Television - IDENTIFIERS *Australia

- - DOCUMENT RESUME Adi

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4, AUTHOR Canavan, Kelvin B. oe- TILE' Mass 'Media Education: Cdrriculum Guidelines for vSecondary Schools, Years,7-12. INSTITUTION Cathdlic Education Office, Sydney (Australia). PUB- DATE May 75 '(NOTE 53P- AVAILABLE FROMCatholic Educatiori Office, P.0. Box 145, Broadway, S. S. W.' 2007, Australia ($1.50)

EDRS /PRICE ME-10.7t HC-$3.32 Plus" Postage x. DESCRIPTORS *Curriculum Guides; Experimental Curriculum; Films; *Mass Media; News Apdia;'Parochial Schools; Radio; '*Secondary Education; Secondary School Students;

, . Television - IDENTIFIERS *Australia . ± ABSTRACT i ,.. The itpact-that mass media has had on secondary: ..t schodl children is stressed in this curriculum guide. Contents include a rationale for media education, major assumptions, aims, objectives, suggested learning 6xperi.ences, and evaluation of mass media. A 941-item bibliogfaphy plus a list of primary and secondary student texts are included. (Du,'

**********************************************************************, * Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished * materials not available from other sources. ERIC makes every effort * * 'obtain the best copy available° nevertheless, items of marginal. * * reprOducibility are often encountered and this affects the, quality * * of the microfiche and4hardcopy reproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERC'Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). EDRS is not * iresPon8ible for the Ruality of the original document. Reproductions * * supplied py EDRS are the best that'can be made from the original. * *********)4***********************************************************-*, - ' Curriculum Guidelines for a. Secondary Schools Years 7 12

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MEDIA / EDUCATION

KelvinE. Canavan Catholic EducationOffice Sydney.

4 9 4 "t+

4. .MAY, 1975

Illustrations by Sister Susan Daily, I.B.V.M.

4 r /up

., FOREWORD

A3/4/1975

To today's children thereis nothing particulady wonderful, about radio and television or, indeed,. about any form of the mass media.Those of us who\ have observed the ever growing web of communications which envelops us will probably never cease to wonder at the,easegswith which we call in Music a ,7 for enttr, enjoyment not only from all parts' of our own country but even from .other parts of the world. The sight of titan `on the moon is to us a never- to-be-forgotten experiehce. But young people do not look on it that way. They accept any form of the mass media as normality and would svonder,if it were to be tdken away front ,them. In particztlar,Wife. without television they would IP' reject as quite intolerable. s It follows, therefore, thi,t those of us who are teachers are flying in the fact of reason if, we fail, to 'appreciate the influence the mass media has' upqn youhg,minds, if 9e perpetually disregard the messages which radio and television bring to the notice of. those who are in our classes, if e think what we have to say has any more validity to our students than the messages. from"the bOx", in the= palls or on the screen. Yet there are those who, fearing the power of the ;mass media, refuse to acknowledge its presence in their, clasSrooms, believ- ing or hoping that if"they ignore it in their teaching it ;Will some.how or other go away or, at least, lose its grip upon the young *minds withwhichthey seek to communicate.

Some Aars, ago in the\contat othe Australian College of Education, I met Brother Kelvin Canavan whose th rights obviously ran along lines similar to mine and who we then engaged inriling 'a set' of guidelines kr, teachers in primary schoolsJohelp theth.-to mg the mass media into their class- 'roorns in a positive way. Nossafter further study overseas', Whas gone further and developed:las thesis by extoding. his guidelines into the secondary school and those ,who read this current 'Work wilt not only thems'elves.gain a new insight into the 'ihfiztence of radiq,television,film and the press! but also find a strategy -outlined to help them to link these fortes into the everyday work lof their students and bring a new relevance into their Mach*. ,

FRANK WATTS DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION AUSTRALIAN BROADCASTING COMMISSION 4

TABLEOF CONTENTS

Page

1.0Ratftwiale for Media Education in the Secondary School ...... 1

vi ti

2.0 "Major Assumiptions 17 r

o., '3.0 Preamble to the Course 19

. - 4..0Desired Outcomes of the Course. 21'

5.0 Aim of the Course 23

6.0 Objectives of the Course

. 7.0 Suggested Learning Experiences 33

1.- 8.0 Guidelines for Evaluation of MasS Media 49

9.0 Bibliography 51

6 . 4 .

... A Rationale for Media Education in the Secondary School

The time has come to introduce into the age schools to make provision in their curriculum primary and .secondary schools Of Australia a Oor a wider range of courses based ,on new areas new subject that recognises the role of the mass f interest; (6) the Decree on Social Communi- media in-our society and aims to help students cationsofthe Second Vatican Council; and in all year§4be appreciative, discriminating and (7) the statement on media education made by critical lisferftis, viewers and readers. This new. the Australian Bishops' Conference in September, Subj&t may appropriately be called "Mass Media 1972, asking all Catholic schools to begin media Education." * education as soon as a curriculum was available. The mdss media in recent years-have emerged as powerful forces for the education and social- lotion of young Aukralians. Few people remain 1.1 Exposure to the Mass, Media Y. outside the orbit of media influence while most spend considerable time reading the press, vietv- All but a handful of Australians are exposed inf; film and television and listening to the radio. to television, film; press and radio from a very Yet; the majority of people are not receiving, early age. The present population of approxim- 1,1; . adequate help to develop an appreciation of the ately 13.27 million persons possesses 11.1 mil- media, and educational agencies show only scat- lionradiosand.4.4milliontelevisionsets. tered interest in ,the problem. Today, the literacy Approximately 96 per cent of Australians live in skills taught in schools, should be extended .to a dwelling with at least one television set. Radio include thevisual and audio areas made so penetration in the country is 99.7 pet cent and crucial by the advent of The electronic media. in the cities itis almost 100 per cent. Sales of If schools are to maintain the claim that they newspapersinAustralia .exceed4.5million prepare students to take their place in society, daily. 1 1 they must begin to equip them with skills essen-._ . Television viewing by school students appears ,, tial to the intelligent handling of themass media. Jai to reach a peak during the.first years of second- The idea of introducing Mass Media Educe- ary school. Thomas and Lang (1965) found that tioninto Australian schools has been occasioned Form One studerits in Victoria viewed in excess by the growing realisation that the -Mass of 1,200 hours in a 'single year while Powell are significant forces in the lives of most Aus- (1971). found thal Form Two students in the tralians.This awareness, has been fostered by: same state averaged slightly more than 1,300

(1) research findings on the exposure of Aus- viewing hours per year. In a comparative study 1' tralians to television and otter media; (2) the iin San Francisco, Schrammetal. 1961 found growing interest of teachers, parents and re- that students in Grade 8 viewed almost , karchers in the impact of the m6dia, especially hours per year.After Grade 8 these students on young people, (3) the continuing growth of a tended to spend less time with the teleyision. powerful media industry in /Australia; (4) ithe Thomas and Lang (1965) provide figures from knowledge tat parents. are generally not able to Form One onward which tend to supsupport ort the help th'eir children become critical and discritn- assertion that television viewing reaches( a peak inatilig in their use of lhe media; (5), the move- during the early years in secondary sc ool and ment of Boards of Secondary Studies to encour- 0,then steadily declines. . 4 TABLE 1 Mean Hours per week spent watching Television/ s for Boys and Girls Forms 1 to 64e Form 1 . Form 2 Fortis 3 Form 4 Form 5 Form, 6 ,1 ., : Day ...(e.lv, 10.9 Students '219 22.8 20.8. 17.4 ',12.5 (Boys) , Day Students , 22.2 21.5 18.7 , 16.7 11.2 6.4 (Girls) V Taken from Thomas and Lang, (1965)

* In this study the term "Mass Media Edut.ation will be used to denote a st.hool .ont.erned with the process of studying-and understanding the mass media.

1 7 The dgcline in television viewing' among adol- research findings indicate that from a vtry' early escents appears to be accompanied by an increase age children are viewing a great deal of television, in their use of thec radio. ,The average teenager R,esults of a study conducted in five state by the .spends. 2.75 hours .each day listening to the author (Crisvan, 1973) and involving 47,175 radio.2 students$ in Grades 4 - 7 in .Catholic . primary schoolsindicatedthatuppej primaryschool - While children's television viewing tends to children were viewing an average of 2.33 hours peak inthefirstyears ,of secondary school, .: of television ,on school days.

TABLE2, Hours of Daily TV Viewing (Mon. - Thurs.) of Children istralian Catholic Primary Schools (Grades 4-7): 4971 - 1973

, 1 . 3 - 4 4 - 5 5 - 6 . Totdl Hours 0 - 1 ' - 2 2 -3 a i . - Number of '11,668 10,840 4 8,562 6,851 6,205 .3,049 47,175* children , % '24.7% 28.0% 18.1% 14.3%, 13.2% 6.7% ,100% Average: 2.33 hours daily

t This represented approximately 55.66% of the children enrolledin the uppeprimary grades in the 5 'tides surveyed.

. In another study involving parents of upper About half of these 'daily readers were reading primary pupils in Sydney Catholic schools the pews stories. The same survey revealed that 46 author (Canavan, 1974) found that parents estim- 15er tent of the students in the sampleread comics ated that the children -averaged 2.48 hours of on any given day. television on school dayS. As the 'time spent

viewing on weekends, and holidays is generally v.t TABLE 4 greater than on schOol days, it is estimated that Surrey of Reading Habits of Fifth and Sixth these primary pupils average in excess of 1,000 Grade Pupils* hours of tejevision an a year. In Australia) primary pupils spend less than .1,100 hours in school "YES",,RESPONSES NI QUESTIONS each year. . BOYS GIRLS Did Yott !TABLE 3 road something iq a newspaper ')/0 38%' Comparisorof hoursper year primiiry children In the previous 24" figure- I 7,AM ..-41 spent in class with those spent watching television Did You at home. Feed a news item In a newipaper 26% 20% In the privious 24 hours? 11n Classroom 1,0110,hours Is, the maximum Did You' . Viewing T.V. -1,000 tiour'sis theappro'ximate read a eportirfp item In a news-, 25% 8% at home average' paper in the previous 24 hours? Did You - Thisfigureis based on information containedin Table 2.. read comics in the pre0Ious 24 50%' 42% hours? I X*,' A major studyof the television habits of very young children in Australia remains to be done, . * 1,955 boys and 1,691 girls were includedinthisurvey con ductedinCatholic s oolsinthe Archdiocese 'of Sydney on but itis the author's opinion that the present , 0111.9th February, 1972., .patterr in Australia -issimilar to that in the" Unit&1 States. In a study involving nearly 25,000 Considering also the time spent reading maga- American parents, Barcus (1973) found that by zines and visiting the cinema itis obvious that the age of three American children were aver- the average Australian child and young adoles- aging 1,000 hours of television annually. Barcus - centspends considerably more time with the mass found little variation in viewing hours among media than he does *attending class.It wotild children ibetween the ages of thlee and eleven. appear safe tohypothesise that only sleep occupies a greater proportjon.of the average student's 4 Primary and secondary students also spend life between kindergarten and middle second- considerable time reading the press. In a study than do, the mass media. of 5th and 6th grade students attending Catholic ary schools in Sydney in 1912, the author (Canavan, This massive exposure to the mass media is 1972) found that 43 per cent were reading some' certainly not limited to children. Adults in Aus- thing in the daily newspaper on any given days tralia also spend a large proportion of their time

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t leads to change in other sub-systems and change at the individual level will lead to change et the societal- level. In analysing media-effects studies in terms-of general eystems, diecnif the focus is on the whole (culture) when considering a given Part (television). # 1 ' .'The popular cOneept Of, contmunicatiortas pcess tells us .that meaning- is not inherent in tl e message but exists in the transition between C the sender and the 'receiver.Zenct,eoinrauni- . cation-does not occur until the rec ver ,Wssigns samemeaning to the conte.xt and con entof the . sender's, message. This is not to say that information cannot, have an objective 'existence apart with the media. Australian Broadcasting Control from the communicator"or the audience. But in-. Board research in 1969 revealed that 41 per formation is not communication; rather it is a cent of adults in Sydney Watch more thand).1hours stimulus or cause of communication. An appreci- of television each day. Figures publisheby the ation of communication as process, together with Australian Radio Advertising Bureau show that" a general systems perspective, will lead oneto., 87 Per cent of all people- over ten_yearg of age see.aqvision and the other mass medial as sys-,::' listento commercial radio, and these people terns within aIskrger system, namely tire. average 3.28 hours per 4.1z1y. , These mass,,\media are in constant in with other systems the viewers; their social All this exposure, to mass media must have ., behaviour, their cultural symbols, their economic a significant impact on Australians young and and political systems b,rid should not be a old. What follows is an attempt to assess the sig- . - studied in isolation. . , _,_.-. nificance of ,that impact anct, to examineltheArn-.2 ,-. ice c--.4 A systems'"and process approach to media ptications for education with particular referl.14, to curriculum construction.. ". effects study does snot pqrmit one, to isolate particular 'variables in ordeto explain communication phenomena. in terms of cause and effect. 1.2 .1mpatt of4the Mass Media /. The treatment of messages bythe media, interest 4 level and audience disposition are examples of Identification oftthe impact of the mass media variables that are in constant' interaction with on-people is a complex task. There are extensive each other as well as with a host cl. f other yari4 research studies on the subject' and in an attempt ables. The whole process,-which operfitesin space to give' some structure to the examination of and time, is best viewed as non-linear, ongoing,- the 'literaturethestudieshave been loosely grouped into Your broad categories: (1)studies and circular. ' , tq.king a general systems perspectiF, (2) studies *, A systems' appropeh to media study has been taking a stimulus-response perspective, (3) studies preferred to an approach based op the stimulus; of television as an industry, and -(4) studies which fosponse paradigm which pursues communication ° focus on the rote of parents in children's tele- ,studY in linear 'terms. The bulk of nkedia research. vision behaviour. These categories are not exclu- available today is front,,a ,stimulus- esponse per- . sive and some studies Could be placed in a spective and despite elaborate attempts to Mlate number of categories. and Control Variables, the studies do not provide us with an appreciationpf the total function of. A aneral Systems Perspective the media' in the cultafe. However; the better st'When 'considering the impact of ache mass stimulus-retonse type studies, when taken col - media on *pie, one should not tlitnk simply lectively, can be used to support a general over- *1 in terms of hours viewed, particular programmes\ view4of media effects on the cult ire. 1 wa$dhedand, newspapers read by -individuals. There isa owing body, of communication This information may be of some use, but as scholars woikin 'thinthisgeneralsystems television and the.other media, to a lesser extent, paradigm. The charismatic cLuhan, who has permeatetheculture, one needs to consider carte a great dealto popul rizetissystems media' effects from a sufffeiently broafrill perspec- approach to media study, focuses a tention on tive that will provide an overview -of' the total the impact of the media .on the socia(51st m as N impact on the people and their way 6f life. By a whole. Taking a distant perspective Mchan adopting a gene\ralt systemi rationale such an believes that the mass media arc doing good.,1 overview may be obtained. Working within a +fear morc than transmitting messages. y are/ general systems framework, one views culture altering the very essence of our culture by creat- as a network -of interrelated sub-syftems that arc ing "new languages with new and unique powcrs inherently linked, and that arc ip cbfistant inter- of expression." 3 Developing this idea McLuhan action with eat other. Change in one sub-system writes:

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'Historically,thet\s'ourcesof English have vision program. to be affected byitsmass been shaped and expressed in constantly new. transmission. andchangingways.The, printifigpress changed, not only the quantity of 'writing, but The felolesc ent, in particular, will be influenced the character of language and the relations by what peers have seen and read and,heard. between author and ,public. Radiofilm, TV The mirk of4Goldsen ,complenTents that of 1 . el pushedwritten Englishtowardsthespon- McLuhan and adds considerably 'to our under- taneousshifts and freedom, of the spoken standing of the function' of-the media ia, society. 4 idiom. They tided us in,the recovery ollintense Working from a general systems perspeclive she awareness, of facial language and bodily ges- has managed to study. the 'media without dis- ture.A ,,aggregating the social system. She has provided us with 5a conceptual 'frameworkthat incorpor- By drawing, attentiontothe more global atesallthevariablesinthecommunication. dftects of themass media in'Ottr culture McLuhan process. . has'succeeded in getting Peoplerto consider alter- .nate ways' of approaching media study. By adopt- Thisgeneralsystemsapproachtomedia ing a sufficiently wide perspective that permits,the effects stuffy has also bpen followed Gerbner whole, and not just the parts to beocen. Mc- (1972), Condry (1973Vand Carpenter (1972). Luhan argues that the communications revolution Gerbner (1972) studied the symbolic content of is transforming our culture at an unprecedented the. environment and concludedthat modern 'rate. communications are transforming the ' environment at an .unprecedentedrate. The rate of 4t, This comple x interrelationship, etween the change is now so rapid that successive genera- ia-lind he4Culture has also been explored by tions are now being specializ d` in very different oldsda at Cornell University. Television, Gold- environments and in very'd' erent ways., Gerbner ,' scn-believes,'exercises a powerftil, 'formative in- explains: 1,.--_---. Iluence on a country's culture: Possessing the power to legitimize, television is in a position to In only two decades omassive national exist-s, 'help define, or create behairloural nprms, to show encetelevision has tr insformed the political what is acceptable forthe culture at a, parti ular life of the nation, has 'changed the daily habits .., point of time. For Goldsen, television conte t is of our people, has m ulded the style of the Both a product and 'producer of culture.s a , generation, made over night global phenomena producer of culture 'it, has some effect on What out of local happening, redirected the flow of people do, say and think. It affects the language, information and values', from traditional awn- and symbois the people usethe. fashion.-they .; rids into centralized networks reaching into admire, the, sports they follow.It. allo qfects `-every home. In other wqrds it has profoundly social relationships. Mas importantly, television affected whatwe call the process of socializ- affects the attitudes, values and, beliefs orpeople, ation, the process by which members df our especially young people. species become human. 6'" , Gaidsen rejects the'view that television content In developing this theme Gerbncr makes the is essentially detchnined by. public ,demand, She point, .as do McLuhan. and Goldsen, that the believesthat television organizes tastesrather mass media today .have the power to mass-pro- , than responds to therh and the choices people duce messages,that have the potential to create ' make arelimited by what is made available by mass publics and thus alter the traditional. pro- . the stations. If we accept this view of,television- dess of socialization. He writes: we 'should remember as *did the MaTh Hare Never before have so many people in so many in Alice in Wonderland that, if we do not places shared so much of a commons s}/stem actively trylo get what we like; we shall end up of messages and images and th ssump- liking what, we get..The implications' -q this tions about life, society, and the word that , observationwillbedevelopedlaterinthis ..* the system, embodies while having o little chapter. . . . .-. to do. with Creating the system. In sure,` the Ths televisionnetworks and theirstations fabric of popular cultqrc that relates' the ele- beam programmes and commercials into the total ments of existence to One another andshapes ... airspace of the country, and Goldsen believes the common consciousness of what is, what is ,that people are influenced whether they watch important, what is right and what is related television or not. Developing this line of thought to what else is now largely a manufactured' Goldsen explains:5 X product. ' .. oucchildron do not have to take drugs to He is -quick to point out, however, that one w be affected by the drug culture, they 'do not 'always communicates make things or different have to listen to- rock music to be affected by things than one ig aware of.Thus a cox& 6)a-cultureOur black children ,do not heave mercial featuring a.pain reliever, to cite an ex- to experience .a racial insult, to be affected by ample, communicates a whole range of different racism. Well, it is my contention that neither messages to different people. Some will probably do our children have to watch a given telez, get the intended nAssag, others may get a mes- 4

