Skeptical Vol. 18, No. 3 Spring 1994/$6.25 Inquirer Antiscience Threat Paul Kurtz - Gerald Holton THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization. Editor Kendrick Frazier. Editorial Board James E. Alcock, Barry Beyerstein, Susan J. Blackmore, Martin Gardner, Ray Hyman, Philip J. Klass, Paul Kurtz, Joe Nickell, Lee Nisbet, Bela Scheiber. Consulting Editors Robert A. Baker, William Sims Bainbridge, John R. Cole, Kenneth L. Feder, C. E. M. Hansel, E. C. Krupp, David F. Marks, Andrew Neher, James E. Oberg, Robert Sheaffer, Steven N. Shore. Managing Editor Doris Hawley Doyle. Contributing Editor Lys Ann Shore. Writer Intern Thomas C. Genoni, Jr. Business Manager Mary Rose Hays. Assistant Business Manager Sandra Lesniak. Chief Data Officer Richard Seymour. Fulfillment Manager Michael Cione. Production Paul E. Loynes. Asst. Managing Editor Cynthia Matheis. Art Linda Hays. Audio Technician Vance Vigrass. Librarian Jonathan Jiras. Staff Alfreda Pidgeon, Ranjit Sandhu, Sharon Sikora, Elizabeth Begley (Albuquerque). Cartoonist Rob Pudim. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy. State University of New York at Buffalo. Barry Karr, Executive Director and Public Relations Director. Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director. Fellows of the Committee James E. Alcock,* psychologist, York Univ., Toronto; Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Kentucky; Stephen Barrett, M.D., psychiatrist, author, consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Southern California; Susan Blackmore,* psychologist, Univ. of the West of England, Bristol; Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France; Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor of English, Univ. of Utah; Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor, State Univ. of New York; Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University; John R. Cole, anthropologist, Inst, for the Study of Human Issues; F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif.; L. Sprague de Camp, author, engineer; Cornells de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands; Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K.: Paul Edwards, philosopher, Editor, Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K.; Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer. Foothill College, Los Altos Hills, Calif.; Kendrick Frazier,* science writer, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER; Yves Galifret, Exec. Secretary, I'Union Rationaliste; Martin Gardner,* author, critic; Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, Santa Fe Institute; Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Toronto; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.; C. E, M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales; Al Hibbs, scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human understanding and cognitive science, Indiana Univ.; Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and Professor of History of Science, Harvard Univ. Ray Hyman,* psycholo­ gist, Univ. of Oregon; Leon Jaroff, sciences editor. Time; Lawrence Jerome, science writer, engineer; Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition, Scientific American; Philip J. Klass,* science writer, engineer; Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Fredonia; Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Observatory; Paul Kurtz,* chairman, CSICOP; Lawrence Kusche, science writer; Paul MacCready, scientist/ engineer, AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif.; David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, England; David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Research Center; Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley; H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president. Bangalore Science Forum, India; Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist, Cornell Univ. Joe Nickell,* author, technical writing instructor, Univ. of Kentucky; Lee Nisbet,* philosopher, Medaille College; James E. Oberg, science writer; Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Health Sciences Univ.; John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ.; Mark Plummer, lawyer, Australia; W. V. Quine, philosopher. Harvard Univ.; Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Chicago; Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell Univ.; Wallace Sampson, M.D., clinical professor of medicine, Stanford Univ.; Evry Schatzman, President, French Physics Association; Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive director. National Center for Science Education; Thomas A. Sebeok, anthropologist, linguist, Indiana Univ.; Robert Sheaffer, science writer; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, N.S.W., Australia; Robert Steiner, magician, author, El Cerrito, Calif.; Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Angeles, Calif.; Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, University of Southern California; Marvin Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ. Lin Zixin, former editor Science and Technology Daily (China). (Affilia­ tions given for identification only.) *Member, CSICOP Executive Council

Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto Dr., N.E.. Albuquerque, NM 87111. (FAX 505- 293-2757). Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be addressed to: THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six weeks advance notice. Subscribers to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX: 716-636-1733. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the views and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is indexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Copyright e1994 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, 3965 Rensch Road, Buffalo, NY 14228. All rights reserved. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms International. Subscription Rates: Individuals, libraries, and institutions, $25.00 a year; back issues, $6.25 each. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published quarterly, Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Printed in Canada. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and additional mailing offices. Send changes of address to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. <^y SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Vol. 18, No. 3. Spring 1994

Journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

I I THE ANTISCIENCE THREAT The Growth of Antiscience Paul Kurtz 255 The Antiscience Problem Gerald Holton 264 ARTICLES Measuring the Prevalence of False Memories Ted G. Goertzel 266 Bieuler's Views on Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and on Psi Phenomena George Windholz 273 Examining the Satanic Panic ...... A Personal Perspective on 'Satanism' Peter Huston 280 ... A Sociological and Historical Perspective Terence M. Hines 281 Philosophy and the Paranormal. Part 2: Skepticism Miracles, and Knowledge William Grey 288 NEWS AND COMMENT 229 GAO to Investigate 1947 'Saucer Crash' / Benveniste Unredeemed by Replication Experiment / Oklahoma 'Psychic' Frustrates Police / University Cautions on Therapeutic Touch / 'Psychics' Fail Again / TMers Lose in Canada / Sagan Receives NAS Award / Ig Noble Awards

RESEARCH REVIEW Studying the Psychology of the UFO Experience Robert A Baker 239 NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER The Cult of the Golden Ratio Martin Gardner 243 PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS It's All a Conspiracy, and It's Invisible Robert Sheaffer 250 BOOK REVIEWS Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust Terence M. Hines 295 Gary Taubes, Bad Science Terence M. Hines 296 Joe Nickell, Looking for a Miracle Robert A Baker 298 Jenny Randies and Peter Hough, Spontaneous Human Combustion Gordon Stein 300 Stuart Gordon, The Paranormal: An Illustrated Encyclopedia Gordon Stein 302

NEW BOOKS 305

ARTICLES OF NOTE 307

FOLLOW-UP 314 "The Impossible Box" and the "Oregon Vortex Illusion" L_ LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 319 GUIDE FOR AUTHORS 333

ON THE COVER: Illustration by Bruce Adams. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal announces the 1994 CSICOP Conference at the Doubletree Suites Hotel Seattle Thursday through Sunday June 23-26, 1994 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF BELIEF

Keynote Address (Friday at 8:00 P.M.) Carl Sagan

Thursday, June 23

7:30 - 10:00 P.M.: ALIEN ABDUCTIONS Moderator: Paul Kurtz, CSICOP Chairman Robert Baker, professor emeritus of psychology, University of Kentucky Thomas Bullard, folklorist, Indiana University, Bloomington John Mack, professor of psychiatry, Harvard University Nicholas P. Spanos, professor and director of the Laboratory of Experimental Hypnosis, Carleton University, Ottawa

Friday, June 24

7:30 - 9:00 A.M.: Registration 9:00 A.M. - 12:00 NOON: THE BELIEF ENGINE: HOW WORLD VIEWS ARE FORMED Moderator and Panelist: James Alcock, professor of psychology, Glendon College, York University, Toronto Ray Hyman, professor of psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene Andrew Neher, professor of psychology, Cabrillo College, Aptos, California Anthony Pratkanis, professor of psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz

12:45 P.M. - 2:15 P.M.: Luncheon (OPTIONAL) An Illustrated History of UFOs James McGaha, Major, USAF (Retired) Friday (continued) 2:30 - 5:30 P.M.: HOW WE FOOL OURSELVES: ANOMALIES OF PERCEPTION AND INTERPRETATION Moderator and Panelist: Barry Beyerstein, professor of psychology, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, B.C. Irving Biederman, professor of psychology, University of Southern California Elizabeth Loftus, professor of psychology, University of Washington, Seattle Other speakers to be announced.

8:00 P.M.: KEYNOTE ADDRESS Carl Sagan, David Duncan Professor of Astronomy and Space Science, Cornell University

Saturday, June 25

8:00 - 9:00 A.M.: Registration 9:00 A.M. - 12 NOON: MEMORY: HOW RELIABLE IS IT? Moderator: Carol Tavris, psychologist, author, Los Angeles Stephen Ceci, professor of psychology, Cornell University Richard Ofshe, professor of sociology, University of California, Berkeley Loren Pankratz, clinical psychologist, Portland, Oregon, Veterans Administration

12 NOON - 2:00 P.M.: CSICOP Luncheon (OPTIONAL) Brenton VerPloeg, attorney, Schults &. Bowen, CSICOP and the Law Special Remarks: Kendrick Frazier, Editor of the Skeptical Inquirer Joe Nickell, CSICOP Executive Council

2:00 - 5:00 P.M.: INFLUENCING BELIEFS IN THE COURTROOM: RULES OF LAW, EXPERT TESTIMONY, AND SCIENCE Moderator and Panelist: Gerald M. Rosen, clinical associate professor, Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle: "Confirmatory Bias in Forensic Settings" Barry Beyerstein, Brain Behavior Laboratory, Psychology Department, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, B.C.: "Graphology: Pseudoscience in the Courtroom" Peter Huber, author of Galileo's Revenge: junk Science in the Courtroom Timothy Moore, associate professor of psychology, Glendon College, York University, Toronto: Scientific Consensus and Expert Testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest Trial 6:00 - 7:00 P.M.: Pre-Banquet Social Hour (cash bar) 7:00 - 10:00 P.M.: Awards Banquet (OPTIONAL) Host: Paul Kurtz, CSICOP Chairman Carl Sagan, Cornell University John Maddox, editor, Nature magazine Elizabeth Loftus, University of Washington . _ . (Continued on next page.) Sunday, June 26

