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Home , Dharmachakra, Dvaita Vedanta, Maya (religion), Shuddhadvaita, Tajjalan, Vaisheshika

indian (PHL2C0 )

sTUDY MATERIAL second semester

CORE COURSE

MA

CBCSS (2019 ADMISSION onwards)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION Calicut University P.O, Malappuram, Kerala, 73 35.

190406

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY ATERIAL

SECOND SEMESTER

MA PHILOSOPHY (2019 ADMISSION)

CORE COURSE :

PHL2C06 : INDIAN METAPHYSICS

Prepared by : Sri. Ratheesh. D,

Assistant Professor on contract (Philosophy)

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University of Calicut.

Scrutinized by: Dr. Balamurali.P.B

Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy University of Kerala,

Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram PHL2 C06- INDIAN METAPHYSICS (Core) Credit 5

Unit 1 - Metaphysics of - -Atman-Creation-Degrees of Reality.

Unit II -Metaphysics Reality and ,-- – Ajiva

Unit III –Metaphysics The four noble , eight fold path and The Doctrine of Dependent Origination

Unit IV Sankyha -Metaphysics Reality – Prakrthi-- Theory of evolution

Unit V Schools of Sankara’s Advaita System- Visistadvaita and Dvaita

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Reference:

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan ; Vol I and II; .

C.D Sharma ;A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy

Hiriyanna; Essentials of Indian Philosophy ;

Datta and Chatterjee ;Indian Philosophy

S.N. Das Guptha ;Indian Philosophy (relevant vols)

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INDIAN METAPHYSICS

The term Indian philosophy may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in India. Indian philosophy has a longer history of continuous development than any other philosophical tradition, and philosophy encompasses a wide variety of schools and systems. Almost every school of Indian philosophy is associated with a religious sect, including the six orthodox () schools (darshanas) like, , , , Yoga, PurvaMimamsa, and Vedanta; and the heterodox schools (nastika) which include Buddhism, Jainism and the materialistic Carvaka school.All the schools of Indian philosophy are characterized by some common themes. Indian philosophy conceives of man as spiritual in nature, and relates him to a spiritual or metaphysical concept of the . Indian philosophy is intimately associated with practice in everyday life. It takes an introspective approach to reality, concerning itself with of the inner life and of man (atmavidya), rather than with the nature and structure of the physical . Indian philosophy is predominantly idealistic. Intuition is often accepted as the only method for knowing the ultimate ; truth is generally not known intellectually, but must be realized.The Indian metaphysics is expressed through a rich variety of thoughts and practices that have developed over more than three thousand years. There is no single Indian metaphysics, but rather a plurality of ways of understanding and relating to from a stock of widely held ideas reflected in the , and particularly in the classical systems of , Budhism, and Jainism. Metaphysics becomes thematic at various levels and in different contexts, in debates concerning the status of certain concepts as the , , substances, universals, time, change, permanence/, one and many, etc.

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UNIT-1

UPANISHADS- METAPHYSICS

The Upanishads are ancient texts from India that were composed orally in between about 700 B.C.E. and 300 B.C.E. There are thirteen major Upanishads, many of which were likely composed by multiple authors and are comprised of a variety of styles. The Upanishads makes enquiry into a number of perennial philosophical questions concerning the nature of being, the nature of the self, the foundation of life, what happens to the self at the time of , the good life, and ways of interacting with others. The word Upanisads is derived from the root ‘sad’ which means (i) to sit down (ii)to destroy (iii)to loosen. ‘Upa’ means nearby and ‘ni’ means ‘devotedly. The word therefore means the sitting down of the disciple near his teacher in a devoted manner to receiving instruction about of the highest reality which loosens all doubts and destroys all ignorance of the disciple. Gradually the word came to signify any secret teaching about reality and it is used by the Upanisads in this sense(rahasya or guhyavidya). The muktikopanisad gives the number of the upanisads as 108. But ten or eleven upanisads are regarded as important and authorities on which Shankaracharya has commented. They are as follows: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukhya, Chandogya, Brahadaranyaka, Aitereya and Taittiriya. The Upanishads contain some of the oldest discussions about key philosophical terms such as (the self), brahman (ultimate reality), , and yoga, as well as samsāra (worldly existence), moksa (enlightenment), purusa (person), and prakrti (nature)—all of which would continue to be central to the philosophical vocabulary of later traditions. Nature of Reality The ultimate reality was described in the hymns of Vedas as being One (Ekam Sat) that realized itself in multiple things. The Upanishads refer to this same reality as both Atman and Brahman. But the concept of Atman in these books is obscure. In Rig Veda it is taken to mean ‘breath’ or ‘vital ’ which is also the general meaning of soul. The Atman, cannot be said to have the common attributes that people ascribe to it. The self is beyond the qualities and attributes. Besides, it is also generally thought that the reality of self can become an object in the case of introspective . But whatever becomes an object relates to the not self and all the things that are known as actual in the world are different from self.

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The person who looks into other eyes or into the mirror or looks at himself into the water, he sees just a picture that is not the self. Such a self undergoes changes, and is amenable to disease and death. Atman and Brahman are inseparable because they are one. The Atman has two sides: one side of it is connected with universal truth that is known as Brahman and the other side relates to human body. The relation to body however doesn’t change its eternality for while at the Jiva level it undergoes changes, at the rest of levels it remains same. The truth of man is Atman and Atman is nothing but Brahman. According to Upanishads at the first Atman is the empirical self but gradually it develops to bodily self and then through the dream and deep sleep it finally changes into .

Thus the two concepts that are of paramount importance in the Upanishads are Brahman and Atman. The Brahman is the ultimate reality and the Atman is individual self (soul).Brahman is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, genderless, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman is the infinite source, fabric, core and destiny of all existence, both manifested and un- manifested, the formless infinite substratum and from which the universe has grown. The word Atman means the inner self, the soul, the immortal spirit in an individual, and all living including animals and trees. Ātmanis a central idea in all the Upanishads, and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus. However, Brahman and Atman are the terms used in the Upanishads to stand for the ultimate reality. It manifests itself as the subject as well as the object and transcends them both. The same reality is called from the subjective side as ‘Atman’ and from the objective side as ‘Brahman’. The two terms are used as synonyms. “He, who is this Brahman in man, and who is that in the sun, those are one’. The true self has been the main topic of investigation in the Upanisads.

Brahman

The word ‘Brahman’ is derived from the root ‘Brh’ which means to grow, to evolve. In the beginning it meant sacrifice, then and then it acquired its present meaning of ultimate reality. It is the ultimate cause of the universe which spontaneously bursts forth as nature and soul.

Brahman connotes the highest Universal Principle, the Ultimate Reality in the universe. It is the material, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists in the universe.

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In the , it is cryptically described as ‘.’ Tajjalan means that (tat) from which the world arises (ja), into which it returns (la), and by which it is supported and it lives (an). In the , Brahman is described as that from which all beings are born, by which they live, and into which they are reabsorbed. The evolution of the elements is given in this order. From Brahman arises ether, from ether air, from air fire, from fire water and from water earth. But the real theory of evolution is given in the doctrine of five sheaths () in the Taittiriya. The lowest level is that of . Annam (annamaya) matter is unconscious and dead and cannot account for life. It is purely on the physical plane. Brahman cannot rest content with matter. The purpose of matter is fulfilled only when life is evolved. The highest state of matter is therefore life. Though matter cannot account for life, yet there can be no life without matter. The inorganic matter must be transformed into organic life. Hence the second state of evolution is life. is Brahma(pranamaya). Now we are on the biological plane. The vegetable life emerges first but the vegetable life must lead to the animal life. The vegetable products must be transformed into living animal cells. Life provides the universe and binds man with the rest of creation. But the destiny of life is fulfilled only when is evolved. Hence the third state of evolution is mind or perceptual consciousness. isBrahma (manomaya). Here we are on the mental or psychological plane. This state is shared by lower animals with man. Even this not suffice, for there are intellectual facts which mere perceptual consciousness does not take into account. Hence the fourth state of evolution is self-conscious . Vijnana or intelligence is Brahma (vijnanamaya). Here we are on the metaphysical plane. This state is the sole monopoly of human beings. Reason becomes self-conscious only at this state and this fact distinguishes human beings from lower animals. The empirical trinity of knower, knowledge and known has been evolved. But even this will not suffice. There must be something higher than mere intellect, where existence is no longer formulated in terms of knowledge. The unity of existence requires that we must transcend the intellectual level. Reality is different from thought, and can be reached in the turiyastate of highest immediacy, which transcends thought and its distinctions, where the individual coincides with the central reality. The fifth and the highest state of evolution, therefore, is the non-dual bliss. Ananadais Brahma (anandamaya). Here we are on the mystic plane. The empirical trinity of knower, known and knowledge has been fused into a transcendental unity. Here philosophy terminates, the suggestion being that there is nothing higher than ananda. From it all things flow. By it all things are