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. ... a sago clintainedin the upderly ing assumptions of pact of television on children in many countries. the commercial and still others could be expe.c- Since tlien research has continued in the United ted to get a distdrted message. . States and the impcluS for substantial and expen- *. Looking more specifically at ehildren's tele- sive studies has come from the three television ivision Condry (1972) has f011owed a similar,linq networks, pressure groups such as Action for of research, addressing himself to the question Children's Television and the Council on Child- of .attitudes and values. Making the point that ren,. Media and Merchandising, and from the 'researchers have only recently begun to examine Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and the Fed'- television in ternsVIcultural impact, he begins oral. Communications Commission (FCC). It is his study by", looking at 'the needs of childreand beyond the scopei of this chapter to review all their intellectuaLdevelopMent and concludthat these studies, but an attempt will be made to the effects or-television need to be considersin pinpoint' the highlights from a cross-section that the light of the ecology or childhood. Today, 'appears to. have particular relevance for Aus- Condry believes, this.ecology is out 6f balance as tralian edusato'6 in the 1970e ' a result'of rapid sociaL and. cultural change and Television research in Australia has been lim- will nee4 to be carefully considered when design- ited tossviewing patterns and in order tq consider ingisaidies to detetmine the impact of television. ,the effects of exposure to this medium it will be Disnlissing,for the most ,dart, children's tele- necessary to draw, on research conducted in the vision as "an endless parade of mindless drivel," Unitki States. Australian and United States tele- Condry points out that any distortion is -harmful vision are similar in many respects. Both :coun- for young people if it is consistent and not coud- tries have approximately 96 per cent of homes teraeted. by other more realistic influences. with at least one television set and children from Carpenter (1972), a disciple of MclLuhan, also these homes ;wrap in excess of 1,000 hours views the media according to general. systems television each year. Both countries have three theory. Basing his ssoblervations on experiences in commercial networks and^programtoing content many countriesfie' continually explains -how a is frequently similar. It appears safe to assume change in one element. of a communicationsys-. thatin general terms, many United States tele- ttem will lead to changes in the whole *tem. vision studies would have implications for Aus- Hence, to shyly the effects, of television or radio tralia and could be helpful in -formulating an one needs to ldok at their impact on the whole overview of the impact of television on viewers in culture. <, this- country. .) qA These, fiveresearchers have argued~forthe Since teleyision first appeared iesearehers have necessityofadoptingaglobalorsystems examined both its direct and indirect effects. on approach to media effects study. They emphasize child and adult behaviour. McDonagh (1950) . the interrelationship among, variables and _des- found decreases in the amount of reading and cribe how the mass media affect an entire culture. conversing, as well asinradio listening and In a. countrysaturated with mass media these movie attendance after fire purchase of a tele- . effects are considerable and can be seen through- i,isiou set. Maccoby (1951) established that child- out the culture. The Whole process of 'education, .ren 11,cre substituting television fort use of other and socialization is ipfluenced by this powerful mass media, for *some'of their play time and for force. The educationalimplications ., ofthese time previously .spent 'on household tasks, Jenks effects will be considered in the final section of (1955) found that television created many prob- V this chapter. lems in the home. These included conflicts over t 4 progrdmme choice, interference with children's iSiinnaus-Resm seyerspettive bedtini,e,w_atching too many prpgramites,wand The bulk of media effects research in the last interference with meals, family outings, living decade has been conducted from,a slitnulus- rdomactivities,thores and homework.But response perspectiVe and has generally attempted Schramm and Roberts (1971), after reviewing to manipulate variables to establish causal rein- two decades of -studies, concluded that television tionships. The value of this approach to research 1 isrestricted b9 the fact that human behaviour and persohality divelopment ate dependent onr many interrelated variables and itis a near in- superable ty :to isplate the. influences of tete- .vision, film, press or radio. However, if we ere: amine the findings of some of theriore substantial' stimulus- responseorientedstuZiesfromour general systems erspective, we. can build tip 4 more complete pideure of the function of th4 media In the culture. In 1971 the annotated bibliogtaphy intht Televisionante SocialBehaviorserieslisted Approximately 250 studies ;dealing with the int,. .

5 (- appeared to have had a very minor effect on the ation of feel ngs are understood by children school work of children in the United States and and alter th bpliavior. 8 England. They ,found that when intelligeFe is In another studStevenson (1971) found that taken into aec6unt there is little relationship be- tele vision programmes can lead to positive effects tween amount of viewing and school results, and on the cognitive development of children. These the child who watches television instead of com- two studies are representative and could be sup pleting his homework would probably be doing portedbyhundredsvoof parentsandschool something else if television were not available. teachers who have constantly-pointed Out to the The use of television as an escape mechanism author that their children are very much influenced by- the media. These findings certainly -lias been studied at some length. Maccoby (1954) loug proposed that a child's interest in television may come as no surprise to advertisers who hav be symptomatic of a need for vicarious satisfac- believed in the ability of the media to chante the tion when the child is frustrated in his attempts behaviour of adults and children.. , to achieve satisfactioninreallife.Children, Over the years a, number of studies havere- Maccoby concluded, may find it easier to obtain ported somc relatihnship between aggressive be- this satisfaction through fantasy in television than haviouand viewing-, violence on television but throughnormalsocialrelationships.Peailin method logical weakness and general failire, to (1959) continued this line of researchwith adults control all the variables did not permit the reso and concluded, television offers relief to anxious lution of the question as to the nature ofthis. individuals. It 'provides them with an opportunity relationship. The National Commission The to withdraw peribdically from unpleasant situ- Causes and prevention of Violence (196% drew ations. Forsey (1963) theorized that people watch. attention to the significance of the question when televisionin an unconscious effort to resolve it concluded: conflicts about personal development and social ...that a constant diet of violent be/cat:lour adjustment, rather than to be entertained. While on television has an adverse effect onhuman supporting ,thesefindingsKatz andFoulkes character and attitudes..Violedge on television (1962) found that the media may also strengthen encourages violentolent forms of behaviour, and one's position in social relatibnships. Children, fosters moral and social values about violence for example, who are attachcd to their parents in daily life which are unacceptable in a civil- may use television to draw themselvescloser to ized society. the family.' Wiebe (1969,) examined the psycho- e - logical factors in audience behaviour and. found Experimental support for this statement could found in the research of Bandura and hisassoci- an inverse relationship betweenthe numbers of al. viewers and the cultural merit of programmes. ates. In their classic experiment Bandura et This led to the hypothesis that the medium, by (1963a) observed young children at play after offering immediate need gratification and mini- exposing them to different stimuli. They fou d mizing intellectual effort, attracts viewers who do that children who had experienced real-life not want to become involved. Wiebe concluded filmed instances of aggression did not differ 15. eople prefer a medium where they are total aggressiveness, but did exhibit about twice that as much imitative physical anfl verbal,aggression' excus d from acknowledgingothers and which aggressive acts. presents them with symbols and images but never as the children who saw no real persons. From theseresults. the investigators concluded that television may serve'as an influential model Glynn (1956) suggested that television fosfers of social behaviour but caution ,that one must'' traits of passivity and dependence and uncon- distinguish between the child's learning about sciously shapes the viewer's character. He cited aggression and his translating it into action. Ban- several cases of mentally ill individuals for whom dura et al. (1963b) and Bandura (1965) produced televisionisamothersubstitute,satisfying some additional evidence to supportthis con- childish needs and promoting regression to in- slusions, A similar pattern of results is founsl in fancy. Clark (1969) saw television as a cause of studies by 13brkowitz et,a/. (1963) and Berkowitz social conflict and a method of controlling it. (1965) wlfo worked.-with college students. Once CommiNcations, he found, function to maintain -'`again.. subjects viewing aggressive film reacted the' established social order and are therefore vlitli more aggression than control subjects view- crucial to the understanding of social conflict. ing neutral or non-aggressive material. In addi- To cite the findings of two more typical re- tion Berkowitz (1965) demonstrated thatthe search studies may help to make the point-that aggression provoked by film -is more likely to television has some positive influence on children. be directed at persons.toward 'whom the subjects Stein, es-al. (1972) established that' television can" -already feel some hostility. But Berkowitz em play an important role in the social development phasises that the target person need not be some- of children. They write: one who has been the immediate'cause of injury ` Our finding's indicate that the themes of co- or frustration. operation, persistence in difficult tasks, toler- Since fhe formation of the Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and - ance of frustration anddelay, and Verbiliz-

sr , \ ,,, Social Behavior, MAP il, 1969, researchers in the nizes that tgevisiOn operates in a complex social United \States have 1 oked very closely at the setting and its effects are undoubtedly mitigated effects of televised violence on young viewers.. by other social influences. But itis of concern This committee, with a budget of one million to the author, that at a time when the values and dollars 10 commissioned 67 independent pieces . the influence of traditional institutions such as of research" in an attempt to resolve the question family, church and school are in question,"tele- of whether there is a causal connectio,n between vision is continuing to emphasise violent styles of televised crime and violence and antisocial be- life. haviour. A report and five volumes of studies . published in 1972 failed to completely resolve Television as aIndustry, the question bat the Committee did conclude During the pas( Ave years much4f the study hat; of television in the' United States ha§ focused on The experimental studies bearindon the effects the broad issue 9f television as a powerfurindust of aggressive, television entertainment content try.Melody ,(1973),Choate(1971,1973), on children support certain conclusions. Firtte Howard and Hulbert (1973), Pearce (1973) and' violence depicted on television can immediately Johnson (1970) have all examined the functions orshortly thereafterinduce, mimaing or of television in American society today. From copyil by children, Second) under certain brbad perspectives they attempt to explain the 'circumstances television violence ,can instigate * function.of television in a capitalisticsociety an increased aggressive acts. The accumu- which possesses the medium to the point of sat- however, does not warrant the uration. These five contributions to the dnder- standing of television grew out of a frequently caotedievidence,lte ion that televised violence has a uni- formladverse effect nor the conclusion that it expressed concern by parentS'and others looking ,has an verse effect on the majority of child- to the FTC and' the FCC for some ppsitive action ren. It cannot even be said that the majority on children's television. The author believes these of the children in the various studies we have writings have relevance for those interested 'in reviewed showed an increaseinaggressive understanding' the functionof the mediain' -behavior in response, to the violent fare to' Australia. which they were..exposed. Tile evidence does The television inastry in AOstralia is run by, indicate that televised violence may lead to in- corporations who are in the business to make sa creased aggressive behavior in certain sub- profit, and over the past twenty years these cor- groups of children, who might constitute a porations have discovered that the medium can small portion or a substantial proportion of be, an effective tool kir commercial marketing. thetotalpopulationofyoungtelevision Television has become the dominant medium for viewers. We cannot estimate the size of. the advertising to both adults and children. fraction, however, since the available evidence To appreciate the role of the television indus- does not come from cross-section samples of try in Australian society it would be helpful to the entire American population pf children. 11 examine the basic functions of the industry and But poor methodology robs this substantial' report the relationship of these functions W the com- of much of itsvalue.The television industry mercial component of the economy. According to aloneh was given the veto power by the Surgeon, Melody (1973) and Johnson (1970) the customer Genejal over nominations for places on the com- to whom the markets responds is not the viewing mittee and this was used to exclude Bandura and audience but,rather, the advertiser. And the Berkowitz,whoseresearchhadconsistently viewing audience is trot the customer in the mar- shown a link between exposure to violent stimuli ket, but rather, the product being sold. In other and aggressive behaviour. Three of the twelve words, the networks sell the viewing audience to members of the committee were in the employ the advertisers. This isnot to imply that the of the networks. Of the 67 studies commissioned interests of audience and' advertiser are neces- only 5 seriously studied the television stimuli. sarily opposed. In many respect's their interests, The remainder focused on children, adolescents would be similar but it is important to recognize and adults and paid little attention to the stimuli. that the system is fundamentally responsl,e to the pespite the inconclusive' nature of the report the advertiser. three 'networks in the United States made efforts The magnitude Of the television industry's role to reduce the 'violent content of programmes and in many Western economies was underlined by at the same time commissioned more studies into I, K. Galbraith who wrote in, The New Indus- the effects of violent television on viewers. The trial State: .final results4of this network sponsored research are not yet available. 'The industrial system is, profoundly dependent To conclude this consideration of the, effects upon commercial television and could.not exist of television violence .sin viewers, it must be said in its present form without it ... [Radio and that while the. definitive study remains to be done television are] the prime- instruments for the we need to conceptualize. the problem from a management of consuffier demand. 12 Commercial television, according to Choate general systems perspective.. This approach recog- YF 7 r

- (1971", introatrccyoung viewers to the ground George McGovern stared: .- v rules of the ,privat-eenterprise system in a dis- In its investigation of this jssue, the committee appointing way.' Choate doriot t9tally object has become aware of the special importance to selling to children but believes it shbuld be that televgion now plays in influencing the done in-a Inanners'which will help them acquire nation's nutritional habits. The television ad- prudent consumer habits. Hopefully, the young vertising of food *ducts now exerts an enor- can:death to be cautious without 'having to dis- trust and hate their economic system. Choate mous ,new influence on the nation's children. (1j973) reported to the FCC that the foods sold . .Ai heavy proportion of these commercials deal with food,products and predominantly tdchildren by American _television arenot with breakfaskand'snack foods..14 meats, .fruits,vegetablesanddairy 'products., .Rather, they are the contrived and processed The impact of television advertising on food.., foods, some with, but many without nutritional buying and consumption patterns can only be merit,,tlat dompate the airwaves. In most food estimated but it appears safe to conjecture that advertisementsirected to children the emphasis the indUstry is convinced that behaviour can be is on sweetness, colour and \shape and Choate alteredbyadvertising.Newproductsare. (1973) concluded that this advertising practice launched with expensive television commercials left children with a preoccupation for processed, and contracts between food companies and adver-, foods. tising.agencies are renewed regularly, indicating Howard and Hulbert (1973) in a staff report mutual satisfaction.Direct observation by Gifft ' to the FTC essentially supported Choate. They .et al. (1971) led them to write: saw 4.need for ,children to learn how to consume The presence of television in the house causes but from the evidence submitted to the FTC they certain changes in eating behavior in many concluded that it does not follow that television families. Mealtimes are adjusted so that fav- isa nee ssary, or even desirable part of this orite programs can be watched, or meals eaten learning e perience. Their report stated: 'hurriedly with a minimum of attention and conversation so Itis d nceivable thattelevisionadvertising that programs will not be could fru trate, rather -than aid, these goals. missed or else are eaten pn trays, in front of the .set.Snacksarefrequently consumed Consumer education per se would be a more while watching: One can only guess about the ,effective(although more expensiie) alterna- exfent and nutritional significance of the eat- tive. 13 ing behavior that makes acconimodation. to the Both Howard and Hulbert (1973) and Choate commanding presence of television.," (1971) expressed concern that, as a result Of In response to pressure from those concerned televised advertising, children frequent", become about various aspects of children's television the surrogate salesmen urging parents to buy par- Australian Broadttasting.Control Board in- 1973 denial; products and there is some evidence that issued all commercial television stations with a list this pressure could lead to tension within the of restrictions on teleyision advertising directed at family. The most frequent requests Ward (1972) children: Included in the list are orders that found were for food products.These requests advertisements must refrain from directly. urging decreased withthe 'age of the children, but children to put pressure on parents' to buy the mother's y,ieldines increased with the age of child- products advertised. The stations were also djr- ren. Ward abo found that 'younger children were ected not to place undue emphasis on the use of more inclined to attribute credibility tO advertis- such words as "only" kr "just" whew mentioning ing, but. even the youngest (five- to seven-year- the price of an advertised product. Restrictions old) viewers responded that advertising "some- on advertising in programmes directed at children times" tells the truth but not "always". arenotuniquetoAustralia.Accordingto The effects of television on the eating 'habits of Howard and Hulbert (1973) eleven of the sixteen children and adults have been studied by Clancy- free-world countries they surveyed did not per- Hepburn (1974), and Nevill (1973). But, as with mit any advertising on children's programmes. the studies on violence, the researchers,are un- The United States was the only country which able to readily isolate the influence of the inde- permitted more advertising on children's pro- pendent variable and hence statements aboutithet grammes thdn on adult programmes. effect of television, on eating habits must remains While the basic question about food habits and tentative.The evidence expressed before' the their relationship to television must still remain Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs unanswered one needs to continue to look at the of tile- United States Senate in 1973 revealed an effects of television in the context of the social- increasingconcern aboutthe 'qualityof the ization of children. This point will be developed American diet.Studies revealed a declinein later in the chapter. some very impdrtant parts of thisdiet.This decline is accompanied by a striking in lease in Role of Parents hi Children's Television the consumption of snack foods. In his opening Behaviour statementasp CommitteeChairman,Senator to what extent do parents attempt to control