9:00 A.M. - 12 NOON: CONSPIRACY THEORIES Moderator: Lee Nisbet, professor of philosophy, Medaille College, Buffalo, N.Y. Don Kates, attorney and criminologist, San Francisco. Phil Klass, former senior editor, Aviation Week and Space Technology magazine: "UFOs: Government Cover-Ups?" Valerie Klein, JFK assassination researcher

Conference Information Accommodations: Doubletree Suites Hotel (206-575-8220) Single/double $79 (includes complimentary full breakfast buffet). Mention CSICOP Conference for this special rate. Cut-off date for conference rate is June 8. All suites have livingroom, bedroom, and bath; two telephones and two televisions. Or stay at the Doubletree Inn (206-575-8220), directly across the street. Single/double $65. Complimentary shuttle service to and from Sea-Tac Airport to Doubletree Suites or Doubletree Inn; 15 minutes from downtown. Transportation: For special discount airline rates, call CSICOP's travel agent, Judy Pensack, Creative Destinations, 800-572-5440 or FAX 407-830-5530. For more information, call or write Mary Rose Hays, CSICOP, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226, 716-636-1425, FAX 716-636-1733. Media representatives should contact Barry Karr at 716-636-1425. This conference is hosted by the Society for Sensible Explanations, an independent, autonomous skeptics' organization in Seattle. Opinions expressed at CSICOP conferences are those of the individual speakers and do not necessarily represent the views of CSICOP. REGISTRATION FORM Preregistration is advised. (Students 25 or under $25.00. Send photocopy of student I.D.) Registration fee does not include meals or accommodations. Make checks payable to CSICOP and return to: 1994 CSICOP Conference, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226 D YES, I (we) plan to attend the 1994 CSICOP Conference in Seattle. D $135 registration for person(s), includes Keynote Address. $ D $20.00 Friday Luncheon (optional) for person(s) $ Q $20.00 Saturday Luncheon (optional) for person(s) $ D $30.00 Saturday Awards Banquet (optional) for person(s) $ • $15.00 nonregistrant ticket(s) to Keynote Address for person(s) $ D Charge my D VISA Q MasterCard D Check enclosed Total $ Acct. # Exp. Name Address City State Zip Phone: (day) (evening) • No, I will not be able to attend the conference, but please accept my contribution (tax- deductible) of $ to help cover the costs of this and future CSICOP events. News and Comment

up of some kind about something that E.T., Phone the GAO: happened then and that it should be revealed. He denied that he was Roswell Incident Gets influenced in any way by Karl Pflock, Congressional Ear the husband of a senior Schiff aide, Mary Martinek. Pflock has long been interested in UFOs and spent a year o now the government will in­ investigating the Roswell incident. vestigate the government re­ The initial news coverage, surpris­ S garding the so-called Roswell ingly, treated the matter straight and incident. It should be interesting to see seriously. Schiff clearly intends this to the eventual outcome of the General be considered a serious public issue, Accounting Office study, requested worthy of a taxpayer-funded GAO by Congressman Steve Schiff, a New study. (The Washington Post asked the Mexico Republican, into the facts GAO what the study would cost; surrounding an alleged crash of a ironically, the GAO said it doesn't flying saucer northwest of Roswell, reveal such information.) At one time, New Mexico, in 1947. (There is good it might have appeared politically risky evidence that the debris found was for a Congressman to call for a UFO that of a radar corner reflector and investigation, but clearly the rules the balloon that had been carrying it. have changed. What once would have For Si's critical examination of these appeared merely silly and frivolous to claims, see Philip J. Klass's four the public now gets a respectful investigative articles, Spring 1986, hearing in a society seemingly un­ Winter 1987-88, Spring 1988, and able to establish priorities of any sort Winter 1990.) over what's important and what's not. Klass's Skeptics UFO Newsletter and the Albuquerque Journal revealed in It is hard to believe the study will January that Schiff had requested the be able to reveal any new facts or GAO investigation. Schiff, whose important government secrets. If it district includes Albuquerque but not does, all to the good. More likely, the Roswell or the alleged crash site, said findings will be equivocal and leave the he requested the study after receiving door still open to all the speculations several letters from constituents of UFO buffs and conspiracy theorists, asking about an alleged cover-up and whose legions in recent years have then getting the runaround from the seemingly multiplied. Will an absence Pentagon. He told reporters he doesn't of any revelatory documents be taken really believe the study will discover as "evidence" of a further cover-up? that alien bodies were found and Well have to see. spirited away back in 1947, but he does think there was a government cover- —Kendrick Frazier

Spring 1994 229 a type that were missing from the Scientists Repeat Dilution original experiment. In the minimal Experiments, Find No 100x dilution some degranulation biological activity remained, as would J Support for Benveniste be expected, but dilutions ranging from 1012 to 1060 failed to cause de- granulations. (Benveniste and col­ cientists in Britain report that leagues had claimed they obtained they have been unsuccessful in degranulations at dilutions as great as S an attempt to reproduce the 10120.) dramatic findings reported by Jacques Hirst et al. report in the December Benveniste and coworkers in 1988 6, 1993, Nature (366:525) that they involving so-called "remembering found no evidence for any biological water." Benveniste, Elizabeth Daven- effect in the very dilute solutions. as, and colleagues had reported in a They found nothing to lend any much-contested Nature paper that an support to the findings of Davenas et antiserum solution when diluted to al. "We have been unable to find any such a high degree that no molecule evidence that very high dilutions of of the antiserum could be expected to anti-IgE, successed or unsuccessed remain nevertheless displayed a meas­ [shaken or unshaken], cause any urable biological effect. Homeopathic reproducible effects on the degranu­ practitioners hailed the result as lation of human basophil leukocytes," confirmation of their claims. they report. "No aspect of the data The result raised a storm of con­ is consistent with the previously troversy. The laboratory techniques published claims." were widely challenged, and Nature Nature published the paper without editor John Maddox even led an comment. investigative visit to the Benveniste —K. Frazier lab—agreed to as a condition of Nature's publication of the paper— where he, NIH science sleuth Walter Stewart, and magician-investigator Oklahoma Psychic Fails James Randi found and later reported serious flaws in experimental pro­ J to Find Missing Bodies tocols. Now S. J. Hirst, N. A. Hayes, J. n a rural area of Oklahoma, just Burridge, F. L. Pearce, and J. C. outside of Tulsa, a local "psychic" Foreman, from the departments of I recently led authorities to an area pharmacology, statistical science, and pond in an attempt to locate the bodies chemistry at University College Lon­ of Terri Schlatter and her son Nathan, don, report the results of an exper­ who had been missing since 1985. iment attempting to reproduce the Initially the psychic, identified only as original findings. The researchers A. Louise of Oklahoma City, was followed as closely as possible the contacted by a family friend of a methods of the original study. They September 1992 murder victim, Erika carried out experiments on sample Hartwick, in hopes of gaining more antiserum solutions that they had information about what caused Hart- diluted anywhere from 102 (100 times) wick's death. (It is important to note to 1060. In each experimental session that the incarcerated prime suspect in they implemented separate controls of the Hartwick death, Darrell Schlatter,

230 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 was the husband of Terri Schlatter and was long thought to be involved with the 1985 disappearance of his wife and son.) In the process of A. Louise's "inves­ tigation" into the 1992 murder, the psychic reported picking up "images about a woman and child in a pond" that seemed to relate to the 1985 case. A sister of the missing Terri Schlatter, impressed with the psychic's apparent talent and abilities, urged Deputy U.S. Marshal James Caldwell to contact the psychic. Though skeptical, Caldwell spoke with A. Louise several times, and eventually in May 1993 he arranged for her to visit several dif­ ferent locations around the Tulsa area. During her search, A. Louise repeated claims that she was picking up "strong vibrations" and the images of two bodies, a pond, and thick mud. Claim­ ing at one point to have made contact with Terri Schlatter's spirit, the psy­ chic said, "I started picturing Terri and her child, the images of them being weighted down. I could actually sense her being thrown in. It was kind of like a dream, very vague, no color." searched. (The correlation however A. Louise then claimed Terri's spirit was later discounted.) indicated that her burial place was at After the water was drained in the bottom of a large pond located June, diggers had to wait for the close to a former home of the remaining mud to dry. By July, inves­ Schlatters. tigators dug by hand and soon after Unsure how to proceed, the inves­ began to use heavy equipment, tigators requested help from Search although it, too, failed to locate any and Rescue Dogs of Oklahoma, which bodies. Dogs were again brought in, trains dogs to locate buried human but this time were unable to pick up cadavers. The dogs were brought out any scent. (Trainers blamed the dogs' separately, and two of them were said failure on the hardened mud, which to have "alerted" within 10 feet of the they claim can block decomposition location indicated by the psychic and gases from being released.) a third hit directly downwind from the Commenting on the slow progress spot. With this evidence, the investi­ of the search, one investigator re­ gators decided to proceed with the marked: "Obviously, this has to be draining of the pond. Lending further concluded at some point. We can't dig credibility to the psychic was word to China." After weeks of digging, no that the suspect, Darrell Schlatter, bodies were found and the search was committed suicide in his jail cell after abandoned. learning that the pond was being —Tom Genoni, Jr.

