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Nicholas S. Roberts A SOCIOLINGUISTIC STUDY OF GRAMMATICAL VARIATION IN MARTINIQUE FRENCH NICHOLAS S. ROBERTS Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics Newcastle University September 2014 ii For my Nan. Words cannot describe how much I love you and miss you. iii Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that it contains no work pre- viously submitted for any other degree. The work reported in this thesis has been executed by myself except where due acknowledgment is made in the text. iv Abstract This thesis is the first quantitative sociolinguistic study of grammatical variation in the French département et région d’outre-mer (DROM) of Martinique. Alt- hough Canadian varieties of French have been extensively studied within a Labo- vian framework, there is currently a dearth of variationist research focusing on varieties genetically related to European French. My doctoral work aims to ad- dress this gap in the research literature by presenting a sociolinguistic description of selected aspects of the variable grammar in a previously under-researched vari- ety of French. The data for the present study were extracted from a corpus of spoken Martinique French which comprises approximately 16 hours of semi-directed sociolinguistic interviews conducted between December 2010 and February 2011. The analysis is based on a judgment sample of 32 native islanders from the Saint-Pierre arron- dissement in the Northwest of Martinique, who were stratified by age, sex and educational level. Due to high levels of French/créole martiniquais bilingualism, informants’ frequency of use of French in interpersonal communication was measured using a modified version of Mougeon and Beniak’s (1991) language- restriction index. My thesis specifically focuses on three morphosyntatic variables, namely the al- ternation between doubled and non-doubled subject NPs, the use/non-use of the morpheme ne in verbal negation and the variable expression of future temporal reference. I investigate the overall distribution of variant forms and determine whether the constraint systems for other varieties of French also hold in a Carib- bean context. I also test and compare a range of statistical methods currently used in variationist research with the aim of providing a more comprehensive picture of the variable grammar in this regional DROM variety. Fixed-effects logistic re- gression models demonstrate that this Caribbean variety exhibits patterns of varia- tion that distinguish it from other French speech communities. Mixed models fur- ther reorder and refine the respective constraint hierarchies, demonstrating the importance of considering random effects—such as individual speaker or lexical verb—when analysing sociolinguistic data. The combination of these statistical tools thus allows me to assess the extent to which such random effects constrain variation in Martinique French grammar. By contrasting variable usage in Martinique with that reported for communities in mainland France and francophone Canada, my doctoral thesis provides a localised as well as a global perspective on French morphosyntactic variability. This study therefore contributes to our understanding of the linguistic and social factors that unite and divide the French-speaking world. As such, it adds a French perspective to the extant literature on global linguistic trends (Meyerhoff & Niedzielski 2003; Buchstaller & D’Arcy 2009). v Acknowledgments I would first and foremost like to thank my two supervisors, Isabelle Buchstaller and Karen Corrigan. It’s been a real privilege to learn from you and I am extreme- ly grateful for all the support and guidance you have given me over the years. I cannot thank you enough for all the time you’ve spent helping me develop as an academic, reading my work, offering insightful feedback and, of course, cracking the whip when needed! I’m really going to miss working with you both. This thesis would still be at the planning stages were it not for the residents of Martinique who kindly agreed to participate in the sociolinguistic corpus that serves as the primary data source for my doctoral research. Thank you to all of you for agreeing to take part in my study. My period of fieldwork would not have been possible without Marie-Antoinette and Willem who looked after me during my stay. I am privileged to have been welcomed into your home with open arms and will forever treasure the time that I spent with you, Arnaud, Hélène and Inès. The same thanks goes to Irmine, Charles and Sandrine who took me under their wing way back in 2007 and did so again upon my return. I look forward to seeing you all again soon but without a microphone next time. I also thank faculty staff in the linguistics department at the Université