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sustained, and into it all things are dissolved. As all spokes are contained in the axle and the wheel, so all beings, all , all world, all organs are contained in the universal self the Brahman. It is regarded that Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing". pre-exists and co- exists with Brahman—the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles. According to Upanishads Brahman is to be understood as being of two kinds: Para and Apara. The word ‘Para’ is used for the higher Brahman which is acosmic, quality-less, indeterminate, indescribable, (Nisprapancha, Nirguna, NirvisheshaandAnirvachaniya). The word Apara, on the other hand, refers to lower Brahman which is cosmic, all-comprehensive, and full of all good qualities— (Saprapancha, SagunaandSavishesha). The first is the Absolute God while the second is called the . In essence, Brahman and Ishvara are conjoined like fire and its power to burn, like the sleeping and the moving serpents. Matter, Self and God are only manifestations of the Absolute. The words Brahman and Ishvara are two aspects of the same entity i.e. impersonal and . Personal God or Ishvararefers to ultimate reality that has qualities and impersonal God is the one that is devoid of attributes. The cosmic Brahman is regarded as the cause of production, maintenance and destruction of this universe. All beings arise from Him, live in Him and are absorbed in Him. The Mandukya calls Him ‘the Lord of all, the knower of all, the inner controller of all. Like sparks arising from fire, like earthen-ware arising out of earth, like gold ornaments being made out of gold, like cob- web coming out of a spider, like the musical sound coming out of a flute, the entire creation arises out of Brahman. Just as when clay is known everything made out of clay becomes known, for it is only name and form similarly when Brahman, the cause is known, everything , being a mere effect, becomes known, for the effects are only names and forms, the reality is Brahman alone. The Brahman or Nirguna Brahman is unconditioned Brahman or Brahman that is without attributes. He is beyond all relations and creativeness. This state is the un-manifested state of Brahman and is beyond our intelligence. The acosmic Brahman is the transcendental absolute, the Turiya or the fourth, the Amatraor the measureless, the Anirvachaniya or the indescribable. The absolute can be best described only in a negative way, though it is not itself negated by it. describes it thus. “This is the imperishable, which wise people adore and not gross, not subtle, not short, not long, without shadow, without darkness without air, without space, without attachment without taste, without

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School of Distance Education smell, without sight, without ears without speech, without mind, without light, without breath, without mouth, and without either inside or outside. It does not eat anything nor can anything eat it”. The negative description of Brahman does not mean that it is a blank nothingness. It only signifies that the absolute cannot adequately be represented by the categories known to human thought. ‘It is not this, not this’(Netineti). The best possible description gives is Saccidananda(sat- cit -ananda). Sat means ‘existence’ which points to the eternal nature of the absolute compared to things of temporal existence. Cit means ‘consciousness’ which shows that it is spiritual. The last epithet anandastands for the blissful nature of the reality. The terms are interpreted also as satyam(truth), jnanam(knowledge) and anantam(infinite) respectively. The Brhadaranyaka describes Brahman as ‘the Real of the real’ (Satyasya Satyam).

Atman Ātman is a central idea in all of the Upanishads, and "know your Ātman" is their thematic focus. These texts state that the core of every person's self is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego, but Ātman, which means "soul" or "self". Atman is the spiritual essence in all creatures, their real innermost essential being. It is eternal, it is the essence, and it is ageless. Atman is that which one is at the deepest level of one's existence. The term ‘Atman’ was used in the Rgveda to denote the unborn part or the immaterial soul of human. Atman is derived from ‘an’ to breathe, ‘at’ to move, and ‘ma’ to blow. So the oldest meaning of Atman is ‘breath.’ It can also be literally translated as ‘vital force.’Ātman is the first principle, the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma ). In the Rgveda, Atman is sometimes used to indicate the animating principle or the essence. The sun, for example, is called the Atman of all things moving and non-moving and , a plant juice, which was an essential libation of vedic sacrifices and called the celestial dew, is called the Atman of sacrifice. Atman is the essence or ultimate reality of anything. When we consider the whole universe, its reality or essence is ‘Brahman’ and therefore the term ‘Atman’ is applied to Brahman in the sense of cosmic self. As Brahman is the ultimate Reality of everything, He is called , to distinguish him from other Atmans which are not ‘para,’ ultimate. In Upanishads while the identity of Brahman with the Atman is clearly established, a certain ambiguity remains about Brahman’s relation with the physical world. On the one hand is the saying that ‘The world is nothing else than Atman’ but on the other hand the world as objective form of Atman is

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School of Distance Education made to take up a position over against the Atman. Atman as the first principle is contrasted not only with the world, whose outward form it has put on, but also with the self within us with which it is said to be ultimately identical. This idea of otherness of self and world opens the possibility of a theistic . The describes Atman as that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description. In BrihadaranyakaUpanishad describes Atman as Brahman, and associates it with everything one is, everything one can be, one's , one's desire, what one does, what one doesn't do, the good in oneself, the bad in oneself. That is, that Atman (self, soul) is indeed Brahman. It is also identified with the intellect, the Manas(mind), and the vital breath, with the eyes and ears, with earth, water, air, and ākāśa (sky), with fire and with what is other than fire, with desire and the absence of desire, with anger and the absence of anger, with and unrighteousness, with everything — it is identified, as is well known, with this and with that. As Ātman does and acts, so it becomes: by doing well it becomes good, and by doing it becomes evil. It becomes virtuous through good acts, and vicious through evil acts. This theme of Ātman, that is soul and self of oneself, every person, every being is the same as Brahman, is extensively repeated in Brihadāranyaka Upanishad. The Upanishad asserts that this knowledge of "I am Brahman", and that there is no between "I" and "you", or "I" and "him" is a source of liberation, and not even gods can prevail over such a liberated man. The self is the ground of waking, dream and sleep states and yet ittranscends them all. The self is universal, immanent as well as transcendent. The whole universe lives and moves and breathes in it. It is immortal, self-luminous, self- proved and beyond doubts and denials, as the very principle which makes all doubts, denials and thoughts possible. It is the ultimate subject which can never become an object and which is to be necessarily presupposed by all knowledge. The self is the whole. This fundamental identity, which is the presupposition of both self and not self, is called the Atman. None can doubt it reality.The MandukhyaUpanisads gives us an analysis of consciousness leading to thesame conclusion. The soul has three conditions which are all included in a fourth. They are waking, dreaming, sleeping, and what is called turiya. The first condition is that of wakefulness, where the self is conscious of the common world of external objects. It enjoys the gross things. Here the dependence on the body is predominant. It is called . The second condition is that of dreaming, where the self enjoys subtle things, fashions for itself a new world of forms with the materials of its waking and is called . The

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School of Distance Education third is the condition of sound sleep, where we have neither dreams nor desires. It is called susupti. The soul is said to become temporarily one with Brahman and enjoy bliss. Here the self is called ‘’. The prints out that the highest is not this dreamless sleep, but another, a fourth state of the soul, a pure intuitional consciousness, where there is no knowledge of objects internal or external. It is called Turiya. The fourth is not that which is conscious of the subjective, nor that which is conscious of objective nor that which is conscious of both, nor that which is simple consciousness, nor that which is an all –sentient mass, nor that which is all darkness. It is unseen, transcendent, in apprehensible, un-inferable,unthinkable, indescribable, the sole essence of the consciousness of self, the completion of the world, the ever peaceful, all blissful, the one unit, this indeed is the Atman. It is symbolized by the Aumkara, with its parts of A-U-M, the waking, the dreaming and the sleeping states. This self is the common ground of all these states. It manifests itself in these three states and yet in its own nature it transcends them all. Creation According to Upanishads universe has come out of Brahman and it gets its essence from Brahman and will return back to Brahman. Upanishads also speak about two aspects of world: organic and inorganic. All the organic things such as animals, plants and humans possess while the inorganic matter is without soul. The Brahman entered into three elements namely, fire (Tejas), water () and earth (Ksiti) and all the rest of bodies were formed by their combination. All things are made by the transforming of these three basic elements and permeated by Brahman. Although in the Taittiriya Upanishad some more elements such as air and ether are added they are still considered to proceed from the one Brahman. Rig Veda speaks of a cosmicsoul or universal soul (Purusha/ ) which is responsible for the creation of world from primeval waters.

Upanishads rejected the materialistic theories of evolution because materialists believe the creation of the world to be based on matter. But for the Upanishads Brahman is different from matter. Matter by itself cannot be the origin and essence of world unless it had the potential cause in itself. Ananda or bliss cannot be the end of evolution unless it was also the beginning. Every creature like material things, animals and humans possess the characteristics of their ultimate source and end. According to Upanishads, “Whatever there is belonging to the son belongs to the father; whatever there is belonging to the father belongs to the son.” Not only humans but every creature has eternal essence in itself. The manifestation of things from potential to actual causes evolution to take place. Radhakrishnan says that “Development means the manifestation of potential of things by the removal of the obstructing

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School of Distance Education energies.” According to Upanishads the origin of the world is a unity; it means that the plurality of universe is based on the One that is eternal.

According to Upanishads Ananda is the lord of world, it is final cause and efficient cause. It is the beginning and end of universe. The matter that exists in objective world, having gone through the process of evolution, is a different entity compared to what it originally was as based on Ananda. Generally the evolution means the transforming of potential into actual. In this view of evolution the matter has more potential in itself than life. Also, what comes before has more potentiality than what comes later and whatever has come later has more form and more actuality. In the Upanishads this God is known as active self-consciousness. All changes in the world happen because of Prajnana from God. He is responsible for the process of evolution in universe. Even if we separate God from matter, we cannot run away from dualism where God is opposed to matter. According to Upanishads both of them, matter and form, active consciousness and non-active consciousness are rooted in one ultimate reality. Matter itself is in God. The first forms of three elements: water, fire and earth are regarded as divine as they are embedded in a single spirit.