Spring 1994 231 researcher before the research can University of Colorado begin." Report Critical of On April 29, 1993, the Colorado Senate's Health, Environment, Wel­ Therapeutic Touch fare and Institutions Committee (HEWI) held a hearing to directly address the RMS's concern about ien the Rocky Mountain CBN's decisions with regard to alter­ Skeptics (RMS) first ap­ native healing practices. The Chair of Wproached the Colorado HEWI wrote to CBN May 7,1993, that Board of Nursing (CBN) on January the HEWI "Committee members are 30, 1992 {SI, Winter 1993, pp. 172- concerned that the continuing educa­ 173), the concern was simple: "How tion courses on non-traditional heal­ can Board-recognized credentializing ing practices being approved by the organizations be made responsible and Colorado Board of Nursing are not accountable for the content of contin­ receiving sufficient review. . . . The uing education claims?" The Board's Senate HEWI Committee expects response was to convene the Task board members to thoroughly review Force to Colorado State Board of alternative healing practices, such as Nursing Regarding Therapeutic therapeutic touch, neurolinguistic Touch on April 8, 1992, at the Uni­ programming, and crystal healing, versity of Colorado's Health Science prior to approving the study of these Center. In its letter to RMS of June healing methods for continuing 8, 1992, CBN wrote in part that "the education." Board voted to reaffirm its previous Meanwhile RMS began an inves­ determination that therapeutic touch tigation of the promotion of TT at the was an acceptable study area for University of Colorado's Health continuing education credit." The Science Center (UCHSC). The Center Rocky Mountain Skeptics became for Human Caring (CHC), under the curious about CBN's identifying TT leadership of Jean Watson, then dean to the exclusion of other courses. of the School of Nursing at CU, had One year later, having investigated been organized in 1986 within the claims and the evidence for TT, UCHSC. CHC's original mission the Rocky Mountain Skeptics statement included five points, one of approached CBN with their findings. which was: "the development of a (See SI, Spring 1993, pp. 327-330.) theory of flexible health care relating After a two-hour discussion the Board to the importance of human responses moved to reaffirm its previous vote with scientific and technological to continue to accept TT for credit. aspects of such care." In 1989 the In a letter dated February 10, 1993, mission statement was revised and the CBN offered the following defense: centrality of scientific and technolog­ "The treatment must be performed in ical aspects eliminated, to be replaced order to measure its effect. For the with: "to develop and disseminate treatment to be performed, persons educational, research and clinical must learn how to perform the strategies to reestablish the critical treatment. Accordingly, the Board balance between techno-care and approved of therapeutic touch as human-care within the health care acceptable content for continuing system. To restore the centrality of education. It also noted that the the arts and humanities in under­ subject must be studied by the standing the subjective human dimen-

232 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 sions of nursing, health, illness and Therapeutic Touch has cast suspi­ healing and in designing new strate­ cion over the entire Center. If it is gies for caring and healing." good therapy, it should be validated RMS became concerned about and encouraged. If not, it should be CHC's aggressive promotion and terminated. The sense of our Com­ mittee is that the scientific basis for advocacy of TT: specifically, its influ­ Therapeutic Touch has not been ence over the School of Nursing in validated and that efforts at this the form of several Ph.D. theses (e.g., Center to do so have been "A Phenomenological Inquiry on the inadequate. Child's Lived Experience of Perceiving Our Committee believes that the the Human Energy Field Using Ther­ following should be done with apeutic Touch"), graduate level regard to Therapeutic Touch: The courses for credit, and a colorful four- Chancellor and the Dean of the page flyer promoting a three-part School of Nursing should appoint video series "Therapeutic Touch: a special committee of investigators Healing through Human Energy to carefully read the very extensive literature on this subject, to view Fields" available for $675 and pro­ all the videos and relevant course duced by Janet Quinn, a senior scholar material, and to witness actual at CHC. demonstrations of this technique. It RMS presented its concerns to should solicit testimony from both several University of Colorado critics and advocates. The members Regents, who then requested an of the committee should be inves­ investigation by the chancellor of tigators well-versed in the scientific UCHSC. The chancellor instructed method and should come from several disciplines on the Health the Academic Relevance Review com­ Sciences Center campus with the mittee to evaluate CHC and present exception of the School of Nursing. its findings and recommendations to . . . Rather than superficially review the Regents. Throughout the review this most contentious area, we feel process RMS wrote frequently to the that it should be done once and for chancellor and met with him. On all in depth, and in a thorough December 16, 1993, the report was scientific manner.... If Therapeutic issued. The seven-page document, Touch is not recognized as a bona- while praising CHC in some areas, fide activity with academic rele­ was highly critical in others and vance, then no further course work should be offered under the aegis confirmed much of RMS's suspicions. of the University. Regarding RMS's concerns, the com­ mittee's report said: Finally, if and when the adminis­ trative relationships of the Center are clarified, the Center mission The Center Directors should realize more focused, a frequent review that they do themselves, their mechanism established, the role of concepts and the School harm by the Therapeutic Touch investigated, use of jargon that cannot clearly be and jargon and mysticism elimi­ understood, and by the espousal of nated from course work, then seed theoretical constructs which appear money for a variety of programs devoid of proof. Course titles such . . . might flow appropriately to the as Emerging Otologies, Developing Center. Unless these issues are dealt Resources of the Inner Self-in- with, the good ideas with which the Context, and Existential Advocacy: Center started may be overlooked An Ethic of Embodiment, do not in a tide of mounting criticism of encourage widespread appeal or unorthodox and unproven or untes- understanding. The criticism of table viewpoints and hypotheses.

Spring 1994 233 At the conclusion of the Regents' whether psychics have real powers or hearing, where the report above was not," said Emery. "And each year, the received, Regent Jim Martin made the results convince me once again that following on-the-record pronounce­ people who consult self-proclaimed ment: "I do think the Rocky Mountain psychics are probably wasting their Skeptics serve a useful purpose in money." monitoring this scientific accountabil­ The Committee for the Scientific ity. I think it does keep the process Investigation of Claims of the Para­ open and people focused on what is normal (CSICOP), publisher of the scientific and what isn't." SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, distributed Emery's analyses to the news media —Bela Scheiber at year-end. According to CSICOP, psychics don't appear to be improving Bela Scheiber is president of the Rocky upon their "hit rate" with the passage Mountain Skeptics and a member of the of time, and CSICOP has yet to find CSICOP Executive Council. any convincing evidence that psychics possess the special abilities they claim to have. According to the psychics, 1993 Headlines That Didn't was supposed to be the year that: Happen: Psychics Blow • "Fergie" posed naked for Playboy (as predicted by John Monti in the It Again in 1993 National Enquirer) • Dolly Parton's left breast exploded BILL AND HILLARY CLINTON SEPARATE! during a nationally televised special MADONNA ARRESTED FOR (Peter Meers, Weekly World News) SKIING NAKED! • Bill and Hillary Clinton split up (Bar­ FERGIE POSES FOR PLAYBOY! bara Donchess, National Enquirer) TOILET PAPER SHORTAGE LEADS • Peter Jennings, Tom Brokaw, and TO RIOTS! Dan Rather were all replaced by younger anchormen (Maria Gra- ie headlines above are among ciette, National Enquirer) those predicted for 1993 by some • Injuries forced the NFL to switch Tof the world's best-known psy­ to two-hand touch football, and a chics, who made their forecasts in shortage of toilet paper led to riots supermarket tabloids like the National (Joseph Klar, Weekly World News) Enquirer, The Globe, and the Weekly World News. You didn't miss these • Princess Diana gave birth to a boy headlines. The predictions never came fathered by a U.S. Senator, and true. Queen Elizabeth abdicated her Gene Emery, a science writer at the throne to enter a convent (Countess Providence Journal, says the psychics Serena Sahak, Weekly World News) scored as poorly in 1993 as they have • Phil Donahue became an ambassa­ each year since he began tracking such dor (Mystic Meg, The Globe) forecasts in the 1970s. "By saving these predictions for a year it's easy • Jay Leno was replaced on the for anyone to discover for themselves Tonight Show by Kathie Lee Gif-

234 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ford (Hevenly, National Enquirer) • The Hubble space telescope discov­ ered alien beings living on an asteroid (Shawn Robbins, National Enquirer)

