not o nly its C hristia n mi ssion , few wo rks have ins tit ution s but its human aspects as been publish ed o n this topic in well. D ries a lso covers man y co n­ recent decades, T his fine co llectio n tempo rary co ncerns: forma tio n a nd goes a lon g way to rig hting the bal­ ge nder issues, the pract ice of mi s­ a nce by add ing the best of eva nge l­ sio n in the fut ure, and the un fini sh ed age nda of the U,S, Bish o ps ' ical sc ho la rship...."-DONALD SENIOR, c.r. pastoral , To the Ends of the Earth. 1-57057 -169-2 276 pp, $20.00 paper 1-57057-167-6 400p p. Photos $20.00 paper

At bookstores or direct MCNISA 1-800-258-5838 Q ORBIS BOOKS Dept. CR7, Box 302 Maryknoll, NY 10545-0302 firming the principle that these men had"so seriously violated," west African mandate. In Tanganyika the Scottish Livingstonia namely, "the supranationality of Christian missions and the Mission managed the Moravian stations, the Anglican Universi­ church of Christ in general."17 ties' Mission to Central Africa the Berlin work, the American Augustana Lutherans the Leipzig field, and the Church Mission­ Limiting the Damage ary Society the Bethel operation. At the behest of the British government, the United Free Church of Scotland served as the As far as the Germans were concerned, this meant the end of the trustee for the Basel enterprise in the Gold Coastand the Bremen ecumenical missionary movement. Certainly the Continuation (North German) work in the British mandate in Togo." The Committee had ceased to function, and from the standpoint of United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Australia did likewise the missionary societies in Britain as well, it no longer existed. with the Rhenish and Neuendettelsau works in New Guinea, The executive committees of the British and American umbrella while the Berlin Mission turned over its field in Kiaochow to the organizations (Conference of British Missionary Societies and United LutheranChurchof America in 1923,and its missionaries Foreign Missions Conference of North America) agreed that a then served under the American board. Similar arrangements new, albeit temporary, body was needed, and on April 14, 1918, were also made in India. the EmergencyCommitteeofCooperatingMissionswasformed, Thanks to the efforts of Oldham and other missionary advo­ with Mott as chair and Oldham as one of the secretaries. Two of cates, the British government in 1924 lifted the ban on mission its objectives were to consider means to provide for war-im­ work by German nationals in its possessions. The Japanese then paired missions and to assist in solving problems faced by all the allowed the Liebenzellworkers to return to the Carolinesin 1925. societies in the transition from war to peace. It had hoped to Although the Australians had set a time limit on how long influence the deliberations at the Paris Peace Conference, which German missionaries could stay in New Guinea, they dropped opened in January 1919,but the decision had already been made this restriction in 1926. Gradually the societies received their to confiscate all foreign properties belonging to German citizens propertybackas well, andby1933mattershadvirtuallyreturned and use the proceeds from the sale of these to satisfy German to normal, with the exception of the Frenchman dates in Togo debts to nationals of the Allied governments. This action would have meant the total destruction of the German missionary endeavor." However, not all was lost. Mott, Oldham, and others who Mott and Oldham worked had connections in high places worked quietlybehind the scenes behind the scenes to save to persuade the delegates at Paris to add a provision protecting mission assets. The result was the inclusion of Article 438 in the the German missions from Treaty of Versailles, whose key section read: total destruction.

Where Christian religious missions were being maintained by German societies or persons in territory belonging to them, or of and Cameroon and the Rwanda and Burundi mandates held by whichthe governmentis entrusted to themin accordance withthe Belgium. In these areas the Germans were never permitted to present Treaty, the property which these missions or missionary comeback."However,by nowthe size of the Germanmissionary societies possessed, including that of trading societies whose profits were devoted to the support of missions, shall continue to force had shrunk appreciably, and the same was true with be devoted to missionary purposes. [The Allies] will hand over funding. such property to a board of trustees ... composed of persons Then with the establishment of the National Socialist re­ holding the faith [denomination] of the Mission whose property gime, one that on both racial and economic grounds had no use is involved." for foreign missions, such tightcontrolswere imposed on the use of foreign exchange that German missions once again faced a The American and British mission leaders also induced the crisis." That they could survive this and the subsequent Second statesmen at Paris to include guarantees for religious and mis­ World War was a tribute to the fortitude of the German mission­ sionary freedom in the regulations governing the League of aries and the strength of the ecumenical movement, which Nations mandates." These actions enabled the eventual restora­ provided a support system through its "orphaned missions" tion of much of the German mission operations, once the pas­ program that enabled the endeavor to resume after 1945.Now it sions of war had subsided. wouldbe inthe contextofpartnershipwiththe maturingchurches The storyof the virtualelimination of the remainingGerman in the former mission fields, and the result was a more dynamic overseas work after the end of the war and then its resumption indigenous church in these liberated areas than had ever existed within a few years is a long and complicated one. Space limita­ before. tions preclude anything more than the most cursory survey of what transpired. One provisionof Article438bannedmissionary Conclusion work by German nationals both in the former colonies, which now were placed under League of Nations "mandates" and It is clear thatthe missionaryendeavorwasthe primaryinfluence administered by various Allied governments, and in the Allies' in the development of the twentieth-century ecumenical move­ own overseas territories. In the early 1920sthe last workers were ment. What is disturbing, however, is how fragile these ties of deported from the Tanganyika Mandate (as German East Africa faith could be when subjected to the stresses of war. Although was now renamed) and the Caroline Islands, and some were proclaiming that the ChristianGospel is an enterprise that ought required to leave their posts in New Guinea and Southwest to transcend every barrier of nationality, race, and class, World Africa, but this was only for a brief period." The properties were War I made it painfully clear that the reality was something very taken over by other societies, at least for the time being, although different. Christian leaders on both sides of the conflict allowed the Rhenish Mission holdings were not disturbed in the South­ national passions to gain the upper hand, and they forgot how

18 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the faith is truly global in its character and claim on humanity. in the so-called Third World, the hope of a genuinely global The tragedy is that secular nationalism took precedence over the Christianity seems more than ever in the realm of possibility. spiritual claim of Christ, and the mission endeavor suffered However, the power of secular ideologies like nationalism, ma­ mightily because of this. terialism, and racism remains as strong as ever, and the experi­ The bright side of this tragic story is that many Christians ence of World War I should serve as a warning to Christians continued to uphold the ecumenical vision in spite of their own everywhere how easy it is to succumb to their allurements. The compromises with nationalism (this was the case with Oldham resultof doingso will onlyendin disasterfor all concerned,as the and Mott as well as with Richter) /5and thus the ecumenical ideal historical record just examined makes patently clear. survived and even flourished. With the rapid growthof churches

Notes 1. Arno Lehmann, "Der Deutsche Beitrag," in Weltmission in Afrika Bibliographien, 1991), p. 202. okumenischer Zeit, ed. Gerhard Brennecke (Stuttgart: Evangelischer 9. CarlF.H. Henry, Bender in theCameroons (Cleveland: Roger Williams Missionsverlag, 1962), p. 165. Press, 1943); and C. J. Bender, Der Weltkrieg und die christlichen 2. W. Richey Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations: A HistoryoftheInternational Missionen in Kamerun (Kassel:J.G.OnckenNachfolger, 1921).Bender's Missionary Council andItsNineteenth-Century Background (New York: postwar work is traced in Charles W. Weber, International Influences Harper, 1952), pp. 37-81; Ruth Rouse and Stephen Charles Neill, and BaptistMission in West Cameroon (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993). eds., A HistoryoftheEcumenical Movement, 1517-1948 (Philadelphia: 10. Richard V. Pierard, "Allied Treatment of Protestant Missionaries in Westminster, 1967), pp. 311-24. German East Africa in World War I," Africa Journal of Evangelical 3. See J. C. Hoekendijk, Kirche und Volk in der deutschen Theology 12, no. 1 (1993): 4-17. Missionswissenschaft (Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1967); Richard V.Pierard, 11. Marcia Wright, German Missionsin Tanganyika, 1891-1941 (Oxford: "Volkish Thought and Christian Missions in Early Twentieth Cen­ Clarendon Press, 1971), pp. 136-46. tury Germany," in Essays in Religious Studiesfor Andrew Walls, ed. 12. EvangelischesMissions-Magazin 58 (1914): 411-13; Church Missionary James Thrower(Aberdeen: AberdeenUniv., 1986),pp. 138-54; Werner Review65 (1914): 582-83. Ustorf, "Anti-Americanismin GermanMissiology," MissionStudies, 13. G. K. A. Bell, Randall Davidson: Archbishop of Canterbury (New York: no. 11 (1989): 23-34; Hans-Werner Gensichen, "German Protestant Oxford Univ. Press, 1935), pp. 741-43. Missions," in Missionary Ideologies in the Imperialist Era: 1880-1920, 14. Binder 10, Basel Mission Society Archive, Basel. ed. Torben Christensen and William R. Hutchison (Aarhus: Aros, 15. Richard V. Pierard, "John R. Mott and the Rift in the Ecumenical 1982), pp. 181-90; Ernst [aeschke, Bruno Guttmann: His Life, His Movement During World War I," Journal of Ecumenical Studies 23 Thoughts and His Works (Erlangen: Verlag der Ev.-Luth. Mission, (Fall 1986): 606-7. 1985); and Klaus Fiedler, Christianityand African Culture: Conserva­ 16. Ibid., pp. 607-8, 612-15. tiveGerman Protestant Missionaries in Tanzania, 1900-1940 (Leiden: E. 17. Ibid., pp. 615-17; Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift 44 (1917): 305-7. J. Brill, 1996). 18. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations, pp. 183-87. 4. Ustorf, "Anti-Americanism," pp. 27-30; Thomas A. Askew, "1888 19. Ibid., p. 185; The Treaties of Peace, 1919-1923 (New York: Carnegie London Centenary Missions Conference," International Bulletin of Endowment for International Peace, 1924), p. 261. Missionary Research 18 (July 1994): 115. 20. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations, p. 189. 5. International Missionary Council (IMC)-Continuation Committee 21. ErnstDammann,"DieDeutscheMissionin denehemaligenKolonien (CC), World Council of Churches Archives (WCC), Geneva. zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen," in Imperialismus und 6. See William Roger Louis, Great Britain and Germany's LostColonies, Kolonialmission: Kaiserliches Deutschland und koloniales Imperium, ed. 1914-1919 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1967), and Brian Digre, Klaus J. Bade (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982), pp. 289-305. Imperialism 's New Clothes: TheRepartition ofTropical Africa,1914-1919 22. S. Prembeh, "The Basel and Bremen Missions and Their Successors (New York: Peter Lang, 1990). in the Gold Coast and Togoland, 1919-1926" (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of 7. Wilhelm Oehler, Geschichte der Deutschen Evangelischen Mission Aberdeen, 1977). (Baden-Baden: Wilhelm Fehrholz, 1951),2: 279-85; C. P. Groves, The 23. Dammann, "Deutsche Mission," pp. 290-300. Plantingof Christianity in Africa(London: Lutterworth Press, 1958), 24. Arno Lehmann, "Die deutsche Evangelische Mission in der Zeit des pp. 26-33; J. H. Oldham, "German Missions," International Reviewof Kirchenkampfes," EvangelischeMissions-Zeitschrift 31 (August1974): Missions 8 (1919): 459-78. 105-10. 8. Hans W. Debrunner, Schweizer im kolonialen Afrika (Basel: Basler 25. Pierard, "John R. Mott," pp. 610-14.

January 1998 19 The Legacy of Melvin L. Hodges Gary B. McGee ust a few months before Melvin Hodges died in early plans for the future changed. At seventeen, he journeyed to J 1988,I chatted withhimat a Christmasbanquet. Know­ nearby Greeley to spend a week playing his trombone and ing ofhis numerouspublications,Ilightheartedlyaskedhimifhe preachingon streetcomersto anyone whowouldlisten. Soon his enjoyed writing. To my surprise, he responded, "I don't like to burdenfor leadingpeople to Christand going to places where no write, but someone had to do it!" Whatever exaggerationhe may Pentecostal had ministered or started a church guided his initia­ have intended, the statement reflected the bedrock of commit­ tives. In 1928 he married Lois Myrtle Crews. Born in Eldon, ment that underlay his long service as a missionary. Missouri, she had been reared in New Mexico and Colorado, In fact, Hodges represents the quintessential missionary of where she attended high school and later worked as a telephone earlier Pentecostal missions: someone who lacked formal missiological training yet was obedient to the divine call and quick to adapt as a learner when needs arose-"Someone had to Having never earned a high do it!" Accordingly, his life and ministry depicted several para­ doxes. Having never earned a high school diploma, he contrib­ school diploma, Hodges uted to the training of thousands of missionaries and tens of contributed to the training of thousands of Third World pastors and evangelists. While funda­ mentalists and evangelicals winced over the worldwide expan­ thousands of missionaries, sion of Pentecostalism, Hodges won the admiration and friend­ pastors, and evangelists. ship of key missiologists; Pentecostalchurchgrowthcouldnotbe ignored. Although having served in Latin America long before Vatican II and the Catholic charismatic renewal, he recognized operator. Three children were born to their union: Miriam, the credibilityof the latter, dialoguedwithCatholics,andbecame Phyllis, and Gilbert. one of the first Pentecostal missiologists to discuss the thorny Receiving ordination from the Rocky Mountain District issue of proselytizing. A self-effacing and humble person, he Council of the Assemblies of God in 1929, Hodges served a became the foremost authority and exponent of Pentecostal succession of pastorates, along with responsibilities as district missiology. youth director and presbyter.' Even though his father had gone to seminary, Hodges did not receive a formal theological educa­ Early Years tion, perhaps because of limited resources, but also possibly because of fervent expectancy of Christ's return. Fortunately, he MelvinLyle Hodges wasborn to Charles Edgar and Emma Anna benefited from his father's instruction in Scripture and doctrine (Peshak) Hodgesat Lynden,Washington,on July 8,1909.Charles and in New Testament Greek. Premillennial eschatology left had graduated from Upper Iowa University and Boston Univer­ little time for preparation in the "last days." Inpart, this explains sity School of Theology before serving Methodist parishes in why Pentecostals valued the call to ministry, Spiritbaptism, and Iowa.' Broken by declining health, Charles was advised to move personal Bible study above the academic study of theology, even West by his doctors, who hoped that a change in climate would considering the latter a threat to spiritual zeal. improve his condition. While in Denver, Colorado, in late 1906, Early in his ministry, Hodges became interested in Latin he attended services led by Thomas Hezmalhalch, a Pentecostal America, spending hours in prayer over possible missionary evangelistrecentlybaptized in the HolySpiritat the Azusa Street service. On one occasion, he accepted an invitation to hold Revival in Los Angeles. Healedafter a prayerby Hezmalhalchon evangelistic meetings in Alamosa, Colorado. While there, he met his behalf, Charles resigned his Methodist credentials and began Jose Giron, a Hispanic Presbyterian-turned-Pentecostal, with to pioneer Pentecostal churches in Washington State," Like other whom he enjoyed lengthy conversations and Bible study. In the Pentecostalswhodenounced"denominationalism,"Charlesand evening services, Giron led by preaching for half an hour in Emma preferred the leading of the Spirit to the directives of an Spanish; Hodges followed with another thirty minutes in En­ ecclesiastical hierarchy. They also believed in the "faith prin­ glish so that both language groups in attendance would be ciple": confidence that in response to prayer, God would supply served. Latin America held center stage in his thoughts and their spiritual, physical, and financial needs. Thus, expectant prayers." faith distinguished the home environment and influenced Finally, inspired by the example of Gideon who sought the Melvin's spiritual formation.' Lord's will before going into battle (Judg. 6:36-40), he laid a Converted as a child, Hodges testified to Spirit baptism at "fleece" before the Lord. In a letter to Henry B.Garlock, a former age ten with the evidenceof speakingin tongues. After the family Colorado pastor then serving in the Gold Coast (present-day relocated in ColoradoSprings,Colorado,he attendedhighschool Ghana), Hodges told of his interest in missions, and prayed, and business school and for a brief time worked as an apprentice "Lord, if you want me to go to the mission field, have Brother at a Denver law firm. With God's call to ministry, however, his Garlock say something about this to me in his reply.:" To his dismay, Garlock did not mention the subject. Two years later, Hodges received another letter from him, and one from another Gary B. McGee, a contributing editor, is Professor of Church History at missionary to Africa; both urged him to consider missionary Assemblies ofGodTheological Seminary, Springfield, Missouri. Healso serves appointment. Because this development raised his hopes, he asvisiting professor at Asia Theological Centre for Evangelism & Missions in now faced the dilemma of where the Lord wanted him to go, Singapore and Southern Asia Bible College, Bangalore, India. Latin America or Africa? He applied for the Gold Coast.