Universe is generally conceived as possessing an identity of purpose and a well-designed structure generated by the mind of a creative being called God. But Upanishads make the Brahman to be both cause and effect. He is the end point of evolution, and also its beginning. He is the root of evolution that starts with matter and ends in Ananda. Brahman is both the producer and produced. is the form of Brahman that lets the process of evolution to happen within himself. He divides himself in two parts of male and female. Half of him becomes male and the other half female. Thus acting as both male and female the Brahman produces the substances of the world. And this substance of things manifests itself as created existence. (Chan. Up., III. 39) This kind of generation or production is likened to the sun rays proceeding from the sun. The world coming out of Brahman, moreover, does not affect change into it. The two remain substantially united. The Atman entering in things is likened also to salt mixing into the water. The things are also said to have originated from Atman as sparks fly out from the fire or as sound emanates from the flute.

According to Upanishads the realm of multiplicity is not outside of Atman. It means that Atman- Brahman and empirical world are not separated from each other. The world of plurality can be explained by the oneness of Brahman. The Upanishads thus recognize oneness of Brahman as the root and source of all that exists. It tries to explain all the multiplicity in terms of a single unity. In order to explain the

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School of Distance Education co-existence of multiplicity and unity, the Upanishads are constrained to using the language of symbols, even though it doesn’t really solve the problem. But when we don’t have knowledge of Brahman, it isn’t possible to dogmatize about the relation of world’s multiplicity to the unity of Brahman. The two however cannot be without relationship. There are for sure different views given by different scholars to unravel the difficulty. But whatever one’s answer the bottom line remains that the changeability and plurality of the world does not affect the non-changeability and unity of Brahman. As Radhakrishnan says, “The presumption is that the world of relations doesn’t in any way affect the nature of Brahman. The destruction of the world of experience does not in the least take away from the being of Brahman.” Brahman can exist apart from the world of multiplicity. The existence of the physical world is not part of the existence of Brahman for in that case it will have the limitation of time and space. Brahman however comprehends the world and all things of past, future and present. It should be mentioned that Brahman is not the cause antecedent in time to the world as effect. According to Upanishads world is only an appearance and manifestation of absolute Brahman. The world evolves as a result of self- energizing of Brahman that is eternal and absolute. In this process of evolution, two factors are involved: first the self-consciousness or God and the second the potential matter that is passive. One cannot describe exactly how the absolute makes a unity with difference. All that can be said is that the self and the not-self make the emergence of the world possible. The self is the absolute and the activity belongs to the domain of appearance.

For the Upanishads the relation between subject and object cannot be explained because of the limitation of human mind. Due to this limitation, man experiences the world as divided into subject and object although the reality is one. According to Shankara’s Vedanta this duality of subject and object is based on Maya. Maya makes us see the real as dual. If the veil of Maya is removed, the oneness of Brahman will be revealed. According to Deussen there are four aspects to the theory of creation in Upanishads. These are as follows: the first is that matter gets its existence from God. He fashions the world but doesn’t create it. The second, the universe is formed by God from nothing. The third, the universe is generated by way of God transforming himself into it. The fourth is that the reality is of God and other than him there is no reality. According to Upanishads the universe that is limited in space and time, is a reflection of God.

When Upanishads say that there is nothing real other than Atman it means universal consciousness consists of all. But again, when it says that the external world exists outside us, it refers to

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School of Distance Education empirical individual that is comprised of mind and body. But finally the point is that Atman is entirely real and also consists of universe. According to empirical view there is a distinction between individual self and objective world but this duality dissolves into the oneness of the universe when the right insight is available. We look at the world as duality but this duality that makes distinction between object and subject isn’t ultimate. When however it is said that duality of subject and object isn’t real it doesn’t mean that duality doesn’t exist at all. Upanishads give the examples of salt and water, fire and spark, spider and web, flute and sound, to exemplify the relation of Brahman to universe. In Upanishads God is an eternal spirit that transcends and consists of subjective man and objective world. The unity of subject with object and the world is relative. Although Upanishads say that the multiplicity of the world, succession of time, co-existence in space, the relation of cause and effect, cannot be the highest reality, but they do not yet say that these are absolute non-existence.

Degrees of Reality

In the Upanishads, the Ultimate Reality is called Brahman. The Upanishads and the Brahma have been interpreted by Sankara and the based on the monistic conception of an Impersonal Brahman. The unity of such thought has been arrived at by rejecting the reality of the material world. The fundamental thought of the entire Upanishadic philosophy, may be expressed by the simple equation: Brahman-Atman. That is to say the Brahman, the power which presents itself to us, materialized in all existing things which creates, sustains, preserves, and receives back into itself again all , this eternal infinite divine power Is identical with the Atman, with that which after wiping off everything external, we discover in ourselves as our real, most essential being, our individual self, the soul. This identity of the Brahman and the Atman, of the God and the soul is the fundamental thought of the entire doctrine of the Upanishads.

Max Mullar admitted Sankara's interpretation of the Upanishads as the correct interpretation and enforces the Sanskrit view of the illusory world and the Brahman-Atman unity.S. Radhakrishnan says that, "If a logical account is permitted, then we may say that the Brahman of the Upanishads is no metaphysical abstraction, no indeterminate identity and no void of silence. It is the fullest and the most real being. It is a living dynamic spirit, the source and container of the infinitely varied forms of reality." The word 'Brahman' means growth which expresses the dynamic character of Brahman. The world is real though its reality is not the same as that of Brahman. The general trend in Upanishads is that Brahman can be denoted only by negation statements. Yet there are positive statements about Brahman

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School of Distance Education also. For example, this same immutable Brahman is the ultimate seer without himself being seen, is the ultimate hearer without himself being heard, is the ultimate knower without himself being known, is the ultimate in tuitor without himself being intuited. There is no seer nor hearer nor thinker nor intuitor beyond him. It was in this immutable Brahman alone that ether is itself metaphysically grounded. Based on the Upanishadic thought, the classical Advaita Vedānta explains all reality and everything in the experienced world to be same as the Brahman. To Advaitins, there is a unity in multiplicity, and there is no dual hierarchy of a Creator and the created universe. All objects, all experiences, all matter, all consciousness, all awareness, is not the property but the very nature of this one fundamental reality Brahman. There are three levels in Advaita Vedanta regarding reality. They are Pratibhasika, Vyavaharika and Paramarthika.

Pratibhasika

The Pratibhasika is the most unreal. It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality.Dream is in Pratibhasika level. In dream we perceive different things. But in a strict sense, dream is not completely unreal because those things, which we see, in dream, have external substratum in the phenomenal world. Take the example of a sky-flower. Even though, no sky-flower exists in the world and thus it is unreal, yet, sky and flower, taken separately, are real things that we have seen in the external world prior to dreaming. That is, we can dream of only those things which we have seen in the phenomenal world. But in dream, these real things get combined in strange and different proportions, making quite new unreal objects, in dream.Thus what we call as dream is not the opposite of the Ultimate Reality because even in dream, elements, which have substratum outside the dream, are present. To say that the dream is unreal, we should be in waking state. We can know the unreality of dream only from the waking state. As long as we are dreaming, we won’t understand that dream is unreal. i.e., when we get a ‘higher waking knowledge’ we will understand that dream is not real and is a little below the common waking experience. But to conclude thus, we must have waking experience. As long as we remain in the dream state, we cannot comprehend the unreality of dream. In the same way, in waking state we will consider the external, phenomenal world as Real and ultimate. But when we get the ‘higher knowledge about Brahman’ (Brahma-) we will realize that the phenomenal world is not ultimately real.

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Vyavaharika

Vyavaharika is the relative plane of reality. It is the level in which both jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Iswara are true; here, the material world is also true but this is incomplete reality and is sublatable.This is the realm of cause-effect and human intellect works here. Phenomenal world is in this level. Everything that exists in this level depends on each other and we cannot say what their essence is. The things in vyavaharika world can be said to exist by itself from the phenomenal, relative point of view. However when a person gets Brahma-vidya, the higher knowledge, then phenomenal world things are said to be an appearance. In this condition, we can say that phenomenal world exist because we see them. It can also said to be non-existing because it has no essence and it depends on Brahman for existence. Thus, since, the phenomenal objects exist and non-exist, from the ultimate viewpoint, their state of existence is said to be ‘indescribable or maya’. In short for the one who have realized Brahman, external world is indescribable or Maya. And for those who had not realized Brahman (because of Avidyain them), external world is real, existing and ultimate; i.e., not indescribable or Maya. Dream world and phenomenal world are not in the same level of reality. The phenomenal world has more reality. We can comprehend the relative nature of phenomenal world only when we reach Paramarthika level. Else we will continue to think, phenomenal world is the ultimate and real. Paramarthika Paramarthika is the ultimate truth level. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This reality is the highest; it can't be sublated (assimilated) by any other. It only is ultimately real. It can exist by itself without depending on anything. This is spiritual in experience and subject – object duality, cause-effect formula, etc. are not here. This is beyond the realm of human intellect. Human intellect cannot comprehend this ultimate level of reality. This can be realized only by direct experience with the help of Brahma-vidya. The Upanishads states that the nature of the Ultimate Reality, paramarthasatya, can be expressed only by the word ‘Neti, Neti’. This is an attempt to define something by rejecting all other possibilities on what it can be. Since the ultimate should be beyond human intellect, we can spoke about it only by negation statements. When we negate a particular thing, telling it is not akin to Brahman, and then we are a step advanced in our attempt to define Brahman. This is almost same manner, when we negate all non-blue colors to reach to the Blue color. i.e., every negation inherits an affirmation. Paramarthika is the Ultimate level that everyone can realize. There is no higher level than this. In this level, all plurality vanishes. Only pure exists. It is one without a second.