Emery said that, "depending on the psychic you listened to, 1993 was supposed to be the year that Madonna was arrested in Utah for skiing naked, she revealed that she was Jim Nabors' love child, or she remarried Sean Penn and cleaned up her image to become 'the new Julie Andrews of the film world.' " While some psychics predicted Mike Tyson's release from prison, psychic Peter Meers said it would be the year Tyson finds true love, in prison—an inmate identified as "Big Bubba." Psychic Gerd Peters said that former Teamster boss Jimmy Hoffa would be found alive; on the other hand, Countess Serena Sabak pre­ Some people argue that the fore­ dicted that Hoffa's skull would be casts in supermarket tabloids are so found inside a shark. outrageous that nobody in their right "From what I saw, these psychics mind would take them seriously, missed every major unexpected news Emery said. "But if I told you that two story of 1993, including Michael cartoon characters named Beavis and Jordan's retirement, the Midwest Butthead would make national head­ flooding, the World Trade Center lines, you would have been wrong to bombing, the Israel-PLO peace treaty, call me crazy." Emery said he is always and the Lorena Bobbitt case," said looking for predictions from profes­ Emery. "Instead," he continued, "we sional psychics who might be able to had psychics predicting that Michael demonstrate real talent, as long as the Jackson would discover a drink that forecasts deal with major unexpected cures addiction to crack cocaine, or he events that are guaranteed to make would run a retreat for troubled the headlines. children on a 300-acre compound in Among the events the psychics rural Nebraska." have already forecast for 1994: an After decades of looking, scientists earthquake will turn Florida into an have not found convincing evidence island, Michael Jackson will become an that self-proclaimed psychics really evangelist, and thousands will die in have the ability to see the future, find South Carolina when a teenager missing people, or help solve crimes. accidentally detonates a homemade When psychics are tested under nuclear bomb in his basement. conditions that eliminate luck or "I predict," said Emery, "that it fraud, they typically fail. won't happen." a

Spring 1994 235 within society and protect the nation TMer's Beliefs Didn't Fly against destructive influences from D In Great White North beyond our borders." As evidence of their ability to "prevent negative trends," the Natural egular readers of the SKEPTICAL Law Party claimed that last June and INQUIRER may remember that July a group of 4,000 Yogic Flyers in R the Natural Law Party, an Washington, D.C., "created such a organization based on the teachings powerful positive influence that vio­ of Marharishi Mahesh Yogi, recently lent crime dropped—approximately 25 made a presidential bid in the United percent below predicted levels—and States (51, Winter 1993). Having failed U.S. government performance im­ in the U.S., the Transcendental Med­ proved dramatically." (Someone itation group moved some of its should tell District of Columbia mayor operations up north and ran candi­ Sharon Dixon that she won't be dates in the Canadian federal elections needing the National Guard after all.) of October 25, 1993. Despite all of the wonderful prom­ In a promotional brochure featur­ ises, the Natural Law Party failed to ing "extensive scientific research" to win any seats in the Canadian Par­ back the Natural Law Party's claims, liament. One noteworthy race party leader Neil Paterson called out included Doug Henning, now Dr. to the citizens of Canada to join his Doug Henning, who as the NLP cause so that "a perfect nation free candidate captured just above 1 per­ from problems" could be established. cent of the votes (roughly 1,000 of Aside from the usual political rhetoric 85,000) in the electoral district of and promises of reduced crime, lower Rosedale. taxes, and a revitalized economy, the —Tom Genoni, Jr. party also prom­ ised to meet some rather lofty goals. One of its more amazing plans for Canada was to create in Ottawa "A Group for a Government," which will consist of 10,000 Yogic Flyers, who by floating in the air will somehow "generate an in­ domitable influ­ ence of coherence, positivity, and harmony in Can­ adian national The Natural Law Party said it would maintain "a group of 10,000 consciousness. Yogic Flyers to create an indomitable influence of harmony and This will prevent positivity" through Canada "by enlivening the Unified Field of negative trends Natural Law in national consciousness." (Illustration from NLPs Canadian campaign literature.)

236 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Sagan To Receive Sagan was active in NASA's Mariner, Viking, Voyager, and Galileo National Academy's expeditions to other planets and throughout his career has carried out Public Welfare Medal research into planetary atmospheres, the greenhouse effect on Venus, the origin of life on earth, and the pos­ arl Sagan, the noted astrono­ sibilities of life elsewhere. He has re­ mer, educator, and Pulitzer ceived NASA medals twice for Distin­ C Prize-winning author, has guished Public Service and once for won the 1994 Public Welfare Medal, Exceptional Scientific Achievement. the National Academy of Sciences' highest honor. The medal, awarded annually since 1914, is presented to "honor extraor­ dinary use of science for the public good," the Academy said. "In the public view," said Academy President Bruce Alberts, "Carl Sagan's name may be associated more with science than that of any other living U.S. scientist. This award clearly honors a very distinguished individual who has played a critical role in promoting the understanding of science worldwide." Peter H. Raven, the NAS home secretary and chair of the selection committee, said: "Carl Sagan has been enormously successful in communi­ cating the wonder and importance of science. His ability to capture the imagination of millions and to explain difficult concepts in understandable terms is a magnificent achievement." He is perhaps best known to the Sagan, David Duncan Professor of public for his PBS television series and Astronomy and Space Sciences at best-selling book Cosmos, his articles Cornell University and director of on science in Parade magazine, and Cornell's Laboratory for Planetary books such as Comet, Broca's Brain, Studies, said he was "honored and Contact (a novel), The Cosmic Connec­ delighted" with the award, which will tion, and the Dragons of Eden, which be presented at the NAS annual won a Pulitzer Prize. One of his most meeting in Washington on April 25. interesting books, less well known to Sagan has been a Fellow of the public, is Intelligent Life in the CSICOP since its inception in 1976. Universe (1966). This was a collabo­ In 1987 he was the recipient of ration between Sagan, then in his CSICOP's In Praise of Reason Award, early 30s, and the noted Russian and he will be the keynote speaker at astronomer I. S. Shklovskii. CSICOP's 1994 annual conference, June 23-26, in Seattle. —K. Frazier

Spring 1994 237 SI Included in • General Periodicals Index-Public Library Edition InfoTrac Indexes The Readers' Guide and InfoTrac are general-purpose indexes that serve a n our Summer 1991 issue, we wide range of students, scholars, announced that the Readers' Guide authors, and journalists, and almost I to Periodical Literature was including all libraries subscribe to one or the the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER among the other, or both. They are often the first more than 200 magazines it indexes. sources researchers consult when We are now pleased to report that the gathering information on a particular Information Access Company will topic. The addition of SI to these include the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (back­ indexes will bring our critical evalua­ dated to the Winter 1992 issue) in the tion of the paranormal and promotion following InfoTrac databases: of critical thinking to the attention of • Expanded Academic Index an even wider audience and should • Academic Index on CD-ROM and result in many more libraries' carrying Academic Index On-Line the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. • Magazine Index Plus and Maga­ zine Index Plus On-Line —Jonathan Jiras

Ig Nobles Honor won for their conclusions that many of their patients who claim to have 0 Best of the Worst been abducted by aliens actually have been. And, in Mathematics, Robert Faid of Greenville, South Carolina, or a third consecutive year, the took the prize for calculating the exact MIT Museum and the Journal of odds (8,606,091,751,822:1) that Gor­ F Irreproducible Results have bachev is the Antichrist. awarded their Ig Noble prizes to those Added to this year's ceremony whose recent research "cannot or were 30-second-long Heisenberg should not be reproduced." Among Certainty lectures. One speaker de­ the "winners" at this year's ceremony livered his speech in Pig Latin, while were several persons familiar to another, although speaking in English, readers of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. was frequently interrupted by mem­ Author Louis Kervran was the bers of the PLO (Proton Liberation recipient in Physics for his book Organization) protesting the Super­ Biological Transmutations, in which he conducting Supercollider, since made argues that a cold-fusion process moot when Congress canceled it. produces the calcium in eggshells. (See "Billions of subatomic particles will "Cold Fusion Chicken," SI, Winter be threatened every picosecond!" 1992, p. 122, and "Atomic Arithmetic," members shouted. "Stop the carn­ Fall 1992, p. 93.) In Psychology, John age! Mack of Harvard Medical School and David Jacobs of Temple University -Tom Genoni, Jr.

238 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Research Review

This is the first contribution to a new department, in which a knowledgeable researcher reports on a recent noteworthy scientific paper, places it into perspective, and comments on its significance.—THE EDITOR Q Studying the Psychology of the UFO Experience ROBERT A. BAKER

mpirical studies of people alleged second argues that these people have to have had UFO experiences are strong imaginative powers and are E hard to come by because of the "fantasy prone," i.e., people who are relative rarity of such claimants, the easily hypnotized and who weave shortage of interested and scientific­ elaborate fantasies around internal ally trained investigators, and the sensations and external suggestions esoteric nature of the subject matter. and then are convinced that the A new study by Nicholas P. Spanos fantasies are "real." and colleagues in the Carleton Uni­ Using 176 adults, one group of 49 versity Department of Psychology in UFO reporters recruited through Ottawa, Canada, is noteworthy in newspaper ads and two comparison that it has managed to overcome these groups—one of 53 community volun­ obstacles ("Close Encounters: An teers and the other of 74 university Examination of UFO Experiences," by students—the psychologists gave the Nicholas P. Spanos, Patricia A. Cross, three groups a series of psychological Kirby Dickson, and Susan C. tests and questionnaires. Subjects in DuBreuil, Journal of Abnormal Psychol­ the UFO group also received an hour- ogy, 102(4): 624-632,1993). This study long, semistructured interview and is significant, in my opinion, because were asked about their UFO experi­ it shows that the earlier explanatory ences and their beliefs. The interviews accounts of this phenomenon are were scored by independent judges somewhat flawed and it also points to and were rated for the emotional the most probable or "true" explana­ intensity and subjective reality of the tion for these curious reports. UFO encounter. Recognizing at the outset that The psychological measures used claims of alien encounters and alien are all standard, valid, and reliable. abductions are a social-psychological Well-accepted measurements were rather than a material or physical used to determine psychopathology, problem, Spanos et al. sought to test intelligence, social and emotional two general hypotheses. The first is adjustment, cognitive ability, and that people making such claims are fantasy proneness. psychologically or psychosocially In analyzing the results, the UFO disturbed, i.e., pathological. The reporters were divided into two