20 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH In 1935 Noel Perkin, missionary secretary of the Assemblies others, dismissed Allen's opinions as "visionary and unpracti­ of God and himself a former missionary to Argentina, visited cal." Entering the Pentecostal movement, she moved to the Hodges at Fort Morgan, where he pastored at the time, an event United States and received missionary ordination in 1915 from thatinitiated a longand close friendship.7Perkinemphasized the the Assemblies of God. By this time, she saw the value of Allen's need for missionaries in Latin America, sharing with him what views and used them to shape the denomination's mission others at the Foreign Missions Department must have felt: "Ev­ statement adopted six years later; thus, she became the first eryone feels good about your being a missionary, but not about missiologist of stature in the Assemblies of God. 13 Aware of your going to Africa." This confirmed his long-standing interest, Allen's belief that miracles had ended with the early church (a and Hodges soon gained appointment for service in Central sentiment shared by the vast majority of Protestant missionar­ America. ies), she asked rhetorically, "Whenwe go forth to preach the Full Gospel [salvation, Spirit baptism, healing, second coming of Theory and Practice Christ], are we going to expect an experience like that of the denominational missionaries, or shall we look for the signs to In preparingfor theirdeparture,the Hodgesfamily spentseveral follow?" 14 months learning Spanish in San Antonio, Texas, an important During Perkin's Colorado visit in 1935, he strongly encour­ center for Assemblies of God mission work among Hispanics, aged Hodges to read Allen's books, a recommendation he was directed by Henry C. Ball." On April 5, 1936, their vessel was making to all the missionaries." The influence of Luce, already nearly shipwrecked as it neared the harbor of Acajutla, El Salva­ apparent in Perkin, continued during Hodges's stay with Ball in dor. Despite this perilous incident, he wrote that "once again in San Antonio and, more important,withhis appointment to work this experience, we havewitnessed the truth of the scripture 'that with Ralph D. Williams, a missionary in Central America and a all things work together for good to those thatlove the Lord.'" As former understudy of Luce. This afforded Hodges an opportu­ it turned out, the immigration officers waived the landing fees nity to learn firsthand within a context already being fashioned and duty charges, thus saving these financially pressed mission­ by Allen's teachings; in time, El Salvador became a showcase of aries a considerable sum of money," effective church planting." After ten months there, Hodges and The formation of his missiology included two influential his family moved to Matagalpa, Nicaragua, and traveled exten­ sources, one inherent to Pentecostalism and the other to publica­ sively to survey the churches, often living in primitive condi­ tions calling for the establishment of indigenous churches on tions. Convinced that training would equip national ministers to mission fields. In regard to the first, certainty that New Testa­ reach their own people, Hodges founded a Bible institute in ment Christianity had been restored with apostolic power for Matagalpa that required students to combine their studies with evangelism led Pentecostals to scrutinize church expansion in evangelism and church planting." Nicaragua proved to be a the Book of Acts. Indeed, they closely identified themselves with difficult field, but with patience, Hodges helped some existing first-century Christians, who anticipated Christ's return; mis­ churches to move toward a more indigenous footing, happily sions in the end times required Spirit-filledbelieversand congre­ reporting in 1942 that "the native brethren have decided to gations capable of aggressive evangelism. withdraw financial help from five of the more established assem­ The second influence was Roland Allen's books Missionary blies in order to open new fields.'?" Methods: St. Paul'sorOurs?(1912) and TheSpontaneous Expansion Before long, Hodges encountered the hostility of the Roman oftheChurch and theCauses Which HinderIt (1927), which had an Catholic Church, a predicament shared by other evangelical impact on a small cadre of Assemblies of God missionaries missionaries in Latin America. Ranking Catholics with the hea­ (including Perkin)." Allen had served as a Church of England then, he insisted in an article entitled "Religion Without Light" missionary to North China with the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel." His expositions on the Pauline pattern in mis­ sions appeared to accord well with Pentecostal interpretations of Pentecostalism has the Book of Acts, perspectives referred to by many as indigenous church principles or the "three selfs": the notion that mission witnessed its most dramatic churches should be self-supporting, self-governing, and self­ growth within the milieu propagating.12 This group of missionaries, however, did not accept Allen's of popular Catholicism. views uncritically, rejectinghis sacramentalismand allegianceto episcopal church polity. Allen's accent on the work of the Spirit in mission also fell short of their radical vision of gospel procla­ that "no people ... walk in deeper darkness than these very ones mation accompanied by miraculous signs and wonders (Matt. who seem to proclaim the Christ. ... there is no religion in the 10:7-8; Acts 5:12), a spiritual dynamic they recognized as the key world more adept at 'changing the truth of God into a lie' than to successful evangelism in the non-Western world. Neverthe­ Romanism?" Although he gave no quarter to Catholic Chris­ less, it is a twist of history (or perhaps a blessing of the Spirit) that tianity, it is significantthat Pentecostalismhaswitnessedits most Pentecostals were among Allen's best students. Neither Angli­ dramatic growth within this cultural milieu, a theological and cans nor Pentecostals could have envisioned a more unlikely spiritual backdrop that deserves further scrutiny. scenario-an Anglo-Catholic impacting the Pentecostal mission Hodges's penchant for writing became evident after arriv­ enterprise, helping it become one of the twentieth century's most ing in Central America. A steady stream of letters and reports vibrant missionary movements. flowed fromhis pento churchpublications, and in 1937he began AnotherAnglican, Alice E.Luce, also influencedPentecostal editing Nicaraguan News Notes, the Assembly of God mission missions through her advocacy of Allen's teachings. She had bulletin. A lucid writer using simple grammar, he wrote in read Missionary Methods: St. Paul'sorOurs? while still an Angli­ English and Spanish to the common person. In his spare time, he can missionary (Church Missionary Society) in India but, like occasionally composed poetry and lyrics for gospel songs."

January 1998 21 Familiarity with Allen's missiology, association with Williams, "The entire mission system is based on this unscriptural ground and his own mission experiences and writing skills soon pro­ whichhasproduceda set of spoon-fedworkers ... spirituallyand jected him into an important leadership role in Assemblies of financially crippled."?' Designed to startle his readership awake God missions. to the changes needed for the times, he printed the article with At the close of their second term in 1944, Melvin and Lois Perkin's blessing. In this and other publications, Hodges came returned to the United States, physically exhausted and needing down firmly on the side of the developing churches, leading the recuperation. Having accepted an invitation to the denomina­ charge against the old colonial approach to mission. tional headquarters in Springfield, Missouri, Hodgesworked for In 1951 the Foreign Missions Department invited Hodges to five years as editor of missionary publications, including Mis- address a special gathering of missionaries. The ensuing lectures formed the basis for his best-knownbook, TheIndigenous Church, first printed in 1953byGospel Publishing House (the publishing arm of the Assemblies of God). Shortly afterward, it attracted the Hodges came down firmly attention of Moody Press, which gained permission to print it as on the side of the developing part of its Colportage Library, albeit with a crucial abridgement. churches, leading the charge In the chapter "Pentecost and Indigenous Methods," the editors removed the following statement, among others, thereby de­ against the old colonial emphasizing the charismata, which Hodges and his colleagues approach to mission. knew to be indispensable for New Testament evangelism: On the missionfield, the emphasiswhichPentecostalpeopleplace on the necessity of each individual believer receiving a personal sionary Challenge, the quarterly magazine of the ForeignMissions infilling of the Holy Spirit has produced believers and workers of Department. His most strategic opportunity, however, arose in unusual zeal and power. Again, the emphasis on the present-day 1948, when he became founding editor of Missionary Forum, an workingof miracles and the healingof the sick has beenthe means in-house journal for missionaries. This postitionbecame in effect in the hand of God of awakening whole communities and con­ a "bully pulpit," affording him the chance to speak forthrightly vincing unbelievers of the powerof God. These haveseena Power at worksuperiorto thatof theirownwitchdoctors andpriests. The on matters of concern. In the inaugural issue, he published"As faith which Pentecostal people have in the ability of the Holy Others See Us," excerpts from a letter written by an Indian Spirit to give spiritual gifts and supernatural abilities to the churchman who queried, "Are we right in concluding that the common people, even to those who might be termed "ignorant same age-old idea which makes the missionary the supreme and unlearned," has raised up a host of lay preachers and leaders dictator over a work for which he happens to find the money is of unusual spiritual ability-not unlike the rugged fishermen also held by the Assemblies of God missionaries?" Furthermore, who first followed the Lord." Noteworthy Personalia Marian McClure is the new director of Worldwide Minis­ Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, England, has appointed tries Divisionfor thePresbyterianChurch(U.S.A.). She earned Michael Taylor as president effective January 1, 1998. an M.Div. from Louisville Presbyterian Seminary and a Ph.D. Since 1985 Taylor has been Director of Christian Aid, and in political science from Harvard University. As a student she prior to that he was for fifteen years the principal of the spent time in Haiti studying the relationship between rural Northern Baptist College in Manchester. He is a graduate Haitians and the Catholic Church. She worked as a Ford of the University of Manchester and Union Theological Foundation program officer in Mexico City from 1985 to 1990. Seminary, New York. In 1996 she became the Coordinator for Global Education and The United Bible Societies (UBS) has elected Fergus International Leadership Development of the Presbyterian Macdonald as general secretary, effective May 1, 1998. He Church (U.S.A.). will succeed John D. Erickson on his retirement as general secretary. Macdonald has been general secretary of the Announcing National Bible Society of Scotland since 1981. In 1995 the The annual meeting of the American Society of Missiology UBS worldwide fellowship of 135 national Bible societies willbe heldJune19-21,1998,at Techny(nearChicago),Illinois. distributed more than 29 million Bibles and New Testa­ The theme is "Tools of the Trade: Missiological Reference for ments, and 535 millionScripture portions and selections in Church, Academy, and Missionary." Andrew F. Walls will some 600 languages around the world. give the keynote address. Jonathan J. Bonk of the Overseas Two Asians have left the staff of the World Council of Ministries Study Center, New Haven, is the ASM president. Churchesfor teachingpositionsin the UnitedStates. Wesley The Association of Professors of Mission will meet June 18­ Ariarajah from Sri Lanka left his position as deputy gen­ 19 at the same place in conjunction with the ASM. The theme eralsecretaryof theWCC andis nowprofessorof ecumenics of their meetingis "Methodsof Practical Educationfor Holistic at Drew University Theological School in Madison, New Mission." Roger Schroeder, S.V.D., of the Catholic Theologi­ Jersey. Christopher Duraisingh from India, who was cal Union, Chicago, is president of the APM. For further director of Gospel and Culture studies for the WCC, is now informationandregistrationfor bothmeetings,contactDarrell professor of applied theology at Episcopal Divinity School L. Guder, Columbia Theological Seminary, P. O. Box 520, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Decatur, Georgia 30031-0520 (Fax: 404-377-9696).

22 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH A clearer demarcation between Pentecostal and evangelical missiology. In regard to the doctrine of the church, Hodges missiology could not have been drawn at the time. Notwith­ reflects the unique paradox of Pentecostal ecclesiology in rela­ standing this deletion, the Moody edition reflects the consensus tion to mission: identification with evangelicals but also fellow­ of doctrine and missiology common to evangelicals and Pente­ ship in the Spirit across conciliar and doctrinal barriers. Faithful costals. Consequently, Hodges shared with both communities to the three selfs, he focused on the nature and self-reliance of insights on how to encourage the growth of strong indigenous nationalchurchesand Spirit-filledleadersas the means for world churches. evangelism. Not surprisingly, Assemblies of God mission After a third term in Central America, Hodges returned to churches have become national denominations and for the most Springfield in 1954with appointment as field secretary for Latin part have retained the loyalty of their constituents. In tum, they America and the West Indies, a taskrequiring oversightof nearly have chosen to limit contacts with the wider church largely to two hundred missionaries; strategic planning; the development other Pentecostals and conservative evangelicals. of specialized ministries in radio, literature, and ministerial Pentecostals, however, have also gravitated to where they training; and the fostering of relationships with national mission see the Spirit glorifying Christ. Quite unexpectedly, Hodges's churches. Significantly, his tenure began at a time when regres­ generation of Pentecostals, basking in newfound respectability sive forces were at work to return mission endeavors to a pater­ through membership in the NationalAssociationof Evangelicals nalistic mode. 23 Hodges's far-sighted attentionto missioneduca­ (1942),was shocked when charismatic renewal emerged in the tion and the application of indigenous church principles, a historic Protestant churches and the Roman Catholic Church in burden shared by Perkin, J. Philip Hogan (Perkin's successor), the 1960s and 1970s. While North American Pentecostals have and other mission leaders, required considerable patience, since generally affirmed the renewal, those in countries with Roman it constrained missionaries to become partners in mission with Catholic majorities have unfortunately refused to consider the nationalchurchleaders."The rewards, however,became readily outpouring of the Holy Spirit as an ecumenical grace among all apparent. the churches." During Hodges's years as field secretary, the rapid growth It is noteworthy that Hodges recognized winds of change in of Pentecostalism in the non-Western world, and the missions the Catholic Church as a result of VaticanII and the growth of the program of the Assemblies of God in particular, stirred the Catholic charismatic renewal. Though stoutly contesting par­ interest of church growth specialists, including Donald A. ticular Catholic doctrines and popular devotions, he suggested McGavran,George W. Peters, and Robert CalvinGuy. Recogniz­ that Pentecostals "should extend whatever spiritual help we can ing Pentecostal advances in missions, McGavraninvited Hodges to people that are so involved, encourage them in their progress to contribute several chapters, along with Guy, Eugene A. Nida, in the kingdom of God, and trust the Holy Spirit to guide them and himself, to Church Growth andChristian Mission(1965). A year in their decision about church affiliation."28 This advice arose later, Hodges presented a principal studypaper ("Mission-and from his belief that at the root of Pentecostal spirituality lay an Church Growth") at the Congress on the Church's Worldwide ecumenicityof the Spirit, a positionviewedwithalarmby certain Mission at Wheaton College (Ill.).In 1969he addressed the Latin evangelicals and Pentecostals." AmericanCongress on Evangelizationat Bogota, Colombia. One IfHodgeslookedbeyondthe traditionalecclesiastical bound­ of the first Pentecostals to publish on missiology outside of aries by affirming the renewal, he remained solidly in agreement denominational publications and to speak before major evan­ with evangelical criticisms of liberation theology and social gelical audiences, his public became worldwide." action. Charitable ministries, with their unending pleas for con­ At sixty-four years of age and after twenty years' service as tributions, could drain needed funds from evangelistic efforts." field secretary, Hodges retired from office in 1973 to take on a Wary of the shift of emphasis in some mission circles from new responsibility-professor of missions at the Assemblies of individual conversions to social action, he appealed to relevant God Graduate School of Theology and Missions (after 1985, the pronouncements made by theological conservatives (e.g., Assemblies of God Theological Seminary) in Springfield, Mis­ Wheaton Declaration, Lausanne Covenant) that upheld the pri­ souri. In announcing this appointment, J. Philip Hogan ex­ ority of proclamation, demonstrating Pentecostals' vital depen­ pressed the hope that Hodges would have more time for writing dence on evangelical scholarship when faced with critical issues and teaching. He had laid down "his briefcase, his passport, and in mission. The bond has been a marriage of conviction and his dictaphone" to teach "a fledgling army of new missionar­ convenience. One notable result, however, given traditional ies."26 Hodges retained this postuntil 1985,three yearsbefore his conservative reactions to the Social Gospel, intense expectation death. of Christ's return, and growing inculturation, has been the curious lack of "prophetic witness" among many Pentecostals Church and Mission toward systemic evils withintheirsocieties, despite their insights into "spiritual warfare." Nevertheless, younger missiologists During these professorial years, Hodges completed his most have steadily advanced toward a holistic and distinctly Pente­ ambitious writing project, A Theology oftheChurch andItsMission costal theology of mission." (1977). Thougfhthe bylinereads"A PentecostalPerspective," the While lacking academic credentials that missiologists take reader quickly detects the underlying fundamentalist/conser­ for granted today, Melvin Hodges refused to sit on the sidelines vative evangelical orientation. In the first chapter, the author when God's call came and needs surfaced on the mission fields. upholds biblical authority, then follows with other chapters on A dedicated learner, he used the tools at his disposal well and redemption, ecclesiology, mission, and social action. Mission is taught countless students, missionaries, and pastors how a local central to God's redemptive purpose, the kingdom of God is congregation could become self-sufficient and a beachhead for "now, and not yet," universalism is condemned, and ministries evangelism in the power of the Holy Spirit. Through his exposi­ of proclamation must be preeminent in mission. A synthesis of tions on church and mission, he opened the door in Pentecostal Pentecostal spirituality within an evangelical framework, the missiology for the examination of issues related to evangelism book epitomizes the achievement of postwar Pentecostal and unity at a time when charismatic renewal swept across

January 1998 23 confessional and counciliar lines. And like other missionaries Bible in hand poured his life's energy into obeying the Great past and present, the young street-preacher with trombone and Commission-because God wanted "someone to do it!"