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UNIT-II JAINISM- METAPHYSICS

Jaina philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or . Among them, the first is Rishabhadeva and the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to 8th or 7th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. It is regarded that Jainism is an eternal with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jaina .The word Jainism is derived from the word ‘Jina’ which means ‘conqueror—one who has conquered his passions and desires. It is applied to the liberated souls who have conquered passions and desires and and obtained emancipation.The principal ingredients of Jaina metaphysics are, an ultimate distinction between living substance or soul (jiva) and nonliving substance (ajiva); the doctrine of , or non-absolutism, and the doctrine of karma, in Jainism a substance, rather than a process, that links all phenomena in a chain of cause and effect.

Reality and Existence According to Jain metaphysics the universe is an uncreated entity that has always been in existence and shall always be there. There was neither any beginning of the universe nor is there going to be any end. In other worlds neither the universe was created at any time nor will it be destroyed, there being no origin in the past nor any end in the future. Since the universe was never created, the question of creation or a creator do not arise.The Jain thinkers have mentioned the word “Sat”, “”, “”, padartha”, and “tattvatha” as synonyms for the world reality. They generally did not make any distinction among substance, reality, existence etc.

The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It is called Anekäntaväda or the doctrine of the manyness of reality. Anekāntavāda is literally the doctrine of "non-onesidedness" or "manifoldness;" it is often translated as "non-absolutism." It states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. Jain doctrine states that objects have infinite modes of existence and qualities so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human . Only the Kevalins—the omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and

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manifestations; others are capable of only partial knowledge. Consequently, no specific human view can claim to represent the absolute truth. As opposed to it, ekānta (eka+anta - solitary attribute) is one- sidedness. Jains compare all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with the "maxim of the blind men and elephant." In this story, one man felt the trunk, another ears and another tail. All the blind men claimed to explain the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed, due to their narrow perspectives. According to the Jainas, Matter (pudgala) and spirit (jiva) are regarded as separate and independent . There are innumerable material atoms and innumerable individual souls which are all separately and independently real. And each atom and each soul possesses innumerable aspects of its own. A thing has got an infinite number of characteristics of its own. Everyobject possesses innumerable positive and negative characters. It is not possible for us, ordinary people, to know all the qualities of a thing. We can knowonly some qualities of some things. To know all the aspects of a thing is to become omniscient. Therefore the Jainas say that he who knows all the qualities of one thing, knows all the qualities of all things, and he who knows all the qualities of all things, knows all the qualities of one thing. A thing has many characters and it exists independently. It is called substance (). It persists in and through all attributes and modes. Substance is defined as that which possesses qualities and modes. Out of these innumerable qualities of a substance, some are permanent and essential, while others are changing and accidental. The former are called attributes (guna) and the latter modes (paryaya). Substance and attributes are inseparable because the latter are the permanent essence of the substance and cannot remain without it. Modes or modifications are changing and accidental. Reality is a unity-and-difference or difference-and-unity. Viewed from the point of view of substance, a thing is one and permanent and real; viewed from the point of view of modes, it is many and momentary and unreal. Substance, therefore, is also defined as that which possesses the three characteristics of production, destruction and permanence. Substance has its unchanging essence and therefore is permanent. But it also has its changing modes and therefore is subject to origination and decay.

Ontology- Jiva- Ajiva

Jainism is both dualists—in that it posits that the soul is different from nature—and pluralist—in its acceptance of the existence of a multitude of separate entities in the universe. The whole universe is

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brought under the two everlasting, uncreated, eternal and co-existing categories which are called Jiva and Ajiva. These are the uncreated existing constituents of the Universe which impart the necessary dynamics to the Universe by interacting with each other. These constituents behave according to the natural laws and their nature without interference from external entities.Jiva means the conscious spit it and Ajiva means the unconscious non-spirit. Ajiva includes not only matter which is called ‘Pudgala’, but also space, motion, rest and time. Spirit, matter, motion, rest and space (respectively called jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharmaandakasa) are described as astikayadravyas or substances which possess constituent parts extending in space; while time (kala) is the only anastikayadravya which has no extension in space. Jiva is generally the same as the Atman or thePurusa in other pluralistic schools with this important difference that it is identified with life of which consciousness is said to be the essence. According to the , there are infinite independent souls. Infinite knowledge, perception and bliss are the intrinsic qualities of a soul. The are divided first into those who are liberated (mukta) and those who are bound (baddha). The bound souls are further divided into mobile (trasa) and immobile (stavara). The latter live in the atoms of earth, water, fire and air and in the vegetable kingdom and have only one sense—that of touch. The mobile souls are again classified as those who have two senses (e.g. worms), three senses (e.g. ants), four senses (e.g. wasps, bees etc.) and five senses (e.g. higher animals and men). Consciousness is regarded as the essence of the soul. Every soul from the lowest to the highest possesses consciousness. The degrees of consciousness may vary according to the obstacles of karma. The lowest souls which inhabit material atoms appear to be lifeless and unconscious, but in fact life and consciousness are present in them though in a dormant form. Purest consciousness is found in the emancipated souls where there is no shred of karma. All souls are really alike. The degrees of consciousness are due merely to the karma- obstacles. The soul in its intrinsic nature possesses Infinite Faith, Infinite Knowledge, Infinite Bliss and Infinite Power. In the case of the bound souls these characteristics are obscured by karma. A jiva is a real knower (jnata), a real agent (karta) and a real experient (bhoktha). It is included in the astikäyadravyas because its constituents possess extension in space. But it does not extend in space like matter. It is like the light. Just as the light fills the space where it is burning and just as many lights may remain in the same place without coming into conflict with one another, similarly the soul fills the space and many souls may remain together without any conflict. Though itself formless, it takes the form of the body which it illuminates. The soul is

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School of Distance Education coextensive with the body. Though we find souls in this world as embodied and as possessing the senses and the manas which help the souls to know, yet really the body, the senses and the manas are obstructions placed by karma and hinder the souls in their direct knowledge. Knowledge is not a property of the soul; it is its very essence. Every soul, therefore, can directly and immediately know everything if it is not obstructed by matter. Freedom from matter means omniscience and emancipation. The category of Ajiva is divided into matter (pudgala), space (äkäsha), motion (dharma), rest (adharma) and time (kala). They are all without life and consciousness. Time is anastikâyabecause it does not extend in space. It is infinite. It is not perceived, but inferred from its characteristics which make possible continuity (vartana), modification (parinama), activity (kria), now or new (paratva), and then or old (aparatva). It is one and indivisible. Some Jaina writers have distinguished between real (paramarthika) and empirical vyavaharika) time. The former makes continuity or duration possible and is infinite, one and indivisible. The latter can be divided into moments, hours, days, months and years and makes other changes, except duration, possible. Like time, space is also infinite, eternal and imperceptible. It is inferred as the condition of extension. All substances except time have extension and extension is afforded only by space. Space itself is not extension; it is the locus of extension. Two kinds of space are distinguished. In one, motion is possible and it is calledLokakasa or filled space; in the other, motion is not possible and it is called Alokakasaor empty space. The former contains all the worlds where life and movement are; the latter stretches itself infinitely beyond the former. At the summit of Lokäkäsha is Siddhashilä, the Abode of the Liberated Souls. Dharma and Adharma are used here not in their popular sense of and demerit, but in the technical sense of the conditions of movement and rest. Like space and time, these also are eternal and imperceptible. They are inferred as the conditions which help motion and rest respectively. They are formless and passive. Dharma cannot generate motion nor can Adharma arrest it. They only help or favor motion or rest, like water helping the motion of a fish or like earth supporting things which rest on it.

Matter is called Pudgala which means that which is liable to integration and disintegration. This word is used in Buddhism in the sense of a soul, while in Jainism it is used for matter. An atom (anu) is supposed to be the smallest part of matter which cannot be further divided. objects (sanghätaorskandha) of the material world including senses, mind (manas) and breath are the combinations of atoms. Matter possesses the four qualities of colour, taste, smell and touch. Sound is regarded not as quality, as other systems have done, but only as a modification (parinäma) of matter. All

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School of Distance Education atoms are qualitatively alike and indistinguishable. They become differentiated by developing the qualities of color, taste, smell and touch. Hence the distinction of the elements of earth, water, fire and air is secondary and transmutation of elements is quite possible. Matter in its subtle form constitutes karma which infiltrates into the souls and binds them to samsära.

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UNIT-III BUDDHISM- METAPHYSICS Buddhism is a non-theistic school of Indian philosophy and a moral discipline, originating in India in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. It was founded by the Siddhartha Gautama. The Buddha developed the system at a time when India was in the midst of significant religious and philosophical reform. The Buddha came to understand that desire and attachment caused suffering and humans suffered because they were ignorant of the true nature of existence. People insisted on permanent states in life and resisted change, clung to what they knew, and mourned what they lost. In his quest for a means to live without suffering, he recognized that life is constant change, nothing is permanent, but one could find inner peace through a spiritual discipline that recognized beauty in the transience of life while also preventing one from ensnared by attachment to impermanent objects, people, and situations. His teaching centers on the , the Wheel of Becoming, and the Eightfold Path to form the foundation of Buddhist thought and these remain central to the different which continue in the modern day. Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of reality. Buddhist practices like are means of changing oneself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and wisdom. The experience developed within the Buddhist tradition over thousands of years has created an incomparable resource for all those who wish to follow a path — a path which ultimately culminates in Enlightenment or Buddha hood. An enlightened being sees the nature of reality absolutely clearly, just as it is, and lives fully and naturally in accordance with that vision. This is the goal of the Buddhist spiritual life, representing the end of suffering for anyone who attains it.