Spring 1994 239 groups: those who simply saw lights propensity measures. The finding that in the sky and scored very low on the did most clearly differentiate the UFO belief intensity dimension and those and comparison groups was belief in who scored much higher on the UFOs (as alien spacecraft) and in the emotional and reality scales. All four reality of alien life-forms. The authors groups were then compared: 31 UFO- also suggest that many of the UFO intense subjects; 18 UFO-nonintense subjects believed in alien existence subjects; 53 community adults; and 74 long before having any UFO experien­ students. Differences between the ces. In their words (p. 631): groups on each of the test battery variables were analyzed with a series Our findings suggest that intense of one-way analyses of variance. UFO experiences are more likely to Both UFO groups held significantly occur in individuals who are dis­ more exotic beliefs than subjects in the posed to esoteric beliefs in general comparison groups, and they also and alien beliefs in particular and who interpret unusual sensory and attained higher scores on five of the imaginal experiences in terms of the psychological health variables. In alien hypothesis. Among UFO short, the findings provide no support believers, those with stronger pro- whatsoever for the hypothesis that - pensities toward fantasy production UFO reporters are psychologically were particularly likely to generate pathological. Regarding the "fantasy" such experiences. Moreover such hypothesis, no group differences were experiences were likely to be gener­ found on the temporal lobe lability ated and interpreted as real events scale, on the three imaginal propensity rather than imaginings when they measures, and on three indexes of were associated with restricted sensory environments that contrib­ hypnotizability—all recognized mea­ uted to confusion between inter­ sures of fantasy proneness. There nally produced images and were, however, major differences sensations and external events (e.g., between the intense and nonintense experiences that occurred at night UFO groups with regard to whether and in association with sleep). or not their experiences were sleep related. UFO-intense subjects The authors also caution that to reported that their experiences were understand the elaborate and often sleep related significantly more often bizarre reports of those in the intense than did the nonintense subjects. Only group it is important to note that most one subject in the nonintense group of these reports (60 percent) were said his experience was related to sleep related. Although some were falling asleep, dreaming, or waking up; merely dreams of UFOs and aliens, the 58 percent of the intense subjects sleep-related UFO experiences invol­ described their experience as sleep ving paralysis were also usually related. accompanied by visual or auditory In their discussion, the authors hallucinations, or both, and sometimes interpret their findings as failing to by the sense of a presence that was confirm either the psychopathology or somehow felt but not seen. fantasy-prone hypothesis about UFO Baker (1992), in an unpublished but close-encounter experiences. Not only widely distributed paper, "Alien were the UFO groups as mentally Abductions or Human Productions: healthy as the controls but the UFO Some Not So Unusual Personal Exper­ groups were no different from the iences," has also called attention to the controls on any of the imaginal striking similarity between reports

240 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "The major importance of this study is that it shifts attention from the false leads of pathology and neurological aberrations to the true path of false beliefs that are engendered by a common but little recognized type of sleep disorder." of alien abductions (as chronicled by where the media have left the impres­ clients of Hopkins [1987], Jacobs sion that if those who believe in UFOs [1992], and Mack [1992], as well as and alien abductions are neither Whitley Strieber, regarding his own "crazy" nor "fantasy prone" then their abduction claim in Communion) and the beliefs in extraterrestrial visitations medical reports from people having have been validated. sleep paralysis with hypnagogic and The major importance of this study hypnopompic hallucinations (Rehm is that it shifts attention from the false 1991: Siegel 1992). For all practical leads of pathology and neurological purposes, the two sets of reports are aberrations to the true path of false identical. A comparison of UFO- beliefs that are engendered by a abduction reports and the medical common but little recognized type of reports of sleep paralysis with accom­ sleep disorder. panying hypnagogic and hypnopompic The fact that UFO contactees and hallucinations show the two to differ abductees are not pathological is, only in the hallucinatory content. however, not surprising to experi­ Ghosts and demons dominate the enced anomalistic psychologists, who medical, historical, and folklore narra­ have long been aware that delusions, tions; UFOs and aliens appear in mod­ i.e., false beliefs, are common coin and ern reports. Explanations for other in no way are indicative of pathology. psychological manifestations alleged to Unless our delusions interfere with accompany the abduction scenario are our social and personal adjustment or also provided in the Baker report. are so pervasive as to endanger our While the Spanos et al. study adds lives and the lives of others, they are significantly to our understanding of usually ignored. Often these false the personality characteristics of those beliefs may serve to help us keep our individuals reporting UFO encounters mental balance and even cope with and who believe in the extraterrestrial life's stresses and strains, as in the case hypothesis (which is, after all, the crux of our religions. Many noted and of the matter), it should not be distinguished psychiatrists also hold to forgotten that people claiming abduc­ what most scientifically trained people tion by aliens are relatively few in would consider to be false beliefs. number. This is certainly the case in Raymond Moody, in his latest book, the Spanos study. Most important, the Reunion (1993), says he converses fre­ Spanos study outcome must not under quently with visions of his dead rela­ any circumstances be construed as tives. M. Scott Peck believes in demon providing aid and comfort to those possession as the true explanation for believers in either the extraterrestrial many multiple personality disorders hypothesis or the credibility of alien (1983, 1984) and Colin Ross believes abductions. This has, unfortunately, that most skilled athletes have and use already happened in several instances psychokinetic powers (1989). Accord-

Spring 1994 241 ing to the December 27, 1993, Time real events" (p. 631). Of the experi­ magazine, 69 percent of the American mental and empirical studies we have public believe in the existence of of this particular problem, the Spanos angels and 46 percent believe they et al. study is the best thus far. have their own guardian angel. One person's conviction and reality are References another person's fantasy and delusion. Some people believe they have been Baker, Robert A. 1992. "Alien Abductions or Human Productions: Some Not So abducted by aliens. Most of us do not. Unusual Personal Experiences." Unpub­ It is also important for the public lished manuscript. Available upon to realize that people who are patho­ request from the author. logical or "crazy" are not "crazy" all Feldman, Marc D., and C. V. Ford. 1994. Patient or Pretender. New York: John over or "crazy" all the time. We are Wiley. only "crazy" in spots and only on occa­ Gibbs, Nancy. 1993. Angels among us. Time, sion, not continuously. Psychiatric December 27, 1993, pp. 56-65. diagnosis is not an easy task, as the Hopkins, Budd. 1987. Intruders: The Incredible Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Visitations At Copley Woods. New York: Random House. Mental Disorders, the famous Rosen- Jacobs, David. 1992. Secret Life: Firsthand han study (1973), and the difficulties Accounts of UFO Abductions. New York: of dealing with factitious disorders Simon & Schuster. (Feldman and Ford 1994) attest. In this Mack, John E. 1992. Helping abductees. regard the Spanos et al. conclusion, International UFO Reporter, July/August, pp. 10-20. that "among UFO believers, those Moody, Raymond. 1993. Reunions: Visionary with strong propensities toward fan­ Encounters with Departed Loved Ones. New tasy production were particularly York: Villard Books, Random House. likely to generate such experiences" Peck, M. Scott. 1983. People of the Lie. New (p. 631), again calls attention to the York: Simon & Schuster. . 1984. A psychiatrist's view of exor­ important role that imagination and cism. Fate, 37(9): 87-96. fantasy play in the production of alien- Rehm, Stanley R. 1991. "Sleep Paralysis and contact and alien-abduction reports. A Nocturnal Dyspnea." Paper presented at similar conclusion was also reached by Advances in Pulmonary and Critical Care Ring and Rosing (1990) in their survey Medicine International Symposium, Vienna, Austria, August 29-30, 1991, of people reporting UFO encounters University of Kentucky Medical Center, and abductions. Lexington, KY. Ring, Kenneth, and C. Rosing. 1990. The Although the two studies are Omega Project: A psychological survey somewhat familiar in intent and of persons reporting abductions and design, the Spanos et al. study is by other UFO encounters. Journal of UFO far the superior one and sticks to the Studies, 2: 59-98. mundane three-dimensional world of Rosenhan, D. L. 1973. Being sane in insane places. Science, 179: 250-258. cold, hard reality rather than soaring Ross, Colin A. 1989. Multiple Personality off into alternate realities and uni­ Disorder: Diagnosis, Clinical Features, and verses to account for a very worldly Treatment (specifically pp. 185-188). New human experience based upon beliefs York: John Wiley. in alien visitation. These beliefs, say Siegel, Ronald K. 1992. Fire in the Brain: Clin­ ical Tales of Hallucination. New York: the authors, "serve as templates Dutton. against which people shape ambigu­ ous external information, diffuse Robert A. Baker is professor emeritus of physical sensations, and vivid imagin­ psychology, University of Kentucky. ings [emphasis added] into alien Address: 3495 Caslleton Way North, encounters that are experienced as Lexington, KY 40517.