8 14 .5

thetelevision their children want fki watch? At Methodof programme selection. least six [rated States research studies Barcus, Family choice differences were studied by. (1969),HiesandGol4man(1962),Niven Wand (1968) who found that among families in (1960); Witty (1967), Sat et General's Scien- Ottawa the older children's choices tended to tificAdvisory Committee on Television aid dominate those of the younger children, while Social Behavior (1972) and The National Com- the mother's programme choice was usually sel- mission on the Causes and Prevention of Viol- ecteditrgeferenceto the ,father's. In differences ence, (1969) have examined this question and with the children the choice of the parents was the bulk of the evidence suggests tHat American selected in about half the cases.,Wand also found parents do not exercise much control over the that in the absence of an agreement there was a television programmes their children watch. The tendency for the dissatisfied member todrift committee responsible for Television and Grow- away. ing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence (1972) Barcus (1969) has developed a comprehen- summarized much of the'available evidence when sive model for analyzing parental influence on they wrote: children's viewing. There are four basic dimen- Parents usually exert little influence over their sions.the time that influence is exercised I-- children's viewing. Our data indicate that in More, during orafter viewing; positive and an overwhelming majorityof families,the ,....negative controls; formal and informal controls; children control,the use of the teldision set and time and content controls. The most frequent through, early evening. Indeed, one study re- .types of controls Barcus found to be negative; ports that, parents often ask advice from their only a few of the mothers sampled said they, for-, children when they select early evening pro- bade certain programmes prior to viewing, while grains.16 most others exercised controls after the viewing Children's control of the television in the early had begun. Almost the' entire sample of mothers evening is certainly not absolute. Hess and Gold- in this study indicated that they suggest certain man (1962) reported that about half the Ameri- programmes for the children to view. can children in their study were free to turn pn .Chaffee et`41.1971) worked with 1,300 Amer- the television set whenever they wished, while in ican families and concluded that parents fre- other homes the decision was made by a parent, quently influence their children more by what usually the Ithother. However, it was the parents they do not do thaziby what they do, a case of and not tle children who decided when the set negative modeling. The Chaffee study gives little would be turned-off. support to the notion. thny"parental example" in Control by parents over the actual selection media use proyides an important model for the Of early evening programmes also appears to be children's viewing behayiour. minimal although Hess and 'Goldman (1962) At least eight of the American studies appear- found that American mothers were more con- ing in the bibliography of this study indicate a cerned with content of the programmes than very definite relationship between socioeconomic actual viewing time. FatherS, on the other hand, status (S.E.S.) and parental control of children's reported little concern with any aspects of child- television Blood (1961), Chaffee et al. (1971), ren's television unless the children's choice of Efron and Hickey (1969), Greenberg and Dom- programmes interfertd with theirs. Niven (1960) inick(1969),HessandGoldman(1962), studied Columbus, Ohio families and observed Schramm and Roberts (1971), Surgeon General's that between 7.00 p.m. - 9.00 p.m. a family Scientific Advisory Committee on Television and .decision on what was to be viewed was the chief Social Behavior (1972) and The National Corn- * TABLE 5 Hourly Control of Television Dial

Television viewed by Control of television dial by hours children , (total daily hours) Children Parents Family* Light viewers (N = 185 hours) 34% 34% 32%

Medium .and , 0 Heavy viewers (N = 705 hours) 43% 29% . 28% . All children - . (N = 890 hours) 41% 30% .29%

* Family when both child and parent select programs. X2 =5.45; df = 2; .05

Children's_daily Predominant controllers of television viewing televiiion in the 'home (Monday-ThiirsdaY) Children Parents Family*. light viewers (N = 54) 28% 28% 44% I Medium and Heavy viewers = 125) 50% 26% 23% All children (N = 179) '43% 27% 30%

* Family when both child and parent select programs. (In the remain ng79 homes there was no predominant controller of tho television dial). .X2 =10.20; df = 2; .001 p < .01

mission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence The reluctanceof' parentstoinfluencethe, (1969). In general, these studies' have found that viewing habits of children is particularly signi- the. higher the S.E.S. of parents the more they ficant when we consider the total impact of file tend to control the television their children watch. medium on children.Television appears to be A study of 300 families in Sydney (Canavan, able to educate and socialize the young in their 1974), revealed the role of Australian parents own homes with a minimum of intervention from to be similar to that of the American parents parents. In the following section of this chapter qited in the ablive studies. In the-SOney study this observation will be developed as the author the children emerged as the predominant con- .attempts to synthesise the research findings pre- rtrollerof the television .dial during thp hours sented above. they sg2 d in'front of the set. They control the dial for 41 per cent of the time they view tele- Some Generalizations Based on Foregoing visionee Table 5). In 43 per cent of the homes Research . inthe sample children exercisedredominant From the foregoing analysis of the lour cate- con of over the dial whereas paren excised gories of impact studies general systems per- pre °mutant control in just 27 per centf the spective, stimulus- response perspective, television homes (see Table 6). There was some pport as an industry are parental rolein children's in this study for the hypothesis that heavy viewers television behaviour one can induce a gen- experience relptively less parental control over czar statement on the role of the mass media1n ' what they watch than light viewers. The study Australia today, also indicated a possible negative correlation between S.E.S. and time spent viewing television. The twentieth century has witnessed a com- There was also some indication of a positive munications revolution that has put television, correlation between S.E.S. and degree of parental 'radio and the press into nearly every Australian control. There was strong support 86 per cent home and men, women and children each year from the parents in this study for media edu- absorb thousands of hours of audio-visual experi- cation courses in primary schotel ence. It is the author's opinion that much of this experience is enjoyed; frequently itis a source Judged by the surveys cdrsjed 'out by,the Aus- of information.Australians have grown to ap- tralian Broadcasting Control Board, Attitudesso -preciate their television and other media. Television, 1968-1969, most adults adopt the view that television is no worse for their children It is widely believed that the masts-media are than comics were for themselves. ILikewise, a intrinsically good and facilita,ie the /communica- permissive attitude lo the programmes viewed by tion of news, ideas and tea9hing to most Aus- children and the time spent watching television tralians. Many use the medlar particularly tele- was evident. Only 38 ,per cent had rules as to vision, for the bulk of theii entertainment. But what their children could view, antronly abput available evidence would tend to suggest that the one-half of the Sydney sample and one -third of pOtential of the mass media in Australia is still the Melbourne sample placed restrictions on their to be realised. amount of time spent by children watching tele- Effects of media useviryfrom individual to vision. Thus, it is inevitable that the majority of individual. Human behaviour and personality Australian children will be watching at least some development are dependent on so many inter- programmes thatareproduced foradult relatedvariablesintheenvironmentthatto audiences. isolate the effct of television, film, press or

10 4 `16 116 radio appears to be an extremely difficult task. important television becomes. But the mast of evidence availablo allows o,ne to Parents in Australia express little concern over induce a generalized overview of the effee4stof television and make few efforts to control their massmedia on 'Australian culture. children's viewing. As a result much of the thous- Television is a tremendous source of know- ands of hours children spend in front of tele- ledge fQr young people and is capable of provid- vision is spent viewing adult programmes. This ing a wide Lange of stimulating ,experiences. is particularly significalit in a country where the These experiences affect the lam* and sym- television industry expects parents to act as cen- bols people use and frequently contribute to the sors for the younger viewers. education and socialization of the young. No con- The mass media are an essential part of the .temporary literary form has a more massive audi- economic ,systeminAustralia.They' form a ence than television and this medium can affect powerful industry which is basically committed the acquisition of knowledge,, concepts, attitudes to making a profit. The industryhas a ye and values. Much of this learning is incidental. centratedownership whichplacessubstantial The television industry is primarily concerned power in the hands of relatively few peoplewho with informing and entertaining and makes little are in a unique pogition to influencethe nation. attempt to motivate learners or to provide oppor- The industry as a whole is primarily responsive tunity for "practice and studies of the relative to the advertisers and the consumer is of second- effectiveness of instructional television reveal little ary importance. As a, consequence of the present evidence that it is significantly more effective than economic structure of the media industrythe other forms of learning (Schramm and Roberts, people have verylittleeffective controlover 1971). The research by Krugman and Hartley what is produced. (19701-indicated that television learning is typically passive and is characterised by an absence Our understanding of the impact of the mass of resistance to what is presented. media on ''studentsisstillfar from complete. More research ',remains to be done before we can Television viewing appears to take little time establish in precisely what way what children are from structured activities such as homework and affected by what media and under what con- organized sport, but may lead to a postponement ditions. But if one believes that.the massive ex- in children's bedtime. Most of the time given to posure of impressionable children andadoles- television appears to come from those periods cents to a constant diet of television has some when nos ructuredactivitiesarescheduled. impact, then it might well be disastrous to pro- There is no eence that television viewing has a crastinates while waiting for the definitivere- detriment ffect on the study or homework pat- search on how the media assists in the socializ- terns of°anal, adjusted students, but there is ation and education of youth in Australia. evidence That some students use the media as an escape mechanism. Television istransforming Australian culture at an unprecedented rate.Knowledge, beliefs, The behaviour Of young people is influenced art, morals, customs and the habits of man are by television as hour after hour they see older slowly being changed as televisionlegitimizes people who communicate, who relate socially, what is acceptable in the culture. But while tele- who handle tensions, who resolve conflicts, who Nision is certainly a producer of culture it is also are kind, who are consumers, who play, who a product of culture. laugh, who listen to music and who cat particular kinds of foods. They see how some of their The mass media have emerged as powerful peers pressure parents to buy advertised pro- forces in the socialization of young -Australians .ducts. The young are also exposed to much vio- , An appreciation of the principle of individual dif- lence and witness wide range of aggressive ferences would suggest that it is not possible to acts. The bulk ofthisexposure to television is say precisely howindividuals may or may not frequently4with the less pleasant side of life and be socialized by the media. But one can con- thereAstra real possibility that young viewers jecture that from an early age the media show could suffer from a loss of sensitivity and crea- children how to play, how to consume, how to tivity. And as the whole culture is permeated by communicate, how to relate socially and how to television, people are influenced whether they be family members. They also introduce children watch television or not. to some of the realities of citizenshipin our society and generally expose them to some of Another possible danger of television lies not the richness of Australian culture. so much in the behaviour it produces as in the behaviour it prevents the games, the 'talks, Television, films and all forms of mass com- the family interaction. Turning on the television municationareconstantlypresentingvalues set can turn off communication among family which either strengthen or dilute the teachingof members. It can also alter family living patterns. the family, church, school and peer-groupThis However, the extent of the influence of television presentation of values by the media is more sig- on family life depends very much on the family nificant at a time when the influence of those itself. The weaker the family structure the more institutions traditionally responsible for the pro-

Ift cess of value transmission appears to be weaken- plete knowledge of the world and in all prob- ingorevenbreaking down. Bronfenbrenner ability their speech patterns, their attitudes and (1972) explains; values, their consumption habits and their social behaviour will have been partly shaped by the, As a result, by the time of junior high school, television. They may have become very future adiscontinuity becomes apparent between oriented and may typically look to the !Alia values and behavior.In the preschool and rather than the school for upzto-date knowledge. primary years, when associations with adults As a. result of this constant input from the media ° are still frequent and intense, the child intern- there is a real possibility that the student will alisesparental and community values, but not see the school as possessing the key to the many of them only at 4 verbal level. For pre- world of knowledge .and progress but as an in- vious generations, such values were then trans- stitution that is frequently preoccupied with the lated into corresponding patterns of action in past. For the student, ,the books and courses in a community which permitted and invited the school are very easily compared unfavourably to .4 involvement of children sand adults' in each television, radio and the press. Ayr other's lives at school, in the neighbourhood 7 and in the world of work. In recent decades, This new kind of student poses a challenge however, these institutions have become tech; for educators.For some, the electronic media nologized, dehumanized, and, in effect,dis- may loom as an-unwelcome competitor that must charged from their child-rearing responsibil- be ignored in the hope 'that its influence will dis- ities. In consequence, the child has been de- appear. But others will" recognise the educative prived of experience precisely in those social role of the media and take the necessary steps contexts in which values _learned within the to help the ,students master its codes and control family can be translated into concrete social its impact. 'Toward the 'end of this chapter the fictions outside the family. 17 role of the school and the teacher will be discussed at some length. Today, some of this vacuum isfilled by the Today the mass medi.expose the student to medik which ceaselessly present values toa young such an unrelenting stream of information that generation anxious to examine the values of rit may well be on the way to solving the prob- society before accepting them. While value for- lem of getting an ever increasing amount of mation is in this state of flux people will tend knowledge to people. Though many still see the to develop values on the basis of the widest school's primary function in terms of dispensing possible range of experience as they attempt to knowledge, educators are becoming increasingly formulate answers to the basic questions about aware that as a result of the knowledge explosion their lives and future.`In this situation the media they are no longer in a position to think of could be expected to play a significant role. teaching, primarily in terms of knowledge. This Froni the data presented in this chapter. one- line of thinking was developed by Silberman, who may conclude that in the last twenty years the cites Margaret Mead to make tht point 'that the mass media have become 'Veryeffective agents media are changing the nature of education, He of- education for Australians and the screen, the w,tites: radio and the press have joined the home, school and the church in the task of education. The When we realistically at the world in time has now arrived when all interested' in the which we arefare living .today and become aware education of young Australians must recognise of what the actual problems of learning are, the presence of these new, but powerful agents the anthropologist Margaret Mead wrote in of education and take the necessary steps to 1958, "our conception of education changes ensure that the contribution of the mass media radically.. .We are no longer dealing prim- harmonizes with that of the home, school and arily with the vertical transmission of the tried church. No longer can Australiansaffordto and true by the old, mature, and experienced ignore the educational role of the mass media. teachers to the young, immature, and inex- perienced pupil. This was the system of education developed in a stable, slowly' changing 1.3 Educational in,, 3lications of culture. In a world of rapid change, vertical transmissionofknowledgealone"isnot the Impact -of Mass Media enough. "What is needed," Dr. Mead argued, "and what we _are already moving toward is On the basis of the previous discussion in this the inclusion of another whole dimension of chapter, an attempt will now be made to deduce learning: the lateral transmission, to every sen- some implications for education. tient member of society, of what has just been Students in secondary school have generally discovered, invented, mated, manufactured, had extensive audio-visual experience and could or marketed." The need is acute. "the whole be expected to differ from students who were teaching - and learning continuum, which was educated in the pre-television era. Many of these once tied in an orderly and 'productive way to media - educated students will possess a more com- the passing of generations and the growth of