The Four Noble Truths

In order for life to be anything other than suffering, one had to find a way to live it without the desire to possess and hold it in a fixed form; one had to let go of the things of life while still being able to appreciate them for the value they had. After attaining enlightenment, he phrased his belief on the nature of life in his Four Noble Truths ( ). The Four Noble Truths are a contingency plan for dealing with the suffering humanity faces -- suffering of a physical kind, or of a mental nature. The four noble truths or "truths of the noble one" are a central feature of the teachings and are put forth in the DhammacakkappavattanaSutta. They are as follws:

 Life is suffering

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 The cause of suffering is craving  The end of suffering comes with an end to craving  There is a path which leads one away from craving and suffering.

1. There is suffering (duhkha).

The First Truth identifies the presence of suffering. Life is full of misery and pain. Even the so- called pleasures are really fraught with pain. There is always fear lest we may lose the so-called pleasures and their loss involves pain. Indulgence also results in pain. That there is suffering in this world is a fact of common experience. Poverty, disease, old age, death, selfishness, meanness, greed, anger, hatred, quarrels, bickering, conflicts, exploitation are rampant in this world. That life is full of suffering none can deny.

2. There is a cause of suffering (duhkha-samudaya).

The Second Truth, on the other hand, seeks to determine the cause of suffering. In Buddhism, desire and ignorance lie at the root of suffering. Everything has a cause. Nothing comes out of nothing— ex nihilo nihil fit. The existence of every event depends upon its causes and conditions. By desire, Buddhists refer to craving pleasure, material goods, and immortality, all of which are wants that can never be satisfied. As a result, desiring them can only bring suffering. Ignorance, in comparison, relates to not seeing the world as it actually is. According to Buddhism, Everything in this world is conditional, relative, limited. Suffering being a fact, it must have a cause. It must depend on some conditions. ‘This being, that arises’, ‘the cause being present, the effect arises', is the causal law of Dependent Origination.Without the capacity for mental concentration and insight, Buddhism explains, one's mind is left undeveloped, unable to grasp the true nature of things. Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred and anger, derive from this ignorance.

3. There is a cessation of suffering (duhkha-).

The Third Noble Truth, the truth of the end of suffering, has dual meaning, suggesting either the end of suffering in this life, on earth, or in the spiritual life, through achieving . When one has achieved Nirvana, which is a transcendent state free from suffering and our worldly cycle of birth and , spiritual enlightenment has been reached. Because everything arises depending on some causes and conditions, therefore if these causes and conditions are removed the effect must also cease. The cause being removed, the effect ceases to exist. Everything being conditional and relative is necessarily

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School of Distance Education momentary and what is momentary must perish. That which is born must die. Production implies destruction.

4. There is a way leading to this cessation of suffering (duhkha- nirodha-gâminîpratipat).

There is an ethical and spiritual path by following which misery may be removed and liberation attained. This Fourth Noble truth charts the method for attaining the end of suffering, known to Buddhists as the . The steps of the Noble Eightfold Path are Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right and Right Concentration. Moreover, there are three themes into which the Path is divided: good moral conduct (Understanding, Thought, Speech); meditation and mental development (Action, Livelihood, Effort), and wisdom or insight (Mindfulness and Concentration).

Eight fold path

In Buddhism, the Noble Eightfold Path is often represented by means of the dharma wheel or , in which its eight spokes represent the eight elements of the path.In , these practices started with understanding that the body-mind works in a corrupted way (right view), followed by entering the Buddhist path of self-observance, self-restraint, and cultivating kindness and ; and culminating in dhyana or , which reinforces these practices for the development of the body-mind. The eightfold path, although referred to as steps on a path, is meant as eight aspects of life, all of which are to be integrated in everyday life. The eightfold path is at the heart of the , which turns from extremes, and encourages us to seek the simple approach.The eightfold path is Right Understanding, Right Intent, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. In Buddhism, the eightfold path is meant as a guideline, to be considered, to be contemplated, and to be taken on when, and only when each step is fully accepted as part of the life you seek. The meaning of Right has several aspects, and includes an ethical, and a balanced, or middle way. When things go ‘right’, we often experience a special feeling inside which confirms that this is the correct decision or action.

Right Understanding: The first step of the eightfold path is Right Understanding or Right View. This is a significant step on the path as it relates to seeing the world and everything in it as it really is, not as we believe it to be or want it to be. Just as one may read the directions on a map, and then make the journey,

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School of Distance Education studying, reading and examining the information is important but only the preparation for the journey. The purpose of right view is to clear one's path from confusion, misunderstanding, and deluded thinking. It is a means to gain right understanding of reality. At a deeper level, direct personal experience will then lead us to Right Understanding.

Right Intent: The second step on the Eightfold Path is Right Intent. This is the step where we become committed to the path. Right Understanding shows us what life really is and what life’s problems are composed of, Right Intent urges us to decide what our heart wants. Right Intent must come from the heart and involves recognizing the equality of all life and compassion for all that life, beginning with yourself. It means persistence and a passion for the journey. Setting out to climb a high mountain means one must understand the lay of the land and the pitfalls, the other team members, and the equipment he need. This is similar to Right Understanding. But he will only climb the mountain if he really want to and have a passion for the climb. This is Right Intent. The mountain we climb here is our journey through life. To summarise, Right Understanding will eliminate ignorance. With Right Intent and correct understanding, we then remove desire, which in turn causes the suffering defined in the Four Noble Truths.

Right Speech: Right Speech is the next step of the Path. We tend to underestimate the power of the spoken word, and often regret words said in haste. Right speech involves recognition of the truth, and also an awareness of the impact of idle gossip and of repeating rumors. Communicating thoughtfully helps to unite others, and can heal dissention. By resolving never to speak unkindly, or in anger, a spirit of consideration evolves which moves us closer to everyday compassionate living.

Right Action: Right Action recognizes the need to take the ethical approach in life, to consider others and the world we live in. This includes not taking what is not given to us, and having respect for the agreements we make both in our private and business lives. Right Action also encompasses the which were given by the Buddha, not to kill, steal, and lie, to avoid sexual misconduct, and not to take drugs or other intoxicants. This step on the path also includes a whole approach to the environment, with Right Action being taken whenever possible to safeguard the world for future generations.

Right Livelihood: The next on the Eightfold Path follows on from Right Action, and this is Right Livelihood. If our work has a lack of respect for life, then it will be a barrier to progress on the spiritual

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School of Distance Education path. Buddhism promotes the principle of equality of all living beings and respect for all life. Certain types of work were discouraged by the Buddha; in particular those deal in harmful drugs and intoxicants, those dealing in weapons, and those harmful to animal or human life. So a dedicated Buddhist would not be recommended to have a liquor store, own a gun shop, or be a butcher. In his time, he also discouraged the slave trade, which dealt in human workers. And he was also against the practice of fortune telling as this made assumptions about a fixed future, where his teaching stresses that the future is created by what we do today. Right Livelihood also implies that a Buddhist who is able, will undertake some work, either as part of a Buddhist community, or in the workplace, or, alternatively, do home based or community service. Many communities of ensure that each member has daily chores, which remind him of this step on the Eightfold Path.

Right Effort: Right Effort means cultivating an enthusiasm, a positive attitude in a balanced way. Like the strings of a musical instrument, the amount of effort should not be too tense or too impatient, as well as not too slack or too laid back. Right Effort should produce an attitude of steady and cheerful determination. In order to produce Right Effort, clear and honest thoughts should be welcomed, and feelings of jealousy and anger left behind. Right Effort equates to positive thinking, followed by focused action.

Right Mindfulness: While Right Effort is a very easy concept for most of us, Right Mindfulness is somewhat trickier to grasp, and may involve quite a change of thinking. Right Mindfulness means, being aware of the moment and being focused in that moment. When we travel somewhere, we are hearing noises, seeing buildings, trees, advertising, feeling the movement, thinking of those we left behind, thinking of our destination. So it is with most moments of our lives. Right Mindfulness is closely linked with meditation and forms the basis of meditation. Right Mindfulness asks us to be aware of the moment, and of our actions at that moment. By being aware, we are able to see how old patterns and habits control us. In this awareness, we may see how fears of possible futures limit our present actions. Sometimes you may be absorbed in what you are doing. At that moment, you are mindful, and the Buddha showed how to integrate that awareness into our everyday lives.

Right Concentration: Once the mind is uncluttered, it may then be concentrated to achieve whatever is desired. Right Concentration is turning the mind to focus on an object, such as a flower, or a lit candle, or a concept such as loving compassion. This forms the next part of the meditation process. Right concentration implies that we select worthy directions for the concentration of the mind, although

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School of Distance Education everything in nature, beautiful and ugly, may be useful for concentration. At deeper levels, no object or concept may be necessary for further development. The benefits of Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration are significant as they teach the mind to see things, as they really are. At the same time, they also lead to a feeling of calm and peace with the world. By being in the moment and being able to concentrate effectively, a sense of joy in the moment is felt. Release from the control of past pains and future, mind games takes us closer to freedom from suffering.