242 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Notes of a Fringe-Watcher

MARTIN GARDNER

D The Cult of the Golden Ratio

Geometry has two great treasures: one is U.S. this number is customarily desig­ the Theorem of Pythagoras; the other, the nated by cp, the Greek symbol for phi. division of a line into extreme and mean Phi is almost as ubiquitous in ratio. The first we may compare to a mathematical structures as pi or e. The measure of gold, the second we may name reason, of course, is the simplicity of a precious jewel. the equation that produces it. As might be expected, it is also the sum —Johannes Kepler of the simplest possible continued fraction: ebster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary has several defi­ 1 + 1 W nitions of "cult." One is: 1 + 1 "great devotion to a person, idea, or 1 + 1 thing; esp: such devotion regarded as a literary or intellectual fad." For more 1 + than a century a cult, in the sense just defined, has flourished with respect Phi is the only positive number that to an arithmetic ratio known variously becomes its own reciprocal by sub­ as the "divine proportion," the tracting 1. Because l/(p is .61803398+, "extreme and mean ratio," and the the same infinite sequence of decimal "golden ratio." digits, some mathematicians have preferred to call .618 . . . the golden Place a point on a line so that it ratio. It doesn't matter because you cuts the line into two segments, A and get the same sequence of decimal B, such that the length of the line is digits regardless of whether you divide to A as A is to B. A and B are then line segment A by B or vice versa. in golden ratio to each other. Phi is related to a generalized Fibonacci sequence in a startling way. B H Begin with any two numbers, rational or irrational, add them to get a third It is easy to show that this ratio number, then add the second and third is the root of the equation x2 - x - to get the fourth, and so on, always 1. Applying the quadratic formula recursively generating the next gives x a value of 1.61803398+, an number as the sum of the two pre­ irrational number that is half the sum vious ones. As the sequence goes to of 1 and the square root of 5. In the infinity, the ratio of two adjacent

Spring 1994 243 numbers approaches phi as the limit. the moon, and all the planets are living Consider the simplest Fibonacci organisms and that even a pebble has sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, a "soul." In one experiment he exhi­ 55, 89, . . . Divide 89 by 55 and you bited ten rectangles of varying shapes get 1.618+, or phi correct to three and asked subjects to select the one decimals. Continue five more steps to they considered most attractive. 987/610 and you produce the golden About three-fourths of their choices ratio to five decimal places. were rectangles with side ratios of .57, Since the Renaissance, an enor­ .62, and .67. mous literature has accumulated, As Markowsky writes, far from most of it nonsense, about the appli­ establishing the golden rectangle as cation of the golden ratio to architec­ the most beautiful, Fechner showed ture, painting, sculpture, nature, and that people prefer a rectangle within even to poetry and music. The first a fairly large range; not too close and great work defending this inflated not too far from a square. Fechner worship of phi was a 457-page Ger­ made other experiments to prove that man treatise, Der Goldene Schnitt (The phi was the most pleasing of all ratios, golden cut), published in 1884 by but they were crude by today's Adolf Zeising. Early works in English, standards. following Zeising's lead, were Nature's Recent research has shown that the Harmonic Unity (1913) by Samuel golden rectangle does not score any Coleman, and The Curves of Life (1914), better than rectangles similar to it, by Theodore Cook. Similar books have such as a 3 x 5, the shape of a file been published since, and others are card. To demonstrate how vague such still being written. preferences are, Markowsky drew the My discussion here of what can be chart shown in Figure 1, containing called pseudomathematics is based 48 rectangles, and asked students to mainly on George Markowsky's sens­ identify the two golden forms. Most ible paper, "Misconceptions About the of them could not. He then arranged Golden Ratio," in the College Mathe­ the same rectangles in linear order matics Journal (vol. 23, January 1992, (Figure 2), their ratios ranging from pp. 2-19). Markowsky is a computer .4 to 2.5. He found wide variations in scientist at the University of Maine. choices. Moreover, when asked to pick His paper can be consulted for more the most pleasing shape in each chart, details and for its valuable list of 59 subjects rarely chose the same one. references. See also the chapter on phi The rectangle most often selected was in my Second Scientific American Book the one in row 3 in column 4 of Figure of Mathematical Puzzles and Diversions, 1—a rectangle with sides in a 1.83 where I myself fell for some miscon­ ratio. ceptions. The efforts of phi cultists to find The most persistent misconception golden rectangles in architecture, is the belief that the "golden rectan­ painting, and sculpture reached gle," a rectangle with sides in golden absurd heights. It is easy to see how ratio, is the most aesthetically pleasing this happened. Measurements of parts of all rectangles. The first effort to of a building, or work of art, have such prove this was undertaken by Gustav fuzzy boundaries that it is easy to find Fechner (1801-1887), an eccentric phi when ratios close to phi fit just German physicist and psychologist as well. Markowsky demolishes the who held bizarre opinions. He notion that phi is involved in the believed, for example, that the sun, proportions of the Great Pyramid of

244 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ZZ D • ZZZZ • CZ • • zz • • • • n D D •: • • • • D • • D D n n n i—i i—i D en D D zz n n i—i • D DD D n i—i n FIGURE 1. Forty-eight rectangles with ratios from .4 to 2.5 in random order. I II II II II II II II I • •(•[•[•CZCZCZ • ••••••CZI • ••••••• • Dananan 0 Q Q D Q Q D •

FIGURE 2. The same rectangles in linear order.

Egypt or in those of the Greek Leonardo in many of his paintings. In Parthenon. There is not the slightest every case the application of golden evidence that the Egyptians, Greeks, ratios to a Leonardo painting is or any other ancient people, used phi extremely arbitrary and obtained only in any of their buildings or art. As by fudging. Parts of a figure will Markowsky says: "The dimensions of extend beyond the borders of the the Parthenon vary from source to imagined rectangle, and other parts source probably because different will fail to touch the borders. There authors are measuring between dif­ is no evidence that Leonardo da Vinci, ferent points. With so many numbers or any other Renaissance artist or available a golden ratio enthusiast sculptor, used phi in his work. This could choose whatever numbers gave does not apply to the twentieth the best result." century. A few modern architects, Because Leonardo da Vinci illus­ painters, and even music composers, trated one of the earliest books on phi, fascinated by the golden ratio, have De Divina Proportione, by Luca Pacioli, made deliberate use of it. phi cultists have imagined that the Phi buffs are also fond of asserting ratio was intentionally used by that on most men and women the

Spring 1994 245 navel divides their height in a golden Phi enthusiasts have also found the ratio. Indeed, this was one of Pacioli's golden ratio in the forms of birds, claims. Why nature would arrange insects, fish, and other animals. "Of this is never made clear. In any case, course, wings, legs and fins can be it isn't true. Navel height, in relation moved over a wide range of positions, to body height, varies considerably Markowsky writes, "and it is not with race and locale, covering a range surprising that the golden rectangle that of course includes 1.618. can often be produced." In spite of Moreover, as Markowsky points out, such arbitrariness, some writers on such measurements are not precise phi have found the golden ratio in because navels are not points, but animal forms to a precision of five areas of nontrivial diameter. decimal places! Four persons at Middlebury Col­ A fascinating property of the lege, in Vermont, measured the navel golden rectangle is shown in Figure heights of 319 college men and 3. By snipping off squares, it can be women, reporting their results in divided into an infinite sequence of "The Golden Midd," Journal of Recrea­ whirling squares and golden rectan­ tional Mathematics (vol. 24, 1992, pp. gles. The vertices trace a precise 26-29). They summarize their find­ logarithmic spiral. It is true that spirals ings as follows: "For the students who closely resembling logarithmic ones endured a bellyful of statistics, the abound in nature—the chambers of a Golden Midd is no Golden Mean. chambered nautilus is the most cited Admittedly, measurement error in instance—but again the spirals vary this study was a ticklish problem. But, within a considerable range even in assuming no systematic bias to these the case of the nautilus. errors, we conclude that a practitioner It is hard to believe, but phi mania of navel art who wishes to capture has even invaded literary criticism. divine proportions would have to place George E. Duckworth, in Structural the bellybutton of a typical Middle- Patterns and Proportions in Virgil's bury College coed about 0.7 inches Aeneid (University of Michigan Press, higher than it really is." 1962), provides the major instance. By

/ \ / ^ /

/

FIGURE 3. A logarithmic spiral generated by whirling squares and golden rectangles. The spiral "strangles" the intersection point of the two dotted diagonals. The diagonals are in golden ratio.