12 1.81 dN

,the child into a n this whole process has life neither in the classroom nor in front .4 exploded ill' our faces. 18 the television set.The schools may lectttre them on luime economics and family. living; The nature of this changing role for schools and the . media will provide higlite -romantic - "vas further explained,., by. McLuhan (1967) who versions of ,marital life, but the most important wrote: lessons in the school of socialization are still Today in our cities, most learning occurs out- being taught by thefamily and thepeer sir% the classroom. The sheer quantity of in- group. 20 formation conveyed by press-mags-film-TV- radio far exceeds the' quantity of information But in considering television and the other media conveyed by school instruction and texts. This as agents of education one must be careful to challenge has destroyed the monopoly of the recognizetheirverydefinitelimitations. The book as a teaching aid and cracked the very media certainly teach but they make no a smpt walls of the classroom, so suddenly, we're to present anything resembling a whole o integ- confused, baffled. rated education. While in some ways m re cur- ,rent .and realistic than schools the media gener-i u Inhisviolentlyupsettingsocialsituation, ally only present a very fragmented view of i many teachers naturally view the offerings of society. The larger organisations and issues are the new media as entertainment, rather than frequently ignored by the media which are more 'education. But this view carries no cbnviction geared to concentrate on the isolated, spectacular to the student. 10 event that will 'hold the interest of the people for The writings of McLuhan and Mead support a lhort space of time. the notion diat the mass media are now firmly The broad educative role, of rthe media can established educational institutions. The media also be understood in terms of cultural initiation. teach and students learn,-even though both con- For centuries, schools transmitted culture from / tent and methods of instruction differ from those one generation to the next and the transmission rbf the schdols. The teachers employed by the of ideals and moral values was generally ,recog- media bear such names as reporters, disc jockeys, ni,5ed as a responsibility of teachers, who were announcers, commentators and entertainers. The expected to support the values of parents. But, courses of study offered by the media are more in the1970's, culture and moral values are, varied than the school's but are often very sim- whether we like it or not,. very frequently pre- ilarin subject' matter.What the schools call sented by the mass media. directly or by im- social stuches and civics, thc mass media call plication. This brings a new dimension to the news and documentaries. Unlike the schdol the educative process and is particularly significant media attract a voluntary audience which is free because of the cyclic nature of this presentation to accept or reject what is offered. Like a good and transmission. Today's presentation of culture teacher the mellia generally begin with the inter- and values by the media can .readily become to- ests of their audience rather than that ofhe morrow's norm and, in the long run, the media teacheraridfrequentlyemploysophisticated can atleast 'support and help the forces for audio-visual aids to maintain rinest. The com- moral change in our society.This, of course, mercial media do not normally attept to teach could be in a positive or a negative direction but the basic subjects but concenttate more on the what is important is that we recognise the poten- social dimensions of education. They teach their tial of the media in the transmission of culture audience such behaviours as how to consume, and values. how to relate to others, how to relax and how to dissipate tension. sThis educative role of the med lin the modern world was clearly recognised bye Second Vat- As an educational institution the media must jean Council. The Decree on theedia of Social always be considered in conjunction with the Communication(December,1963)holds. the school. Both educate and itis not possible to reader, listener and viewer as primarily respon- readily isolate the influence of one or the other sible for the civilised and Christian use of the on students. In an attempt to provide some over- mass media. This in turn brings stress to bear on view of their respective contributions to the edu- theroles of pasrs, parents and teachers in cation of the young Gans wrote: guiding theyoung o acquire good reading, listen- My hunch is that schools are best in teaching ingnd viewingabits.The, Decree recogniSes their students basic methods of formal com- thathe tastes and level of education of the pub- munication, including the three R's, as well lie determine, in the last analysis, tlj quality of as an 'array of socially and. occupationally what is generally printed, filmed, &corded and relevant skills; that the media allow children broadcast. Publishers and producers are literally to learn what is going on in the modern world,, governed by prevailing tastes in society. Hence, politically and culturally, and that in both, they accept only an instrumental role in the over- lb students learn many large lumps of often un- all process of social communication. Itis not they but the public who are the principal agents. importhnt or irrelevant facts.... But.children probably learn the most important aspects of In looking at the role of the educator rather

13 J 4 x 19 thah that of the producer, the Decree has taken to revere the God of truth,-. of" justice, and a directiozAlready strongly indic=ated, by Pius right. 21 XII. But it, odes more than simplyepeat his directiVes. It builds on them. it poses the general To respoffd to the Bishops' statement teachers responsibility of educators/as a foundation for its will have to recognise that the education which concept ofthespecificresponsibilityof the flourished in the days of print-based learniRg Church herself who, as...Mater and Magistra is, must undergo a transformation. Education toddy above all, a teacher of mankind. In this Decree, must be relevant to an audio-visual civilisation, a te. the Church considers first and orempst her own civilisation that uses three systems of symbols words, images and sounds. Schools must teach responsibility and speaks of it with far more A energy and vehemence than when she speaks of students to-be literate ,in all three. This will re- the responsibilitrgf others. ,quire some reassessment of priorities,which, hopefully, will result in an integrated approach to The Decree of the Media of Sotial Communi- modern language and modgrn communication. cation is, in every sense of the wofd, a charter To permit media, study to blossom in schools for the apostolate of, the Church in a world that thesecurriculumguidelinesareofferedto isbeing transformed by the. communications teachers. In practice this would mean that the revolution.- students would study and make use of television, The Pastoral Instruction on the Means of film, press and radio with the objective of becom- .4 SoCal Communication (1971) elaborated onthe ing more appreciatiVe, discriminating and critical 1963 Decree and strongly urged educatoN. tpr consi&mers of these agents of education and enter- begin teaching media education courses. In re- tainment. sponse to this ,Pastoral, and conscious of the formative influence of the media on young Aus- tralians the Australian Bishops' Conference (Sep- tember, 1972) declared: .

Called to live as -true Christians, witnesses to L Christ, in this mediasoriented world, we must beactive,and evenaggressive when the occasion demands. We must learn how the media function; who are the communicators; what is their background; how 'to judge the truth of, the message; how to abstract the message. from the particular medium which has its own characteristics; how to distinguish between fantasy and reality, between apparent- fact and reality. We must learn how to dis- Mass Media Education needs to be concep- tinguish good from (341, the truly beautiful tualised as a definite subject area to be included . from the pseudo-artistic presentationtin a in the total curriculum. Inthe primary years ivord, we must become truth-seekers for it is some teachers prefer to programme media study only the truth that will set us free. We must separately, while others have moved-, towards an never allow the powerful media to dull us/or integration of Language and Media. In the sec- enchain us. We must be active in every field ondary years teachers may wish to adopt a more of the. mass media. inter-disciplinary approach. Turning to the classroom, it appears obvious The Bishops continued: . that if sleep alone occupies more of the average student's time than do the mass media, then steps It is necessary for all to learn how to control must be taken to equip students to "read" or view these marvels of human invention, and not let television and the other media intelligently. Tradi- them control us. We Must be discerning, with tionally, schools have taught pupils to diroguish the true spirit of discernment given to the good literature from bad, good art from bad art Christian by the Holypirit the gift of wis- and good music from poor and this, of course dom. All must learn self-disciplineinthe must continue in the years ahead. In no way is practice of Perfonal freedom, otherwise we will the author attempting to depreciate what is an not withstand the-dehumanising, de-civilising acceVed part of the school curriculum. Rather, potential of the misuse of the maps media, /-c"isuggesting that ,a changing sitfition be which is always a danger. By our personal and rognised and that the schools teach students to organised efforts, taking the initiative in corn- istinguish goodialevision from bad, good radio Tending what is good and condemning what rom bad radio and good ;press from poor. In isevil, we all have, the duty .of bringing the constructive influence of Christ our Lord to / other words, schools.shoutld teach the language bear on the mass media so that they will enrich of the day. I man in his human development and lead him Once the schools clearly recognise that the

14 911 mass media are agents of education and hence media. Students who being tncouraged to need to be taken seriously, they should begin to develop a spirit of imp at school could be exercise some influence over the press, radio, expected to carry the same attitudes into their television and film. In time, the schools should homes and parents may "bc confronted with some affect the whole pattern of communication since unexpected behaviour. the structurd of the mass media industry depends, Media Education, especially in the long term, to some extent,---upon,thq support given it by the ,is likely to also have other social, economic and audience. When the sehbols succeed in making political implications. the consumers more appreciative, discriminating and critical in their use of the media and The establishment of Mass Media Education thereby changing the demand it follows that courses in Australian scftools will be a clear in- the media industry should respond with better dication that those responsible for tl:e 'education quality press, radio, television and film. Of the boys and girls in the country have recog- nisAd that the mass media are agents of education The introduction of media study into all Aus- which have taken their place alongside the tra- tralian schools could be expected to have impli- ditional agents the home, the school, the cations beyond the classroom and the mass> church, the state.

FOOTNOTE,S, .r 1.Australian Radio Advertising Bureau, Radio Facts 13.J. A. Howard and J. Hulb "Advertising and and Figures 1973(Milson'sPoint,N.S.W., the Public Interest," A Staff Report to the Federal 1973), pp. 2, 9, 21. Trade Commission (Washington: U.S. Government 2.Australian Radio Advertising Bureau, op. cit., p. 8. Printing Office, 1973), p. 27/1 3. Marshall McLuhan, in McLuhan. Hot' & Cool, ed. 14.Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs by G. E. Steam (Nei:. York: Dial Press, 1967), of the United States Senate, Television Advertising p. 114. of Food to' Children (Washington: U.S. Govern- 4. aid. ment Printing Office, 1973), .pp. 255-256. 5. Rose K. Golcisen, "Why Do They Call It Media 15. H. Gifft, M. Washbon and G. Harrison, Nutrition Research?" (unpublished manuscript, Cornell Uni Behaviour and Change (Englewood Cliffe: Prentice versity, 1971), p. 34.. Hall, 1972), p. 73. 6. Cited in: N. Johnson, "How to Talk Back toYour 16. Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee Television Set (New York: Bantam Books, 1970), on Television and 'al Behavr0r, op. cit., p. 97. pp. 20-21. 7. G. Gerbner, "Communication and Social Environ- 17. U. Bronfenbreer, Influence on Human Develop- ment" in Communication (San Francisco: Scientific ment, (Hinsda( ,Illinois: Dryden Press, 1922), p. American Book, 1972), p. 116. 665. C '8.A. H. Stein, L. K. Friedrkh and F. Vondracek, 18.C. E. Silberman, CrisiS in the Classroom, (New "TelevisionContent and Young Children'sBe- York: Vintage Books, 1971), p. 30, quoting Mar- havior" in Television and Social Behavior, Vol. 2 garet Mead, "Thinking Ahead: Why is Education .(Washington:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice, Obsolete?"HarvardBusinessReview, XXXV1 -4972), p. 276. (November-December, 1958). A's 9.National Commission on the Causes and Prevention 19. Marshall McLuhan, "today we'rebeginning(o of Violence, Commission Statement on Violence, itu realize that the new ,media aren't just mechanical TelevisionEntertainment Programmes(Sydney: giannicks for creating worlds of illusion, but new U.S. Information Service, 1969), p.11. languages with new and unique powers of expres- 10. Surgeon General's Scientific Advisory Committee sion,l'in McLuhan: Hot & Cool, ed. by G. E. on Television and Social Behaviour, Television and Steam (New York: Dial Press, 1967), p. 112. Growing Up: The Impact of Televised Violence (Washington:U.S. Government PrintingOffice, 20. H. J. Gans1The Mass Media as an Educational 1972), p, 27. Institution," The Urbdi: Review, 2 (1) (1967),' p. 11.Ibid., pp. 11-12. 10. 12.Cited in. N. Johnson, How to .Talk Back to Your 21. Australian Bishops' Conference, "Mass Media Edu Television Set (New York: Bantam Books, 1970), cation a Bounden Moral Duty," The Leader (Sep- p. 22. ..tember 10, 1972), p. 2.

I 15 two 21 (- 2.0 Mbior Assumptions

This curriculum tests on the folldwing major 6. That mass media haveimplicationsfor assumptions: parent-child relationships. tt That the mass media Will continue to have 7.. That all people hale a basic right to be fully an imp'act on Australian culture and in- and accurately informed. fluence the students attending schools. 8. That all people should bebl; to receive . 2.That the mass media 'are. agents of sitluca- information,education and entertainment 2tion and exercise a socializing influence in from the mass media. Australian society. 3 9.That, cthe to economic consideration),pub- 3. That the mass media have definite implica- lishers and producers are to some extent tions for modifying the traditional roles of governed by the prevailing tastes in society, school teachers, administrators and curricu- and therefore itis the reader, listener and lum builders. viewer who is primarilyesponsible for the ...e content presented 14 the mass media. 1 4. That Christian schools are concerned txth 4t preparing students for life life now, life in the future and life hereafter. 1 Assumptions 7, 8 and 9 Are based on the Decres of 5. That children are Capable of reacti g critic- Social Communication, issued by the Second Vatican ally to what they hear, read and v. w. Council, 1963.

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17 22 44' apPreambleto the-Course

3.1 Students for Whom the Course 3.g 'Methodology is Constructed The initial step in building these curriculum guidelines was to formulate from the literature This course has been constructed to meet the a statement of the purpose of media education needs of all secondarytchool students. in schools. From this statement the author developed a dpfailed set of goals an,d goal ,com- "t* ponents lAn a form designed to help teachers in of the Course the selection of learning experiences. These g 3.2Programming which include both cognitive and affective designed to haviours, were listed ,for three separate content - The content of this. curriculum is areas: television and film, press and radio. In cover years 7-12. construoting this set of behavioural objectives, ,The curriculum have been structured t6 fit into of goals, the author was guided by the general the vari us secondary school curricula and ap- principles of objective construction outlined by "proa hesin use in Australia: The design ,was Tyler, Bloom and Krathwohl. However,the purpoully formed to give adulinisttators and Ipproach was somewhat subjective as the author teachers flexibility to incorporate7a new subject rttempted to perceive knowledge, skill and atti-_ area into existing programmes with a minimum ude goals that appeared to be appropriate for of reorganization. Specific directions to the class- secondary school students in Australia. The in- room teacher have. also been kept to a minimum itial list, which contained 253 goals or goal com- on the assumption that comptent teachers will ponents, was necessvilyareflectionofthe use their normal pedagogical' skills in teaching author's interpretatiolf of media education. thisi"new subject. Media education, while focus- This list of goals was sent to 19 Diocesan ing on new content,will proceedlikeother Directors of Catholic Education for evaluation aspects of English and the social sciences and and general comment. The 19 Directors are re- will not require' any unique 'skills, apart -from 'an sponsible for the education of 95.13 per cent of appreciation of the role of the media in the lives allstudentsenrolledinCatholicsecondary of the students and in the culture as a whole. schOols in Australia. The responses, of which An inter-disciplinaryapproachto.t media thete were 15, were interpreted as being gener- studies has much to recommend it. The content ally supportive of the tentative goal statement. of these guidelines could be combined very nat- For this curriculum a modified gohl statement urally with English, Social Science and Religious was developed to incorporate the responses'from EdUcation programmes. ' the Diocesan DireCtors. I While committed to the principle of stating -fNoattempt has been made to dividethcobjec-r. in behaviRural terms,the tives and learning experiencesintounitsfor objectives or goals ' author does not reject goalsthat cannot be specific years.t' Principals, Subject Masters and readily measured. Tyler (1973) warned of the Teachers are encouraged to plan a co-ordinated danger of perceiving of objectives only in terms course suited to their particular schOol. The fol- of very specific kinds of behafiours which, he lowing plans are offered by way of suggestion: claims, can easily lead confusion between knowing answers and in educated.In the affective domain, especially, many of the objec- PLAN A: PLAN B: tives will not 'be easily measured, but this in no Year Year way detracts from their importance. 7.Television and 7.Introductory Suggested learning experiences were designed study of press, film. around the modified set of goals. Both goals and radio, Television8.Radio. learning experiences were listedaccording to and film. J.Press. three content areas, but no attempt was made to 8.Press. 10.Television, film, match each ohjective with a single learning ex- 9. Radio. press and radio. perience. Most of the learning experiences could 40. Television and11. Cross-media contribute to a number of goals and any one study. goal could be achieved through the use of a IL gross-media-, 12. Cross-media variety,. of learning experiences. study; study. 12.Cross-media 1 Goal components arc elements of a goal which, taken study. together, adequately describe the meaning of the goal. It is a more erecise term than objective. .

19 . 23 4.0. Desired Outcomes of' the Course

Som desired OUTCOMES of this .curriculum . 4.4Development of the Skills necessary to exer- are: 6ise discrimination in the use' of the mass media.. 4.1' An ability to be appreciative users of the mass media. `4.5 Development of truly human and Christian attitudes and value judgements regarding the . ..,, 4.2 A general understanding of the nature and media. J techniques .of television, film, press and radio in our society: 4.6 A foundation' for the building of a sense of individual and social responsibility for the 4.3 Development of the skills necessary to use content presented by the media. the media intelligently. This includes evaluating critically what is read in newspapers 4.7 Making bate[ use of television, film, radio and magazines, what is viewed on television and the press in the teaching of the secular and filmand what is heard on the radio. subjects and Catecheties.

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r . . - , The AIM of media education in the secondary. inating truth seekers, in their use of the medialo years is. to have the pupilsgespond and react to understand the nature, techniques and purposes what they view on television and film, to what of radio, press, television and film. they read in the press, gnd to what they like to from tlie. radio. In doing this They will co, to some, understanding of theature, techniqes The fundamental purpose of mass media and purpose of the media ofocial communica- educationisto produce youth who will be tion and thereby, be pre& posed todevelop appreciative, critical and discriminating listeners, criticalChristianattitudest' television,film, readers and viewers. Ideally, the youth of to- press and radio. The end i.,1 such media educa- morrow will be equipped to seek the truth in the tion is to develop petscins who will be disciqm- mass media they and others use.