The Doctrine of Dependent Orgination

The doctrine of pratityasamudpada or Dependent Origination is the foundation of all the teachings of the Buddha. It is contained in the Second Noble Truth which gives us the cause of suffering, and in the Third Noble Truth which shows the cessation of suffering. Suffering is Samsara; cessation of suffering is Nirvana. Both are only aspects of the same Reality. In early Buddhism, the concept of dependent origination was most likely limited to processes of mental conditioning and not to all physical phenomena. The Buddha understood the world in procedural terms, not in terms of things or substances. His theory posits a flux of events arising under certain conditions which are interconnected and dependent, such that the processes in question at no time are considered to be static or independent. Craving, for example, is always dependent on, and caused by sensations. Sensations are always dependent on contact with our surroundings. Buddha's causal theory is simply descriptive: ‘This existing, that exists; this arising, that arises; this not existing, that does not exist; this ceasing, that ceases.’ This understanding of causation as ‘impersonal law like causal ordering’ is important because it shows how the processes that give rise to suffering work, and also how they can be reversed.

Pratityasamutpada, viewed from the point of view of relativity is Samsara; while viewed from the point of view of reality, it is Nirvana. It is relativity and dependent causation as well as the Absolute, for it is the Absolute itself which appears as relative and acts as the binding thread giving them unity and meaning. All phenomenal things hang between reality and nothingness, avoiding both the extremes. It is in this sense that Buddha calls the doctrine the Middle Path, Madhyamapratipatwhich avoids both eternalism and . Buddha identifies it with the Bodhi, the Enlightenment which dawned upon him under the shade of the in Gaya and which transformed the mortal Siddhartha into the immortal Buddha. He also identifies it with the Dharma, the Law: ‘He who sees the Pratityasamutpada sees the Dharma, and he who sees the Dharma sees the Pratityasamutpada- Failure to grasp it is the cause of misery. Its knowledge leads to the cessation of misery.

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School of Distance Education Troubled by the sight of disease, old age and death, Buddha left his home to find a solution of the misery of earthly life. Pratityasamutpada is the solution which he found. Why do we suffer misery and pain? Why do we suffer old age and death? Because we are born. Why are we born? Because there is a will to be born. Why should there be this will to become? Because we cling to the objects of the world. Why do we have this clinging? Because we crave to enjoy the objects of this world. Why do we have this craving, this thirst for enjoyment? Because of sense- experience. Why do we have this sense- experience? Because of sense- object-contact. Why do we have this contact? Because of the six sense- organs (the sixth sense being the mind). Why do we have the six sense- organs? Because of the psycho- physical organism. Why do we have this organism? Because of the initial consciousness of the embryo. Why do we have this consciousness? Because of our predispositions or impressions of Karma. Why do we have these impressions? Because of Ignorance. Hence Ignorance is the root-cause of all suffering.Thus we get the twelve links of the CausalWheel of Dependent Origination:

(1) Ignorance ()

(2) Impressions of karmic forces (samskara). (3) Initial consciousness of the embryo (vijnäna). (4) Psycho-physical organism (nama-rupa). (5) Six sense-organs including mind (sadayatana). (6) Sense-object-contact (sparsha). (7) Sense-experience (vedana). (8) Thirst for sense-enjoyment (trsna). (9) Clinging to this enjoyment (upadana). (10) Will to be born (). (11) Birth or rebirth (jati). (12) Old age and death (jara-marana).

Out of these twelve links the first two are related to past life, the last two to future life and the rest to present life. This is the cycle of birth- and-death. This is the twelve-spoked wheel of Dependent Origination. This is the vicious circle of causation. It does not end with death. Death is only a beginning of a new life. It is called Bhava-, Samsâra- chakra, Janma-marana-chakra, Dharma-chakra,

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Pratityasamutpada- chakra etc. It can be destroyed only when its root-cause, Ignorance, is destroyed. Otherwise, Ignorance being present, impressions arise; impressions being present, initial consciousness arise and so on. And Ignorance can be destroyed only by Knowledge. So Knowledge is the sole means of liberation. Ignorance is bondage; Knowledge is liberation. An analysis of these twelve links shows their psychological significance. It is important here to note that life is not regarded by Buddha as a product of the blind play of mechanical nature, but as due to the internal urge, the life-force, and the will to be born.

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UNIT- IV

SANKHYA YOGA- METAPHYSICS

Sankhya is one of the six astika schools of Indian philosophy. The founder of Sankhya philosophy was sage and is referred as the ‘first psychologist’ and ‘Father of Cosmology’ in the history of mankind. The word Sankhyais derived from the Sanskrit noun Sankhyā (number) based on the verbal root khya(make known, name) with the preverb sam(together).Sankhya thus denotes the system of enumeration or taking account. It is most related to the Yoga school, and it was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy. It forms the theoretical foundation of Yoga. The Sänkhya theory explains the depth of Yoga and provides a clear map to transcendent our Physical, Mental and Psychological limitations.Yoga, as the counterpart of Sänkhya, means action or practice and tells us how the theoretical metaphysical teachings of Sänkhya might be realized in actual practice. Yoga takes the Samkhya philosophy into the realm of experience, through gradual and systematic progression. Based on the understanding we gain from Samkhya, we teach yoga starting from the gross or physical level, moving next to the subtler levels of mind and spirit, and then returning to the gross with a higher level of consciousness. We return to our ‘outer’ lives rejuvenated and relatively more enlightened. Thus Sänkhya-Yoga forms one complete system, the former being the theoretical while the latter being the practical aspect of the same teaching. Sänkhya is also the philosophy of numbers, because it deals with twenty-five categories. It is a pluralistic , atheistic realism and uncompromising dualism.

Reality Samkhya is dualistic realism. It is dualistic because it advocates two ultimate realities: Prakriti, matter and Purusha, self (spirit). Samkhya is realism as it considers that both matter and spirit are equally real. Samkhya is pluralistic also because of its teaching that Purusha is not one but many.These two realities exist parallel without affecting each other. TheSankhya reduction of the numerous Categories (especially those of Nyaya-Vaisheshika system) into two fundamental categories of PurushaandPrakriti for describing the world makes the Sankhya philosophy a real advance on the theory of atomic pluralism. The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusha-prakriti entities infused with various combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity

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School of Distance Education and mind. That is, the Sankhya advocates the dualism of Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti is unconscious while Purusha is conscious. According to Samkhya, the efficient cause of the world is Purusha and the material cause is the Prakriti. Here Purushastands for the ‘Supreme spirit’ and Prakriti stands for ‘matter’. Purusha (spirit) is the first principle of Samkhya. Prakritiis the second, the material principle of Samkhya.Prakritiis known, while Purusha is knower. Prakriti cannot give rise to a soul which also cannot give rise to Prakriti. So the Sankhya advocates neither not Spiritualism. It holds that prakriti evolves for the sake of the purusha. The evolution of Prakritiis subservient to the ends of the Pursuhsas, experience and liberation. It is not mechanical but teleological though there is unconscious finality in it. During the state of imbalance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this imbalance and bondage is called liberation or kaivalya by the Samkhya School. Prakrthi

According to Sankhya system the theory of causation means a real transformation of the material cause leads to the concept of Prakrtias the root-cause of the world of objects. Prakṛtiis the first cause of the manifest material universe—of everything except the puruṣa. Prakṛti accounts for whatever is physical, both mind and matter-cum-energy or force. Since it is the first principle (tattva) of the universe, it is called the pradhāna, but, as it is the unconscious and unintelligent principle, it is also called the jada. The products are caused, dependent, relative, many and temporary as they are subject to birth and death or to production and destruction; but Prakrtiis uncaused, independent, absolute, one and eternal, being beyond production and destruction. The extreme subtleness of Prakrti makes it unmanifest and imperceptible; we infer its existence through its products. As the source of the inanimate world, it is unconscious. The entire world of objects is implicit in the bosom of Prakrti. Evolution is the explicit manifestation of this world of objects, while dissolution is the returning of this world to Prakrti.Unintelligent, un-manifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible, eternal and one Prakrti alone is the final source of this world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom. Prakrtiis composed of three essential characteristics (trigunas), namely , and . The term guna, in ordinary sense means quality or nature. But here, it is to be understood in the sense of constituent (component) in Samkhya. Sattva is concerned with happiness. While rajas is concerned with action, tamas is associated with ignorance and inaction.Sattva is the guna whose essence is purity, fineness and subtlety. Sattva is the component concerned with , brightness and pleasure. Sattva is associated with ego, mind and intelligence. Its association with the consciousness is the strongest.

