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Militarized Gender Performativity: Women and Demobilization in Colombia’s FARC and AUC. by Andrea Méndez A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in the Department of Political Studies in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada August, 2012 Copyright © Andrea Méndez, 2012 Abstract Women are usually represented as victims in the literature on conflict and conflict resolution. While women are indeed victims of violence in the context of conflict, this representation excludes the experiences of women who have joined and fought in illegal armed groups. Little is known about the lives of women who fight alongside men in illegal militarized organizations. These women are often overlooked during peace negotiations and in the design and implementation of Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration programs, affecting their conditions and experiences during the transition to civilian life. The Colombian conflict presents an important case study regarding the militarization of women in illegal armed groups, and the experience of demobilization, and is the focus of this dissertation. To address this case study, the concept of “militarized gender performativity” is advanced, drawing on the works of Cynthia Enloe and Judith Butler. In the Colombian case, both left–wing and right–wing armed groups have incorporated women into their ranks. This research elucidates the effects of non– state militarism on the social processes that produce and reproduce gender systems in two of Colombia’s illegal armed groups, uncovering how the FARC and the AUC construct, negotiate, challenge, or reinforce gender roles. The research indicates that there are significant differences in the way this is done. Interviews with ex–combatants from the FARC and the AUC show that women’s sexuality plays a central role in the militarization of women combatants in both organizations, but there are specific policies that establish the nature of the relationships in each group. These differences represent distinct militarized femininities which maintain aspects of traditional gender relations while transforming others according to the needs of the organization in question. The transformation of gender identities in each of the armed groups reveals the performative nature of gender roles in a militarized context. ii Acknowledgements There are a few people whom I would like to acknowledge, for without their insights, support, and encouragement, my dissertation would not have been possible. I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Dr. Catherine Conaghan and Dr. Abigail Bakan. Their guidance and wisdom over the last five years have been extremely important to me. They have both shared relevant insights and knowledge and have inspired me with their hard work and diligence. For this, I am indebted to them. I would also like to thank Dr. Jacqueline Solway at Trent University for encouraging me to pursue post–graduate education. She has influenced my studies in more ways than she will ever know. In the Political Studies Department at Queen’s University, I would like to thank Dr. Zsuzsa Csergo for her encouraging words and thoughtful advice over the last five years, and Barb Murphy for her constant help in making sure my student permit was always renewed on time. I am also very grateful to Angela Pietrobon for her assistance in the final stages of preparation of the dissertation and for her help in copy editing, proofreading, and formatting it. I would also like to thank the Alta Consejería para la Reintegración Social y Económica de Personas y Grupos Alzadas en Armas in Colombia for their guidance and for faciliating the interviews with former members of the FARC and AUC. I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my husband for his pragmatism, my son for his presence, my father for his positivity, my mother for helping me to see the bigger picture, my sister for her sense of humour, and all of my extended family for supporting me in any way they could. They have been there for me unconditionally to acknowledge my efforts and encourage me through the demanding times. I would also like to thank my friend Maaike for looking after my son on many occasions so that I could work on my dissertation. I owe her much gratitude. iii Dedication For my son. iv Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 14 Chapter 2. Women and War: Recognizing Multiple Voices ........................................................ 17 Women in the Military .............................................................................................................. 25 Theoretical Framework: Militarized Gender Performativity .................................................... 28 Scope and Methods ................................................................................................................... 43 The Ethnography of Violence ................................................................................................... 44 Feminist Approaches to Methodology ...................................................................................... 51 Chapter 3. Armed Struggle and War in Colombia ........................................................................ 56 Women in Colombia: From Independence to the National Front ............................................ 57 Colombian Women: Democracy, Collective Action, and Inclusion ........................................ 66 The Rise of the Armed Groups ................................................................................................. 70 The FARC ................................................................................................................................. 72 The Paramilitaries ..................................................................................................................... 79 Comparing Combat: FARC and AUC ...................................................................................... 87 Drug Trafficking, Guerrillas, and Paramilitaries ...................................................................... 89 BACRIMs: A New, but Familiar Challenge ............................................................................. 92 Women in Illegal Armed Groups in Colombia ......................................................................... 93 Chapter 4. Disarming, Demobilizing, and Reintegrating in the Midst of Conflict ....................... 98 Colombian Peace Talks and DDR Processes .......................................................................... 102 Uribe’s Democratic Security .................................................................................................. 107 Uribe’s Peace Talks with the AUC and the FARC ................................................................. 111 Colombian DDR: Individual and Collective Processes .......................................................... 116 Colombian DDR: The Reintegration Stage ............................................................................ 120 Women and DDR in Colombia ............................................................................................... 123 v Chapter 5. Women in the FARC ................................................................................................. 128 Gender in the FARC: Rhetoric and Practice ........................................................................... 129 Soldiering: Daily Life and Discipline ..................................................................................... 136 Sexuality and Reproductive Rights ......................................................................................... 143 Reintegration and the Future ................................................................................................... 158 Chapter 6. Women in the AUC ................................................................................................... 161 Paramilitary Violence: Morality Under Siege ........................................................................ 161 Soldiering: Daily Life and Discipline ..................................................................................... 165 Sexuality and Reproductive Rights ......................................................................................... 175 Reintegration and the Future ................................................................................................... 186 Chapter 7. Women in the FARC and the AUC ..........................................................................
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