Notes 1. Information on Charles Edgar Hodges is found in the obituary of his 1990),pp. 143-51. first wife, "HelenOrdwayHodges," MinutesoftheForty-Fifth Session 17. "New Move to Nicaragua," Pentecostal Evangel, April 24, 1937,p. 9. of the Upper Iowa Annual Conference of theMethodist Episcopal Church 18. Melvin L. Hodges, "Great Sacrifice in Nicaragua," Pentecostal Evan­ Heldat Osage, Iowa, October 3-8, 1900,ed. Samuel W. Heald (Mount gel,January 31, 1942, p. 11. Vernon, Iowa: E. W. Jeffries, Publisher, 1900), pp. 90-91; see also 19. Melvin Hodges, "Religion Without Light," Pentecostal Euangel, De­ Mabel Cerney, comp., Our Family History (1954); this and letters cember 23, 1939, p. 9. listed in the referencesbeloware cataloguedin the MelvinL.Hodges 20. L. Miriam Jackson-Haynes, comp., The Prayer of a Common Man: A Papers, Assemblies of God Archives, Springfield, Mo. Collection from theWorkandLifeofMelvinL. Hodges (Guttenberg, N.J.: 2. T. Hezmalhalch, "Pentecost in Denver," Apostolic Faith (Los Ange­ LMJ-H Executive Office Services, 1994). les), November 1906,p. 1;see also Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., "AzusaStreet 21. "As Others See Us," Missionary Forum, no. 1 (1948): 1. Revival," in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, ed. 22. Melvin L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Stanley M. Burgess, Gary B. McGee, and Patrick H. Alexander Publishing House, 1953), pp. 132-33. The Moody edition was en­ (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1988),pp. 31-36. titled On theMission Field: The Indigenous Church (Chicago: Moody 3. M. L. Hodges, "Indigenous Church" (typewritten, n.d.), p. 11. Press, 1953). 4. For his early ministry, see Melvin L. Hodges to H. W. Thiemann, 23. McGee, This Gospel, 1:200-201, 244 n. 27. September 19, 1972. 24. For Assemblies of God missions in recent years, see Gary McGee, 5. Lois M. Hodges to Gary B. McGee, n.d. This Gospel ShallBe Preached: A History and Theology of Assemblies of 6. Melvin L. Hodges, untitled biographical memoir (n.d.), p. 1. God Foreign Missions Since 1959, vol. 2 (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel 7. For information on Perkin, see Gary McGee, This Gospel Shall Be Publishing House, 1989). Preached: A HistoryandTheology ofAssemblies ofGodForeign Missions 25. E.g., Melvin L. Hodges, "A Pentecostal's Vision of Mission Strat­ to1959,vol. 1 (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1986),pp. egy," International ReviewofMissions57 (July 1968):304-10. 129-43. 26. J. Philip Hogan, "Melvin Hodges-Missions Pioneer Breaks New 8. H. C. Ball and A. E. Luce, Glimpses ofOur Latin-American Workin the Ground," Pentecostal Evangel, August 12, 1973, p. 17. UnitedStatesandMexico (Springfield, Mo.: Foreign Missions Depart­ 27. Peter Hocken, The Gloryand the Shame: Reflections on the Twentieth­ ment, General Council of the Assemblies of God, 1940). CenturyOutpouringoftheHolySpirit(Guildford, Surrey: Eagle, 1994), 9. Melvin Hodges, "Hodges Arrives in Central America," Pentecostal pp.5-22. Advocate, June 1936,p. 4. 28. Melvin Hodges, A Theology oftheChurch andItsMission(Springfield, 10. Assemblies of God missionaries have not been alone among Pente­ Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1977),p. 96;idem, "The Charismatic costals in advocating indigenous church principles. For what ap­ Movement in World Evangelism," Advance,March 1975, pp. 4-5. pears to be the first published Pentecostal theology of mission, see 29. The sentiment for unity is prominent in the "Preamble and Resolu­ David Landin, Var yttre mission (Our foreign missions: A biblical tion on Constitution," General Council Minutes (Assemblies of guideline) (Stockholm: Forlaget Filadelfia, 1937). God), April 1914,4-5. See also Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., "A Pentecostal 11. Charles Henry Long and Anne Rowthorn, "Roland Allen," in Mis­ Looks at the World Council of Churches," Ecumenical Review 47 sion Legacies, ed. Gerald H. Anderson, Robert T. Coote, Norman A. (January 1995):60-69; cf. Opal L. Reddin, "Church Unity," Enrich­ Horner, andJames M. Phillips (Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 1994), ment, Spring 1996, 68-71. Hodges and other Assemblies of God pp.383-90. leaders, including the late General Superintendent Thomas F. 12. Interest and exposition of indigenous church principles predated Zimmerman, regularly dialogued in Springfield, Missouri, with Allen; e.g., see Rufus Anderson, Foreign Missions: TheirRelations and representatives of the Catholic Diocese of Springfield-Cape Claims (New York: Charles Scribner, 1869). Girardeau from 1972 to 1982;the dialogue, though always "unoffi­ 13. See GaryMcGee, "Pioneers of Pentecost: Alice E.Luce and HenryC. cial," resumed in 1988. For the international dialogue, see Kilian Ball," Assemblies of GodHeritage 5 (Summer 1985):5-6, 12-15. McDonnell, "The Death of Mythologies: The Classical Pentecostal/ 14. Alice E. Luce, "Paul's Missionary Methods" (part 2), Pentecostal Roman Catholic Dialogue," America, March 25, 1995, pp. 14-19. Evangel, January 22, 1921,p. 6; cf. Roland Allen, Missionary Methods: 30. See Gary McGee, "Saving Souls or Saving Lives? The Tension St. Paul'sorOurs?(Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1962),pp. 47-48. Between Ministries of Word and Deed in Assemblies of God 15. Noel Perkin, "Preparationfor MissionaryService," Pentecostal Evan­ Missiology," Paraclete 28 (Fall 1994):11-23. gel,September 7, 1929, p. 10, and September 14, 1929, p. 10. 31. E.g., Murray W. Dempster, Byron D. Klaus, and Douglas Petersen, 16. Everett A. Wilson, "Identity, Community, and Status: The Legacy of Called and Empowered: Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective the Central American Pentecostal Pioneers," in Earthen Vessels: (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991); Eldin Villafane, American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880-1980, ed. Joel A. The Liberating Spirit: Toward an Hispanic AmericanPentecostal Social Carpenter and Wilbert R. Shenk (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, Ethic(Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1993).

Selected Bibliography Works by Melvin Hodges 1978 TheIndigenous Church andtheMissionary. Pasadena,Calif.:William 1953 TheIndigenous Church. Springfield,Mo.:GospelPublishingHouse. Carey Library. 1953 On theMissionField: TheIndigenous Church. Chicago: MoodyPress. 1978 EIcrecimiento dela iglesia. Miami: Editorial Vida. 1957 BuildMy Church. Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House. 1979 EIEspirituSantoy elevangelismo universal. Miami: Editorial Vida. 1960 Growthin Your Christian Ministry. Chicago: Moody Press. 1994 ThePrayer ofa Common Man:A Collection from theWorkand Lifeof 1964 Spiritual Gifts.Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House Melvin L. Hodges. Guttenberg, N.J.: LMJ-H Executive Office Ser­ 1971 A Guideto Church Planting. Chicago: Moody Press. vices. 1972 WhentheSpirit Came. Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House. The papers of Melvin L. Hodges are housed at the Assemblies of God 1977 A Theology of the Church and Its Mission. Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Archives, Springfield, Mo. A bibliography of his books and articles is Publishing House. available through this agency.

24 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ill iola's School of Intercultural Studies field "These field courses havehada unique advantage: coursework gives you the advantage to earn a applyingthebestof classroom insights and degree while you minister! Enroll in one of principles to my immediateneeds and these cross cultural ministrycourses while currentproblemson the field." you're in the field: Joanne Shetler ~ SocialOrganization Wycliffe translator in Manila ~ Urban Researchand Earn credit toward these degrees: Development ~ M.A.inIntercultural Studies ~ Dynamicsof Religious Experience ~ Doctor of Education ~ Crosscultural Leadership ~ M.Div. in Missions ~ Urban Researchand Development ~ Doctor of Missiology ~ Principlesof Church Planting ~ M.A. inIntercultural Studies ~ Applied Anthropology for and International Business Christian Workers

1t~'La0 ~l effe-n O/V eaee:LI1l : 800.992.4652 School of Intercultural Studies Fax: 310.903.4851 E-Mail : [email protected] 13800Biola Avenue LaMirada,California 90639-0001 Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission: 1998 David B. Barrett and Todd M. Johnson

he table opposite is the fourteenth in an annual series the World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh quoted as the uni­ T describing statistics and trends in world mission. Since versal opinion of missionaries and theologians of that day on the 1985, these summary reports have been designed to provide a global subject of tribal religionists: "Most of these peoples will have lost snapshot of the position at five key midyear points across a century their ancient faiths within a generation, and will accept that culture­ or more. Because each incorporates the latest and newest discover­ religion with which they first come into contact." Our annual report ies-new censuses, new polls, new reports, new findings, new up to last year recorded how wrong that prognosis has proved and concepts, and also the mass of new bibliography available-these showed tribal religions (animists, polytheists, shamanists) main­ annual reports are not intended to be seen as a consecutive or taining their total of 100 million throughout the entire twentieth consistent series. Each report replaces the previous year's report and century. This year comes a startling new discovery: analysis of these provides a new and often modified picture of trends across the new censuses results in a global total of 244million tribal religionists twentieth century and beyond. The present commentary will now today, located among 5,600 distinct ethnic peoples. provide some illustration of this. The explanationfor this phenomenal new megatrend is simple. It is now one generation since the majority of the former colonies of Building on the secular background (lines I, 9, 10) European countries won their independence. It is also nearly one decade after the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and the The first ten lines of the table are secular variables, each of which is USSR. What has now happened in country after country and state essential for understanding the context of the later Christian vari­ after state is that millions of peoples who were previously classified ables. The trends reported here vary somewhat from last year's as adherents of their countries' majority religions or antireligions­ because the United Nations Population Division has incorporated chiefly Hinduism and Islam, as well as Marxist atheism-have them in its latest World Population Prospects: The 1996 Revision. Very thrown off these labels and are asserting that instead they are significant slowing-down in annual population increase is taking followers of their own traditional local religions. Bearing in mind place, largely as the result of unanticipated success in programs of that the United Nations' 1946 Universal Declaration of Human family planning across the globe. So the A.D. 2000 population of the Rights states that every person's religion is precisely what he or she world is now projected to be slightly lower than hitherto expected states it is, and that no one else has the right to deny this assertion, (line 1).But the major urban trends, disturbing to Christians, remain we must respect this new development. those shown in lines 9-10: urban poor and urban slum dwellers It thus appears that in the last decade the total number of local continue to mount in numbers catastrophically year by year. Slum tribal religionists in the world has risen to 240 percent of what it was dwellers alone are mushrooming at a current rate of 89,000,000 each in A.D. 1900. What is the significance of this massive religious shift? year. This single fact alone is now galvanizing Christians and their Some readers may see this as a new and formidable anti­ mission agencies, illustrating once more Roger Schutz's famous Christian force arising just at the moment when they were savoring dictum "Statistics are signs from God." the collapse of Communist state atheism. Others, however, will see immediatelythat in actual fact, far from beinga threat, this is actually The proliferation of tribal religionists (line 18) a highly significantopportunity for globalChristianity and its world mission. As former Hindus or Muslims, the ethnic peoples involved The most startling new figure in the present table occurs in line 18. were difficult or even impossible to reach and evangelize. The It refers to this decade's volcanic eruption in the number of tribal history of missions has long demonstrated that local religions, religionists almost everywhere across the developing world. In 1910 whether animists or fetishists or pagans or shamanists, have always beenfar more responsive to the Gospel than the resistantgreat world DavidB.Barrett, acontributingeditor, isHon.Research Advisor,UnitedBible religions. This means that in this huge new bloc of tribal religionists, Societies, and Research Professor of Missiometrics at Regent University, Christ's world mission now has one of its greatest opportunities. Virginia Beach. ToddM. Johnson, a YWAM missionary and Director of the Mission agencies that launch into this new arena and invest person­ WorldEvangelization Research Center in Richmond, Virginia, is an Adjunct nel and energy sharing the Good News with any of the 5,600 peoples Professor at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, for the involved will find an open door. But let us be warned: this new door Perspectives on the WorldChristian Movementcourse. may itself remain open for only the next five or ten years.

Notes ------­ Methodological Notes on Table (referring to numbered 11. Widest definition: professing Christians plus secret Standalone Monoliths," International Journal of Frontier lines on opposite page). Indented categories form part of, believers, which equals affiliated (church members) plus Missions (IJFM)9, no. 1 (January 1992): 35-41. and are included in, unindented categories above them. unaffiliated Christians. World C is the world of all who 46-52. Defined as in article "Silver and Gold Have I Definitions of categories are as given and explained in individually are Christians. None," InternationalBulletinofMissionaryResearch 7(Octo­ World Christian Encyclopedia (WCE, 1982) with additional 21. Total of all non-Christians (sum of rows 12-20 above, ber 1983): 150. data andexplanations as below. The analytical trichotomy plus adherents of other minor religions). This is also the 51.Amounts embezzled (U.S.dollarequivalents, per year). of Worlds A, B, C is expounded in a handbook of global same as World A (the unevangelized) plus World B(evan­ 53. Total general-purpose computers and word proces­ statistics, Our Globe and How to ReachIt: Seeing the World gelized non-Christians). sors ownedby churches, agencies, groups, and individual Evangelized by A.D. 2000 and Beyond,ed. D. B.Barrett and T. 25. Church members involved in the Pentecostal/Charis­ Christians. M. Johnson (Birmingham, Ala.: New Hope, 1990. The matic Renewal. Totals on lines 24-26 overlap with those 67-68. These measures are defined, derived, and analyzed global diagram series found in Our Globe is continued in a on lines 28-34. in "Quantifying the Global Distribution of Evangelism further series of global diagrams in the monthly A.D. 2000 26. Active church members who take Christ's Great Com­ and Evangelization," I]FM9, no. 2 (April 1992): 71-76. Global Moniior.) mission seriously. 69-70. Defined as in WCE, parts 3, 5, 6, and 9. 27. World totals of current long-term trend for all confes­ 71. Grand total of all distinct plans and proposals for Lines 1-4. Demographic totals are as shown in World sions. (SeeOur Globe and How to ReachIt, Global Diagram accomplishing world evangelization made by Christians Population Prospects, 1996 (New York: United Nations, 5).The 1998figure reflects the collapse of Communismbut since A.D. 30. (See Seven Hundred Plans to Evangelize the 1997), and Long-Range World Population Projections: Two also the expansion of terrorism. World: The Rise of a Global Evangelization Movement ([Bir­ Centuries of Population Growth, 1950-2150 (New York: 43. Monolithic organizations are described and analyzed mingham, Ala.: New Hope, 1988].) United Nations, 1992). in "The Fragmentationof Missioninto 4,000Freestanding,

26 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Status of Global Mission, 1998, in Context of 20th and 21st Centuries

Year: 1900 1970 mid-1998 2000 2025 WORLD POPULATION 1. Total pOEulation 1,619,886,800 3,701,909,000 5,929,839,000 6,091,351,000 8,039,130,000 2. Urban wellers (urbanites) 232,694,900 1,349,293,000 2,655,736,000 2,885,059,000 4,894,979,000 3. Rural dwellers 1,387,191,900 2,352,616,000 3,274,103,000 3,206,292,000 3,144,151,000 4. Adult population (over 15) 1,025,938,000 2,323,466,000 4,071,362,000 4,277,544,000 6,097,552,000 5. Literates 286,705,000 1,487,863,000 2,748,170,000 3,028,501,000 4,985,968,000 6. Nonliterates 739,233,000 835,603,000 1,323,192,000 1,249,043,000 1,111,584,000 WORLDWIDE EXPANSION OF CITIES 7. Metropolises (over 100,000 population) 300 2,400 3,980 4,100 6,500 8. Megacities (over 1 million population) 20 161 400 410 650 9. Urban poor 100 million 650 million 1,852 million 2,000 million 3,050 million 10. Urban slumdwellers 20 million 260 million 1,122 million 1,300 million 2,100 million WORLD POPULATION BY RELIGION 11. Christians (total all kinds) (=World C) 558,056,300 1,222,585,000 1,965,993,000 2,024,156,000 2,797,617,000 12. Muslims 200,102,200 558,272,000 1,179,326,000 1,237,153,000 1,961,548,000 13. Nonreligious 2,923,300 542,976,000 766,672,000 779,084,000 904,402,000 14. Hindus 203,033,300 473,823,000 767,424,000 794,921,000 1,075,636,000 15. Buddhists 127,159,000 234,096,000 356,875,000 364,872,000 433,309,000 16. Atheists 225,600 172,744,000 146,406,000 146,192,000 151,940,000 17. New-Religionists 5,910,000 77,872,000 99,191,000 100,507,000 116,567,000 18. Tribal religionists 106,339,600 166,525,000 244,164,000 250,964,000 295,840,000 19. Sikhs 2,960,600 10,618,000 22,874,000 23,756,000 34,568,000 20. Jews 12,269,800 14,767,000 15,050,000 15,228,000 16,882,000 21. Non-Christians (=Worlds A and B) 1,061,830,500 2,479,324,000 3,963,846,000 4,067,195,000 5,241,513,000 GLOBAL CHRISTIANITY 22. Total Christians as % of world (=World C) 34.4 33.0 33.2 33.2 34.8 23. Affiliated church members 521,576,500 1,135,913,000 1,852,111,000 1,908,062,700 2,645,133,392 24. Church attenders 469,303,000 886,195,000 1,335,696,000 1,360,260,000 1,761,623,000 25. Pentecostals/ Charismatics 3,700,000 74,448,000 461,000,000 502,000,000 740,000,000 26. Great Commission Christians 50 million 285 million 653,852,000 680,230,000 1,091,538,000 27. Average Christian martyrs per year 35,600 230,000 163,000 165,000 210,000 MEMBERSHIP BY ECCLESIASTICAL BLOC 28. An~icans 30,573,700 47,520,000 55,077,000 55,549,000 69,821,000 29. Cat olics (non-Roman) 276,000 3,214,000 6,484,000 6,688,000 9,635,000 30. Marginal Christians 927,600 10,838,000 30,992,000 33,384,000 66,848,000 31. Indigenous Christians Nonwhite 7,743,100 59,784,000 264,851,000 279,037,000 491,598,000 32. Orthodox 115,897,700 147,369,000 224,770,000 227,841,000 283,945,000 33. Protestants 103,056,700 233,800,000 366,826,000 378,626,000 567,124,000 34. Roman Catholics 266,419,400 671,441,000 1,055,412,000 1,085,622,000 1,447,463,000 MEMBERSHIP BY CONTINENT 35. Africa 8,756,400 120,251,000 329,882,000 350,125,600 703,638,270 36. Asia (new UN definition) 20,770,300 94,515,000 286,078,000 299,912,300 467,719,700 37. Europe (new UN definition) 368,131,200 475,387,000 531,502,000 533,030,000 537,059,220 38. Latin America 60,026,800 261,949,000 461,471,000 477,117,000 637,018,350 39. Northern America 59,569,700 169,183,000 223,454,000 227,658,100 273,387,150 40. Oceania 4,322,100 14,628,000 19,724,000 20,219,700 26,310,702 CHRISTIAN ORGANIZATIONS 41. Service agencies 1,500 14,100 23,450 24,000 40,000 42. Foreign-mission sendin~ agencies 600 2,200 4,650 4,800 8,500 43. Stand-alone global mono iths 35 62 110 120 5,000 CHRISTIAN WORKERS 44. Nationals (all denominations) 1,050,000 2,350,000 4,863,000 5,104,000 6,500,000 45. Aliens (foreign missionaries) 62,000 240,000 409,000 420,000 550,000 CHRISTIAN FINANCE (in U.S. $, ber year) 46. Personal income of church mem ers, $ 270 billion 4,100 billion 11,885 billion 12,700 billion 26,000 billion 47. Personal income of Pentecostals/Charismatics, $ 250,000,000 157 billion 1,430 billion 1,550 billion 9,500 billion 48. Givin~to Christian causes, $ 8 billion 70 billion 206 billion 220 billion 870 billion 49. Churc es' income, $ 7 billion 50 billion 97 billion 100 billion 300 billion 50. Parachurch and institutional income, $ 1 billion 20 billion 110 billion 120 billion 570 billion 51. Ecclesiastical crime, $ 300,000 5,000,000 11.3 billion 13.2 billion 65 billion 52. Income of global foreign missions, $ 200,000,000 3.0 billion 11.2 billion 12 billion 60 billion 53. Computers in Christian use (numbers) 0 1,000 340,838,000 400,000,000 2,500,000,000 CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 54. New commercial book titles per year 2,200 17,100 24,600 25,000 70,000 55. Christian periodicals 3,500 23,000 32,500 35,000 100,000 56. New books/articles on evangelization per year 500 3,100 14,700 16,000 80,000 SCRIPTURE DISTRIBUTION (all sources) 57. Bibles per year 5,452,600 25,000,000 66,005,000 70,000,000 180,000,000 58. New Testaments per year 7,300,000 45,000,000 102,804,000 110,000,000 250,000,000 59. Scriptures including gospels, selections, per year 20 million 281 million 1,903 million 2,050 million 4,000 million CHRISTIAN BROADCASTING 60. Christian radio /TV stations 0 1,230 3,600 4,000 10,000 61. Total monthly listeners/viewers 0 750,000,000 1,977,267,000 2,150,000,000 3,800,000,000 62. for Christian stations 0 150,000,000 568,338,000 600,000,000 1,300,000,000 63. for secular stations 0 650,000,000 1,665,215,000 1,810,000,000 2,800,000,000 CHRISTIAN URBAN MISSION 64. Non-Christian megacities 5 65 191 202 280 65. New non-Christian urban dwellers per day 5,200 51,100 131,000 140,000 360,000 66. Urban Christians 159,600,000 660,800,000 1,330,389,000 1,393,700,000 2,448,800,000 CHRISTIAN EVANGELISM 67. Evangelism-hours per year 10 billion 99 billion 447 billion 480 billion 4,250 billion 68. Disciple-opportunities per capita per year 6 27 75 79 529 WORLD EVANGELIZATION 69. Unevangelized population (=World A) 788,159,000 1,391,956,000 1,079,532,000 1,038,819,000 600,000,000 70. Unevangelized as % of world 48.7 37.6 18.2 16.6 7.1 71. World evangelization plans since A.D. 30 250 510 1,290 1,400 3,000