23 25 I

No 6.0 Objectivesof the Course

The objectives in these curriculum guidelines i. Will know the broad.,Ithics of re- have been spelt out in detail in order to identify, sponsible news reporting. the purpose and intended outcome of media Will know that publications can con! education. They are meant to be guidelines for min biased reporting. determining what is to be learned, how it is to k.Will know.jhat various, publications be taught, what teaching materials arc needed. can report the same event in very and how it will be evaluated. The objectives havg been broken down into goals and goal different ways. components and stated in terms of behaviours and 1. Will know that the press has the content. The list of objectives is exhaustive, but ability to create news. it is not expected that any student would master 2. The pupil will know something of the them all. Rather, teachers are expected to select skills required of professionals working from the list those objectives which bestsuit, , in the various media, their difficulties, the maturational level of their studentg. opportunities and responsibilities: it _sty be noted that many of the behaviours 3. The pupil will have a knowledge of the are common to all throb media. They were listed role of the press in Australia. this way to assist those teachers who would .be concedtrating on one medium in a given class. a.Will know that the press has the power to influence the attitudes and values of people, organisations and governments. . 1. Will knovy that the press can serye as a protectorof individual and communal rights. 1.4 2. Will know that the individual and community can be both helped and harmed by the press'dtid other media. 3. Will know that the press (and. other media) sees itself as an ex- tension of `the lehislature, especially of the opposition: 4. Will know that a democracy re- 6.1 The Press quires a free press. A. The pupil will have the knowledge to be 5. Will know that the functions of appreciative, discriminating and criticalin the press are to inform, to inter- his or her use of the press. pret, to entertain, to serve, and to 1. The pupil will know how the press in be a viable business. Australia operates. 4. The. pupil will know ,the Church's' alti- a.Will know the names of the more tude toward the press as expressed in popular newspapers and magazines. the Decree on the Media of Social Com- b.Will be familiar with the anatomy of munication (1963) and inthe Pastoral some.major newspapers. Instruction on the MeatiNci Social Communication (1971). c.Will know that only some stories are selected for publication. B. The pupil will have the ability to be appreci- d.Will know hpw stories are selected ative, discriminating and critical in his or her for publication. - use of the press. e.Will know a little abut how stories 1. The pupil will have effective reading are positionedin newspapers and skills. magazines. a.Will be able to obtain maximum "I.Will know how the press uses words, comprehension from the newspaper symbols, photographs and cartoons -and magazinestoriesheorshe( to convey information. chooses to read. g.Will know that the news is frequently b.Will be able to recall the important interpreted before presentation to the things he or she reads in the-press. public. c.Will he able to use the press to ex- h. know what is good reporting. tend his or her range and depth of

25 26 interests and vocabulary: a newspaper, as distinct, for example, Will be Able to use the press as a from novels and history books. '4:source of :information. k.Will recognise the general techniques to interpret political used in persuasive materials suckas e.Will be able advertising and propaganda. cartoons, photographs, sketches, tables, diagrams, graphs dnd Other 8. The pupil will be able to understand nom-verbal material. press advertisements. f.Will be able to recognise quality in a.Will recognise what he or she is told the press. about advertised products. 2. The pupil wiH be able to compare and b.Will recognise what he or she is not contrastnewspapersandmagazine's. told about advertised products. 3. The-pupil will be able to critically assess c.Will recognise the troth in adver- and judgewhat he 'or she reads in terms tisements. of previously--acquired knowledge. d.Will recognise anything false 1?r misleading in advertisements. a.Will check new information against previously-acquired knowledge. e` Will be 'able to discriminate between informittional and motivational ad- b.Will resolve discrepancies between vertising. newinformationandpreviously- acquired knowledge. '9.The pupil will be able to recognise better 4. The pupil will be able to critically assess quality publications. and judge what he or she reads in terms 10. The pupil will be able to use the press of his or her own attitudes. to become more aware of the world a.Will comparp attitudes presented by about him or her. the press against his or her own 11. The pupilwill examine a variety of attitudes. viewpoints on significantissues presen- b.Willresolve discrepancies between ted inthe press with the purpose of the attitudes presented by the press forming opinions about them. and those personally held. 12. The pupil will be able to synthesise the 5. The pupil will be able to rate news- information he or she obtains fr,om the papers and magazines on the basisof press and other mass.media. perSonal enjoyment and enrichment. 13. The pupil will be able to form pal:qtr.\ ,6. The pupil will be able to appreciate and ments as to the responsibility of §ociety enjoy the press he or she reads. for conserving truth in the Australian . 7. The pupil will be able to analyze news- press. paper and maghzine articles. 14. The pupil will be able to generate questions about the newspapers' presentation a.Will ideptify the elements which con- A stitute the anatomy of newspapers of Australian:society. and. magazines. 15. The pupil will be able to appreciate the b.Will identify the central issues pre- function of the pressinthe modern sented by the press. world. c.Will distinguish between relevant and irrelevant articles in the press. C. The pupil will want to be appreciative, dis- d.Will distinguish fact from opinion. criminating and critical in his or her use of .the press. e.Will recognise bias and emotional factors in reporting. 1. The pupil will have a continuing desire f.Will distinguish the political bias of to develop the ability to read the press newspapers and magazines. critically. g.Will be able to appreciate that there 2. The pupil will want to evaluate what he is no value-free reporting of news. or she reads in terms of internal evidence h.Will recognisestereotypes and and external criteria. cliches. a.Will judge newspapers and maga- i. Will recognise underlying and un- zines in terms of logical accuracy and stated assumptions. consistency. - b.Willrecogniselogicalfallaciesin J. Will appreciate the different level or style of language that is necessary in arguments.

26 , 27 44"

3. The pupil will want to critically assess and judge what he or she reads in the press. 4. ,The pupil will want to increase his or her sensitivity to human needs and pres- sing social problems presented by the Australian press. a.Will give his or her attentionto human and social concerns presented by the pr8s. 5. The pupil will want to be alert toward human values and judgements on life as they are preiented by the press. a.Will consider the presentationof human values judgements on life. 1. The pupil will know how television oer- b.Will respond to this presentation in ales in Australia. a. Will have a basic understanding of an appropriate way. . the:technical elements of television. . 6. The pupil will want. to -aequaint himself 1. Will know the function of the cam- or herself with significant current issues era, film, video-rape, telerecording, in national and international political, transmitter., and home receiver. social and economic affairs through vol-1 untar.)+ use of newspapers and magazines. 2. Will knowthattelevision is a.Will seek the relevant information. transmitted from a number of cen- b.Will separate fact from opinion. trally-located television channels. c.Will form opinions on significant b.Will know that Australian television issdes. channels carry both imported and indigenous programmes. 7. The pupil will be ready to revise judge- c. ments and change behaviour in light of Will know that the Australian Broad- new evidence presented by the press. casting Commission and the Austra- lianBroadcastingControlBoard 8. The pupil will want to synthesise the in- have responsibility for the mainten- formation he or she obtains from the ance of the standards of the Aus- press and other mass media. tralian television industry. 9. The pupil` will want to form judgements d.Will ,be familiar with the anatomy as to the responsibility of society for or content areas of Australian tele- conserving truth in the Australian press. vision. e.Will know that television news is 10. The pupil will want to eyrercise p ,ersonal frequently accompanied by interpre- judgement and responsibility in hg or her tation and analysis. use of the press. a.Will select those publications which f.Will know what is 'good television have more potential for personal reporting. profit. g.Will know the broad ethics of re- b.Will accept some responsibility for sponsible television reporting. the .,country's press. h.Will know that television reporting 1. Will respond to the publishers and can be biased and even unfair. authorities when publications are i.Will know that television channels of above average quality, can report the same event in very 2. Will respond tothe authorities different ways. and publishers when the publica- Will know that direct telecasts can tions are offensive. bring instant news to the Australian people. k.Will know of the exposure of Aus- 6.2Television and Film 1 tralians to television. A. The pupil will have the knowledge to be 2. The pupil will have a knowledge of appreciative, discriminating and critical in his the role of television and film in Aus- or her use of televisior-and film. tralia. a.Will know that television and film 1. For convenience this curriculum has combined the study of film and television. However, the unique have the power to influence the atti- characteristicsof each medium shouldnot be tudes and values of people, organiz- overlooked. ations and governments.

27 28 1. Will know that the functions of 3.The pupiNik..be able to compare and these media are to inform, to in- ' contrast televiston.programmes. terpret,to entertain, to serve and 4. The pupil will be able-4o apprecikethe . to be a viable business. role of television in die, development 2. Will know that television and the of public opinion. Other media can serve as agents of change and creators of taste. 5. The pupil will be able to criticallyassess` and judge what he or she views in terins 3. Will know thattelevisionhas some impact on the Australian of previously-acquired knowledge. culture. a. Willcompare newinformation, know- 4. Will know the broad outline of the againstpreviously-acquired ownership patternofthe mass ledge. media industry. b.Will resolve discrepancies between newinformationandpreviously- 3. The pupil will know the Church's atti- acquired knowledge. tude toward television as expressed in the Decree on the Media of Social Com- 6. The pupil will be able--to critically assess munication (1963) and the Pastoral in- and judge what he or She views` in terms struction on the Means of Social Com- of Iris or her own attitudes. munication (1971). a.Will compare attitudes presented by television and film against his or her 4. The pupilkwill know the basic elements' own attitudes. of film. b.Will resolve discrepancies between a.Will know some of the characteris- the attitudes presented by television tics of the cast, the plot and the set- and those personally held. ting of selected films. b: Will know something of the signi- 7. The pupil will be able to rate television ficance of such techniques as light- programmes and film on the basis of ing, photography, costuming, make- enjoyment and enrichment. up and set construction. 8. The pupil will be able to analyze film c.Will know some of the terms used in and television programmes. film making; for example, the names a.Will identify the central issues pre- of the various shots, the use of time, sented by film and television. sound track and editing. b.Will distinvish between relevant and irrelevant statements. B. The pupil will have the ability to be appre- c.Will distinguish fact from opinion and ciative, discriminating and critical in his or fantasy. her use of television and film. d.Will recognise bias and emotional 1. The pupil will be able to enjoy and ap- factors in a presentation. preciate the film and television he or she e.Will recognise any political bias ex- views. hibited by television channels. f.Willappreciatethatthereisno 2. The pupil will have effective viewing value-fre reporting. skills. a.Will be able to comprehend fully g.Will recognise underlying and un- what he or she views. stated assujnptions. . b.Will be able to recall the more sig- WilL---recognise stereohypes., and nificant things he or she views. cliches. . Will recognise the general techniques c.Will be able to accurately repeat to used in persuasive materials such as others some items he or she views on -advertising and propaganda. television and film. d.Will be able to use film and tele- The pupil will be able to understand . vision to extendhis or her range television commercials. and depth of interests and vocabu- a.Will recognise what he is told about lary. advertised products. e.Will be able to use television and b.Will recognise what is not told about film as a source of information. advertised products. f.Will be able to interpret what he or c.Will recognise the truth in adver- she views. tisements. g.Will be able to recognise quality on d.Will recognise anything false or mis- the screen. leading in advertisements.

28 29 e.Will have a knowledge of advertising 2. The pupil will want to evaluate what he techniquesand know why these or she views in terms of internal evi- techniques are e live. dence and external criteria. f.Will be ableo understand what a.Will judge television and filmin advertising is d how it works, terms of logical accuracy and con- g.Will be able judge the Value and sistency. accuracy of various types of pro- b.Willrecognise logicalfallaciesin, motion,ad erasingandsalesin arents presented by-television. terms of obj nye standards. 3. Theupil will want to critically assess 10. The pupil will be able to differentiate an judge the film and television he or between what'he regards as pleasant and s views. unpleasant e-in film and television. 4. The pupil will want to increase his or 11. The pupil will be able to appreciate the her sensitivity to human needs and press- artistic qualities of music in film and ing social problems presented by tele- television. vision and a.Will listen to music with some dis- a.Will give attention to human and crimination as to mood and meaning \ social concerns. and with some recognition of the 5. The pupil will want to be alert toward contributions of various elements to human values and judgements on life the total effect. as they are presented by television and b.Willrecognise the differentroles' film. which music plays in film and tele- a.Will consider thepresentationof vision programming. human ,values and judgements on life. 12. The pupil will be able to recognise what b.Will respond to this presentation in he considers to be better quality pro- an appropriate way. grammes. / 6. The pupil will want to acquaint him- 13. The pupil will be able toltse television self or herself with significant current to become more aware of the world issues national and international pol- about him. itical, social and economic affairs through 14. The pupil will examine a variety of voluntary use of television and film. viewpoints on significant issues presented a.Will seek the relevant information. by television and film with the purpose of b.Will separate fact from opinion and forming opinions about them. fantasy. c.Will form opinions on significdnt 15. The pupil will be ready to revise judge- issues. ments and change behaviour in light of new evidence presented by film and tele- 7. The pupil will want to synthesise the in- vision. formation he or she obtains from television, fiheand other mass media. 16.' The pupil will be able to synthesise the f$.The pupil will want to form judgements information he or sheobtainsfrom television and other mass media. as to the responsibility of society for conservingtruthinthisimportant 17. The ,pupil be able to form judge- medium. , ments as to the responsibility of society 9. The pupil will want to exercise personal; for conserving truth in Australian tele- judgement and responsibility in his or vision. her use of television and film. 18. The pupil will be able to generate ques- a.Will, select those programmes which' tions about the medium's presentation of have more potential. for personal Atistralian society. profit. b.Will accept some responsibility fof 19. The pupil will be able to appreciate the the country's television and film. function of film and television in the 1. Willrespond totheproducers modern world. and authorities when the produc- C. The pupil will want to.be appreciative dis- tions are/of above average quality. criminating and critical in his or her use' of 2. Will respondtothe .authorities television and film. and producers when the productions are offensive. 1. The pupil will have a continuing desire 3. Will insist that the media provide to develop the ability to view film and adequate and comprehensivo, pro- television critically. grammes when they fail to do so.

29 ,t 30 1.The pupil will be able to appreciate and ' 6.3Radio enjoy what he or she hears on the radio. 2. The pupil will have effective listening skills. a.Will be able to understand what he or she hears on radio. b.Will be able to recognise quality in radio programmes. c.Will be able to recall the important things he or she, hears on radio. d.Will be able to accurately repeat to others what was heard on radio news bPoadcasts. e.Will be able to use the radio as a A.The pupil will have the knowledge to be source of information. appreciative, discriminating and critical in his 3. _The pupil will be able to compare and or her use of the radio. contrast radio programmes. 1. The pupil will know haw the radio oper- 4. The pupil will be able to differentiate be- ates in Australia. tween what he or she regards as pleas- a.Willknow that _programmesare ant and unpleasant radio music. transmitted from many places. 5. The pupil will be able to appreciate the b.Will know that a radio receiver, is artistic qualities of radio music. designed to pick up a number of pro- a.Will listen to music with some dis- grammes which are transmitted on a crimination as to mood and meaning variety of frequencies. and with some recognition of the c.Will know that radio stations use dif- contributions of various elements to ferent formats to entertain listeners. the totareffect. d.Will know that radio can bring news b.Willrecognisethedifferentroles very rapidly to listeners. which music plays in radio program- e.Will know that many radio stations ming. are part of large radio networks. f.Will know that radio stations are-ex- 6. The pupil will 'tie able to use the radio pected to follow the general regula- to increase his or her awareness of the tions of the Australian Broadcast- world about him or her. ing Commission and the Australian 7. The pupil will be able to critically assess Broadcasting Control Board. and judge what he or she hears in terms 2. The pupil will have a knowledge of the of previously-acquired knowledge. role, of radio in Australia. a.Will comparenew information againstpreviously- acquiredknow- a.Will know that radio has the power to influence the attitudes and values ledge. of people, organizations and govern- b.Willresolve discrepancies betwe n sly ments. newinformationandprevi 1. Will know that the functions of acquired knowledge. radio are to entertain, to inform, 8.The pupil will be able to crititally assess to interpret, to serve and to be a and judge what he or she hears in terms viable business. of his or her attitudes. ` 2. Will know that many radio sta- a.Will compare attitudes presented in tions are owned by companies with radio programmes against his or her newspaper and,,television interests. own attitudes. b.Willresolvediscrepancies between 3. The pupil will know the Church's ,atti- the attitudes presented by a radio tude toward radio as expressed in the programme and those held pera.n- Decree on the Media of Social Commun- ally. ti ication (1963) and in the Pastoral In- struction on the Meanp of Social Com- 9. The pupil will be able to rate radio pro- munication (1971). grammes on the basis of enjoyment and enrichment. B.The pupil will have the ability to be appreciative, discriminating and criticalin his or 10. The pupil will be able to analyse radio her use of the radio. programmes. 30 31 a.Will identify the central issuesin 3. The pupil will want to critically assess relevant Programmes. , and judge .what he or she hears on the b.Will distinguish between relevant and radio.' irrelevant statements. 4. The pupil will wank to increase his or c. Will distinguish fact from opinion.. her sensitivity to human needs and press- d.Will recognise bias and emotional - ing social problems presented by radio.' factors in a presentation.. -'. a, Will give his or her attention to e.Will recognisestereotypes and) human and social concerns presented cliches. , . by the-radio. f.Will recognise underlying' and unsta- ted assumptions. 5. The pupil will want to be alert toward g.Will recognise the general techn ques human values and judgements on life as used in persuasive materials s ch as they are presented by the radio advertising and propaganda. a.Will consider the radio's presentation 11. The pupil will be able to understand of human values and judgements on radio advertisements. life. a.Will recognise the truth in advertise- b.Will respond to this presentation in an appropriate way. ments. . b.Will recognise anything false or mis- 6. The pupil will want to acquaint him- leading in advertisements. , self or herself with significant current 12. The pupil will examine a variety of view- issues in national and international poli- points on significant issues presented by tical, social and economic affairs, through radio with the purpose of forming opin- voluntary use of radio. ions about them. 7. The pupil will want to synthesise the in- 13. The pupil will be ready to revise judge-. formation obtained from the radio and ments and change behaviour in light of other mass-media. new evidence presented by the radio. 8. The pupil will want to form judgements 14. The pupil will be able to synthesise the as to the responsibility of society for con- information he or she obtains from the serving truth in. radio. ,1 radio and other mass media. 15. The pupil will be able to form jUdge- 9. The pupil will want to exercise personal ments as to the responsibility of society judgement and responsibility in his or forconservingtruthinradiopro- her use of the radio. grammes. a.Will select those radio programmes which have mcve potential for per- C.The pupil will want to be appreciative, criti- sonal profit. cal and discriminating in his or her use of the . b.Will accept some responsibility for radio. the country's radio. 1. The pupil will Ikave a continuing desire 1. Will respond to the producers and to develop the ability to listen critically authorities when programmes are to the radio. of above average quality. 2. The pupil will want to develop a better 2. Willrespondtotheauthorities understanding and appreciation of radio and producers when the broad- music. casts are offensive.