246 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 reputable books of literary criticism. Although finding phi in nature and art has all the earmarks of pseudo- math, no one can deny that the golden ratio is encountered with surprising frequency in geometry and algebra. One of the oldest, most striking examples is the pentagram shown in Figure 4, the magic symbol of the ancient Pythagorean Brotherhood. Every line segment in the pentagram is in golden ratio to the segment of FIGURE 4. The pentagram, mystic symbol of next smaller length. the Pythagorean Brotherhood, and the pattern Goethe's Faust used for trapping Two other delightful constructions Mephistopheles. Inverted, it is a satanic in which phi unexpectedly turns up symbol. are shown in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5. On the left, the radius of a large circle divided by the diameter of one of the small circles is phi. On the right, the side of one of the four larger equilateral triangles divided by the side of one of the three smaller ones is phi. Readers skilled in plane geometry may enjoy proving both assertions. measuring the number of lines in Of course there are a raft of ratios various parts of Virgil's epic, Duck­ close to phi that arise from equally worth (who died in 1972) claims that simple constructions. The simplest is Virgil made frequent and conscious 3/5 = .6 (or 1.666. . . , if the fraction use of the golden ratio. Markowsky is inverted). It would be amusing, if summarizes objections to Duck­ one had the time and inclination, to worth's claims, and they can be found see how easily 3/5 can be found in the at greater length in "How to Find the architectural structures of the an­ 'Golden Number' Without Really cients, in great works of art and litera­ Trying," by Roger Fischler, in the ture, and in the forms of animals and Fibonacci Quarterly (vol. 19, 1981, pp. humans. 406-410), in "Aeneid I and .618?" by Jane Bews, in the Phoenix (vol. 24, 1970, p. 130-133), and "Extreme and Martin Gardner's latest math-recreation Mean Ratio in Virgil?" by William book is Fractal Music, HyperCards, and Waterhouse, in the Phoenix (vol. 26, More (W. H. Freeman). His most recent 1972, pp. 369-376). In spite of such nonmath book is The Healing Revela­ vigorous criticism, praise of Duck­ tions of Mary Baker Eddy (Prometheus worth's research turns up in several Books).

Spring 1994 247 Floor plan of the new building, to be com­ pleted in early 1995. Taking advantage of low-interest is planned, with occupancy in rates and a soft construction early 1995. market, we have begun construc­ Located adjacent to the State tion of the Center for Inquiry, University of New York at Buf­ Phase II. This is the long-awaited falo's Amherst Campus—the completion of CSICOP's head­ largest campus of the nation's quarters campus, consolidating largest state university system— SKEPTICAL INQUIRER'S Buffalo- the Center for Inquiry will area administrative, editorial, provide the permanent, multi­ production, and warehousing purpose home base that the activities in one efficient facility. skeptical movement has long Spring 1994 groundbreaking required. HEADQUARTERS CAMPUS FOR CSICOP AND THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER

Construction Begins Spring 1994! • New building: 14,000 sq. ft. facilities, with full audio-visual on two floors, expandable to support 22,800 sq. ft. in the future • Dedicated audio-video-TV • Eye-catching new contem­ production and duplication porary design facility—for larger produc­ • Will house the world's largest tions, multimedia conference skeptical library—two-story, room converts to 3-camera 3,000 sq. ft. research facil­ television studio ity—computerized catalogue • Additional, efficient office accessible via modem from space to provide for anywhere in the world CSICOP's past and future • Conference and seminar growth Your Support Is Essential We will realize important savings endowment goals. To maintain by starting construction now, our momentum, additional cash although our "Price of Reason" gifts for construction are urgently Capital Fund Drive is still in needed. progress. Under Co-Chair Mar­ Please support the "Price of tin Gardner this campaign has Reason" Capital Fund Drive reached more than 65 percent of today. For more information, use our combined construction and the postpaid response card in this issue to contact CSICOP today Architect's model of the Phase II building. Sculpted windows mark location of library. at 716-636-1425. Psychic Vibrations

It's All a Conspiracy, and It's Invisible

ROBERT SHEAFFER

he unfortunate sudden and unex­ September 24,1993, he would lead the pected loss of NASA's Mars attendees at a UFO/New Age confer­ T Observer spacecraft has given ence in Phoenix in "a scientific exper­ rise to all manner of bizarre claims. iment designed to project massive Richard Hoagland, one of the leading amounts of 'mental energy' toward champions of the "Face on Mars" (see the red planet in order to reactivate this column, Fall 1991), suggested at the malfunctioning spacecraft." And a news conference that a "rogue the spacecraft, at that precise moment, group" within NASA itself was did absolutely nothing. responsible for scuttling the mission In other conspiracy developments, because it threatened to confirm a 14-page report has been circulating Hoagland's theory that Mars is inhab­ rapidly throughout UFOdom claiming ited by intelligent beings. Outside the that physicist Bruce Maccabee, of the main gate of NASA's Jet Propulsion Fund for UFO Research, is actually Laboratory in Pasadena, about 50 a CIA agent working to disinform protesters marched, carrying signs UFO researchers. The "proof" of this with messages like "Face Up to It, was that Maccabee had given a few NASA!" Mission director Glenn Cun­ "brown bag" lectures on UFOs to ningham said: "It's absolutely the interested CIA employees during their craziest thing I've ever heard. There lunch hour, arranged by his friend is absolutely no conspiracy. Every­ Roland Pandolfi, a physicist who thing about this mission is open to the works for the CIA. Maccabee regaled public." The conspiracy-mongers, them with tales about the MJ-12 however, were not convinced. papers, the Gulf Breeze UFO sight­ Meanwhile, former NASA ings, and other deep mysteries. As if astronaut-trainee-turned-psychic this were not bizarre enough, Philip Brian O'Leary theorized that the J. Klass writes in his Skeptics UFO probe had been "tampered with" Newsletter that John Gibbons, Presi­ either by NASA "so it could clandes­ dent Clinton's Chief Science Advisor, tinely take pictures of Cydonia with­ recently asked the CIA for a back­ out the public's awareness," or else by ground paper on UFOs. The CIA "an alien intelligence operating in the passed the request to Pandolfi, prob­ vicinity of the Martian surface" that ably because nobody else in the agency obviously did not wish to be spied seemed as interested in the subject as upon. O'Leary issued a press release he, who in turn passed on the request stating that at exactly 7:50 P.M. on to Maccabee, who prepared it. Mac-

250 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 cabee's report was titled "Briefing on the U.S. Government Approach to the UFO Problem as Determined by The newest wrinkle in UFO- Civilian Researchers During the Last abduction studies involves the scien­ Twenty Years." Thus Gibbons was tific study of invisibility. Budd Hop­ placed in the strange position of kins, chief guru of the UFO-abduction receiving a briefing paper from the proponents, has been grappling with CIA charging that the CIA had been the question of how thousands, if not covering up UFO crashes and alien millions, of people can allegedly be abductions for many decades but abducted by aliens each year without providing absolutely no proof. Gib­ having one abduction witnessed (let bons was probably wise enough to alone filmed on a portable camcorder!) ignore it. by people on the street, especially since More than two years have now many alleged abductions occur in the elapsed since conspiracy-oriented heart of our largest cities, whose UFOlogist Bill Cooper's 1991 warning streets are far from deserted, even in that the sinister New World Order the middle of the night. was going to abolish U.S. national The answer to this puzzle, Hopkins sovereignty, along with the Bill of suggests, is invisibility, meaning that Rights, "within two years" (see this column, Spring 1992). Cooper is still drawing crowds to his lectures and seminars, his followers apparently undaunted "when prophecy fails." His latest endeavor is an attempted hostile takeover of Gannett Co., Inc. (GC1 on the New York exchange), which owns many newspaper, radio, TV, and advertising subsidiaries, and publishes USA Today. Cooper obviously hopes to become a media mogul like Rupert Murdoch or the late Robert Maxwell, which would then allow him to present his wild conspiracy theories directly to the American public. However, given that Cooper's effort to acquire GO undoubtedly falls a few billion dollars short of what would be needed, he is taking his campaign directly to the American people: "Concerned Americans will buy from 5 to 10 shares of GANNETT Co., Inc., purchasing additional shares accord­ ing to financial ability. Individuals are to retain possession of their shares but assign the proxy votes to William Cooper. . . . The goal is CONTROL, not profit." Cooper's plan is about as realistic as that of a flea attempting to take over a dog.

Spring 1994 251 UFOs and UFOnauts are somehow followers today have formed the able to emulate Claude Rains in The International Fortean Organization Invisible Man, the movie version of (INFO) and enjoy tweaking the noses H. G. Wells's thriller. Hopkins ex­ of the scientific community, charging plained to the 1993 Mutual UFO that they are too cowardly to face up Network Conference how he was to unorthodox ideas. But it turns out approached while on a lecture tour of that some theories are just too Australia the previous year by a "damned" to be faced by the Forteans middle-aged couple telling a tale of themselves. being rendered invisible during an In March of 1993, the International ongoing UFO-abduction, during Fortean Organization published which time their children were "Demons, Doctors, and Aliens," by allegedly missing. As proof of their James Pontolillo, subtitled "An Explo­ story, they produced a photo taken at ration into the Relationships Among a park on a beach, in which they do the Witch Trial Evidence, Sexual- not appear. Hopkins, obviously much Medical Traditions, and Alien Abduc­ impressed by the weight of evidence, tions." In it Pontolillo examines stated that all four of them "became contemporary claims of UFO abduc­ invisible, though they were not aware tions, in the context of seventeenth- of that fact. Their body, their clothing, century witch hysteria and historical even their camera, were in effect sightings of incredible things. He invisible to the other visitors at the concludes that "alien abductions are playground late on a warm Saturday the continuation of an ancient, ongo­ morning." It is a good thing that no ing cycle of religio-mythic beliefs." jogger ran into them, as broken bones The publication of this paper caused easily could have resulted. Echoing the a furor within the Fortean organiza­ "invisibility" theme, David Michael tion. The editor-in-chief of the INFO Jacobs, Hopkins's colleague, told a Journal, Michael T. Shoemaker, stated recent lecture audience that the real that Pontolillo's paper "is not an INFO mystery about UFOs is why they are paper," even though it bears the ever seen at all. Given that the cross­ designation "INFO Occasional Paper breeding program between aliens and #2" and was advertised for sale by the humans is "central" to the UFO INFO journal Rather, says Shoe­ phenomenon (this program has pro­ maker, "its publication was carried out gressed far beyond the stage of an in secret by a small cabal without the "experiment," Jacobs insists), Jacobs authorization or knowledge of the finds it difficult to understand why Board of Directors of INFO. The any nonabductee ever witnesses any persons responsible have now alien activity at all. resigned from the board." ("We did not do this: and we promise not to do it However, some organizations are again!") In Fortean promotional mate­ having great difficulty dealing with rial in which Pontolillo's paper is still unorthodox UFO-abduction theories, listed, this item has been scratched out meaning those that are insufficiently by a pen. Some theories are just too bizarre. The late Charles Fort wrote "damned" much for the followers of The Book of the Damned, the "damned" Charles Fort! being certain supposed facts, such as rains of frogs, that were allegedly too Dennis Stacy, editor of the heretical for science to deal with and MUFON Journal, lamented, "I'm so were condemned to oblivion particularly disturbed because it because of scientific cowardice. His appears that freedom of expression,