January 1998 27 The Legacy of George Brown Charles W. Forman

he legacies of George Brown are not hard to find: three later Methodist perfectionism in religion, which could lead to T major Pacific Island churches that he initiated and a emphasizing restrictiveness in living. That kind of religion did fourth that he restored; thousands of people still gathering every not fit with his vigorous affirmation of life. year to celebrate George Brown Day; an important school and a A recent sociological analysis has pointed out Brown's "ba­ college bearing his name in Papua New Guinea; one of the best sic sense of making history," as well as his "sense of the porten­ schools in Samoa, also bearing his name-these among other tous" and of "precipitating events." Approaching an unknown, things give testimony to a lively inheritance from this missionary possibly hostile shore, he wrote, "What is before us? How long of a century ago. What kind of man was he, and what did he do before these lands received the Gospel? . .. It may be that a to merit such continuing recognition? soldier'sgraveawaitssomeof us here. Beit so, the victor's crown George Brown was in many ways the prototype of the will follow.'? This sense of making history provided a revolu­ pioneer missionary of the past century-adventurous, resource­ tionary outlook for the people he worked among. ful, imaginative, willing to suffer yet never complain, buoyant, and friendly. He attracted the enthusiasm of the confident and Establishing the Church in Samoa hopeful society in which he moved; he provided a focus for the general confidence and hopefulness of the time. He also epito­ The Samoahe enteredin 1860called for all the strengthandhope mized the expansive Methodism of that era and was by far the that he possessed. The Methodist Church, begun by Tongans in most outstanding Methodist in Oceania during the late nine­ 1828, had been provided with a European missionary for four teenth and early twentieth centuries. years, from 1835 to 1839, but then the mission had been with­ drawn in order to avoid competition with the larger London An Unpromising Beginning Missionary Society (LMS)work. In1857the Australian Method­ ists reversed this decision and decided to reenter the Samoan Oddly, he did not start out as a Methodist at all, nor did he ever field, restoring contact with the confused and leaderless handful share the intense emotional experience of conversion that char­ of remaining Methodists. acterized the earlyMethodists. Born in BarnardCastlein Durham George Brownwas not the first foreign Methodist to reenter. County in England in 1835,he started out as an adventurer pure That distinction belongs to Martin Dyson, whose first desire was and simple with no religious interests. Rebelling against a to lead the Methodists to join the LMS. When that desire was disciplinarian stepmother, he left home, got involved in a smug­ thwartedby the local people andbyhissuperior from Australia, gling operation, and then went off to sea, working as a shiphand Dyson changed his view and worked with a steady hand to on voyages to Canada and New Zealand. The seafaring experi­ reconstruct the abandoned church. Dyson stayed only eight ence stood him in good stead in his later work as a missionary in years. In the meantime, in 1860, George Brown arrived, first to the Pacific Islands. help him and then to take over leadership from him. Brown, The great turning point in his life came when he stayed for though he had misgivings about the reentry, had no hesitation a time in New Zealand with his aunt and her husband, who were about working for Methodist restoration once the reentry was Methodist missionaries. Here he saw a new kind of family life made. To Brown must be given the major credit for building up andbeganto feel that there was a betterexistence available to him a Methodist Church that became, in proportion to its size, prob­ thanwhathe hadhithertoknown. He beganto attendchurchand ably the strongest and most active church in the Pacific Islands. gradually became more and more involved in church life. There This was his first great legacy. was not a particular time of emotional conversion, but new The achievement can be credited to a variety of factors. First thoughts and new purposes were flooding in. At one point he of all, Brownloved the Samoanpeopleandadmiredtheirculture. realized his acceptance by God through faith in Christ and He later wrote, "I have always considered the Samoans to be decided to follow Christ's will. Frequent contact with a minister amongst the nicest and most lovable people with whom I have who was retired from the Fijimission led him to offer himself for ever lived.":' He studied their culture in great detail. He saw that missionary service. He married S. L. Wallis, the daughter of a the mission's training institution should be located in a place of missionary in New Zealand, and in 1860 was accepted by the high traditional standing and moved it to Lufilufi, a major center Methodist Church and sent out to Samoa. of chiefly power. Because he knew Samoan custom well, he was As a missionary,he engagedin no heavy theological thought. used by high chiefs in their negotiations with outside powers. His was a practical, day-to-day faith. He was prepared to follow With knowledge of the culture went knowledge of the Christ's will wherever it would lead, and he had a strong trust in language. He had natural linguistic ability, and from the first he God. When starting on one of his most difficult ventures, he immersed himself in the language, preaching his first sermon wrote typically, "May God grant us His blessing day by day and after only eight weeks in the country. He kept on studying, guide us in all things."! He maintained a steady devotional life working with poets and men of high culture to expand his within his household along with openness to all beyond the layman's vocabulary and knowledge of folklore. He wrote 130 household who might wish to join in. As he had little of the hymns, which today make up one-third of the contents of the original Methodist emotionalism in religion, so he avoided the Methodist hymnbook.' His resoluteness and bravery also won him wide influence. Charles W. Forman is Professor of Missions, Emeritus, at Yale University He was stationed on the large island of Savai'i, notorious for its DivinitySchool. Hehasserved asatheological teacher in India, Fiji, andSamoa. dangerous coasts and more treacherous than any Brown had

28 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH seen in his years of sailing. But he regularly sailed from village friends would request Christian teachers, and he was not disap­ to village, negotiating the few and narrow channels through the pointed. Whether it was because in the local culture powerful reefs. The Samoans were great sailors, and they admired his men were seen as generating social order and Brown with his courage and ability. His bravery was also shown in the frequent assuranceand sinceritywasrecognized as powerful." or whether warfare of the time, when he exposed himself to attacks in order it was, as the local people now say, because the missionaries did to prevent battles and the slaughter of noncombatants. Thus he not push the people the way traders did and because they sang became recognized as of high chiefly stature. such impressive hymns and brought peaceful relations among When he visited Samoa in later life, his reception was that the villages," for one reason or another there were soon a number accorded only to the highest chiefs. He remains, down to the of villages asking for teachers. During the first two years seven­ present, the greatest hero to the Samoan Methodist Church, and teen more missionaries arrived from Fiji and Samoa to help meet one of the finest Methodist educational institutions was named the growing requests. Brown also pressed ahead with linguistic for him. studies, starting the first grammar and dictionary of any of the region's languages. Recruiting Islanders for the New Guinea Mission Crisis with Chief Talili Yet, devoted as he was to Samoa,he wasnotcontentto stop there. In conversations with sea captains and explorers, he learned Then came the great crisis in light of which, more than of any much about further fields where the Christian Gospel had never other event, Brown's missionary work must be judged. InApril been presented, and he was eager to enter them. Already in 1868 1878 four Fijian missionaries started to cross New Britain on an he told the mission board that when the Australian church woke exploratory trip. They were intercepted and killed on the orders up to its duties in the New Guinea area, he wanted a share in the of the chief, Talili, who may have been concerned about losing work. Whenhe left Samoa in 1874,it was to stir up the Australian control of limited trade routes if peaceful relations among vil­ church. With the approval of the mission board he traveled lages began to spread in the interior. Brown, on hearing the through the land, talking about the needs in New Britain, the news,wentfrom his headquartersat once to the villagewhere the largest island off New Guinea, and raising funds till there were missionaries' families weregatheredand found themhuddledin enough to start a mission. Though the funds came from Austra­ a hut, wailing while warriors were threatening them, Talili lia, it was not Brown's idea to make this primarily an Australian having urged that they all be killed and eaten. Brown tried to mission. He wanted it to be a mission of island people, specifi­ restore calm, praying first for calm in himself, and sent word to cally of Samoans and also of Fijians, whom he admired as much Talili to come for a parley. The reply came from Talili thathe had as he did Samoans. yams ready to cook with Brown's body and those of the other Here came in another of Brown's legacies, at least for the missionaries. Apparently the whole mission as well as nearby Methodist Church. He inaugurated the great movement of white traders were in imminent danger. The bodies of the four Methodist Islander missionaries from Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga to western Melanesia, a movement that continued in strength for half a century. Brown inaugurated the Brown started out in April 1875 to recruit Fijians and Samo­ ans for work in the New Britain area. His appeal in Fiji is famous great movement of Islander because the whole student body of the seminary volunteered to missionaries from Fiji, go and remained firm in their decision even when the British governor of Fiji tried to dissuade them. Brown worked much Samoa, and Tonga for work faster than his missionboard had expected. Theyhad planned to in western Melanesia. send a ship to gather information for the mission, buthe secured his recruits and started out immediately, convincing the board that they already knew enough. On August IS, 1875, he arrived dead men had already been divided and distributed to villages, on the coasts of New Britain ready to begin workwithnine Fijian whose receipt of them acknowledged their complicity in the and four Samoanmissionaries, mostof them married. The board killings and their bonding to Talili for possible further action. hadexpectedhimto settle theIslandersandthenleave,butonthe Brown returned to his headquarters and gathered a number voyage he decided thathe oughtto stay and workwith them. He of missionaries and some friendly chiefs and white men to established a close friendship with all these fellow workers, and consultonwhat to do. He realized that the responsibility for any they responded with full trust in him. decision would fall upon him, and as he wrote later, any violent Immediately after getting settled, Brown set out by boat to action would imperil if not destroy his "reputation as a mission­ visit the villages in eastern New Britain, in New Ireland, and in ary."? There were no forces of law and order close enough for the small Duke of York Islands, lying between these two, where their protection to be invoked. He briefly considered gathering he made his headquarters. The hazards of travel in storms and all the mission workers and leaving the islandsbefore they could among reefs along these uncharted coasts were considerable. So be attacked, but he realized that this was impossible within the were the hazards of visiting. He went completely unarmed time available. His consultants all advised immediate retaliation among men who habitually carried arms at all times when to prevent further murders, and some of his islander colleagues outside of their homes. Misunderstandings would bringmasses were ready to dash off at once without him. His decision was to of spears thrust toward him. He knew never to show anger or organize two simultaneous raids from opposite sides of the any sign of being ready to fight or flee, for that would mean island and to destroy the gardens and burn the villages of those immediate death. There were frequent warnings that he would complicit in the killings. This was done. The raid led by Brown be killed if he went to certain places, but he went anyway. did not reach the offending villages, but the other raid not only His goal was to make friends with the hope that some of the destroyed property but also killed about ten men and wounded

January 1998 29 many more." Talili and his cohorts gave up and agreed to pay the and involved the calling in of external power. When the Papuan customary shell-money indemnities for illicit killings. Talili government sent lethal punitive expeditions to avenge the mur­ became and remained a fast friend of Brown's. der of James Chalmers, the LMS mission was rightly perturbed Judgments on his action varied widely. The local people in because the killings seriously alienated the local people and the New Britain area all regarded the punitive expedition as accomplished no good purpose. But in Brown's case there was necessary. In contrast, some letters to the Australian press were a protective purpose, and according to all reports, no one was extremelycondemnatory, as weresome of the strongestvoices in alienated. Both his local adversaries and his supporters agreed missionary and native-rights circles, the Exeter Hall types in in the end that he had done the right thing. Britain. The British government instructed Sir Arthur Gordon, His trip back from Fijito New Britain was slow and harrow­ governor of Fiji, who was also high commissioner for the West­ ing, passing through a raging hurricane, and when he finally got ern Pacific, to send a Royal naval vessel to make an inquiry. The home, in March 1880, he found that two of his three young ship captain's report was favorable to Brown. The Germans also children had died during his absence. Weakness and ill health had a ship in the area whose captainmade a favorable report, and continued to doghimand limitedhis further workin NewBritain the German ambassador in London wrote to the British Foreign to only a year. By the time he left, however, there were twenty churches and twenty preaching points established, and he had appointed the first three local preachers, the first fruits of his The Methodist churches in efforts to build from the very start an indigenous church with its own indigenous leadership." His Australian successors were the Papuan Islands and the slow to build further in that direction." Western Solomons owe The impression that Brown had made in five years was indelible. He has ever since been honored as the founding father their existence to Brown. of the New Britain district church. The day of his first arrival, August 15, is still celebrated as George Brown Day, with large Office saying he hoped their report would strengthen Brown in crowds watching the reenactment of his original landing at his troubles "with the royal British authorites." The mission various points by local pastors and people." And the George board in Australia voted to support Brown's action, and later the Brown High School and the George Brown College in New General Conference of the Australian Methodist Church, while Britain carry his name. The church of the New Guinea Islands condemning any military enterprises in connection with mis­ region, now partof the United Churchin PapuaNewGuinea and sions, approved this particular enterprise because it had been in the Solomon Islands, is probably his greatest legacy. defense of the mission teachers and their families. The chief justice in Fiji, however, Mr. Justice Gorrie, a great supporter of Restored to Health and New Leadership the Aboriginal ProtectionSociety, issued a charge of manslaugh­ ter against Brown. On returning to Australia, he soon recovered his health and for The incessantmalariaofthe area hadbeenweakeningBrown, three years traveled around the country as a nationally known so that by mid-1879, he seemed to be at death's door and had to figure, speaking for the Methodist mission board. Then, from board a passing boat for Australia that was too small to take his 1883to 1886,he served as minister of a Sydneychurchcircuit. But wife and young children with him. In Australia the doctors most of this time he spent traveling abroad. He crossed America, despaired of his life, buthe insisted on visiting his older children speaking to enthusiastic audiences, spoke around Britain and at in New Zealand, who had been sent there for their education in the British Methodist missionary meeting of 1886,and thenback the years when he was still in Samoa. He then intended to go to across America. All this made him an internationally known Fijito face charges madeagainsthimin the court, thusputtinghis figure and the obvious person to lead Australian Methodist head in the lion's mouth. missions. When he reached Sydney on his return in March 1887, he had already been elected general secretary of the Methodist Cleared of Charges and Free to Serve mission board, a position he held for twenty-one years. Given the nature of the man, his general secretaryship could Sir Arthur Gordon, governor and high commissioner in Fiji,was hardly have been expected to be a humdrum period, and it was a longtime friend of Brown's and received him kindly. He not. Two principal thrusts marked his leadership. The first was publiclystated in a formal audience that he had seen no evidence an expansionof the Methodistmissions. Withinthreeyearsofhis of a crime committed by Brown, and on his instructions the taking the helm, he was launching a new mission, one to the prosecution was withdrawn. When Chief Justice Gorrie con­ PapuanIslands. In 1890Brownwent to Papua to consultwith the vened the court on the next day, he was obliged to dismiss the governor and other missions about the location of a new Meth­ case, much to his chagrin. Brown was free to depart from Fiji. odist work. He then returned to Sydney and within a year had Looking back after a century, we may grudgingly concur in recruited and splendidly equipped a party of over seventy our judgment with Sir Arthur Gordon and the Methodist Gen­ people, including missionaries, mostly Fijians, and builders to eral Conference. Missionarieswhoventureoutbeyondthe limits initiate the new venture. Brown himself led the party to the of established legal protection have normally and properly lived islands east of Papua and supervised the beginning of the work. at the mercy of the local strongmen and have not expected A decade later came another venture. The western Solomon outside governments to intervene on their behalf. When John G. Islands had no Christian mission in their midst, since the Paton in the New Hebrides (modem Vanuatu) departed from Melanesian Mission, an Anglican body that tried to cover the this norm by lending his approving presence to the punitive whole of the Solomons, could not stretch itself that far. Brown shelling by a British warship of villages that the mission had visited the area, saw the need, and approached the Anglican complained about, he was condemnedby othermissionariesand bishop, convincing him rather against his will, to allow the has been condemned since, because the shelling saved no lives Methodists to fill the gap. Thus, in 1902, Brown was again

30 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH E. STA NLEY JON ES SCHOOL OF W ORLD MI S SI O N A ND E VA NG E L IS M