31 32 7.0 Suggested Learning Experiences

These curriculum guidelines are designed for The learning experiences have been listed in a process approach to learning which ,is char- approximate order of difficulty. The early experi- acterised by inductive thinking, skill development, ences tend to focus on basic comprehension and creativity and inquiry approaches to learning. In knowledge, while the later experiences are more process education, the curriculum content is the directedtoward generalizations,attitudesand vehicle by which the goals of knowledge, skill values. Learning experiences of a similar kind and attitude development may be realised. The have been listed consecutively.In making their significance Of this approachisdescribed by selection, teachers are encouraged to use a cross- Cole: section of the suggested learning experiences in each of the three content areas. Process education recognizes that people live by their skills. Both the productivity and qual- The following activities are suggested: ity of life are related to the skills of the individual. Skills oflearning, of relating ta.others, of empathy, of analyzing and synthesizing information and experience, of planning and im- plementing action,of conceptualizing, gen- eralizing, expresking, and valuing are a few of those by which we live. People do not live by information. The information is needed, but,. without the skills to act on the information, the person is crippled. The power lies not so much in the information as in the skills to organize and use it, to make meaning from it.' ,In a process approach to education much of the outcome is a direct result of the students' involvement in the various learning experiences 7.1 The Press provided by the teacher. Hence, the learning ex- 1. Ask each student to bring to class a copy periences suggested in this chapter are primarily of the same edition of the same paper. The designed to thoroughly involve the students in a paper selected for class use should be the study of the media an"d teachers are encouraged one the families in the area buy. The paper to make maximum use of newspapers, films, tele- could be used for a wide variety of activ- vision and radio programmes, tape recorders, ities, including reading comprehension, list- cameras and other materials. This is not to imply ening skills,oral and written expression, that thereisno place in the curriculum for current affairs, advertising exercises, and a teacher input. However, the teacher's role is seen studyof the press: Many of the leaning ex- primarily as that of stimulator, questioner, and periencessuggestedinthesecurriculum faeilitator and not that of a lecturer. guidelines require that the sudents all have The suggested learning experiences in this chap- access to the same edition of the same paper. ter are provided to help teachers achieve the behavioural objectives outlined above. The list 2.Familiarise the students with the anatomy of experiencesisexhaustive and teachers are or traditional format of newspapers.The encouraged to be selective. Most of the learning following outline may be helpful: experiences listed will contribute to the attainment Masthead :name of paper of more than one objective, hence no attempt date of publication was made to match each of the 252 objptives price with a single learning experience. Teachers are Edition symbol. encouraged to plan their media lessons in terms News Items : headline (or streamer) of groups of objectives and learning experiences main story that would facilitate their achievement. To ensure main local news items vitality, teachers are asked to make use of the main national news items media,-as well as the objectives, when planning main international news their work. The content of the media at any items given time will be a significant factor in the selec- sources of some news tion of Darning experiences. items Photographs, stop press 1. H. P.ofe, Process Education, (Englewood Cliffs. Comment :editorial NJ:: E ational Technology Publications, 1972), letters to editor p. 4. political cartoons

33 Services : advertising .. 10. Have each student locate a political cartoon business news and answer the following questions: weather a.What do you consider to be the meaning. radio and television of the cartoon? shipping b. What opinion does the cartoon suggest? Entertainment :sporting information c.Are the opinions illustrated in the car - comics and cartoons ti fair!? Do you agree with them? . feathre articles. d. Would words have been more effective As a follow-up activity have thclass mem- than the cartoon? bers conduct a survey in class to determine e.Could the caption under the cartoon be which sections of tht newspaper are most altered to change the emphasis or mean- widely read by students. Discuss the findings. ing of the cartoon? 3. Have each student clip from his newspaper 11. Ask each student to make a list of the mag- and put into his notebook one sample of each azines with which he is familiar. Next to each of the following sections of the paper. magazine write the name of the publisher. a. Index f. Advertisement Pin these lists on the notice board and ask the students to study the names of the b. Local nqws story .Sports story publishers of these magazines. Plan a dis- c. State news story .Political cartoon cussion on their observations. d. Federal news f.Weather, 12. Take a list of magazines from, the above story forecast exertise and ask the students to indicate the e. Foreign news j.Editorial intended audiences for those. magazines with story Which they are most familiar.Have them use khe following categories: General audience, 4. The presentation of news is of prime import- children, young people, young women, wo- ance. Have the students study selected news men, men, sportsmen, business people and items according to the following headings: parents. a. Amount of space b.Position in the paper 13. Arrange for a couple of students to conduct a survey of the magazines purchased regu- c.Heading and style larly by the parents of the students in the d.Photographs -'and illustrations. class. Display the results of the survey and 5.After studyingtheir newspapers ask the planadiscussionof the most populai students to list all the sources of news in magazines. the press. The following li,sts-could serve as 14. Have each student !opt atone issue of a a check list: editors, journalists, reporters, magazine. From a study of the advertise- correspondents, press agencies (A.A.P. and ments, have them draw some conclusions U.P.I.) and readT. about the magazine's readership. 6. Have,the students collat some wire-service 15. Have the students make a collage from news copy from a newspaper (or local newspaper and magazine clippings which radio station). Display these on the class reinforcesasingleimage withdifferent notice board. words and picturcx for example, the image 7. Study the use of pictures in the press. The of youthfulness, you and pleasure, suffer-, folloWing question may help begin a dis- ing, charity, economy. cussion: What do pictures add to the writ- 16. Many comicstripspresentideasabout ten word? society and the teacher can help students 8. Have the students examine a number of edi- understand this literary form. The following torials from different newspapers and then activities are suggested: be prepare! to answer the following ques- a. Have each student clip month's in- tions: stalments of hisfavourite comic strip a. With what topic does each editorial deal? and then answer the following questions: What w,as the, plot? Was the story well b. How does an editorial differ from a news presented? How many incidents happen- story? , ed id the month? Were the characters c.Is the editorial written to entertain or stereotypes? Did you identify with any to influence its readers? of the characters? Does the strip have a 9. Examine newspaper editorials for dictator- message? ial or democratic tone.Do they seem to b. Have each student take a single strip and respect your ability to think and j e for write a new text to accompany the pic- yourself? tures. As a variation have them design 34 34 "%. 1 anoriginalstrip, by .collatingsingle a.Locate storiesthatprovide only, the ---\ frames from a number of comic strips. facts. °b, Find examples of slanting: 17. Have the students express their thoughts on a...symbol or a comic strip character. Ask 1. by use of headlines .- them to account for its popularity. 2. by use of emotionally-toned words 3. by over-emphasising a story. ,18. Arrange to take the students to a newspaper c.Discuss an interesting story and lead printing plant.. Have students inquire into students to ask: the specific roles of those responsible for 1. What happened? publication and production of newspapers. 2. Why did it happen? 19. Have the students -create. an enlarged mock- 3. What difference does it make? up of a newspaper on the class notice board, 26. Give the students a list of facts from an including all sections found in daily news- actual news stgry. Have them draft stories papers. from the facts presented.Compare the 20. Have the students create a model newspaper students' stories with the original newspaper of their own. Duplicate the newspaper and story. distribute to other classes. 1 27. News can be divided into the following 21. The newspaper as a vehicle of cdmmunica- categories: tion can be a very valuable tool in the Eng.:. a.Important and interesting lish program t can be used in the devel- b. Unimportant and interesting bpment of speaking, listening, writing and c.Important 4nd uninteresting reading slls. Some suggested activities are: d. Unimportant and uninteresting. .i.Oral Expression: Discussion of the headlines of selected Select a page in the newspaper the'students stories. have access to and have them place each Discussion of possible developments in story into one of the four categories. This current affairs. . Discussion of solutions to problems related in the press.. b.Written Expression: Re-writing press stories in own words. Writing summaries of particular stories. Re-writing a story to give it a different ending, 9.Reading:- Select press stories for regular comprehension lessons. Vocabulary exercises. Library assignmenttofindadditional information on topics in the press. 22. Have students rewrite a newspaper story from various points of view, but keeping to the, point. , 23. For a written exercise have the students express the same message at different levels of difficulty and abstraction. 24. Have the students, write the following: a. An answer to a "Help Wanted" adveT.:\ tisement b. A letter to the editor c. A headline and a short article about some school activity d. An editorial based on a news story in .. the press e. Some alternate headlines for stories published in the newspaper. 25. The following activities .require that each student has access to a newspaper:

35 35 Io

could be quickly done by placing the cor- 33.Select an issue of importance and have the rect numeral at the top of each story students collect a variety of clippings froth newspapers. In a- class discusgion consider 28. Assign each student a page in a newspaper the following questions: and have him classify the stories into three a. Were there any points on which all the categories: "good news," "badrnews" and newspapers expressed similar views? "neutral."Tally the results fr* the whole b. What were-the most noticeable\ differ- class on the blackboard. Why is so much of , ences? the news "bad news?" c. Were these differences 'of a factual nature 29. Provide the groups in your class with tten or opinion? identicalclippings from arecent news- As a follow-up activity have the students paper. Tell the students to shuffle the clip- write their assessment of 'the issue under discussion. . pings and then sort the stories in order of importance along a qontinuum from "most 34. Have the students analyze atpolitical speech important" to "least important." Summarize in which a candidate is trying to reach a the results on the blackboard and then dis- large °number or people. How many specific cuss the following questions: solutions to specific problems does he offer? a. What criteria was used in determining How many general proposals? importance? 35. Have _each student obtain a copy of the b.. What 'criteria do newspaper editors use ?,, same edition of the same newspaper.Do c. Are there any significant differences in , the following exercises: these sets of criteria? a.Circle the articles or portions of articles 30. Have the students compare reports on the ' that-you think could make their way into same game in several different newspapers . history books. -Uge one colour marking and analyse the similarities and differences. pen for signed articles and another col- o our for unsigned articles. 31.After the students become familiar with b. Cheek back through the circled articles the anatomy of new4iapers, some work and 'underline words or phrases that could be done on the differences among appear slanted or opinionated. newspapers. The following activities are re- c. Compare thestudents' judgement on commended: ',news events considered historic. the a. Note different headline topics in 36. 41-1Jave the students make a study of the local / papers on a giveday. press and ask them to -list ten of the more b. Compare pag lacements of the same importantissues. covered in recent days. item of news in different papers. Discuss the kinds of issues which tend to re- c. Compare the photographs of a particu- ceive the most attention in the local press. lar ev'elt in the different papers. Are these issues different from the issues d. Locate news items in one paper that are highlighted in the national presS? not found in the same edition of a coin- 37.Arrange for some students to attend a local s parable paper. council meeting and then have them com- c.Select two well known politicians and pareitto the report in the local press. cut out every news item that appears The following questions could be used in about them over a period of a couple the class discussion: of weeks. Pin these on the notice bbard, a. Were all the issues discussed at the meet- then: . ing contained in the press report? 1. Compare and contrast the words and b. Were the issues reported in the press phrases used in each item. the most important discussed at the coun- contrastthephoto- 2. Compare and cil meeting? 4 graphs used. 3. Do different papers see these politic- c. Why is it good for the public that the fans in different ways? council's deliberations are reported in ' the local press. 32. Have the students search for an example of a press story where two newsmen drew dif- 38. Have the students compare their newspaper .-- ferent conclusions from the same facts. Un- with those from other cities in its coverage derline the differences and display on notice of one major event. In a follow-up discus- board. Plan a discussion around the follow- sion try to account for the major differences ing questions: and similarities. 1 a. Which newsman supported his interpre- 39. Ask the students to collect some foPeign tation with more facts. newspapers. Compare the major stories in b. Were some of the interpr.itive reports' these papers with those in the Australian contradictory? press. Note the differences and similarities.

36 36 e vs

40. Collect some foreign news cuttings from the 49.Taste. test blindfold some students and Australian press.Arrange a notice board have them see if they can tell the difference display and therkdiscuss the significance of a in the taste of three different products; for foreign eventinrelationto geographical example, breakfast cereal or fruit juices.. distance. Further, consider why' some countries are infrequently mentioned in the Aus- 50. Consider the following questions: tralian press. a. How important are nutritionalfactors for the advertisers of food products in 41. As a part of the study of society the students Australia? . could be asked to: S b. Does any one line of food- product fre- a. Compare and contrast ;Australia with quently contain mention of nutritional. other countries in the world news. factors. b. Make anin-depthstudy ofapar- 51. Have the class make up a notice board 1/4, ticulk country through a study of news display of press adyertisements that provide clippings.over an extended period. adequate and helpful information about a 42.Select a current social issue for study and particular class of product.Discuss this have the students collect stories and adver- approach, to advertising. tisements. Arrange these cuttings on the 52. Most advertising is aimed at specific audi- notice board under "for" and "against" .ences. From a collection of press advertise- headings. ments have the students attempt to identify 43. Direct the students to watch the press for the intended audience for each advertise- some investigative reporting. Display clipp- me t. ings of investigative stories 'on the notice 53. Di cuss why and when various companies put board and discuss the following questions: on special sales campaigns. a. What areas of public concern were covered in these investigations? 54. Have thestudentscollectadvertisements from newspapers and magazines and than b. What ore some possible effects of the answer the following questions about each publication of these stories? one: 44. Have the students bring various newspapers a. What need in man is being appealed to and magazines to class. Ask the 'student's to in this advertisement? examine these, publications in order to dis- b.Is this need a basic need? cover the purposes they serve. c.Can the product satisfy that need? For what kind of person.? 45. Focus the students' attention on a newspaper d.Is there another more effective way of advertisement and ask the following basic answering this geed? . questions: a. What is the product? 55.Direct pupils to collect newspaper adver- .b.PWhat are you told about the product? tisements that make use of the following appeals: conformity, imitation, association, c. What are you not told about the product? economic, beauty, sex, "snob" and intellec- d.Could the advertisement be created in tual. another way? Howl 0 56. During election campaigns, groups in the class quid be directed to study the adver- 46. Involve the class in a survey to &tern-fine tising of the various political parties:The the advertising media that most attract their volume and approacb of the advertising by attention. Suggested headings are: billboards, the parties could be compared. magazines, newspapers,adio, television and other media. 57. Discuss instances where students feel that they have been misled by advertising. 47. Students could study newspaper and maga- Discuss instances where students feel that zine advertisements and make a collection they have been helped by advertising. of:- 58. a.Cleve). headlines Statements for class discussion or debate: b. Bold displays of brand names a.Advertisements can be an aid for consumers as well as sellers. c.Clear messages of a helpful nature high pressure selling frequently forces d. Exaggerated messages b.people to buy what they really do not e.Appealing photographs. need. 48. Have students compare the information ind c. Most advertisements are \interesting, in- f ood product advertisement with the infor- formative and in good taste. mation on the label of the same product. d.Advertisingencouragesconsumersto Discuss any significant differences. spend more money than they can afford.

37 -68. Debate: Children are more susceptible to e.Newspaper advertisements are particularly helpfuL in supplying information repetition- and reinforcement than adults. about sales and special low prices in !Adults are more aware of the techniques be- local areas. ing used on' them, and therefore they are more likely to resist automatic,compulsive 59. The following questions aresuggested td decision-making. focus attention on the role of advertising in Australia. 69. Discusstttisstatement by. GilbertSeldes: "We are talcing part in a cultural revolution a. How much responsibility do 'youthink ...whigh is essentially a shift from the advertisers Should assume? power. of the printed word, which wehave b. What about giving the consumerinfor- always accepted and revered, to the power' mation? Does the advertiser have a re- of electronic communications." sponsibility in this area? 't c. Doesadvertisinghelptheconsumer 70. Discuss with the students how the mass choose what is best for him? mediainfluencepeople,theircognitiop, world view, values and attitudes.The fol- 60. Have students do research on what it costs lowing questions may help to enrich this. to advertise. Discuss who actually paysad- discussion r- vertising costs.^What would happen if there a. How do the mass media helpmould our were no advertising? world view? 61. Have students do research to determine what b. How does this view correspond to real- proportion of the cost of publishing a news- ity? paper is paid by the advertisers.In what c.In whai way can news reports .distort r4vay can the advertisers put pressure on our view of the world? % the newspaper and thus affect what is pub- d.. In what respect would our ideas and lished? attitudes be different if we did not have 62. Set the studes to find out who owns the mass media? city's newspa ei-(s). What else do they own? e.What is the role of the media in creat- ting a universal fashion, commoricus- 63. Three companies own most of the news- to.ns and an entertainment industry in papers published in Australian capitalcities different parts of the world? each day. Ask the students to find out tIle names of these three companies andthe names of some of the newspaperspublished by each. In addition, some students may be able to find out something about theftele- vision and radio holdings of these three companiet 164. Many of the learning experiences in this curriculum could also be used with papers like "The Catholic Weekly," "The Advo- cate," "The Leader,"1 and "The Southern Cross." 65. Arrange a discussion on the possible ways of compensating for the lack of contact between the sender and receiver of the mass- Television and Film communicated message. Include a Consider- 7.2 tion of how people can check the accuracy 1. Arrange for someone to explain to the class, of a message, and how they may acquire preferably'with illustrations, the technical,as- independent information. pects of television: camera, film, 'video -tape, - telerccording, transmitter and home receiver. 66. Set aside a corner'of the class notice board The difference between black and white for a collection of newspaper and magazine cartoons and comic strips that effectively and 1 colour television should also be ex- show the ways the electronic media, are plaided. changing our perceptions, living habits, ex- 2. Make use of the following questions after pectations and sensitivities. the class has viewed a film or tele,visjon. programme: 61. Consider This hypothetical question in class: What would be the consequences if 'com- a. Were the facts presented clearly? munication between Australiaandother b. What was the main point in the pro- countries were suddenly broken off. gramme?