des An- tilles et de la Guyane at Schœlcher for welcoming me to the department during my fieldwork. Thanks to Corine Mencé-Castor, Raphaël Confiant, Robert Damoi- seau and Léo Ursulet for meeting with me to share ideas and discuss aspects of your research. I would also like to thank the Arts and Humanities Research Council, the Centre for Research in Linguistics and Language Sciences at Newcastle University and the School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics at Newcastle Univer- sity. Their financial assistance enabled me to conduct invaluable fieldwork, attend academic conferences in Europe and North America and contributed towards my living costs. During my time as both an undergraduate and a postgraduate student, I’ve been lucky enough to befriend a number of linguists. One in particular deserves special thanks: Rick Grimm. What started out as a one-off Skype meeting has flourished into many many more. I can’t thank you enough for all the inspiring discussions and those all-important pep talks we’ve had. Thanks for becoming a true friend. I look forward to catching up many more times in the future. vi I express my gratitude to the following linguists: Julie Auger, Claire Childs, Lynn Clark, Phil Comeau, Nath Dion, Agata Daleszyska, Rob Drummond, Kelly Farmer, Sophie Holmes-Elliott, Dan Ezra Johnson, Ruth King, Adam Mearns, Miriam Meyerhoff, Raymond Mougeon, Terry Nadasdi, Heike Pichler, Elissa Pustka, Sali Tagliamonte, Anne-José Villeneuve, Cathleen Waters, Suzanne Ev- ans Wagner, James Walker and Sara Zahler, who have all offered me advice and help at various stages. Other special thanks go to the staff (past and present) of the School of Modern Languages at Newcastle University, some of whom have been there since my very first day in 2005. You are all too numerous to name but I only hope that you know who you are and how grateful I am for your guidance and generous support. I’ve been lucky enough to present my doctoral research at a number of academic conferences. I thank audience members at AFLS 2012 in Newcastle upon Tyne, AFLS 2014 in Canterbury, NWAV 40 in Washington DC, NWAV 41 in Bloom- ington, NWAV 42 in Pittsburgh, MFiL in Manchester, SSS3 in Glasgow, SSS4 in Newcastle, UKLVC 8 in Ormskirk and UKLVC 9 in Sheffield. I am also grateful to all members of the LVC Special Interest Group at Newcastle University and faculty staff in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Pittsburgh for offering me feedback on various aspects of my work. A big thank you goes to all of my friends outside of academia who have always been there for me when I was all researched-out. To Ashley, Claire K, Claire S, Caroline, Lisa, Kelly, Nic, Michelle H, Rob and Shelley, aka the ‘Gym Crowd’, you will all be sorely missed. Many thanks too to all my fantastic friends who I originally met through Lincs TKD and tae kwon do, Becky, Dave, Karen, Matt, Zenon and, of course, Rick S. Many a good evening (and night) has been spent with you all and I look forward to many more to come. I of course reserve special thanks to my close friends, Alannah, Becky, Cian, Fiona, Franck, Gemma, Helen, JC and Rhys. I really appreciate the endless support and countless evenings we’ve spent together. With love, I thank my parents, Steve and Sue, my brother, Owen, my grandpar- ents, Mavis and Freddie, my auntie, Maureen and my in-laws, Dave, Chris and Alex. You’ve always believed in me and I can’t thank you all enough for every- thing you’ve done for me. Last, but far from least, I thank my partner, Vicky. Of- ten grumpy and working on weekends…thanks for putting up with me, kiddo. You’re always there for me and I’d definitely be lost without you. I’d’ve most certainly never have been able to achieve anything without the (emotional and financial) support of all my close family. Love yous. vii Table of Contents Declaration iii Abstract iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vii List of Maps x List of Figures xi List of Tables xii Abbreviations xiii Chapter One: Introduction 1 1. Introduction 1 2. Other Regional Varieties of French 4 3. Research Questions 7 4. The Variables 10 4.1 The Linguistic Variable 11 4.2 The Doubling of Subject NPs 13 4.3 The Omission of the Negative Particle ne 15 4.4 The Expression of Future Temporal Reference 16 5. Dissertation Outline 18 Chapter Two: Methodology 20 1. Introduction 20 2. The Data 20 2.1 Fieldwork Location 21 2.2 Finding Informants 27 2.3 Speaker Sample 30 2.3.1 Age 32 2.3.2 Sex 36 2.3.3 Educational Level 36 2.3.4 Language Restriction 39 2.4 Ethical Issues 43 2.5 Interview Schedule 45 2.6 Transcription 49 3. Quantitative Variationist Methods 52 3.1 Data Extraction and Token Exclusion 52 3.2 Linguistic and Social Conditioning Factors 56 3.3 Data Analysis 57 4.
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