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WHER E S HA R ING T HE GO S P EL M E A N S S H A R ING YO UR LIF E accompanying a large pioneer party, this time to start the West­ ism, buthereagainhis approachwasrespectful. Ononeoccasion ern Solomon Mission centered in the beautiful Roviana Lagoon. he visited a chief who was about to eat a fallen enemy. He sat on So it is that the Methodist churches, now the United Church, in the ground with the chief and his friends and prolonged his visit both the Papuan Islands and in the Western Solomons owe their endlesslybecausehe wassurethe feasting on humanflesh would existence to Brown's vision, determination, and action-another not proceed while he was present. Finally, to get rid of him, the major legacy. chief promised to bury the victim, and Brown then departed. But The second principal thrust was to give more autonomy to he later heard that while the promise of burial was dutifully the older churches of the central Pacific. The first place to make fulfilled, the body was quickly exhumed, cooked, and eaten." It this effort was Tonga. Already, before Brown took office, the must be said that when Brown was addressing audiences in main body of Methodists in Tonga had seized autonomy for Australia, America, and Britain, he stressed the cruelty he had themselves, forming a "free church" and leaving only a small encountered, which captivated his audiences but gave an unbal­ remnant faithful to the missionaries. Brown went to Tonga with anced picture of the people among whom he had worked. the desire to convince the faithful few to join the majority and His relations to white men in the islands also call for com­ then to get Australia to accept the reunited Free Church as an ments. He made friends with all of them, even with the pathetic autonomous Annual Conference. Unfortunately, the key person beachcombers and with the German traders whose power plays in Tonga, the prime minister and former missionary, Shirley and land-grabbing he deplored. The British colonial governors Baker, would have none of the plan, and there was no general in Fiji, Papua, and the Solomon Islands counted him as a friend desire for reconciliation. Not till 1924 was reunion with au­ and spoke of him with high esteem. Robert Louis Stevenson in tonomy accepted, and it was then on the terms Brown had Samoa saw him as a hero and considered writing his biography. proposed." Because of what Brown saw in Samoa he came to favor InFiji,Brown metwith greatersuccess. In 1901he proposed British rule. The incessant wars of succession, intensified by that the money received there in the great annual church collec­ foreign intrigue and interference and leading to massive sale of tions, whichhadalwaysbeensentto Australia,be dividedin half, lands in order to buyarms, were devastating Samoansociety and with one-half of it to be kept in Fiji. He also proposed that the seemed to be more than the society could handle. He did not Financial Synod, which handled all funds in Fiji and which had wantGermanyin controlbecauseof whathe hadseenof German been made up entirely of missionaries, now include a majority of actions, but he hoped British rule could be established and Fijians. There was a great outcry among the missionaries at this protect the native lands as it had done in Fiji. In the mid-1890s, idea, and most of them said they would leave the country if this while in Sydney, he wrote a series of influential letters to the were done. But Brown stuck to his plan and carried the General newpapers warning of German aggression in the islands and Conference in Australia with him, so the missionaries finally criticizing British inaction. However, these letters were written gave in." A major step toward independence for the island under a pseudonym, and his personal and professional relations churches had been achieved. with German traders and governors always remained excellent. At this pointsome consideration of Brown's attitude toward Not only traders and governors but also scientists were the Islanders throughout his career is called for, since it explains among his friends. He was himself devoted to scientific studies his policies as general secretary. From the beginning he admired and corresponded with some of the greatest anthropologists of and loved the island peoples. His high regard for Samoans and his time. He was a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, a Samoan culture has already been mentioned. He wanted the member of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Samoan churchto be thoroughly indigenous, and he was con­ Science, and vice president of the Australian Native Races Pro­ stantly critical of the other missionaries who put unnecessary tection Society." He avidly collected specimens of flora and restrictions on life. "Why do you stop all the Samoan amuse­ fauna as well as artifacts, and after his death his extensive ments?" he asked them. "Why put heavy feet upon native collection was bought and exhibited as one more piece of his customs and throw dark shadows into lives intended for the legacy by the Bowes Museum in Barnard Castle, his birthplace." sunshine?"14 InFijilikewise,he wasa greatadmirerof the culture In April 1908 Brown retired from the general secretaryship, and of Fijian life generally. completing forty-eight years of almost unbroken missionary Whenit came to New Britain, Brown's admiration was more service. Though he was in his seventies, he remained active, qualified. What he desired was the preservation of the culture publishinga large autobiographyin 1908andan anthropological butwithoutits morecruelelements,following in partthe pattern study, Melanesians andPolynesians, in 1910. Seven years later, in set in Fiji. He admired the skill and artistry of Melanesian crafts 1917, he died. As a final legacy, he left thirty volumes of his and tried to collect examples before foreign influences modified papers in the Mitchell Library in Sydney. them. The one practicehe mostobviouslyopposedwascannibal- Notes ------1. Neville Threlfall, One Hundred Years in the Islands: The Methodist/ 7. George Brown, George Brown, D.D.Pioneer-Missionary andExplorer, UnitedChurch in theNew Guinea Islands Region, 1875-1975 (Rabaul: anAutobiography: A Narrative ofForty-Eight Years' Residence andTravel United Church, 1975),p. 30. in Samoa, New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea, and the Solomon 2. FrederickK.ErringtonandDeborahB.Gewertz,Articulating Change Islands (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1908),p. 271. inthe"LastUnknown" (Boulder, Colo.:WestviewPress, 1995),p.108. 8. Threlfall, OneHundredYears, p. 46;HeinzSchutte,"TheSixDay War 3. C. Brunsdon Fletcher, The Black Knight of the Pacific (Sydney: of 1878," Journal of Pacific History 24 (1989): 46. Schutte quotes Australasian Publishing, 1994),p. 70. Brown's estimate of sixty killed and wounded and makes his own 4. A.HaroldWood, Overseas Missions oftheAustralianMethodist Church estimate of ninety or a hundred. (Melbourne: Aldergate Press, 1975-87), 1: 297; Fletcher, The Black 9. Ronald G. Williams, TheUnitedChurch in Papua, NewGuinea, andthe Knight, p. 111;communication from Donna Kamu, August 1, 1996. Solomon Islands (Rabaul: Trinity Press, 1972), p. 112; Ann Turner, 5. Errington and Gewertz, ArticulatingChange, p. 110. Historical Dictionary ofPapua NewGuinea (Metuchen, N.J.:Scarecrow 6. Threlfall, OneHundred Years, p. 39. Press, 1994),p. 47.

32 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 10. Charles W. Forman, TheIsland Churches oftheSouthPacific. Emergence 17. The collection was recently sold and moved to Japan. Regarding in theTwentieth Century(Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orb is Press, 1982),p.17l. Brown's collecting of artifacts, a charge has been made. Stephen 11. A detailed and scholarly report and analysis of one of these celebra­ Reed in his standard work The Making of Modern New Guinea tions is provided in Errington and Gewertz,Articulating Change, pp. (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1943),p.112,claims 77-106. In this case the occasion is called the George Brown Jubilee, that Brown on an early trip to New Ireland made a raid on a sacred or simply the Jubilee, because it had first been observed in 1925 on spot, under cover of darkness, to steal cultic carvings. Reed jests that the fiftieth anniversary of George Brown's arrival. this did not stop Brown, "the end justifying the means," from 12. Brown, George Brown, pp. 433-34; John Garrett, To LiveAmong the preaching on the Ten Commandments. The only source given by Stars: Christian Origins in Oceania (Geneva: World Council of Reed for his charge is Brown's own account in his autobiography (p. Churches; Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1982), pp. 274-75. 128). However, that account says that Brown bought the carvings. He 13. Forman, TheIsland Churches, pp. 131-32. had to go under cover of darkness to secure them because he had to 14. Fletcher, The Black Knight,p. 10l. make sure that they were not seen by women or uninitiated men, 15. Brown, George Brown, pp. 208-10. who, according to local custom, were debarred from seeing or even 16. Niel Gunson, "George Brown," in AustralianDictionary ofBiography approaching the vicinity of these objects. Reed's story seems to be a (Melbourne: MelbourneUniv. Press, 1969),3:256-57; Brown, George serious misrepresentation. Brown, p. 535.

Selected Bibliography Material Written by Brown London: Hodder & Stoughton. 536 pp. N.d. Noteson theDukeofYorkGroup, New Britain andNew Ireland. N.p. 1910 Melanesians andPolynesians: TheirLife-Histories Described andCom­ 14pp. pared. London: Macmillan. 451 pp. 1882 (with Isaac Rooney and Benjamin Danks) A Dictionary oftheDuke ofYorkIsland Language, New Britain Group. Also, a grammar of the Materials Written About Brown same language with an introduction by George Brown. Micro­ Fletcher, C. Brunsdon. TheBlack KnightofthePacific. Sydney: Australasian form. Canberra: Pacific Manuscripts Bureau, Australian National Publishing, 181 pp. This work covers only Brown's early years Univ., 1974. and a series of reminiscences by old friends. 1904 A BriefAccount of Methodist Missions in Australia, Polynesia, and Gunson, Niel. "Brown, George." Australian Dictionary of Biography. Melanesia: TheirPastHistory,Present Conditions, andPossibilities in Melbourne: Melbourne Univ. Press, 1969; 3: 256-57. theFuture. Sydney: Methodist Missionary Society. 31 pp. Missionary ReviewoftheMethodist Church ofAustralia17, 1 (May 4, 1917): 1908 George Brown, D.D. Pioneer-Missionary andExplorer, anAutobiogra­1-5 (obituary). phy: A Narrative ofForty- EightYears'Residence andTravel in Samoa, Schutte, Heinz. "The Six Day War of 1878 in the Bismark Archipelago." New Britain, New Ireland, New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. Journal of Pacific History 24 (1989):38-53.

Gerald H. Anderson, editor his monumental work fills the gap in the research and documentation of Christian missions, Tspanning nearly 2,000 years of world history. Never before has there been such extensive and comprehensive coverage of Christian missions with 2,400 original signed biographies by 350 authors from 45 countries. In a convenient A-Z format, the Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions provides not only an authoritative record of outstanding persons in the missionary movement, but also a sweeping historical account of worldwide achievement and impact. Includes Appendix, Index, and Bibliographies. Included in the articles are: • Date and place of birth of the missionary, place of service, and religious affiliation • Writings and other achievements; development of the first dictionaries and grammars of non­ Western languages; references to practices of indigenous peoples around the world from the earliest days of contact with Western culture • Increasingly important roles of the missions in European and North American regions and how they have moved outside the boundaries of colonialism to include workers from Asia, Africa, South America, and Oceania

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January 1998 33 Book Reviews Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism.

By Jacques Dupuis,S.]. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997. Pp.xiv, 433. $50.

This is an important work in part because origin and thus unavailable apart from approvable, in that it is not excluded by of its genre. It is an attempt at a general exclusive commitment to that particular pastdoctrinesas interpretedby VaticanII. introduction to systematic studies of the faith. Christianity in this perspective is Recent pronouncements, especially those theology of religions (pp. 2-3) and is thus not uniquely privileged in the sense of of the Vatican Secretariat for non-Chris­ of the same general type as tractates (not being the inclusive fulfillment of all reli­ tians and the Conferences of Asian Bish­ textbooks) on particular loci (e.g., God, gions; othersmay receive divine self-com­ ops, move increasingly in its direction. If Christ, church) that structure the Catholic munications of which Christians do not present trends continue, this book will theological curriculum. It is not the per­ and perhaps in part cannot know before long be an influential guide to especially, sonal outlook of the author that counts in the Eschaton. The consequences of this though not exclusively, Roman Catholic such works but success in delineating the pluralismforinterreligiouspraxis are radi­ theologicaland magisterial thinkingabout "mind of the church." As Dupuis puts it, cal, but Dupuis is also doctrinally tradi­ other religions. he intends "to make an organic presenta­ tional. He insists that it is the particular In conclusion, the care, caution, and tion ... of the present state of theological divine self-communication in Jesus, God exhaustive detail of this book sometimes reflection on the main issues which are incarnate, which unsurpassablyidentifies makeit tedious,butit is unfailingly meaty. raised today in the context of religious whoGod is (what he is remains unknown, Even those whodisagreewithits theology pluralism" (p. 2). incomprehensible also to Christians). Be­ (as the present reviewer often does) will His book may long be the standard. cause this combination of practical radi­ acknowledge its importance. The only comparable work in theology of calism and doctrinal conservatism moves -George Lindbeck religions is V. Bobolik's Teologia delle beyond present polarities, it can help re­ religioni (1973),which is now thoroughly store a common sphere of discourse in outdated and yet continues to be used for Catholic theology of religions. George Lindbeck is Pitkin Professor Emeritus of lack of alternatives. Furthermore, Dupuis Moreover, it is magisterially Historical Theology at Yale University. is well equipped to supply a replacement. A professor at the Gregorianum in Rome and director of the journal of the same name, he is a Belgian Jesuit who taught theology for thirty-six years in India and has publishedextensively on interreligious Piety and Power: Muslims and matters. Christians in West Africa. Part I, the historical half of the book, is on the whole excellent, although the By Lamin Sanneh. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis treatment of the biblical materials is too Books, 1996. Pp xv, 207. Paperback $25. brief to be anything but disappointing. It is part 2, the systematic portion, which Thisbook openswitha glimpseinto Lamin spirituality throughhis ownexperienceof will be controversial. Sanneh's roots and ends with a fascinat­ the prophet Mohammed, whose biogra­ Dupuis aims at "holding fast to faith ing re-creation of a childhood in Gambia. phy glows as an aspect of "lived reality." in Jesus Christ as traditionallyunderstood Sanneh combines a gentle, suave exterior A shift of worldview takes us into the by mainstream Christianity," while at the with an aggressive pursuit of truth. He heart of Islamic experience, while the de­ same time assigning"to [other] traditions opens by briskly dispelling some miscon­ bates in nineteenth-century Sierra Leone a positiverole andsignificancein the over­ ceptions about Islam and Christianity, point to the style of dialogue and the all plan of God for humankind, as it un­ emphasizingtheir differences butalsotheir cultural potential ofIslam. Dialogueis not folds throughsalvationhistory" (p.1). His "potentials for solidarity." He rejects the mere debate but living together as one isa"theocentric Christocentrism"thattries simplicity of One Worldism, the Western people with one purpose, with neither to move beyond the opposition between pessimism about the value of religion, consensus nor overt hostility. Some par­ Christocentricinclusivisms (e.g.,Rahner's) and affirms that creative dialogue is to be ticipants may have romanticized Islam and theocentric pluralisms (e.g. Hick's or rooted in one's own tradition and to be but left a legacy worthy of emulation, Knitter's) that are not specifically Chris­ opento others. The goals of the book work especially as the religious force has im­ tian-that is, they are adoptable also by from a Muslim perspective to clarify the plodedinto the politicalspace in the midst non-Christians. relationship between piety and power in of the crisis and economic stagnation of Dupuiscontendsthatit isneithercon­ the growing context of pluralism and to Africa. Sanneh analyzes the roots of the tradictory nor unorthodox to hold that the demonstrate the immense voluntarist im­ political theology of Islam and Christian­ triune God of Christian faith could have petus in Islam and how it fits with demo­ ity. The ambivalence in Christian political created a plurality of permanently dis­ craticliberalism,leaving it de-theocratized theology is overshadowed by Islamic cer­ tinct and valid ways of salvation, each withoutbeingdisenfranchised. He argues titude about power and piety. To hew containing unique treasures of revealed the crucial role of the receivers of these liberal democracy from this prideful rock truth and grace different from, though not Abrahamic religions, making it clear that of orthodoxy, Sanneh traces the metanoia contradicting,the revelationin]esus. Some Christians stand to profit from an of El Kanemi, the pacifist tradition of the of these treasures could be sharable, but empathetic understanding of Islam. Jakhanke clerics of Senegambia, and the others may be intrinsic to their religion of Sanneh thus reconstructs Muslim liberal elements in Islam to argue the im-

34 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH perative of separating religion and state so as to protect human rights, foster plu­ Fifteen Outstanding Books of 1997 ralism, and safeguard conscience. In spite of the dilemma posed by secularity, "po­ for Mission Studies litical realism and religious integrity have The editors of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH have selected the a common purpose in distinguishing be­ following bookspublishedin 1997for specialrecognitionof theircontributionto mission tween a Caesar crowned and a Caesar studies. We have limited our selection to books in English, since it would be impossible turbaned, and that purpose is to prevent to consider fairly the books in many other languages that are not readily available to us. constituted government from meddling We commend the authors, editors, andpublishersrepresented herefor theircontribution with religion" (p.140). The analysis is rich to the advancementofscholarshipin studiesofChristianmissionandworldChristianity. and evenhanded, but the silence on the rising crescendo of pentecostalismmisses Anderson, Gerald H., ed. the emergency of a new political theology Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions. that often triggers a violent Islamic re­ New York: Macmillan Reference. $100. sponse. This has been true for Nigeria Benedetto, Robert, ed. from 1980 to the Shiite mayhem of 1996. Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa: A Documentary Account of the The wisdom here is packaged with glos­ American Presbyterian Congo Mission and the Human Rights Struggle in the sary, footnotes, and adequate bibliogra­ Congo, 1890-1918. phy. I regret that African colleagues, liv­ Leiden: E. J. Brill, $77. ing and working in the midst of these tensions, may not be able to afford this Brown, G. Thompson. splendid aid. Earthen Vessels and Transcendent Power: American Presbyterians in China, 1837-1952. -ogbu U. Kalu Maryknoll, N.Y.: OrbisBooks. $40. Brierley, Peter, ed. Ogbu U. Kalu is Professor of Church History, World Churches Handbook. University of Nigeria, Nsukka. London: Christian Research; Monrovia, Calif.: MARC, World Vision. £100/$150. Dupuis,Jacques. Toward a Christian Theology of Religious Pluralism. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. $50. Anthropology for Christian Furuya, Yasuo, ed. Witness. A History of Japanese Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans Publishing Co. Paperback $17. By Charles H. Kraft. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Garrett, John. Books, 1997. Pp. xvi, 493. Paperback $25. Where Nets Were Cast: Christianity in Oceania Since World War II. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, Univ. of the South Pacific; Geneva: World In this book, CharlesKraft, a leadingevan­ Council of Churches. Paperback US$13. gelical missiological anthropologist, syn­ Jongeneel, Jan A. B. thesizes what he has learned through The Philosophy, Science, and Theology of Mission in the 19th and 20th twenty-six years of teaching missionary Centuries: A Missiological Encyclopedia. Part II: Missionary Theology. anthropology at Fuller Theological Semi­ Frankfurt and New York: Peter Lang. DM 118. nary. It is intended as a basic introduction toculturalanthropologyfor those involved Marshall, Paul. in cross-cultural ministry. It addresses Their Blood Cries Out: The Untold Story of Persecution Against Christians in most of the topics covered in standard the Modem World. anthropology textbooks, but it does so Dallas: Word Publishing. Paperback $13. with the constant focus on exploring the Muller, Karl, Theo Sundermeier, Stephen B. Bevans, and Richard H. Bliese, eds. missiological implicationsof each. In each Dictionary of Mission: Theology, History, Perspectives. chapter Kraft invites reflection not just on Maryknoll, N.Y. Orbis Books. $50. the cultures of those with whom the mis­ sionary ministers but also on the cultures Lamb, Christopher. that have shaped the missionary, and on The Call to Retrieval: Kenneth Cragg's Christian Vocation to Islam. God's accommodation to culture in the London: GreySeal. £25. Scriptures. Petersen, Douglas. On a wide range of subjects Kraft Not by Might Nor by Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern in does an excellentjob of pushingreadersto Latin America. rethink assumptions their culture has Oxford, England; Irvine, Calif.: Regnum Books. Paperback $21. taught them to take for granted. It is to be Robert, Dana L. expected that a book of this magnitude American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and that endeavors to reassess so much of Practice. what we take for granted will not always Macon, Georgia: Mercer Univ. Press. Paperback $30. get things quite right. And indeed I occa­ sionally noted ideas I would personally Schreiter, Robert. question. But overall, suchdisagreements The New Catholicity: Theology between the Global and the Local. were few. In my opinion, the vast bulk of Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. Paperback $17. what Kraft argues is solidly and Shenk, CalvinE. insightfully on target. Who Do You Say That I Am? Christians Encounter Other Religions. Kraft acknowledges (p. xv) the evi- Scottdale, Penna.: Herald Press. Paperback $20.