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Though sattva is an essential condition for consciousness, it is not sufficient. It should be remembered that consciousness is exclusively the Purusha . Rajas is concerned with the of rajas. In living beings not only activity and restlessness, but pain also are caused by rajas. Tamas is the constituent concerned with the inertia and inaction. In material objects, it resists motion and activity. In living beings, it is associated with coarseness, negligence, indifference and inactivity. In man, it manifests itself as ignorance, insensitivity and inaction. Sankhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti which are as follows: (1) All individual things in this world are limited, dependent, conditional and finite. The finite cannot be the cause of the universe. Logically we have to proceed from the finite to the infinite, from the limited to the unlimited, from the temporary to the permanent, from the many to the one. And it is this infinite, unlimited, eternal and all-pervading Prakrti which is the source of this universe. (2) All worldly things possess certain common characteristics by which they are capable of producing pleasure, pain and indifference. Hence there must be a common source composed of three Gunas, from which all worldly things arise. (3) All effects arise from the activity of the potent cause. Evolution means the manifestation of the hitherto implicit as the explicit. The activity which generates evolution must be inherent in the world- cause. And this cause is, Prakrti. (4) The effect differs from the cause and hence the limited effect cannot be regarded as its own cause. The effect is the explicit and the cause is the implicit state of the same process. The effects, therefore, point to a world-cause where they are potentially contained. (5) The unity of the universe points to a single cause. And this cause is Prakrti. Purusha

The other of the two co-present co-eternal realities of Sankhya is thePurusa, the principal of pure Consciousness.Purusa is the soul, the self, the spirit, the subject, the knower. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, and unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, non-attributive consciousness. Purusa is neither produced nor does it produce. The purusa is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the prakrti is the enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya that the purusa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. It is neither body nor senses nor brain nor mind (manas) nor ego (ahankara) nor

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School of Distance Education intellect (buddhi). It is not a substance which possesses the quality of Consciousness. Consciousness is its essence. It is itself pure and transcendental Consciousness. It is the ultimate knower which is the foundation of all knowledge. It is the pure subject and as such can never become an object of knowledge. It is the silent witness, the emancipated alone, the neutral seer, the peaceful eternal. It is beyond time and space, beyond change and activity. It is self-luminous and self-proved. It is uncaused, eternal and all- pervading. It is the indubitable real, the postulate of knowledge, and all doubts and denials pre-suppose its existence. The Sankhya recognizes the purarity of purusha and the spiritual unity of each purusha. The soul is distinct from its material vestment, the body, mind, intellect and . It is distinct fromprakriti and its effects and devoid of satva, rajas and tamas, it is discriminating, simple intelligent, non-productive, uncaused, eternal and immutable. It is beyond time space and . It is the conscious knower.Sankhya gives the following five proofs for the existence of the Purusa: (1) All compound objects exist for the sake of thePurusa. The body, the senses, the mind and the intellect are all means to realize the end of the Purusa. The three gunas, the Prakrti, the subtle body—all are said to serve the purpose of the self. Evolution is teleological or purposive. Prakrti evolves itself in order to serve the Purusa’s end. This proof is teleological. (2) All objects are composed of the three gunas and therefore logically presuppose the existence of the Purusa who is the witness of these gunas and is himself beyond them. The three gunas imply the conception of a nistraigunya—that which is beyond them. This proof is logical. (3) There must be a transcendental synthetic unity of pure Consciousness to co-ordinate all experiences. All knowledge necessarily presupposes the existence of the self. The self is the foundation, the fundamental postulate of all empirical knowledge. All affirmations and all negations equally presuppose it. Without it, experience would not become experience. This proof is ontological. (4) Non-intelligent Prakrti cannot experience its products. So there must be an intelligent principle to experience the worldly products of Prakrti. Prakrti is tlie enjoyed (bhogyä) and so there must be an enjoyer (bhoktâ). All objects of the world have the characteristics of producing pleasure, pain and bewilderment. But pleasure, pain and bewilderment have meaning only when there is a conscious principle to experience them. Hence Purusha must exist. This argument is ethical. (5) There are persons who try to attain release from the sufferings of the world. The desire for liberation and emancipation implies the existence of a person who can try for and obtain liberation. Aspiration presupposes the aspirant. This proof is mystical or religious.

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Theory of evolution The idea of evolution in Samkhya revolves around the interaction ofprakṛti and Purusha. Prakṛti remains unmanifested as long as the three gunas are in equilibrium. This equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed when prakṛti comes into proximity with consciousness or Purusha. The disequilibrium of the gunas triggers an evolution that leads to the manifestation of the world from an un-manifestedPrakṛti. The metaphor of movement of iron in the proximity of a magnet is used to describe this process. As the material cause of the world, Prakriti is dynamic. Its dynamism is attributed to its constituent gunas. The gunas are not only constituents, nor are they simply qualities. The gunas are the very essence of Prakriti. Gunas are constituents not only of Prakriti but also of all world-objects as they are produced by Prakriti. Prakriti is considered homogeneous and its constituent gunas cannot be separated. The gunas are always changing, rendering a dynamic character to Prakriti. Still a balance among three gunas is maintained in Prakriti. The changes in the gunas and in the Prakriti may take two forms: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous. During the state of dissolution (pralaya) of the world, the gunas change homogeneously, i.e., sattva changes into sattva, rajas into rajas and tamas into tamas. This change does not disturb the equilibrium of the gunas and unless the equilibrium is disturbed and one predominates over the other two, evolution cannot take place. Evolution starts when there is heterogeneous change in the gunas and one predominates over the other two and brings about terrific commotion in the bosom of Prakrti. Homogeneous changes do not affect the state of equilibrium in the Prakriti. As a result, worldly objects are not produced. Heterogeneous changes involve radical interaction among the three gunas. They disturb the state of equilibrium. This is the preliminary phase of the evolution. The evolutionary process is initiated by the rajas, which activates sattva and then the two gunas overpower the inertia of the tamas. An important factor behind the disturbance is Purusha . The relation between Purusha and Prakriti may be compared to that between a magnet and a piece of iron. Purusha itself does not come into contact with Prakriti. But it influences Prakriti. Thus, the Prakriti is prompted to produce. As the gunas undergo more and more changes, Prakriti goes on differentiating into numerous, various world-objects. Thus it becomes more and more determinate. This is what is termed as evolution.

For the Sankhya system the manifold world is not created by God out of nothing, but it is evolved from Prakriti. The world is unconscious and cannot be the transformation of a sprit which is unchangeable and immutable. It is the transformation of the unconscious prakritior of satva, rajas and tamas. Prakrti and its evolutes are subject to transformations. They can never be deprived of their

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School of Distance Education essential nature of modifiability evolution and dissolution. Prakriti is first transformed into mahat’ or cosmic intellect (Buddhi). Mahat is transformed into Ahankaraor cosmic egoism. Ahankara is transformed into the eleven sense organs, and the five tranmatras or subtle of sound, touch colour, taste and smell. The five subtle essences are transformed into five gross elements of sky, air, fire, water and earth. These are the twenty four principles. In addition to these there are . These are the twenty five principles according to Sankhya. That is, Prakriti -Purusha –Mahat- Ahankara- Eleven sense organs- (mind, 5 sense organs, 5 motor organs) – 5 - 5 mahabutas.The Sankhya recognizes above twenty five principles of reality. Of these purusha is neither a cause of the aggregate of all effects in the world. It is their ultimate cause, which is not the effect of any other cause. If it had any other cause, it would lead to infinite regress. Prakritiis a cause but not an effect. It is not a modification of any other ultimate cause.

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UNIT- V SCHOOLS OF VEDANTA

Vedanta or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the six astika schools of Indian philosophy. Literally it means ‘end of the Vedas’, that is the word Vedanta is a compound of veda, ‘knowledge’ and anta, ‘end or conclusion’.Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and contained in the Upanishads, specifically, knowledge and liberation. It relies on three textual sources called the Prasthanatraya, it gives a unifying interpretation of the whole body of Upanishads, the Brahma ,and the . The main traditions of Vedanta are: Advaita Vedanta, , Dvaita, Dvaitādvaita, , and AchintyaBhedābheda. All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern themselves but differ in their views regarding ontology, soteriology and .Vedanta schools have a number of doctrines in common, including transmigration of the self (samsara) and the desirability of being released from the cycle of rebirths; the authority of the Veda; the understanding that Brahman is both the material (upadana) and the instrumental (nimitta) cause of the world; and the concept of the self (atman) as the agent of its own actions (karma) and, therefore, the recipient of the consequences, of those actions

(). The primary philosophy captured in the Upanishads, that of the one absolute reality termed Brahman, is the main principle of Vedanta. The concept of Brahman, the Supreme Spirit or the eternal, self-existent, immanent and transcendent Supreme and Ultimate Reality which is the divine ground of all Being, is central to most schools of Vedānta. There is also a concept of God or Ishvara, and the Vedantic sub-schools differ mainly in the manner in which they define the relationship between God (Ishvara) and Brahman.

Advaita Vedanta

Advaita Vedānta is the most influential school of all, and has influenced many . It was propounded by AdiSankara and his ParamaGuruGaudapada, who described Ajativada. According to this school of Vedanta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusionary power of Brahman called Mayacauses the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world, and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual

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School of Distance Education soul jīvātman and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this non-difference, a-dvaita, not- two-ness. Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (jñāna).

Vishishtadvaita

Vishishtadvaita was propounded by (1017 -1137) and says that the jīvātman (individual soul) is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, Brahman is asserted to have attributes, including individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds , or devotion to God visualized as , to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.

Dvaita

Dvaita was propounded by Madhva (1238- 1317). It identifies God with Brahman completely and in turn with Vishnu or his incarnation . It regards Brahman, all individual souls (jīvātmans), and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocated Bhakti as the route to liberation. There is no concept of Māyā as an illusionary power behind the world.

Dvaitādvaita

Dvaitādvaita was propounded by Nimbārka, based upon an earlier school called Bhedābheda, which was taught by Bhāskara. According to this school, the jīvātman is at once the same and yet different from Brahman. The relationship ofjiva with Brahman may be regarded as Dvaita from one point of view andAdvaita from another. There are three categories of existence, cit, acit, and Isvara. Isvara is independent and exists by Himself, while the existence of cit and acit is dependent upon Him. At the same time, cit and acit are different from Isvara, in the sense that they have attributes (guna) and capacities (swabhaava), which are different from those of Isvara. Difference means a kind of existence which is separate but dependent, while non-difference means the impossibility of independent existence. Shuddhadvaita

Shuddhadvaita propounded by (1479 – 1531). This system also encouraged Bhakti as the only means of liberation. The world is said to be the sport of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda.

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According to the version of Vaishnava Theology he espoused; the glorious Krishna in His Sacchidananda form is the Absolute Brahman.