I.38 38 c.Did you see enough to understand the ies to class and discuss any majo\differ- main facts? ences. )d. Was the programme interesting? Why? How could the programme be improved? 13.Direct the students to ,watdh 'the evening networks. f.Did you change your mind about any- news on the various ,television thing as,,a result of this programme? Arrange for the evening radio news t9 be . taped. On the following day, play the radio 3. Have students keep television viewing news to the class and then compare and diary for two weeks. Let them compare discuss the differences in the two accounts results with fellow students to determine the of the day's news. The following questions popular shows. Discuss how the class ratings may be useful: compare with the official ratings. a.Which was More comprehensive? 4. Take a tape recorder and intetview a num- b.Which was more convincing? ber of,people on why they watch television. c. Which was more interesting and enter- Ask about their favourite shows and the taining? , reasons they watch them. Play back the best d. Which came closer to challenging or of these to the class. changing your previous attitudes? 5.Initiate,a Class project to -inquire into and e.Which did you prefer as a news source? 4 discover why so many people watch tele- As a, follow-up, this activity could be re- vision and watch it so much. peated, making use of the newspaper as well as the radio and television. 6.As a medium of communication, television can be a very valuable tool in the English 14. One of jelevisions greatest newsmen, Ed- programme. It can be used in the develop- ward R. Murrow, stated as early as 1954 ment Of speaking, listening, writing and read- that even the news has to be,somewhat ing skills. entertaining. People watch television ex- Octing entertainment, and they don't watch 7.Have the students make lists of words and if it does not entertain them at least a little. expressions that have come into popular use Discuss in 'class. as a result of their use on television. 15.Invite a news reporter from a local television 8. Have the-students write a 2 minute (about station to your class and discuss the prob- 300-350 Woods) programme promotion forl lems of televising news with him. well-known television programme. 16. Condt a basic comprehension exercise after 9.Have the studelits plan hnd write a 5-minute the stcnts have viewed a particular com- television script, including: mercial. ome basic questions are: a. News 3 minutes a. What is the product? b. Commercial 1 minute . b. What are you told about the product? c.Weather report 30 seconds, c.What atc you not told about the product? d.Public service announcement: 20 seconds d. Was the commercial interesting? e.Wokild this advertisement mean anything e.Station identification 10 seconds. if you could not hear? - 10. Tape a 16 mm, commercial to a window. Analyse how many shots it includes. How 17. Have students monitor some children's tele- many frames per shot are used? Consider its vision programmes in early evening. Atten- overall organisation: its length, timing, effects tion could be directed to these questions: of different shots. As a follow-up activity, a. How many advertisements are aired in "analyse a comic book in the same way. What one hour? What percentage of an hour are the noticeable differences? is taken up with commercials? b. How many commercials have cartoon or 11.Afte'r explaining the meaning of the long other recognisable "characters" selling shot, medium shot antl'close-up, 'provide the products? students with photographs from magazines an direct them to draw frame lines on them c. What techniques arc used to sell pro- to indicate a medium shot and a close-up. ducts on children's programmes? To Then discuss the difference between a close- whom is the appeal directed? up and an extreme close-up. d. What categories of products are pro- moted? 12. Have groups of students monitor the even- c.Were any of The commercials misleading ing television news on each channel. Direct or deceptive? them to list the news items in order of presentation and indicate the time given to each.. 18.Sonic questions for class discussion. On the following day consider. these summar- a. Do young children ask their parents to 39 39 buy products they spe advertised on tele- advertisements appeal to the consumer who individual.(3) vision? wants to be treated as an Testimonial Product is used and endorsed b.Did you ever buy a product to get the free bonus gift inside? Were you satis- by credible sources or celebrities. ,(4) Emo- tional the Direction of thp.,.consumer's fied? pride, attraction to the opposife-egek, desire c.Do you believe that certain products you for status or belonging, variety, or tokeep see advertised on television make you up with the neighbours. Directthe students happier, have more friends, etc.? to study a cross-section of commercialsand d.Did you ever feel "out of it" because to locate the approach used accordingto your parents wouldn't buy a certain the above categories. product you saw advertised? 24. Many commercials make the consumer a e.Did- you everfeel your parents were specific promise if you use this product mean because they wouldn't buy the pro- list of such duct you wanted? Flow do you feel about you will get this benefit. Make a commercials and discuss the promises. this now? Assign' the, students to keep a list of the 25. Some commercialsemPhasiSe in what way 19. a product is superior to allits competitive commercials during one hour of prime time brands (e.g., cleaner, whiter, faster, more television. Have the students identify the effective, more fun, bigger, etc.).Locate intended audience for each commercial. pointsof Discuss the results in class with the purpose some examples end notethe of forming some generalizations. emphasis. 20.Certain commercials are designed for spe- 26. Questions for diScussion: cific audiences.Have the students suggest a. What should be the role ofadverti5ing? times and channels for the screening of com- b. How informative should advertisements mercials dealing with the following products: be? cosmetics, laundrysoaps,sweetbiscuits, c.Should advertisinrliave a role inthe,' housepaints,toys,sweet cereals,soft solving of social problems?.If so, ,what? drinks, petrol and sporting magazines. What aidorhinder con- are some products that could be profitably d. Dies advertising advertised at any time? sumers? 27. Have students make a list of publicservice 21. Commercials could be analysed to see if advertisembnts. Discuss the effectiveness of they serve the public interest. The following questions could help in this analysis: this category of advertising. discover El. What does the commercial prove? 28. An excellent way for students to what goes into,,a television commercialis b. What does it merely assert? for them to make one. This could take many c.Doet the comniercial rely ,on emotional forms. For a beginning, students couldbe appeals? shown how to prepare a storyboardof an d. Does the ,commercial make use of any imaginary product. (Some advertising agen- pseudoscientific terms? cies will make available storyboards and e. Does the commercial help thepotential photoboards for studypiposes.) consumer? 29. Provide an opportunity for the studentsto 22. The speed of a commercial, audio and vis- expresstheiropinions Onthefollowing ual, can be a decisive factor in the persuaS- questions: \\ iveness of a message. Direct the students to a. What is your opinionabout advertising make a list of both high and low speed in general? commercials. Some students could count the b. Where do you get information about um frames and others could count the words 'Products? spoken. After this exercise, have the students c. Do you use advertisingin any way? If discuss wli§t they consider to be the most so, how? effective speed for a television commercial. d. Do you feel you are influenced by adver- 23.General techniques in advertising. tising? If yes, how? Advertising content and approach will vary c.If you were creating an advertisement depending upon the audience the advertis- for a product,isthere anything you er wishes to reach. But in general, themajor would include in it which you don't find approaches are: (1) Logical logical rea- in advertisements now? sons are given for prefefence ofthe ad- 30. Have the students examine a televisi pro- vertisedproduct over other brands with organise emphasis on specialingredients, perform- gramme guide for one week. Then ance', unique qualities. (2) Creative These a discussion 'around diefollowing questions: 40 40 .

a. Are the channels distinguiihable from b. What are some major difficulties between one another in the programming they the-programmes in these two columns? offer ?,, c. What are the main differences between b.Does any one channel show a willingness the television policeman and the Police- to experiment with new types of pro- men working in the cities in Australia? grammes? d. What do these lists say about the tele- c. Do the channels offer the viewers a suf- vision taste of Australians? 'ficient variety of programmes? e. How do you account for the popularity 31. As a term project the students could col- of this kind of drama? lect film reviews fiom newspapers and maga- 36. Have the students 'write character descrip- zines! These could be pasted into a book. tions of a typical television policeman or Students who -see anyiithe films reviewed, detective as he might describe or advertise could add a note indic'it if ,their experi- himself to prapeAkve clients. Discuss these ence supports the review. descriptions in ZIasi.` 32. Arrange a symposium in which each stud- . 37. The Western today is primarily adult enter- ent listens critically to one of the following tainment and the concept of the West has types of programmes: shifted from the struggle_ for law and order, a. A talk by a politician to an established order 'threatened here and b. A panel discussion there by various evil forces.Ina word, c. An interview. Western heroes have became conservative. d. A news commentary. , Discuss this statement in class with reference Tell each student, to listen for examples,. of to the Westerns the students are familiar the use of fact and opinion, rationalisation, with. inferences', emotional language, voice inflec- 38.In the last two decades thereas been a tion and propaganda, techniques. Arrange shift from programmes with an individual for each student to present a summary of his hero to programmes with the groupas hero. findings to the class. Discuss the implications Does this suggest anything about the popular of the students' findings. belief in what can be done by the indi- 33. Have thestudents watch an episode of "Mis- vidual in our culture? Discuss. sion Impossible" or some other spy show 39. Find out the favourite comedy-varietypro- and then discuss the following questions: gramme among the students of the class. a. How does the spy force overcome the Suggest they might watch a.particular episode opposition? and then plan for a discussion in class. Some b.Frequently in spy programmes someone recommended questions are: is killed at the end, not directly by the a. What function does the host serve in spies, but as a result of their manipula- relation to the entire show? tions. Is the spy team morally respon- b. How would you describe the overall sible? mood of the show? c.Does the spy group have a loyalty to c.What themes seem to be treated most each other? often in the sketches? d. What was the role of gadgetry in. this d. Towards which age group do you think episode? the show is directed? e. Who is the-herein the show? e. Why do people watch this show? 34. "The end justifies the means" is frequently the code of conduct for the heroes in the 40.In experiments with children,it, was dis- television spy dramas. Conventional morality covered that they tended to watch faces and is lightly put aside as thesemen go about facial reactions rather than actions. Ina gun- their work. Discuss these programmes with fight, for example, they focus on the face the students in an attempt to evaluate the of the person being menaced, rather thanon prevailing morality. the person doing the shooting. Discuss with the students why they suppose this happens. 35. '-lave thestudents check the weekly television programme guide and then make 41.Selectseveraltelevisionserieslike "The two lists. In the first list, write the names FBI" or "Division 4" and ask the students of the police programmes and in the second, to note all the things they know about an write the names of the detcetive/private-eye episode before they see it. Follow this activ- programmes. Discuss these questions in ity with a discussion of the students'ex- class: pectations for their favourite programmes. a. What is the prime function of the police 42. Analyse some of the conventions of tele- officer in the police shows? vision according to the following categor-

41 41 ies: news and documentaries, police shows, e. Could our culture be affected in any sports, Westerns and situation comedies. way by foreignaejevision? Consider especially the standard formulas 48. Select a,scene from a television play which and stock characters that frequently recur on requires about 4 characters. Distribute cop- television. A follow-up discussion could cen- ies to groups of 5. The extra member will tre on the function of convention in other be the director.Give each group enough areas of life; sports, cooking, school behav- time to prepare a performance. Discuss the iour, dating and dress. differences in interpretation. 49.' Divide the class into television production teams. Ask each team to develop a 10-minute television programme, the purpose of which isto convince the school auxiliary that it should purchase a complete closed- circuit television unit for the school. 50.Direct the students o find out about the movie-pting system c rrently in use in Aus- tralia. Discuss the following questions: a. What is the purpt4e of these ratings? b. Are the categories helpful? c.Are any changes recommended? 43. Have the students list some television char-4 51. Research some of the regulations issued to themwith whom they identify. Then have commercial television stations by the Aus- them note what itis they like about each tralian Broadcasting Control Board.Are of these characters. these regulations adequate? 44. Have the students listen to a speech by 52. Divide the ss into grdups to study the a public figure and then use the following functionortkiiheAustralianBroadcasting questions to aid the critical evaluation of Commission and the Australian_Broadast- the speech: ing Control Board. Discuss the necessity of a. Was the communication objective? these bodies. b. Was the message clear? 1/4 53. Have the 'students matke a notice board dis- c. Was the speaker evasive when asked play for an upcoming movie.Encourage questions? them tocollect allavailable promotional material.Finally, compare the promotion d. Did he persuade his audience? claim's with the actual event. e. What techniques did he use to gain audience approval? 54. The key to the success or failure of any television programme is the ratings itre- 45. Ask the students to study the television pro- ceives. In Australia, ratings are furnished by gramme guide before coining to classto two companies. Watch the press forthe discuss the differenCes betyreen commercial publication of some of these ratings. Dis- television add that offered by the A.B.C. cuss these published ratings in terms of the 46.Australian television networks'import many viewing habits of the class. As a follow-up programmes from the United States and activity the class could design a rating form Europe. As a class project, groups could and conduct a survey. monitor evening television for 7 days and 55. Ask the students to list movies or television listthe country of origin of each programme. Graphs could then be drawn to shows that follow these basic themes: present a summary of these data. a. Love conqueis all b. Work hard and you will succeed on imported 47. Some discussionquestions Virtue is rewarded and evil is punished. television programmes: c. a. Why isso much of our prime time 56. Much of the laughter heard on television television imported? comedy comes from a mechanical laugh b.. Do Australiansprefer importedtele- track. Have' students locate shows and car- visio 'n? toons which use the laugh track and then discuss thee. following questions: c.In what waysisimportedtelevision differentfromAustralian-made.teld- a. Why is a laugh track used on a comedy vision? show? d.Are there any dangers in airing a lot of b. What does the use of a laugh track say imported programmes? about a comedy? 42 42 c.Ifthelaughtrackcomes onloud parison:locationofscreen,screensize, enough, will it make the audience laugh length of show, sound volume, personal in- no matter what is happening on the volvement, feelings of excitement or sus- screen? pense, the environment, interactions with d. Do you ever get the feeling that you are others during performance and degrees of being manipulated bythe laugh 'satisfaction. A class discussion on this exer- machine? 'Cis\e could lead to a generalisation of the e. What might be some long term effects-of similarities and differences between film and frequente x p o s u r etomechanical television. laughter? ¢5. The following questions may be helpful in 57. Have someone tape record sections from the discussion of a film the class has seen: two television shows, one with a live studio a.Did the film portray life realistically? ,audience and one with a laugh track. Play b.If the film was meant to lie a fantasy, ' the two recordings back to the class and see how effectively was theinaterial if they can detect which is live and which presented? is manufactured and what the differences c. What special effects were used to create , are. an artistic production?' 58. Ask the students to watch a segment of a d.Did the film leave the viewer with the television dramatic show with the sound concept of wunified whole? turned off. Have them describe their experi- e. How good was the Camera work, use of ences.4and then discuss the importance of colour and musical score? sound in television productions. As a follow- i.tip activity have the students listen to some 66. Direct the students to make a list of re- television without watching the screen. Dis- commended television programmes in vari- cuss their reactions. ous categories such as news; drama, musical, variety, comedy and sports. Discuss this list, 59. Discussthisstatement:inradio,sound which might change from week to week, creates the vision; in television and film, inlight of the standards that have been sound supports the visual. agreed upon. 60. Draw students' attention to the fact that some 67.Provide the students wiih a simple rating images they see on television appear larger scale, perhaps 0,1, 2, 3, and 4, and ask or smaller than actual size. Have them make them to rate some of the programmes they two lists to. illustrate this fact. watch regularly. The results of these ratings could be collated and graphs drawn.The 61. Discussion question. What is the effect on results could provide rich material for a '" the viewer of frequent or abrupt changes in class discussion. Try to determine -on what scale of the image's' on the television tube? criteriathestudentsare rating the pro- 62. On a scale of 1 (very slow) to 10 (extremely grammes. fast) make a list of current movies, tele- 68.Plan for the class to discuss some of the vision programmes and commercials accord- families they see on television. dive some ing to their pace. On the basis of these 3 attention to the following questions: lists discuss the following questions: How does the pace of a television programme a.Is the television family's standard of liv- relate to its popularity or audience appeal? ing below average, average or above Is there any correlation between the pacet,,, average? of a programme, commercial or film and the b. How do the parents treat each other? age of the intended audience? Does television c. How do thechildren relate totheir pace say anything about the pace of life in parents? general? What is the effect on the viewer of d. What are the occupations of the family frequent or abrupt changes of pace in film members? or television? e. What are the family's outside interests? 63. Comparing the media. What happens to a f.Does the television family have, ny real movie when it is shown on television?. What problems? is .the difference between seeing a movie in a theatre and then seeing it later on tele- 69. Use the questions below to help the students vision? (Consider the following in your an- to understand better television's presenta- sewer: size, colour, scale, continuity, setting tion of family life in a selected series: and emotional reactions). a.In what ways are the various mem- 64. Have the students compare, a popular tele- bers of the family depicted? vision series and a movie they have seen. b. What is the economic and social status The following categories may help the corn- of the family?