January 1998 35 dent fact that many of his anthropological This textbook is an excellent intro­ sources are older. One will not find any ductionto missiologicalanthropology, the DIRECTOR OF PUBLICATIONS use made of Victor Turner's treatment of best source now available by an evangeli­ rituals and symbols or of Fredric Barth's cal anthropologist. I have long looked for World Vision International is seeking a treatment of ethnic groups and bound­ justsuch a text and have adopted it for my Director ofPublications. Directs MARC aries, for example. Readers wishing an class. Initial student responses are very Publications (5 to 8 new book titles introduction to key thinkers in anthropol­ positive. yearly on missions) and the quarterly ogy today will find this book lacking. -Robert J. Priest journal, Together, plus technical and Nonetheless, the older sources Kraft does other publications supporting the use are anthropological classics, sources that have been widely used by Robert Priest isAssociate Professor ofMissions and ministries of World Vision in more than Intercultural Studies at Columbia Biblical Semi­ 100 countries. Strong experience and missiological anthropologists and have stood the test of time in proving their naryand Graduate School of Missions, Columbia, academic background in cross-cultural SouthCarolina. mission are essential, as well as utility for missionaries. publishing management experience and ability to guide a team of publishing professionals. Inquiries and resume to:

World Vision International Missiological Education for the Human Resource Twenty-First Century: The Book, 800 W. Chestnut Avenue, the Circle, and the Sandals. Essays Monrovia, CA 91016-3198. in Honor of Paul E. Pierson. Fax (626) 301-7710. Edited by /. DudleyWoodberry, Charles Van Engen, andEdgar J. Elliston. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996. Pp. xxv, 310. Paperback $15.

This new American Society of Missiology tion and professionalization of mission series volume surveys what has only been studies in the United States in our time, sketchily treated up to now: missiological why has missiology by and large failed to The Friends educationand trainingin the postimperial, penetrate or be accepted by the theologi­ of the postmodern era. The essays were origi­ cal academy? Why has refinement in the nally presented at a symposium marking discipline and tools of missiological study Overseas Ministries the retirement of Paul Pierson as third been accompanied by an overall decline Study Center dean of the Fuller School of World Mis­ in missionary commitment in the West? sion, but they have been refined and im­ What models of missiological education Financial contributions from the proved for publication. Covering histori­ are available to overcome this malaise? Friends of OMSC support the work cal, ecumenical, regional, and other Walls's proposal for a strategy of "holy of the Center through its Scholar­ missiological contexts, the survey is no­ subversion" is certainly intriguing: "to ship Fund for Third World Scholars table for its sweeping scope. Given the subvertthe otherdisciplines,irritatethem, and Missionaries. Gifts made in remarkable diversity of authors and top­ force them into new channels" (p. 18). honor of retiring Associate Director ics, the book contains outstanding indi­ If one concedes that missiological re­ James M. Phillips or designated for vidual contributions and high-quality flection is for the time being mainly for the the Center's general purposes are missiological reflection. care and feeding of missiologists-a kind A brilliant opening essay by Andrew ofspiritual and intellectualnurture for the also gratefully received. Contact Walls describing Alexander Duff's bold converted-thenthis volumeis an invalu­ Robert F. Ford but ill-fated efforts to establish a able and virtually encyclopedic introduc­ Director of Development missiologicalinstituteat Edinburghin1868 tion to the astonishing diversity of Overseas Ministries Study Center provides a challenging context for the missiological contexts and fields of study 490 Prospect Street entire volume. Duff believed that mission today. No brief review can do justice to New Haven, CT 06511-2196 USA study lay at the center of the theological twenty-five essayscoveringabroad range Contributions by U.S. taxpayers are curriculum, that it was ecumenical and of theological, confessional, regional, dis­ fully tax deductible. Please include interdisciplinary in nature, and that the ciplinary, andmethodologicalapproaches. an indication of how you wish to church's understanding of its calling The editors are to be congratulated on designate your gift. Information on should be shaped by the experience com­ having assembled a blue-ribbon panel of making a bequest is available upon ing from the missionary movement (pp. specialists who provide a rich and bal­ request. 14-15). Duff failed to make his case, with anced dietfor our missiologicalnurture. It the result, according to Walls, that is a fitting tribute to Paul Pierson, who did Tel: (203) 624-6672 missiology has ever since been assigned a so muchto elevate missiologicalstudies at Fax: (203) 865-2857 peripheral or extracurricular place in the Fuller Seminary. E-mail: [email protected] theological academy. Website: http://www.OMSC.org -James A. Scherer This volume, which coincidentally appeared during the centennial year of the establishmentofthe first modemchair James A. Scherer is Emeritus Professor of World ofmissionattheUniversityofHalle,occu­ Mission andChurch History attheLutheran School pied by Gustav Wameck, poses a striking ofTheology at Chicago. paradox. Given the growing sophistica­

36 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH St. Luke's Missiology: A Cross­ Cultural Challenge.

By Harold Dollar. Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 1996. Pp. vii, 197. Paperback World Mission $9.95. Rethink your understanding of mission. Prepare to work in other Harold Dollar is professor of Intercultural Studies at Biola University and chair of cultures or at the very edges of your own. Earn a degree or spend the missions department at Talbot Semi­ a productive sabbatical. Study with the imaginative and resourceful nary, La Miranda, California. In this book missionaries and missiologists on Catholic Theological Union's faculty. he approachesthe biblical writingsofLuke from a "missiological hermeneutic," at­ tempting to see the missiological dimen­ Claude-Marie Barbour John Kaserow, MM sions. The hermeneutic is consistent with Stephen Bevans, SVD James Okoye, CSSp Luke's intent in producing the material, Eleanor Doidge, LoB Jamie Phelps, OP as the author clearly shows. Gary Riebe-Estrella, SVD Ana Maria Pineda, RSM Biblical studies often focus either on Archimedes Fornasari, MCCJ Robert Schreiter, CPpS linguistic analysis or on issues of a doctri­ nal nature. The context of the biblical Anthony Gittins, CSSp Roger Schroeder, SVD materials in light of the mission of God, seen in the calling of Israel and the church to mission, is often not given proper atten­ CONTACT: Eleanor Doidge, LoB tion. Dollar seeks to highlight the 5401 South Cornell Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60615 USA missiological issues that are prominent in 312.753.5332 or FAX 312.324.4360 Luke-Acts. What really surprises the reader is how Dollar highlights subtle is­ sues and themes that, whenbrought more fully into the light, are quite significant to Catholic Theological Union Luke and the early church. According to Dollar, Luke master­ fully articulates how the early church Member ofthe Chicago Center for Global Ministries moved(albeit quiteslowlyandoftenpain­ fully) from Jewishparticularismto under­ standing God's universal intent for God's mission. Althoughthereare manyintrigu­ ing avenues to travel on in Luke's writ­ ings, the most fascinating to me is the issue of table fellowship. What appears to MARYKNOLL MISSION INSTITUTE be a side issue becomes, in the hands of Dollar's careful interpretation, a rather P.o. Box 311, Rogers Bldg. Tel. (914) 941-7575 significant area of conflict for the early Maryknoll, NY 10545-0311 Fax (914) 92.3-0733 church. Accepting and embracing God's E-mail: [email protected] mission to the nations meant for Jewish -9 WEB# http:/ww.maryknoll.org Christians the often excruciating task of casting off a practice that not only defined who they were as the people of God but 1998 PROGRAMS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL MINISTRY also defined their culture and, by way of extension, even their self-image. It was no March 16-20 The Challenge to Mission Ca'fuerinePu~erton,CSJ easy task for a Jew to sit at the table with a Posed by Globalization John Cavanagh Gentile. God chooses a conservative, zealous March 23-27 Mission Amid Conflict and Violence: Robert Schreiter, CPPS Jew whose whole life was an impassioned The Role of Reconciliation in Christian Mission attempt to maintain the distinction be­ May 10-15 Jubilee People, Jubilee World Maria Harris tween Jew and Gentile-Saul of Tarsus­ to lead the church in Gentile mission. May 26-28 Christians Healing Earth, Larry Rasmussen Dollar's carefulstudy is very enlightening Earth Healing Christians on the struggles the early Jewish leaders of the church had in making this transi­ June 7-12 New Theological Horizons: Diannuid O'Murchu tion. Insights from Contemporary Science -Roy Stults June 14-19 Who Will Comfort You? Kathleen O'Connor RoyStultsisamissiologist onthefacultyofNazarene Wounding and Healing in Theological Seminary in Kansas City, Missouri, Lamentations and Second Isaiah and is editor of World Mission Magazinefor the Church of the Nazarene. He was a missionary to July 12-17 Christians and the Experience of Islam Jane Smith Korea and the Philippines for fifteen years and taughtat Asia-Pacific Nazarene Theological Semi­ naryin Manila.

January 1998 37 Churches, Cities, and Human vetera ns of yesterday's urb an struggles. Community: Urban Ministry in th e They are seriousexaminations ofthe para­ United States, 1945-1985. digms tha t shaped yesterday's mainline urban ministries with a view to helping Edited by Clifford f. Green. Grand Rapids, pastors and miss ion leaders eng aged in M ich.: Eerdmans, 1996. Pp. xio , 378. Paper­ designing urban stra tegies for the future . back $25. Clifford J.Green is professor of theol­ ogy at Hartford Seminary, Hartford, Con­ This bookana lyzes the urban ministries of most of the issues back then are still on the necticut. The fourteen contributors were ten de nominations during the four de­ urban agenda, which churc hes cannot ig­ all leading practitioners and theorists in cades following World War II, a period nore without compromising their integ­ their denominations during the forty-year regarded as the heyday of mainl ine de­ rity . period covered in the study . Eleven key nominational ur ban ministry in the United The histories contained in this book questions, based on sociological and theo­ States. The underlying assumption is that are not merely nostalgic reminiscences by logica l ass umptions, guided the writers. They addressed denominationalconcepts of "urban ministry," mod els that were followed, motivations, urban-suburban relations, poverty and racism,ecumenical relations, roles of the laity, best examples Get the of den omin ati onal urban polic y, and changes in policies or strategies. Research Advantage An annotated bibliography covers the mainline urban literature of the period. for world mission Evange lical writings are absent. In the 1980s mainline denom inations retreated Get the International Bulletin of Missionary Research from urbanministry,and new pa radigms, most ofthem eva nge lical and charismatic, began emerging . As a form of the church, "For anyone interested in mission traditional denom inations are probably Major missiological studies, studies, the IBMR is a must. " incon gruent with urban life and institu­ regional reports and conference -Jocelyn Murray East African Revival histori an tions . findings, annual statistical -Roger S. Greenway global update, profiles of "Essentialfor documentation and interpretation of mission." missionary leaders, book - Ralph Winter RogerS.Greenway is ProfessorofWorldMissiology revi ews , dissertation notices, U.S. Center for Worl d Mission and mission bibli()graphies. at Calvin TheologicalSeminary, in GrandRapids, "I have been inspired and instructed Michigan. Formerly heservedasamissionary with s by the InternationalBulletin." - Bishop James M. Ault (ret .) Christian Reformed World Mission in Sri Lanka International United Methodist Church and laterin Mexico,and asprofessor ofmissions at Bulletin 4O=:z "The most distinguishedjournal WestminsterTheological Seminaryin Philadelphia. in itsfield." - George G. Hunter III Asbury Theological Seminary "'::-:::'0--­ "Keeps me abreast with missions throughout the world." -Bishop Theophi lus Sekondi Christian Missions and the Ghana Judgment of God. "It's the journal I readfirst. " ofMissionary Research - Paul E. Pierson By David Macdonald Paton. 2d ed., edited Fuller Theological Seminary w ith bibliography and short biography by Stay informed. "The best sourcefor research on David M. M. Paton, with an introduction by Subscribe today. mission issues. Bob Whyte; foreword by Bishop K. H. Ting. -Joan Chatfiel d, M.M. Grand Rapids, Mic h.: Eerdmans, 1996. Pp. Chaminade University, Honolulu xio, 114. Paperback $13. r.------, I Yes! Please enter my order for a subscription to the International Bulletin of: David Paton was a uni qu e figur e in mis­ Missionary Research. : sion and ecume nical history. He wa s an o One year, 4 issues $21 0 Two years, 8 issues $39 0 Three years, 12 issues $55 1 ecumenist who served the Student Chris­ o New 0 Renewal 0 Payment enclosed 0 Charge my VISA or MasterCard: tian Movement in his youth, the Mission­ Card # Expires : aryand EcumenicalCouncil ofthe Church Signature : of Eng land in midli fe, and in his maturity, Name : the World Counci l of Churches as author Address : and editor of its Nairob i Asse mbly repo rt, I I Breaking Barriers. He was, by deep theo­ I Make check payable and mail to: INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN , Subscription Dept. , P.O. : logical conviction, an An glican and a

LBox 3000, Denville, NJ 07834 U.S.A. ~1 priest, whether in China, in the Church House in London, or in the parish in Bir­ Visit our web site at http://www.OMSC.org mingham and Gloucester. He was by faith a radical, a follower of Roland Allen and Hong Kong bishop R. O. Hall, dri ven by a

38 I NTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH vision of the church in mission to strong ind ictment of its current practice and life­ long service to its repentant movement Who 00 You Say That I Am? tow ard a more ecumenical vision. And he was, in all of this, a missionary-for ten Christians Encounter Other Religions years overseas in China,and for a lifetime, with a special love for China, wherever he lived and worked. Is it possible to respect othe r religions It is the contribution of this book to yet view Chri st as normative for am bring this life into focus. The author's son Calvin E. Sh enk assesses contemporary offers a factual and also warmly personal th eologies of religious pluralism as well biography, and a bibliography of his father's writings.A lifelong colleague, Bob as a number of th e world's majo r reli­ Whyte, places Paton's missionary reflec­ gions yet remains accessible to all tion in its ecumenical, An glican, and thought ful Ch ristians. Chinese context. But the centerpiece is a reissue of Paton 's own Dublin lectures of "Shenk dares 10 assert tluu one ran be 1953: the judgment of God on Christian missions and the consequences for the prufoundly respectful ufpeople ofother church's mission that are to be drawn Calvin E. Shenk f ailh traditions and still retain the integri­ from it. They were an event when they I)' of one's Olvnfailh."- \,\lilbert R. Shenk, first appeared . Missionaries had justbeen Fuller Th eological Sem inary dri ven from China, under devastating at­ tack as agents of imperialism. Would the same happen elsewhere in Asia and Af­ Pap er, 304 pages, $19.99; rica? Communism was triumphant, with in Canada $28.50. its blistering indictment of the greed and Herald inhumani ty of the capitalist Western Press world. Was this the wav e of the future? Paton went more deeply into the crisis of the time. He based his prophecy on the missionary calling of the church through Orders: 800759-4447. www.mph.lm.com the ages and on the failure of missions to embody that calling as they moved from the pro sperous dominant cultures of the Western world into Asian and African lands, especially China . He called for a Check out OMSC on the World Wide Web! repentance that would include accepting http://www.OMSC.org the judgment of God expressed in the Maoist victory.This did not mean idealiz­ ~ Register for 1997-98 Study Program ing Communism as the cause of God, but ~ Preview the next issue of INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN it did mean, as it still doe s, a radical re­ ~ structuring of the mission enterprise-its Browse through Special Book Features organization, its theology,its useof money, ~ Learn about scholarships and grants and its forms of cont rol-so as to bear ~ Meet Senior Mission Scholars witness to the work of the Holy Spirit through the church in a plurality of cul­ Overseas Ministries Study Center tures,in revolutionary movements against 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 Westerndomination andexploitati on, and Tel (203) 624-6672 Fax (203) 865-2857 in the search for a unity amid div ersity that trul y transcends our humanconstruc­ tions. This is still the agenda of mission reform and renewal. Some ofPaton'ssense of urgency is relat ed to the history of his Invest in Worldwide Ministry time. Some of his indictments are over­ OMSC invests in Christian leaders from all parts of the world . Your Bequests stated . Some readers will want to ques­ and Planned Giving make it happen : tion his Anglican ecclesiology (or be ques­ tioned by it). But we would do well to • Residential Scholarships for Third World Church and Mission Leaders review this crisis-provoked analysis to­ • Furlough and Study Leave Accommodations dayandmeasureour own life andwitness • Mission Studies Research and Writing against it. Crises illuminate the spiritual landscape in which we live, with a special Consider remembering OMSC and its service to the worldwide church in your will or through life-income gifts. For information or suggested language, contact flash . As such, the y offer guidance on our wa y. Robert F. Ford, Director of Development -Charles C. West Overseas Ministries Study Center 490 Prospect Street New Haven, CT 06511-2196 USA Charles C. West is Professor Emeritus ofChristian (203) 624-6672 Ethicsat Princeton TheologicalSeminary.