Achintya Bhedābheda

Achintya Bhedābheda propounded by (, 1486-1534). This doctrine of inconceivable one-ness and difference states that the living soul is intrinsically linked with the Supreme Lord, and yet at the same time is not the same as God, the exact nature of this relationship being inconceivable to the human mind.

Sankara’s Advaita System

Advaita Vedanta is propounded by (7th century) and AdiShankara (8th century), espouses non-dualism and monism. Brahman is held to be the sole unchanging metaphysical reality and identical to the individual Atman. The physical world, on the other hand, is always-changing empirical Maya. The absolute and infinite Atman-Brahman is realized by a process of negating everything relative, finite, empirical and changing.The school accepts no duality, no limited individual souls (Atman / Jivatman), and no separate unlimited cosmic soul. All souls and their existence across space and time are considered to be the same oneness. Spiritual liberation in Advaita is the full comprehension and realization of oneness, that one's unchanging Atman (soul) is the same as the Atman in everyone else, as well as being identical to Brahman.

Ultimate Reality, according to Shankara, is Atman or Brahman which is Pure Consciousness (jnana-svarupa) or Consciousness of the Pure Self (svarupa-jnana) which is devoid of all attributes (nirguna) and all categories of the intellect (nirvishesa). Brahman associated with its potency () mayaor mulavidya appears as the qualified Brahman or the Lord (Ishvara) who is the creator, preserver and destroyer of this world which is His appearance.Jiva or the individual self is a subject-object complex. Its subject- element is Pure Consciousness and is called the Saksin. The source of the internal organ is Avidyâwhich causes individuality. Maya or Avidya is not pure illusion. It is not only absence of knowledge. It is also positive wrong knowledge. It is a cross of the real and the unreal. In fact it is indescribable. It is neither existent nor non-existent nor both. It is not existent for the existent is only the Brahman. It is not non-existent for it is responsible for the appearance of the Brahman as the world. It cannot be both existent and non-existent for this conception is self-contradictory. It is called neither real

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School of Distance Education nor unreal. It is false or mithya. Brahman is the ground on which the world appears through Maya. When right knowledge dawns and the essential unity of the jiva with the Paramatmanis realized, Maya or Avidya vanishes.

Sankara emphasizes that from the phenomenal point of view the world is quite real. It is not an illusion but is a practical reality. He distinguishes the dream state from the waking state. Things seen in a dream are quite true as long as the dream lasts; they are sublated only when we are awake. Similarly, the world is quite real so long as true knowledge does not dawn. But dreams are private. They are creations of the jiva. The world is public. It is the creation of Ishvara. Jiva is ignorant of the essential unity and takes only diversity as true and wrongly regards himself as agent and enjoyer. Avidyä conceals the unity and projects names and forms (viksepa). Ishvara never misses the unity. Maya has only its viksepa aspect over him. The Highest Brahman (Para-Brahma) is both the locus and the object of Maya. When the jiva realizes through knowledge and knowledge alone, karma being subsidiary, this essential unity, liberation is attained here and now (jivan-mukti) and final release (videha-mukti) is obtained after the death of the body.

Vishishtadvaita

Vishishtadvaita, propounded by Ramanuja asserts that Jivatman (human souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference that is never transcended. With this qualification, Ramanuja also affirmed monism by saying that there is unity of all souls and that the individual soul has the potential to realize identity with the Brahman.On the relation between the Brahman and the world of matter (Prakriti), Vishishtadvaita states both are two different absolutes, both metaphysically true and real, neither is false or illusive, and that with attributes is also real. Ramanuja states that God like man has both soul and body, and the world of matter is the glory of God's body. The path to Brahman (Vishnu), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of the personal god (bhakti of saguna Brahman).

According to Ramanuja, the Absolute is an organic unity, an identity which is qualified by diversity. It is a concrete whole (vishista) which consists of the interrelated and inter-dependent subordinate elements which are called vishesanas and the immanent and controlling spirit which is called vishesya. Unity means realization of being a vital member of this organic whole. God or the Absolute is this whole. He is the immanent inner controller, the Supreme Real who holds together in unity the dependent matter and individual souls as His body. Ramanuja recognizes three things as

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ultimate and real (tattva-traya). These are matter (achit), souls (chit) and God (Ishvara). Though all are equally real, the first two are absolutely dependent on God. Though they are substances in themselves, yet in relation to God, they become His attributes. They are the body of God who is their soul. God is the soul of nature. God is also the soul of souls. Our souls are souls in relation to our bodies, but in relation to God, they become His body and He is their soul. The relation between the soul and the body is that of inner inseparability (aprthaksiddhi). This is also the relation between substance and attribute. Aprthak- is the relation between the body and the soul, between a substance and its attributes, between parts and whole, and may be between one substance and another. It is an inner, inseparable, vital and organic relation. God is qualified by matter and souls. They form His body and are inseparable from and utterly dependent on Him. Ramanuja defines a body as that which is controlled, supported and utilized for its purposes by a soul. Matter and souls are called attributes of God; they are the controlled, the supported, the parts and the accessory means, while God is their substance, controller, support, the whole and the principal end. They are eternal with God, but are not external to him. He possesses internal differences (svagatabheda) as His organic body is made of real and diverse elements like matter and souls. His relation with them is natural (svabhavika) and eternal (sanatana). God is both the material and the instrumental cause of the world. He is the immanent as well as the transcendent ground of the world. He is immanent in the whole world as its inner controller (antaryami) and yet in His essence He transcends the world. His is a perfect personality. He is full of all good qualities—Existence, Knowledge and Bliss, Truth. Goodness and Beauty, Love and Power.

Dvaita

Dvaita, propounded by is based on the premise of dualism. Atman (soul) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are understood as two completely different entities. Brahman is the creator of the universe, perfect in knowledge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souls, distinct from matter. In , an individual soul must feel attraction, love, attachment and complete devotional surrender to Vishnu for , and it is only His grace that leads to redemption and salvation. Madhva believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, a view not found in Advaita and Visistadvaita Vedanta. While the Visistadvaita Vedanta asserted qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls, Madhva asserted both qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls.

Madhva advocates the reality of five-fold differences —between soul and God, between soul and soul, between soul and matter, between God and matter, and between matter and matter. His bias for

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School of Distance Education difference is so great that he advocates difference of degrees in the possession of knowledge and in the enjoyment of bliss even in the case of liberated souls—a doctrine found in no other system of Indian philosophy. Madhva believes that knowledge reveals the knower and the known as independently real and upholds the intrinsic validity of knowledge. The world is real and so are the differences that constitute it. Difference is the very nature of things. To perceive things is to perceive their uniqueness which constitutes difference. Distinctions of things account for the distinctions of ideas.

Madhva, like Ramanuja, believes in God and souls and matter as the three entities which are eternal and absolutely real, though souls and matter are absolutely dependent on God. God alone is independent. He possesses infinitely good qualities. Existence, knowledge and bliss constitute His essence. He is the creator, preserver and destroyer of this universe. He has a divine body and is transcendent. But He is also immanent as the inner ruler of all souls. His is a perfect personality. He is the Lord of Karma. He is pleased only by bhakti. He manifests Himself in the various Vyuhas and in incarnations and is present in sacred images. Laksmi is His consort. She is all-pervading and eternal like Him, but her qualities are a little less than those of her Lord. She is ever-liberated (nityamukta) and possesses a divine body. She is the Power of God. The individual souls are numberless and are atomic in size. The soul is by nature conscious and blissful. It becomes subject to pains and imperfections on account of its connection with the material body, sense-organs, mind etc. which connection is due to its past karmas. The souls are eternal and are of three kinds—eternally free (nityamukta), freed (mukta) and bound (baddha). Though God controls the soul from within, yet it is a real agent and a real enjoyer and is responsible for its acts. Bhakti is the only means of liberation. It is defined as the Eternal Love for God with a full sense of His Greatness. Prakrti is primal Matter. Under the influence of God when He wants to create the world, it evolves itself into the various material products which return to it again at the time of dissolution. Creation means manifestation of subtle matter as gross and the embodiment of the souls in order to reap the fruits of their acts. For Madhva differences have separate existence and constitute the unique nature of things. They are not mere qualifications of identity. He explains the relation of identity and difference by means of unique particulars (vishesa) in the attributes of a substance. The attributes are also absolutely real. Matter and souls are different from each other and from God. They do not qualify God because they have substantive existence themselves. Though God is the immanent ruler of the souls and though the souls as well as matter depend on God, yet they are absolutely different from God and cannot form His body. Madhvaalso advocates both quantitative and qualitative pluralism of souls. No two souls are alike

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Each has, besides its individuality, its peculiarity also. Madhva, therefore, believes that even in liberation the souls differ in degrees regarding their possession of knowledge and enjoyment of bliss. Hence, he regards God as only the efficient cause of the world and not its material cause which is Prakrti. God creates the world out of the stuff of Prakrti.Madhva emphasizes the difference of the liberated soul from God. The soul becomes similar to God in some respects when it is liberated, yet even in these respects it is much inferior to God. It does not enjoy the full bliss of God. The bliss enjoyed by the redeemed souls is fourfold- salokya or residence in the same place with God;samipya or nearness to God; sarupyaor having the external form like that of God; and sayujya or entering into the body of God and partially sharing His bliss with Him. Thus, according to Madhva even the most qualified soul which is entitled to sayujya form of liberation can share only partial bliss of Brahman and cannot become similar to Brahman in the strict sense of the term.

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