43 43 c.What kinds of problems confront the _silhouettes and moving them ,'about on family? the projector. / d. What values do the members of the fam- b. Make a lightsh9Wby experimenting with ily treasure? ...- some food co 6uring, oil and water in e.Is the presentation stereotyped? If so, a clear glass owl on top of the projector. in what ways? tp r c. Make a siplc hand-drawn movie; using felt pensn the clear acetate roll.' 70. Many television characters are best known by their first names. Have the students list 78. Involve th e. students in. slide-making without 20 characters by their first names and then cameras. Use can be made of felt pens, glue ask them to add surnames. What conclusions and ansort of translucent material.The can be drawn from this exercise?What finish slides could be mounted in inex- differences in naming patterns were Observed pens e slide mounts and screened for the, between characters in police/detective pro- cls. grammes andthoseinfamily'situation 79. biscarded 16 mm film can be used to pro- comedies? / vide the students with film-making experi- t 71. Have each student make up ali(o0charac- ence. If itis a black and white film, the ters for what he would consider a realistic students can colour it and add various tint- family life television show. ,Each character ing effects. By scraping away ' some of the is to be given a suitable ipene and briefly emulsion, they can alter the film and some described. Indicate the relationship of each interesting effects can be achieyed by bleach- character to the other ch7racters in the cast. ing off portions of the emulsion. Some students may will to suggest people 80. Have the students develop a suitable theme to play the parts. , for a class movie. The sequences and acting 72. Discuss television's presentation of ethnic would need to be carefully planned. The minority characters. l-fow, are these minority film could be shot using Super 8 film.An characters presented? * alternative would be to make the film, using Is theirelevision image positive? Are they a regular camera, and to mount the devel- too fre btly presented in criminal or nega- oped photographs on a storyboard. tive rOrie Do you think the television image 81. Direct the students to make a list oflele, of minority groupsaffects their popular vision programmes which are seeking some- image in the minds of most Australians? thing more than entertainment. Itac them 73. Have the students list 10 ethnic stereotypes include their reasons for watching these pro- which . are popular, on 'film and television. grammes. Discuss the source of these stereotypes and 82. Discuss the following statement. "Every min- ask the students to compare the stereotypes ute of television programming commer- with persons they may know from each of cials,entertainments, news teaches us ' these ethnic groups. something" (Nicholas Johnson). 74. Help the sVidents work towards the pro- 83. Consider the following gupstioninclass: duction of 4 set of guidelines for the evalu- What is the role of television in spreading ation of filkand television. knowledge and understanding of different 75. Set the students to find out who owns the countries and in the dissemination of fashion city's commercial television station(s). What and customs? else do they own? 84. Divide the class into groups, to discuss the 76. Have the students create some hand-drawn following questions To whom_ and to what films using, felt pens or grease pencils on level of intelligence are the If entest number clear 16 mm leader. Before they begin they of programmes directed? Why? will need to 'know two facts: (1) that 16 85.Discuss in class the kinds of information mm is projected at 24 frames per second and every citizen should have and how this in- (2) that the sprocket holes on the clear len- formation should be obtained. der define the frame-lines for the individual pictures that make up film's moving images. 86. Frequently, the bad news on televisionis Plan to project the hand-drawn films as soon followed by the good news contained in as the students have finished working. ,Suit-. commercials and the viewer is faced with able music will add tothis presentalion. two visions of life conflicting one with the # When the students have finished with the other. Have the students look for examples film it can be cleaned with household bleaieh of inathertent juxtaposition and then discuss and re-used. what this says about -'the seriousness with 77. Overhead projectors can be used to: which Australians take televised news. a. Make a puppet show by cutting out 87. Have the students discuss the following ques-

44 ) 44 tidn: If you had to give up all your "enter- 4. Playa news broadcast to the class and have tainmentmachines"andcommunication each, student make a. list of the items men- inedia, but one, which one would you keep? After the broadcast discuss thy order 88.Discuss: Repetition and reinforcement are In which the items were presented. Finally, basic techniques in brainwashing. is it ethi- ask the studentsto rank the same items cal, then, to deliberately employ these devices according to their perception of importance. in a political or advertising campaign? To Compare the results. what extent do they reduce the freedom of 5. Some morequestionstohelpstudents the audience? analyse news broadcasts: 89. The complex interaction between the media a. Did the broadcast clearly separate fact and the culture makes them almost insepar- %from opinion? able. Yet, media can tell us a great deal b. Were stories with emotional undertones about the .culture of any age. Like the tombs read appropriately? of the Pharoahs df Egypt, which give us c.Were the most important stories placed glimpses of what the society was like, con- at the beginning of the broadcast? temporary media will give future generations d. Were any significant stories omitted? a picture Of our society. But how accurate e. Did the broadcast leave any relevant will this picture be? Discuss. questions unanswered? 90. Have the class debate the following question: 6.After the class has listened to a news broad- Do The popular television shows reflect what most of us value? Or do thd' actually edu- cast ask the following questions: cate us what we should value? a. Was the news well balanced? b. Was it presented objectively? c. Was it presented sincerely? d. Was anything of importance omitted? e.Did the news reader speak with the voice of authority? 7.Discuss why we need news reports and what they should contain. 8. Tape the major stories on the morning radio news. After playing these to the class, study the same stories in the newspaper. Compare anddiscussthedifferencesinthe two accounts of the news. The following questions may be useful: 7.3Radio a. Which contained the latest news? b. Which was the more comprehensive? 1. ksk the students to see how many frequen- c.Which was the more convincing? cies they can tune into oh their radios. List d. Which did you prefer as a source of them' by station number and call letters. In- news? dicate which stations have the clearest sig- nals and which arc coming from farthest c.What advantages does the radio have away. over press and television as a.source of news? 2. Direct the students to listen to the type of 9.Arrange for the students to monitor each of programmes being broadcast from each sta- the available radio stations. Have them. de- tion at a given time. This can be done by scribe the format of each station in a couple slowly moving the tuning dial across the of sentences.Share these descriptions and radio. Have the students list what they hear then initiate a discussion around the follow- on each stationAlepeat the exercise at dif- ing questions: ferent times on different days. The results could be compared and some generalisations a. W ch section of the community is best should emerge. seed by radio? b. Arany sectionsofthecommunity 3. Tune the radio.to a news bulletin and direct ne lected by radio? If so, why? the students to note all the details of the first couple of items mentioned. The radio 10. Ch o°a radio station within your normal could then be switched off and an intensive listening area and analyse it critically using comprehension could follow. If the material these questions as a guide: issuitable,a writtenexpression exercise a. What is radio's purpose? might profitably follow. b. What is this particular station doing? c. What else would you like this station to 20. Have small. groups of students prepare 30- offer? niinute music programmes for a radio station. The students will need to select a theme, '11. Involve the students in a comparative study choose the records, plan the narrative and of two radio stations with which they are ,write the commercials. Over a period these familiar. The following categories could be programmes could be presented to the class. useful: In a follow-up.discussion direct the students' a. Number of records each hou , attention to the criteria for evaluating music b.Style and variety of music programmes. e.Role of the disc jockey 21. After the class has heard a radio comber- d.Placement and kind of comma vial,. ask the following basic questions: e. News coverage. , as What was the product advertised? 12. Arrange for the students to monitor an b. What were you told about the product? hour of .a local Top "40 radio station. Have c. Whatareyounottoldaboutthe them, make notes of the programming: what product? kind's of music are played at all times during d, Was the commercial interesting? the hour, when the news is broadcaen e. Would this product be better suited to the commercials are played, and so on. Each commercials onvelevision? student could present a...summary of his observations on, a pie or circle graph. 22. Have the students make a list of the products advertistd during one hour on their 13. List the following subject on the black- favourite radio station. What does the list board and then ask the students to give lyrics say about the audience the advertisers expect from popular songs *hich express young to listen to the station at this time? people's attitudes toward the subject: a.Friendship 23. Ask each student in the class to do a comparative study of two radio stations based on b. Love the following questions: c.Being a good person a. How many commercials in one hour? d.Kindpess b. Were the commercials done one at a e. Ways to face trouble. time or in clusters? 14. Have students select a singer who is noted c. How long was each commercial? for sin& tg personal songs. Let them make a d. Which station proved to be more effec- list,6f the songs he has recorded and per- tive inits presentation of commercials haps a brief summary of what the song is and why? about. Discuss the sun'rjnaries in class. 24. Have the students keep an advertising journal 15. Organise a discussion around the following for just one day. Ask them to list all the questions: advertising to which they were exposed. \ What "sound" is currently popular on Top Discuss the findings. ', 40 radio? Describe its characteristics.. Who 25. Lead the-Students to examine thfollowing created tAis sound; in other words, who list of reasons for advertisinf originated it? Who imitated it?Which re- cording artists do you consider to be orig- a.to inform inators and which, mere formula followers? b.to sell c.to shape people's behaviour 16. Make .alist on the. blackboard of all the musical styles known to the students. Discuss d.to form opinions the characteristics of each and then have e.to cause people to act the students identify groups which play each f.to change habits style. g.to motivate 17. Take a song that has been recorded by h. 4o influence. several artists. Collect all the recordings and After studying thislist have students list play them for the class. Have the class deter- examples of each of the above reasons for mine which is-the best rendition. advertising and invite them to add to the list of reasons. 18. Have the students write he lyrics to a song. For simplicity's sake,4sumethe song is a 26.Have students develop a list of reasons for folk song to be sung o guitar accompani- buying. Determine whether or not selection ment. is based on advertising; and, if so, what type. 19. Ask each student to select a musical instru-. ment and then list the names of artists who 27. Have students identify some product themes perform well on it. and slogans. 46 46 en ask the question: What is the motive 37. Have groups in the class prepare a news behind the,choice of a theme and slogan? programme announcing a particular event 28. Have students design, advertisements suit- from a previous decade. The event could be able for radio presentation. These advertise- social or political, e.g., advent of the motor ments could be presented to the class ver- car, 1914-1918 war, a new fashion. bally. 38. Divide the class into groups and hav each class, prepare a 5-minute news progr mme, .29. _1fsing the same product each time write 4 complete with weather and a ple of radio commercials to fit the following time commercials. slots: a. 60 seconds 39. Have the students make a news ()gramme b. 30 seconds with a tape recorder or a portable television c. 20 seconds camera. They could use an on-the-spot reporter to interview students and staff and to d.10 seconds. analyse the events of the past week. The 30. Have a group of students write and produce finished programmccould be played to the a radio commercial using two or more par- class. After the task is completed, the follow- ticipants.. Play the tape to the class. ing questions could be profitably discussed: a.Does the presence of a tape recorder or 31. Have the students make comparisons be- camera at an event alter the event itself? tween the hard and soft sell advertisement. b. How do you achieve objectivity in re- Discuss the effectiveness of each type. porting? Is it possible? 32. Make a collection of advertisements of pro- c. Were theinterests and values of the ducts of questionable value. The folloWing reporter very obviobs? categories may be helpful: "new" or "wonder" cures, new "scientific discoveries," spe- 40. Have the Students write a brief description cial "introductory" prices, nutritional claims, for publication in a newcomer's guidebook improvement in quality. Discuss the effective- of the radio available in the area: ness of this type of advertising. 41. The following is suggested for use in a unit 33. Arrange a class discussion on thediffer- on critical listening of radio: ences between the people the students hear a. Was the programme worth broadcasting? in adve0Sements and people inthe real b. What was the general purpose of the world. programme? (To inspire? To instruct? 34. Human behaviour can be affected by adver- To entertain? To amuse? To satisfy a tising which seeks to influence values. Con- need?) sider, the following statements in class: c.What were the underlying motives in the a. The buying _habits of thepublic are presentation? affected as a result of advertisers' appeals (To sell som h. ng? To build good will? to people. To influencechaviour? To influence b. Moral attitudes are influenced through thinking?) deliberate sexual appeals built into ad- d.Did the programme enrich lour lives? vertisements. e. How satisfying was the programme? 35. The radio is another medium of communica- 42.Assist the students to build up alist of tion that can be a valuable tool in any Eng- the marks of a discriminating radio listener. lish programme. Radio can be used to assist in the development of listening skills and 43.Establish criteria for the critical judgement can be correlated with work in oral and of radio a§ an art form.The following written expression. questions are recommended to begin the discussion: 36. Have all the students in the class write a a.What types of Jnusic are played? 1-minute (150-180 words) -radio news report b. What isthe lstation'sattitude toward on an event they have all witnessed. Circu- news? late these reports among the class and then discuss the following questions: c. Do the commercials clash with the general format of the station's programmes? a. Would a stranger reading these reports immediately realise that they were all d. Do the commercials fit the audience be- describing the same event? ing played for? b. What were some of the major differ- e. How much variety is there in the pro- ences in the written reports? gramming? c. Can you think of ways of eliminating sub- 44. Arrange for some interested students to re- jectivity/from news reporting? search the advantages of FM and AM radio

47 frequencies These research findings could be about each other. Our new environment com- , discussed in class. pels commitment and participation. We have become irrevocably lved with each 45. Have the students discuss the special needs other,andresponsiblefoeachother." radio serves. (Marshall McLuhan). 46. Discuss the function of radio in Australia? 54. An overall evaluation of radio stations would 47.Set the students to find out who owns the be a useful exercise' for sinior students. The city's commercial radiostation(s). What following questions could serve as guidelines: else do they own? , a. Does the station provide a well-rounded 48. Have groups in the class study the advant- programme of entertainment? ages and limitations of the different mass b. Does the station serve the public? media. Then, have students consider why a c.Does the station encourage discussion of country needs different media. controversial issues? 49. Have the students study the means of com- d.Is the community represented on the municating a message through 'various media. station's board? Examine alternatives for expressing varidus c. Are the intellectual interests of the Com- ideas and consider what a visual presentation munity being served? can add to a verbal expression. 55.Involve the students in a discussion on the 50. Discuss the following question: What kinds following viewpoints on the mass media:, of things should all the people in the world a.I believe that my thinking and my be- know about? haviour are strongly influenced by the 51. Have each student estimate what percentage mass media. Because of this dramatic im- of his new information he gets from the pact, I believe that some controls on the mass media each day., Calculate a class the media are necessary to insure that average and then discuss the findings. they do not misrepresent our culture or become a destructive influence on the be- 52.Arrange a class discussion on the role of haviour of citizens. re, the mass media in preserving peace in the b.I believe that the mass media are only world. 'some among many influences on my 53. Discuss this statement in class: "In an elec- thinking and behaviour. I am personally tricinformationenvironment,minority responsible and can evaluate that influ- groups cannolonger be contained ence. I can live agreeably in a society ignored. Too many people know too much that does not place controls on its media.

413 48 8.0 Guidelines for Evalution of Television, Film, Press \ and Radio Standard Desirable If . Undesirable If .

1. Does it appeal to age level of It givel information and/or entertain- It is dull, boring, not related to ex- audience? inent related to real life situations or \ ,perience or interests. interests.

2. Ipoesit meet needs for enter- It. deals with wholesome 'adventure, Itisemotionallydisturbing,and tainment and action? - htimour, fantasy, or suspense. overstimulating;placesunnecessary emphasis on cruelty and violence; is loud, crude, or vulgar.

3. Does it add to one's understand- It is sincere, constructive, informative, Itisone - sided:orpropagandist, ing and appreciation of himself, gives a balanced picture of life; en- arouses or intensifies prejudice, takes others, the world?t courages .deco human relations;is advantage of immaturity and lack of fair to races,ations, religions, labour, knowledge. management ,

4.. Does it encourageworthwhile Itupholds acceptable standards of Itglamorizes crime, indecency,in- / ideals, values, and beliefs (con- behaviour; promotes democratic and tolerance, greed, cruelty, encourages cerning such matters as family spiritualvalues,re pectforlaw, bad taste, false standards of material c ?-- decency, service. success, personal vanity, intemperance, immorality.

S. DoesItstimulateconstructive It promotes interests, skills, hobbies, It gives details of crime and its detec- activities? encourages desire to learn more, to do tion;solves problems by force or something constructive,to be cre- miraculousincident;leaves onea' ative, to solve problems, to work\ and passive spectator on the sidelines. to live with others.

6. Does it have artistic qualities? It is a skilful production as to music, It is poorly dpne, confusing, hard to script,acting,direction,artwork, follow, action is too fast, too slow; color,settings, sound effects,print- sound is too loud, too low; it hurts ing, photography. the eyes; is poor art work.

7.Is the language used ,suitable? The language is correct, suited to its It uses vocabulary that is too hard or subject; right for age level. I too easy; poor grammar; or language , of the underworld.

8.Is the over-all effect likely to be It has a positive effect; gives larger It has a negative or zero effect, dis- desirable?. understanding of the world; helps one courages living in real world; encour- become a happier, more informed,' ages one to be more dependent, fear- t more useful, more responsible, more ful, or insecure; leaves one where he interesting person. was before, or pushes him back.

Taken from USING MASS MEDIA IN THE SCHOOLS, W. D. Boutwell (Ed.) National Council of Teachers of English, Appleton-Century-Crofts. New York, 1962.

49 9.0Bibliography

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53 1 9.2Stud5nt texts

Secondary:

Reed fducation, Artarmon, N.S.W.: Mastering the Media, Dwyer, Millis and Thompson, 1971. Understanding Television, Cook, 1971. Language culd the Mass Media, Watson and Christie, 1971.

Angus & Robertson,1 Sydney, N.S.W.: Deddline, Newell, 1970. 14`. Penguin Education, Rine/it:10d, Vic.:' Break for Commercials (Connexions series) Rudinger and Kelly,1971.

,Loyola University Press, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.M: Exploring ,Television, Kuhns, 1973. Persuasion, Heintz, 1970. Mass Media, 'Heintz, Reuter and Conley, 1970.

National Textboipk Co., Skokie, Illinois, U.S.A.: Journalism for Today, Ferguson and Patten, 1973. _) Televising Your Message, Mitchell, 1974. O Pflaum/Standard, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.: The Media Works, Valdes and Crow, 19733

McDougall Littell & Co., Evanston, Illinois, U.S.A.: Coping with the Mass Media, 1972. ,

Paulist Press, New York, N.Y.: The Press (Discovery Series) 1968.

Primary:

Longman Australia, Hawthokn, Victoria: Mass Media Activities' I, Canavan, Slattery, Tarrant and Threlfo, 1974. Mass Media, Activities 2, Canavan, McGumess, Blaney and Davis, 1974. Mass Media Activities 3, Carfavan, Slattery, Tarrant and Threlfo, 1974. Mass Medid Activities 4, Canavan, McGumess, Blaney and Davis, 1974.

Reed Education, Artarmon, Meeting the Media, Dwyer and Thompson, 1973.

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