January 1998 39 A History of Christian Missions in attention to mission schools and medical Zimbabwe, 1890-1935. work. Fortunately, on these issues he in­ cludes church-state relationships, as mis­ By Chengetai J. M. Zvobgo. Gweru, Zimba­ sions were the surrogates of government bwe: Mambo Press, 1996. Pp.412. Paperback. in providing social services for the Afri­ No price given. can population. Meticulous details are provided down to the number of students The history of denominational missions task I give the author a mixed review. In who passed exams institution-by-institu­ in Zimbabwe has been a fertile field for my judgment he made a mistake in plac­ tion, the subjects taught in a nurse train­ doctoral studies by Zimbabwean schol­ ing the relationship between church and ing school,and who attended a committee ars. In this work Dr. Chengetai J. M. state beyond the scope of his study. He to consider founding an ecumenical sec­ Zvobgo, senior lecturer in history at the omits from his chapter on the early open­ ondary school. Alas, no comparisons are University of Zimbabwe, has provided a ing of mission stations, for example, the made with parallel education or health needed general mission history. strategy of Cecil John Rhodes to thwart provided by government for white set­ We expectthe historianto searchdili­ Portuguese colonial ambitions by estab­ tlers, or with African education in neigh­ gently for source materials. Zvobgo has lishing a line of missions along the eastern boringcountries. The result,for the reader, done so with excellence, combing church border. All we have is a pedantic enu­ is akin to a large jigsaw puzzle only three­ and government archives in Zimbabwe, meration' of places, dates, and mission fourths completed-it is hard to see the and also in GreatBritain, for relevantdata. founders. big picture. Oralinterviewswithelderly Africanlead­ Bycontrast, the chapterentitled "The -Norman E. Thomas ers enabled him to avoid reliance on mis­ African Response to Christianity in Zim­ sionaryrecords in sensitiveareas. The text babwe" is a gripping narrative. Zvobgo is replete with documentation, including highlights contrasting attitudes toward Norman E. Thomas, theVera B. BlinnProfessor of biographical notes for both missionaries polygamy and traditional marriage cus­ WorldChristianity at UnitedTheological Seminary and African church leaders. toms by juxtaposing data from mission­ in Dayton,Ohio, served asa Methodist missionary Next, we look to the historian to pro­ ary journals and oral interviews with re­ in Zimbabwe (thenRhodesia) from 1962 to 1972. vide an interpretive framework with a sponses by elderly African informants. selective use of supporting data. In this By design, the author gives ma.jor

West Africa: Christ Would Be an African Too. conference held in Fiji in October 1995, in which over eighty people gathered to re­ By John Pobee. Geneva: WCC Publications, flect oral tradition and personal stories of 1996. Pp. xi, 52. Paperback $5.50/SFr 6.90/ the Methodist Churchin Fijiand Rotuma. £3.75. The bulk of the book contains twelve of the conference papers written by Fijian John Pobee is a highly respected Christian tions and responses are presented as his­ scholars as well as by some well-known leader and theologian from Ghana. I met torical precedents to the theological task Pacific mission historians such as Charles him for the first time in 1994 and immedi­ of "skenosis," or "inculturation." The en­ Forman and John Garrett. These more ately became aware of his strong passion tire book is an explication of both a theo­ academically oriented papers cover such and commitmentto the task of making the logical method and conceptof"skenosis," topics as Methodism in the Pacific and Fiji ChristianGospelrelevantto the"complex based on John 1:14 (the tabernacling of the context (Forman), Fijians in the Methodist whole of African cultures" (p. xi). This Word in culture). This book offers the ministry (Thornley), women in Fijian book is a brilliant analysis of the "Gospel readermanythoughtful,helpful,andchal­ Methodism (Sovaki), Fijian missionaries and culture" debate within the context of lenging reflections on the Gospel and cul­ in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon West Africa. ture debate in Africa. Islands (Jakes), leadership patterns in the The major strength of the book lies in -Yusufu Turaki Methodist Church (Niukula), the Indian its biblical, apostolic, and catholic (ecu­ Christian Church in Fiji (Mastapha), and menical) perspectives (pp. 49-52), which biographical vignettes of John Hunt the author applies to the Gospel and cul­ Yusufu Turaki is Education Director of the Evan­ (Kanailagi), [osua Mateninaniu (Balei­ ture debate in reference to West Africa. gelical Church ofWestAfrica(ECWA),los,Plateau waqa), and Ratu Varani (Cabenalevu). The book aims primarily to give (1) a State,Nigeria. The book is written in both English critique of European constructs of the and Fijian. A Fijian summary follows each Christianfaith andpractice and (2)a theo­ of the conference papers written in Eng­ logical defense of the task of "skenosis," lish. The oral-traditionstoriesare in Fijian. or "inculturation." In many ways this is a good model for Pobee asserts that "the missionaries Mai Kea Ki Veil Storiesof Methodism non-Western churches reflecting on their brought what they knew, the creations of in Fiji and Rotuma, 1835-1995. history. their contexts." As a result, "the received This book helps us understand the constructs of Christian faith and practice Edited by Andrew Thornley and Tauga Methodist Church in Fiji in at least the do indeed bear the marks of Greek and Vulaono. Suva, Fiji: Fiji Methodist Church, following three ways. First, Methodismin Latin Christianity" (p. 3), hence, the need 1996. Pp. xi, 329. No price given. Fijiwas a highly communalfaith. Because to reconstructthe Christianfaith and prac­ Fijian society at the time of missionary tice with the marks of African Christian­ This book commemorating 160 years of contact was consumed by warfare and ity. A few examples of West African reac­ Methodism in Fiji is the outgrowth of a cannibalism, Christianity was socially

40 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH tran sforming rather than culturally de­ In the essays entitled "Defining the in an essen tially pagan culture where the structive . Second, Fijian Methodists be­ Church," the wr iters turn their attention Gospel competes with a variety of other came a pow erful missionary force to other to what cong rega tions and pastors can do mod es of salva tion. Congregations must parts of the South Pacific, espec ially to to enact a congregational mission ary pos­ grow toward a vision of themselves as the Melanesians in the Solomon Islands and ture. Hunsberger is join ed by an able team embodiment of Christ's radical challenge PapuaNew Guinea. Third, missionamong of pasto ral theologian s to offer some of to this culture. Here is the book to help us the large Asian India n population first the best essays I have read on just what it do just that. brought to Fiji as indentur ed laborers means to be a "missionary congregation" -William H. Willimon (1879-1916) has not done well in compari­ in North America. son to the Fijian population, and there is Thisbook is required read ing in semi­ William H. Wi/limon is Dean of the Chapel and still a greatneed tod ay to reach this people naries and am ong parish lead ers. More Professor of Christian Ministry, Duke University, group, which constitutes more than 50 North American pastors must come to Durham,North Carolina. percent of the population of Fiji. view themselves as mission aries working The book could have benefited from an index and glossary , but one of the pleasant surprises are the fort y-five full­ page photographs, man y of them from the nin eteenth century. The book make s some important missiological contribu­ tions toward understanding Christianity and mission history in the South Pacific. -Darrell Wh iteman

Darrell Whiteman, Professor of Cultural Anthro­ pology in the E. Stanlelj Jones School of World Mission, Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Ken tucky, has hadmissionandresearchexperience in Melanesia. INTERNATIONA L BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH, 1993-96 274 Contributors 299 Book Reviews 175 Doctoral Dissertations The Church Between Gospel and Culture: The Emerging Mission in North America. ere is more gold for every theolog­ Edited by George R. Hu nsberger and Craig Hical library and exploring scholar of Van Gelder. Grand Rapids, Mi ch.: Eerdman s, mission studies-with all 16 issues of 1993- 1996-bound in red buckram, with 1996, pp. xix, 369. Paperback $26. vellum finish and embossed in gold lettering. It matches the earlier bound volumes of the Occasional Bulletin ofMissionary Research, 1977-1980 (sold For some time now, Geo rge Hunsberger out), and the International Bulletin ofMissionary Research, 1981-1984 (sold and Craig Van Gelde r have been leading out), 1985-1988 (sold out), and 1989-1992 (sold out). At your fingertips, in the Religion and Culture Network, a con­ one volume: David Barrett's Annual Statistical Table of Global Mission, the sortium of pastors, professors, and others Editors' annual selection of Fifteen Outstanding Books, and the four-year interested in interpreting North America cumulative index. as one of the wo rld 's most challeng ing contexts for mission . In this volume, they Special Price: $64.95 bring together their wis dom in some seri­ Send me bound volume(s) of the International Bulletin of Missionary ous thinking abo ut what it means to evan­ Research, 1993- 96 at $64.95. Orders outside the U.S.A. add $7.00 per volume gelize within this culture. These Lesslie for postage and handling. Payment must accompany all orders. Pay in U.S. Newbi gin groupies ha ve learned their dollars only by check drawn on a U.S. bank, International Money Order, or cross-cultural lessons well. All of the es­ VISA/MasterCard. Allow 5 weeks for delivery within the U.S.A. says, in one way or ano ther, substantiate • Enclosed is my check in the amount of $ made out to "International Newbigin 's claim (explicated so well in Bulletin of Missionary Research ." Van Gelder's second essay) that America • Charge $ to my VISA or MasterCard: as mission field is " the great new fact of our day." Anyone interested in mission, Card # Expires _ particularly North Am erica as a mission­ Signature _ ary cha llenge, must read this book . The essays of cultural an alysis are all of high • Name qu ality. The essays in the section entitled Addr ess "Discerning the Gosp el" ma y be even bet­ ter.Here are pa storal, missionary thinkers who have been instructed in the catego­ Mail to: Publications Office, Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospe ct Street, ries of Newbi gin and Lindbeck and now New Haven, CT 06511 U.S.A. apply those categories in discerning ana ly­ Visit our website at http://www.OMSC.org sis of the con temporary church and its cultural context.

Janu ary 1998 41 Interreligious Dialogue: The ferentiated material? Some kind of intro­ Official Teaching of the Catholic ductory overview is needed. Readers per­ Church (1963-1995). haps should have been directed to the two synthesis documents of the PCID: "Dia­ Commissioned by the Pontifical Council for logue and Mission" (pp. 566-79) and "Dia­ Interreligious Dialogue and edited by logue and Proclamation" (pp. 608-42). Francesco Gioia. Boston: Pauline Books and A helpful marginal numbering sys­ Media, 1997. Pp. 694. $69.95. tem is employed for this volume, but the original/official paragraph numbers of In our contemporary world of religious entries respectively); (7) Roman curial the documents do not appear. The outline pluralism, the growth of interreligious documents (12items); (8)legislativedocu­ and footnoting structure is unclear. The dialogue has resulted in a veritablelibrary ments (3 items); (9) International Theo­ reader is never informed whether the of literature. The present encyclopedic logical Commission statements (4 items); quoted text is only a selection or a com­ volume brings together all the dialogue and (10) geographic and analytic indexes plete document, or whether the numbers documents that constitute "the official (2 sections). Selection was rigorously lim­ in the indexes are marginal or page num­ teaching of the Catholic Church," cover­ ited to interreligious texts (excluding ecu­ bers. Some key subjects found in the lit­ ing over three decades (1963-1995). It is a menical documents and those covering erature do not appear in the analytic in­ comprehensive collection edited by relations with the Jewish people). And dex. Francesco Gioia, who has served with the yet, over 300 entries are presented-an Undoubtedly, this is an important Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dia­ indication of the church's commitment to book; it is truly a milestone on the dia­ logue (PCID, a Roman office established the missionaryapostolateofinterreligious logue highway. Rigorous editing would by Pope Paul VI in 1964for the purpose of dialogue. have improved it. As a researchvolume, it promoting Catholic involvement in inter­ The book has many fine features: an is indispensable for all mission and theo­ religious relations). An earlier Italian edi­ attractive and comprehensive presenta­ logical libraries. tion covered the years 1963-93; a French tion, two extensive indexes, clearly read­ -James H. Kroeger, M.M. edition is in preparation. able print, and a durable binding. It is The bookcontains ten parts: (1)intro­ questionable, however, whether the vol­ James H. Kroeger, M.M., has published several ductory matters; (2) Vatican Council II (7 ume provides "the opportunity of easy works in mission theology and dialogue; his most entries); (3)solemn magisterium-encyc­ access" (p. xxvii) to church documents for recent book is Living Mission. He teaches at the licals and apostolic exhortations (19 en­ a wide audience (Christians and members Loyola School ofTheology in Manila andheads the tries); (4-6) magisterium of Paul VI, John of other faiths). Where is the entry point of Federation ofAsian Bishops' Conferences Deskfor Paul I, and John Paul II (89, 2, and 199 "easy access" to this mountain of undif­ AsianMissionary Societies ofApostolic Life.

People of the Mandate: The Story of The World's Parliament of the World Evangelical Fellowship. Religions: The EastlWest Encounter, Chicago, 1893. ByHarold Fuller. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1996. Pp. xvii, 214. Paperback $11.99. By Richard Hughes Seager. Bloomington: In­ diana Univ. Press, 1995. Pp. xxxi, 208.$35. This book marks the 150th anniversary of Thebookdescribesthe significantrole the founding in London in 1846 of the that WEF has played in the struggle for This is a carefullyresearchedandelegantly Evangelical Alliance by participants from religious liberty in recent years. The index written analysis of the 1893interreligious about a dozen different countries. This does not include the word "Pentecostal," meetingbetweenChristiansandJews from was the forerunner of the World Evangeli­ and the only reference to "Charismatic" is the West and representatives of the major cal Fellowship (WEF). The author is a in a sentence (p. 39) about "mixed charis­ religions from the East. A parliament of member of the International Council of matic Christianity with traditional spirit­ the world'sreligions, the plannersthought, WEF. ism." I wondered what this says about would be an ideal climax to the 1893 It is not a history, but it alludes to all WEF or the author. (Is the issue too hot to World's Fair-thelargest exposition of its the significant historical events. The his­ handle?) kind in history to that time-which was tory was writtenin 1986by DavidHoward More articulateis the treatmentof the held in Chicago to celebrate the 400th in TheDream ThatWouldNot Die.This is a relations between WEF, ecumenical anniversary of the arrival of Columbus in new, readable,journalisticaccountmainly groups,andRomanCatholics, andit seems America. Seager not only describes the of the last ten years of WEF, which inte­ as though the lines are drawn in much the parliament, he evaluates it from the early grates anecdotes about [un Veneer, same places. planning stages to its dramatic closing Tokunboh Adeyemo, and other leading -Tom Houston and the aftermath. His assessment of the personalities into a popular recapitula­ immediate and long-term impact of the tion of the history. Bythe end of the book, gathering, especially in relation to the reader has a clear picture of what WEF Tom Houston is the Minister-at-Large of the missiological issues, is particularly inci­ is about today and the kind of people who Lausanne CommitteeforWorld Evangelization and sive. In fact, much of the book deals with lead it. livesin Oxford, England. these and other issues we now face as our There are about 140 people listed in North American society becomes more the index. More than halfof them are from and more culturally and religiously plu­ the Third and the Second Worlds. This ralistic. indicates where the main activities of the Seager's principal thesis, which he movement are today. convincingly argues, is that the fair as well

42 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH as the parliament were based on a myth or lenged to respond. Political influence, demise of old misconceptions without assumption that Christianity,particularly women's issues, and justice concerns are succumbing to triumphalistic portrayals Anglo-Protestantism, was not only supe­ just some of the dimensions that the au­ that could cloud the realities yet facing rior to all other faiths but also was des­ thors address. Readers will enjoy a re­ Latin American Pentecostals.The conclud­ tined to spread and eventually dominate freshing avoidanceofstereotypicaljargon ing chapter points outthechallenges (dan­ the world. As Seager observes, however, and ideological gibberish, all too often gers) facing this movement and states the parliament succeede d only in reveal­ present in literature about Pentecostals in simply that there is much yet to be re­ ing the dubiousness of this notion and Latin America in recent years. searched and evaluated. exposing the underlying ideology of the A fittin g conclusion to the volume is While topics are carefully addressed designers, wh o mistakenly conceived of the final chapter byStewart-Gambino and in the volume, additional thematic intro­ the parliamentas a perfect venue for dem­ Everett Wilson, appropriately called "Old ductions to develop further Cleary's open­ onstrating the superiorit y of Christianity Stereotypes and New Chall enges." The ing chapter would have been helpful and deficiencies ofall other religions .That authors pr esent clear reasoning for the enrichm ents to each section. While these the parliament failed in this regard is no surprise. Why it failed, however, is the most provocative and significant part of Seager's capti vating account. Ironically, by giving Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, Taoist, Shinto, Jain, and Muslim spo kes­ persons such a conspicuous platform, he contend s, the parliament actually opened the door for them to showcase their re­ spective faith s and thereby gain accep­ tance as a part of the U.S. religious scene. -Alan Neely

AlanNeelyisHenrq W.LuceProfessorofEcumenics andMission Emeritus, PrincetonTheologicalSemi­ nary.

Power, Politics, and Pentecostals in Latin America.

Edited by Edward L. Cleary and Hannah W. Stewart-Gambino. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997. Pp. vii, 261. $60; paperback $19.95.

The editors hav e developed a most valu­ able volume, which reinforces a theme in Latin American studies that has becom e increasingly standard.As Harvey Cox has observed, "Pentecostalism most likely rep­ resents the most fundamental transfor­ mation in the political and religious land­ scape ofthe continentsince the Conques t" (backcover). The introductory chapterby Edward Cleary provides a clear chronology of the emergence of a burgeoning pool of re­ search on Latin American Pentecostalism that grows increasingl y broad as the 1990s pro gress. Homogeneity has never been a mark of Pentecostals, and the contribu­ tors in this volume skillfully demonstrate the varying hues of the Pentecostal land­ scape. In addition, references to emerging Pentecostal scholarship done by Pente­ costals are numerous, and inclusion of chapter contributors who are themselves Pentecostals lends integrity to the vol­ um e. Rapid growth has brought increas­ ing influence from the public squa re, where Pentecostals are now being chal-

January 1998 43 would have enhanced the volume for stu­ Gemeenschapsvorrning van dent usage, the bottom line remains the Aziatische, Afrikaanse en same.This volumestands firmly as a must­ Midden- en Zuidamerikaanse read book for anyone who wants a clear­ christenen in Nederland: Een cut,well-researched volume on thecoming geschiedenis in wording. ofage for Pentecostalism in Latin America. -Byron D. Klaus Edited by J. A. B.Jongeneel, R. Budiman, and J. J. V isser. Zoetermer, Netherlands: Byron D. Klausis VicePresidentforLatin America Boekencentrum,1996.Pp.275.Nopricegiven. ChiidCare, a child-development ministry for the AssembliesofGod (USA). Healsoservesas Profes­ The realit y of "In Christ There Is No East churches and those in the developing sorofChurch Leadership, Southern California Col­ or West" is tru er today than fifty years world have shrunk dramatically, and nu­ lege, Costa Mesa, California. ago. The distances betwe en Western merous ethnic and alternative langu age­ group churches have been planted in the West. This volume (English translation of title: "Community Formation of Asian, African, and Central- and South-Ameri­ can Christians in the Netherlands: A His­ tory in Process"), the result of a collabora­ tiveeditorial effortby University of Utrecht missiologist Jongeneel, Ind onesian Dutch Christian church pastor Budiman, and Hendrik Kraemer Institute princip al Visser, includes contributions from these churches themselves. Having incorpo­ rated a large number of imm igrant s from the developing world since World War II, the small country of the Netherlands­ historically self-conscious about its richly diverse religious life-is a helpful prism by which to reflec t on th e future of multicultural Christianity in the West. This is a reference work, not a narra­ tive. In addition to colonial and other his­ tories,identity issues arising from ethnicity and langu age, varieties of orga nization, he list of suggested readings ad key ecumenical relations, and legal and other problems of integrating into Dutch f the twenty-eight essays is the life, this volume provides extensive bibli­ i\,bibliography of current viewpo' ography, key addresses, and a compact m issions that I have seen, and English summary. Tho ugh some of the problem areas are specific to the Dutch enough to recommend the bo (e.g., legal issues), more are universal. , and anyone else wh How can the ecumenicalsuccesses oflocal ns regard their glo churches be translated to the national scene, where nonindigenous churches are -SAMUEL HUGH MOF invisible? How can pastoral exchanges be effected across cultural lines?Should eth­ nic and monolingual ecclesiastical bodies (presbyteries, districts) be encouraged? What about the church's obligation to pro­ 21st Centu vide refuge for illegal immigrants? What do we need to learn from non-Western Christians? an Mission This is an invaluable resource and model for wha t needs to be done in other contexts. An English translation wo uld be SM. PHILLIPS • ROBERT T. COOTE • welcome. -John Bolt

ISBN 0-8028-0638-4 John Bolt, a Canadian, is Professor of Systematic Paper, $24.99 Theology, Calvin Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan . t your bookstore, or call 800-253-7521 FAX 616-459·6540 331 I~WM. B. EERDMANS PUBliSHING CO. _ 25 5 JEFFERSON AVE. S.E. I GRAND RAPIDS, MJCH IGAN 49503

44 I NTERN ATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIO NARY R ESEARCH Christianity and African Culture: U.eand Learn Conservative German Protestant at the Missionariesin Tanzania,19OG-1940.

ByKlaus Fiedler. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996.Pp. Overseas Ministries xiii, 239. G 125/$81. Stud, center Klaus Fiedler, former missionary in Tan­ influence that Romanticism and its em­ zania and now lecturer in theology and phasis on the Volk had on them. Fiedler religious studies at the University of makes a good case for Volkish national­ Malawi, wrote this study of conservative ism as a central theme in German ~~~~~r~!' thinkingamongmissionarieswholabored missiology. (In my contribution to Essays in colonial German East Africa and man­ inReligious StudiesforAndrewWalls [1986], datory Tanganyika as a University of Dar this point is expressed even more force­ es Salaam dissertation. The original Ger­ fully.) man edition, Christentum und afrikanische In a short review one cannot ad­ Kultur,iscurrentlymarketedbytheVerlag equately summarize Fiedler's nuanced -and Dnd renewal for fur Kultur und Wissenschaft in Bonn. The analysis ofsuchmattersas clan structures, English version differs from the German the role of the elders, folk lore, initiation world mission one in that it lacks maps, mercifully has andcircumcisionrites, African leadership, the notes at the bottom of each page, and and the role of schools. The strengthof the Fully furnished apartments contains a lengthy piece by Catholic mis­ book lies in his interviews and correspon­ and Continuing Education sionary Robin Lamburn on Christianized dence in the late 1960s and early 1970s transitionrites amongthe Yao,whichadds with Africans and missionaries, many of program of weekly seminars to the length and cost of the book. whom are no longer alive, and in his sys­ Write for Study Program and Fiedler focuses on the views of Afri­ tematic mining of mission archives in Application for Residence can culture held by individuals from four Germany and Tanzania. As the studies of GermanProtestantmissionsocieties-the Marcia Wright and others have shown, Overseas Ministries confessionalistLutheranLeipzig Mission, these underutilized sources have great Study Center the "United" (Lutheran-Reformed) Bethel potential. However,he has not adequately 490 Prospect Street and Berlin Missions, and the Moravian incorporatedthe recent scholarshipinGer­ (Herrnhut)Mission. Amongthe major fig­ man missiology and African studies, such New Haven, Connecticut 06511 ures treated are Bruno Gutmann, Joseph as Hans Kasdorf's treatment of Gustav Busse, Traugott Bachmann, Ernst Wameck or Lamin Sanneh's assessment [ohanssen, Georg Fritze, Anna von of the crucial role of Bible translation. Waldow, and Julius Oelke. The author -Richard V. Pierard CIRCULATION STATEMENT argues that although in their overall out­ Statement required by the act of August 12, 1970, section looks they differed in being "conserva­ 3685. Title 39, United States Code, showing ownership, tives" or "progressives," they assessed Richard V. Pierard is Professor ofHistory, Indiana management, and circulation of INTERNATIONAL BuLLETIN OF State University, Terre Haute. He has taught in MISSIONARY RESEARCH. Published 4 times per year at 490 Africancu1ture in markedlypositiveterms Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. and regarded many aspects of it as worth Germany andinspring1997wasavisitinglecturer at theMoscow Baptist Seminary in Russia. Publisher: Gerald H. Anderson, Overseas Ministries Study preserving and adapting into the Chris­ Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Editor: Gerald H.Anderson, Overseas Ministries Study Center, tian life. This resulted from the heavy 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. Associate Editor, Jonathan J. Bonk, Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut, 06511. The owner is Overseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511. The known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding one percent or more of total amounts of bonds, mortgages or other securities are: None.

Practice and Theology of Average no. Actual no. of Interreligious Dialogue: A Critical of copies copies of each issue single issue Study ofthe Indian Christian during pre- published Attempts Since Vatican II. ceding 12 nearest to months filing date

By Jose Kuttianimattathil. Bangalore: Kristu Total no. copies printed 7,255 7,650 Jyoti Publications, 1995. Pp. xxiii, 757. Pa­ Paid circulation: sales through dealers, carriers, perback. No price given. street vendors, and counter sales 0 0 Mail subscriptions 6,278 6,327 Since Vatican II interreligious dialogue The first presents .the readers with the Total paid circulation 6,278 6,327 has become a major theological and meth­ long history of interreligious dialogue Free distribution 460 460 odological issue for the church in India from the precolonial days to post-Vatican Total distribution 6,738 6,787 Copies not distributed: 517 863 and its mission. The book under review is years and the efforts at the practice of office use, left over, a massive volume on the theology and dialogue through ashrams and pastoral unaccounted, spoiled after printing practice of interreligious dialogue. There centersin India. Part2examines the theol­ Returns from news agents 0 0 is no doubt that the author has done his ogy of interreligious dialogue at the level Total 7,255 7,650 Percent Paid and/or homework thoroughly. Hardly anything of all the churches in India, their official Requested Circulation 93% 93% written on the topic seems to have es­ organs and bodies, and the theologians. I certify that the statements made by me above are correct caped his attention. The third part gives us the theology of and complete. The book is divided into four parts. dialogue as proposed by the best repre­ (signed) Gerald H. Anderson

January 1998 45 sentatives of the theology of interreligious the topic of dialogue. This is certainly a dialogue, their theology of religions, prob­ great service to all those who will do re­ lemsconnected withsharing worship and search into the theology and practice of scriptures, and the implications of dia­ dialogue. Theologians, missionaries, and logue for liberation, mission, and procla­ students of theology are all indebted to mation. The last part of the book is an Jose Kuttianimattathil for this magisterial assessmentof the theology and practice of work. interreligious dialogueand theirprospects -Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. for the future of the church. This is the most complete and au­ Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. , acontributingedi­ thoritative book on dialogue in India to tor, is Professor of Missiology at the Pontificia date.It is bound to remain a classic on the subject for a long time . The book contains Universita Llrbaniana, Rome, and member of the International Theological Commission. an excellent bibliography of 106 pages on

Dissertation Notices

Gray, Richard L. Niyang, Stephen. "The Black Manifest Destiny as "Vernacular Scripture Evangelism in Motivation for Mission During the the Multi Lingual Context of Northern Golden Age of Black Nationalism:' Nigeria:' Ph.D. Pasadena, calif.: Fuller Theological PhD. Pasadena, Calif. : Fuller Theological Seminary, 1996. Seminary, 1997. Greenlee, David H. This publication is Okamoto, Joel Philip. "Christian Conversion-from Islam: "Postliberal Approaches to the Theol­ available from UMI in Social, Cultural, Communication, and one or mo re of the ogy of Religions: Presentation, Assess­ following formats: Supernatural Factors in the Process of ment, and Critical Appropriation:' Conversion and Faithful Church ThD. St. Louis, Missouri: Concordia • In Microform--from our collection of over Participation:' Seminary, 1997. 18,000 period icalsand 7,000 newspapers Ph.D. Deerfield, Illinois: Trinity Evangelical • In Paper--by the article or full issues Divinity School, 1996. O'Meagher, Matthew John . t hrough UM I Article Clearinghouse lrsaneous, Daoud. "Catholicism, Reform, and Develop­ ment in Latin America, 1959-1967:' • Electronically, on CD-ROM, online, and/or "Interpreting the Atonement of Christ magnetic tape--a broad range of ProQuest for Muslims in an Arab Context:' Ph.D. Durham, N.C: Duke Univ., 1994. databases available, including abstract-and­ PhD. Pasadena, Calif.;Fuller Theological Stut zman, Linford. index, A SCII full-t ext, and innovative full­ Seminary, 1997. image format "Gramsci's Theory of Cultural Hege­ McAllister, Edwin. mony Applied to Contemporary Call tol l-free 800-521-0600, ext 2888, "Inclusion Acts: The Ideological Work Evangelical Mission Activity in for mo re informat ion, or fill out t he coupon of Nineteenth-Century American below: Albania:' Missionary Ethnography:' PhD. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of Name _ Ph.D. Eugene, Oregon: Univ. of Oregon, America, 1997. Title _ 1997. Sung, Nam Yong. Company/Institution _ McAllister, Susan. "Worldview Themes Regarding Address _ "Between Romantic Revolution and Spiritual and Natural Realities and Victorian Propriety: The Cultural Work City/State/Z,p _ Their Impact on Biblical Hermeneutics of British Missionary Narratives:' of the Students of ECWA Theological Phone ( Ph.D. Eugene, Oregon: Univ. of Oregon, Institutions in Nigeria:' I'm interested In the following titlets): _ 1997. PhD. Deerfield, Illinois: Trinity Muller, Klaus Wilhelm. Evangelical Divinity School, 1997.

UMI "Peacemaker. Missionary Practice of A Bell & Howell Company Georg Friedrich Vicedom in New Box 78 300 North Zeeb Road Guinea (1929-1939): A Presentation An n Arbor, MI 48106 Based Mainly on His Own Writings:' 800-521 -0600 toll-free 313-761-1203 fax Ph.D. Aberdeen, Scotland: Univ. of Aberdeen, 1993.

46 I NTERNATIO N AL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Church, Latin America Mission, and Mennonite Central OMSC's Committee . Four mornings. $65 Robert J. Schreiter Mar. 23-27 Mission amid Conflict and Violence: The Role of Reconcilia­ Spring 1998 Programs tion in Christian Mission. Centrality of peace-making and community renewal in Christian witness. Cosponsored by Maryknoll Mission Institute, at Maryknoll, New York. Eight sessions. $120 Duane Elmer Apr. 1-4 Conflict Resolution: When Relationships Are Tested in Cross-Cultural Mission. A workshop to strengthen interpersonal skills. Cosponsored by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. Seven sessions. $95 Maria RieckeIman and Apr. 13-17 Donald Jacobs Spiritual Renewal in the Mission Community. Renewal for mission through biblical and personal reflection. Eight sessions. $95 David A. Kerr Apr. 20-24 Christian Presence and Witness Among Muslims: African and Asian Perspectives. How missionaries and church leaders can communicate more effectively in Islamic contexts . Cosponsored by OC International, Presbyterian Church (USA) Worldwide Ministries, and United Methodist Church Board of Global Ministries . Eight sessions. $95 Mission Accomplished! Last May thirteen missionaries. representing six nationalities and nine countries of service. received OMSC's Certificate in Mission Studies. Graham Kings Apr. 27-May 1 Guidelines for a Biblical Theology of Mission. Draws on missionary experience in Offer Renewal for Ministry Kenya to reexamine scriptural foundations for the motives, message, methods, and goals of Christian mission. Eight Darrell Whiteman Jan. 19-23 , 1998 sessions. $95 Culture, Values, and Worldview: Anthropology for Mission Practice. How worldview and theology of culture impact Rob Martin May 4-6 cross-cultural mission. Cosponsored by F.M.M. Mission How to Write Grant Proposalsfor Overseas Mission Projects. Resource Center. Eight sessions. $95 Develop effective proposals for foundation funding. Four sessions. $75 Samuel Escobar Jan. 26-30 Urban Mission: New Opportunities for First World-Third David Schroeder and Robert Deasy May 6-8 World Partnerships. A new frontier in multinational Christian Strategic Planning for Effective Mission. How to envision witness. Cosponsored by American Baptist International Min­ and prepare for new mission outreach. Four sessions. $75 istries and Mennonite Central Committee. Eight sessions. $95 Attend May 4-8 for $110 combinedfee . Jose Miguez Bonino Feb. 9-12 Memory and Destiny: The Prospects for Protestantism in r.~ ------­ Latin America. Cosponsored by United Methodist Board of Global Ministries. Eight sessions. $95 Send me more information about these seminars: James M. Phillips Mar. 3-6 Discovering Mission Lessons from Korea and Japan. Basic principles of cross-cultural mission. Four mornings . $65

I F. Dale Bruner Mar. 9-13 I I Mission in the Gospel of John and Modern Religious I I Pluralism. Examines foundations of Gospel witness from the NAME I I perspective of a first-century minority community. Eight I I sessions. $95 ADDRESS I I Overseas Ministries Study Center I Jonathan J. Bonk Mar. 17-20 I 490 Prospect St. , New Haven. CT 06511 I Global Megatrends and the Christian Mission. Responses to I Tel (203) 624-6672 Fax (203) 865-2857 I the new social, economic, political, religious, and ecological E-mail [email protected] Web http://www .OMSC .org : challenges. Cosponsored by General Conference Mennonite L I

Publishers of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Book Notes In Corning Benedetto, Robert, ed. Presbyterian Reformers in Central Africa: A Documentary Account of the American Issues Presbyterian Congo Mission and the Human Rights Struggle in the Congo, 1890- 1918. Evangelical Foreign Missionaries Leiden: Brill, 1996. Pp. xxii, 580. $77. in Russia Brown, Alistair. Peter and Anita Deyneka I Believe in Mission. London:Hodder & Stoughton, 1997. Pp. 172. Paperback£6.99. The Church of South India After Fifty Years: An Assessment Cragg, Kenneth..-, John C. B. Webster Defending (the) Faith. London: New M~~ennium, 1997. Pp. xoi, 212. Paperback £6.50. The Building of the Protestant Church in Shandong, China Henkel, Willi. Norman Cliff Bibliographia Missionaria LX (1996). Vatican City: Pontifical Urban University, 1997. Pp. 406. Paperback. No price given. What's Behind the 10/40 Window? A Historical Perspective Htoa, Yung. Robert T. Coote Mangoes or Bananas? The Quest for an Authentic Asian Christian Theology. Oxford:Regnum, 1997. Pp. x, 273. Paperback £19.99. In our Series on the Legacy of Outstanding Missionary Figures of Magesa, Laurenti. the Nineteenth and Twentieth African Religion: The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life. Centuries, articles about Maryknoll, N. Y.: Orbis Books, 1997. Pp. xoi, 296. Paperback $18. Norman Anderson Mbanda, Laurent. Robert Arthington Committed to Conflict: The Destruction of the Church in Rwanda. Thomas Barclay London: SPCK, 1997. Pp. x, 147. Paperback £14.99. Rowland V. Bingham David J. Bosch Oliver, Barry, et al., eds. Thomas Chalmers Avondale and the South Pacific: 100 Years of Mission. Francois E. Daubanton Cooranbong, NSW, Australia: Avondale Academic Press, 1997. Pp. 194. Paperback G. Sherwood Eddy Aus$19.95. Jeremiah Evarts Adoniram Judson Rightmire, R. David. Hannah Kilham Salvationist Samurai: Gunpei Yamamuro and the Rise of the Salvation Army in Johann Ludwig Krapf Japan. . Vincent Lebbe Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 1997. Pp. xii, 187. $49. James Legge Robert Morrison Shania, N. Constance E. Pad wick The Unknown Pilgrims, the Voice of the Sadhvis: The History, Spirituality, and Timothy Richard Life of the Jaina Women Ascetics. John Ross Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications/Indian Books Centre, 1997. Pp. xoi, 789. Rs. 750. C. F. Schwartz James Stephen Stott, John, ed. Bengt Sundkler Making Christ Known: Historic Mission Documents from the Lausanne William Cameron Townsend Movement, 1974-1989. William Ward Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1996. Pp. xxio, 264. Paperback $30.

Synan, Vinson. The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Movements in the Twentieth Century. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997. 2nd ed. Pp. xii, 340. Paperback $25.

Taylor, William D., ed. Too Valuable to Lose: Exploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition. Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 1997. Pp. xviii, 380. Paperback $23.95.