252 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 particularly the freedom of skeptical increased fourfold since, and presum­ expression, is no longer a welcome ably because of, its wholehearted commodity within the UFO and embrace of that sensational but highly Fortean community." This was pub­ implausible UFO series (see this lished just about the same time that column, Summer 1991). MUFON also MUFON demoted its local Florida recently purged Donald Ware, its officials Terrell and Frances Ecker and former Eastern Regional Director, for disassociated itself from their newslet­ dabbling too much in "New Age" ter. The "heresy" of the Eckers was beliefs. They felt that kind of stuff was to question the validity of the Gulf too "far out," and that MUFON Breeze UFO photos of Ed and Frances officials ought to concentrate on Walters. Willy Smith, a UFOlogist serious UFO cases, like those where who is skeptical of the Walters case, people claim to have been levitated by has compiled statistics purporting to aliens and floated out of closed show that MUFON's membership has windows. n

OUT THERE Rob Pudim

"IT'S NUMBER THREE. JUST LIKE I SAID--A MUSTARD AURA WITH ORANGE FLASHES, RIGHT?"

Spring 1994 253 The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is pleased to announce that. . . Beginning with the first issue of 1995 we will increase our frequency to six issues a year. • We will also increase our page size.

More (and more timely)

• information

• investigations

• inquiries

• insights The Growth of Antiscience

PAUL KURTZ

t is paradoxical that today, when the sciences are advancing by leaps and bounds and when I the earth is being transformed by scientific discoveries and technological applications, a strong antiscience counterculture has emerged. This contrasts markedly with attitudes toward science that existed in the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries. Albert Einstein perhaps best typified the high point of the public appreciation of scientists that prevailed at that time. Paul De Kruif (1926), in his book, The Microbe Hunters, described the dramatic results that scientists could now The scientific achieve in ameliorating pain and suffering and approach, improving the human condition. John Dewey, perhaps the most influential American philos­ which has been opher in the first half of this century, pointed so successful in out the great pragmatic benefits to humankind extending the from the application of scientific methods of frontiers of thinking to all aspects of human life. But today the mood has radically changed. knowledge, is A recent essay in Time magazine (Overbye now under 1993) begins with the following ominous note: heavy attack, from many sides. Scientists, it seems, are becoming the new villains of Western society. . . . We read about The advocates them in newspapers faking and stealing data, of science had and we see them in front of congressional committees defending billion-dollar research better wake up. budgets. We hear them in sound bites tram­ pling our sensibilities by comparing the Big Bang or some subatomic particle to God.

An editorial in Science magazine (Nicholson 1993), referring to the Time essay, comments:

Does this reflect a growing antiscience attitude? If so, the new movie Jurassic Park is not going to help. According to both the writer and producer, the movie intentionally has antiscience undertones. Press accounts say that producer Steven Spielberg believes science

Spring 1994 "The most vitriolic attacks on science in recent decades have questioned its benefits to society. . . . They question the value of scientific research and the scientific outlook to humankind."

is "intrusive" and "dangerous." Snow (1959) has shown. There has It is not only outsiders who are been a historic debate between those being critical. In recent speeches and who wish to advance scientific culture publications, George Brown, chair­ and those who claim that there are man of the House Space, Science "two truths." According to the latter, and Technology Committee, has seemed to question the very value there exists, along with cognitive of science. Brown has observed that scientific knowledge, a mystical and despite our lead in science and spiritual realm and/or aesthetic and technology, we still have many subjective aspects of experience. The societal ills such as environmental two cultures do not live side by side degradation and unaffordable in peaceful coexistence any longer; in health care. Science, he says, has recent decades there have been overt "promised more than it can deliver." radical attacks on science that threaten Freeman Dyson seems to share its position in society. some of this view. In a recent Princeton speech, he states, "I will From within philosophy dissent has not be surprised if attacks against come from two influential areas. First, science become more bitter and many philosophers of science, from more widespread in the next few Kuhn to Feyerabend, have argued that years, so long as the economic there is no such thing as scientific inequities in our society remain method, that scientific knowledge is sharp and science continues to be relative to sociocultural institutions, predominantly engaged in building that paradigm shifts occur for extra- toys for the rich."1 rational causes, and that therefore the earlier confidence that there are "Are these just isolated events, or objective methods for testing scientific is something more going on?" asks claims is mistaken. Richard S. Nicholson in the editorial This critique is obviously greatly quoted above.2 exaggerated. It is true that science A further sign that science has lost functions in relation to the social and considerable prestige is the recent cultural conditions in which it rejection of the superconducting emerges, and it is true that we cannot supercollider project by the U.S. make absolute statements in science. Congress. Although the chief reason Nonetheless, there are reliable stan­ given was the need to cut the national dards for testing claims and some deficit, one cannot help but feel that criteria of objectivity, and these this decision reflects the diminishing transcend specific social and cultural level of public confidence in scientific contexts. How does one explain the research. vast body of scientific knowledge we possess? A specific claim in science II cannot be said to be the same as a poetic metaphor or a religious tenet, There have always been two cultures for it is tested by its experimental existing side by side, as Lord C. P. consequences in the real world.

256 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 [••••••, '••i I

The second philosophical attack that Mars is a planet that orbits the comes from the disciples of Heidegger, sun, that cardiovascular diseases can especially the French postmodernists, be explained causally and preventive such as Derrida, Foucault, Lacan, and measures taken to lower the risk, that Lyotard. They argue that science is the structure of DNA is not simply only one mythic system or narrative a social artifact, nor insulin a cultural among many others. They maintain creation. that by deconstructing scientific The postmodern critics of "moder­ language, we discover that there are nity" are objecting to the rationalist no real standards of objectivity. or foundationalist interpretations of Heidegger complained that science science that emerged in the sixteenth and technology were dehumanizing. and seventeenth centuries, and per­ Foucault pointed out that science is haps rightly so. For the continuous often dominated by power structures, growth and revision of scientific bureaucracy, and the state, and that theories demonstrates that any "quest the political and economic uses of for certainty" or "ultimate first science have undermined the preten­ principles" within science is mistaken. sions of scientific neutrality. Some of Nonetheless, they go too far in these criticisms are no doubt valid, but abandoning the entire modern scien­ they are overstated. If the alternative tific enterprise. The scientific ap­ to objectivity is subjectivity, and if proach to understanding nature and there are no warranted claims to human life has been vindicated by its truth, then the views of the postmod­ success; and its premises, I submit, are ernists cannot be said to be true either. still valid. What are some of the Surely we can maintain that the characteristics of this modern scien­ principles of mechanics are reliable, tific outlook as it has evolved today?

Spring 1994 257 First, science presupposes that We allegedly have been living in the New there are objective methods by which Age. Side by side with astronomy there reliable knowledge can be tested. has been a return to astrology, and Second, this means that hypotheses and concomitant with psychology there was theories can be formulated and that they the growth of psychical research and can be warranted (pseudosciences provide alternative although knowledge may not be univer­ explanations that compete in the public sal, it is general in the sense that it goes mind with genuine science. The huge beyond mere subjective or cultural increase in paranormal beliefs is symp­ relativity and is rooted in an intersub- tomatic of a profound antiscience atti­ jective and intercultural community of tude, which has not emerged in isolation inquirers. Sixth, as the progressive and but is part of a wider spectrum of fallible character of science is under­ attitudes and beliefs. stood, it is seen that it is difficult to reach The readers of the SKEPTICAL absolute or final statements, that science INQUIRER are no doubt familiar with is tentative and probabilistic, and that the singular role of CSICOP in scientific inquiry needs to be open to evaluating claims made about the alternative explanations. Previous the­ paranormal and by fringe sciences. ories are therefore amenable to chal­ Our basic aim is to contribute to the lenge and revision, and selective and public appreciation for scientific constructive skepticism is an essential inquiry, critical thinking, and science element in the scientific outlook. Sev­ education. We need to be equally enth is the appreciation of the fact that concerned, I submit, about the growth knowledge of the probable causes of of antiscience in general. phenomena as discovered by scientific research can be applied, that powerful The most vitriolic attacks on sci­ technological inventions can be discov­ ence in recent decades have ques­ ered, and that these can be of enormous tioned its benefits to society. To a benefit to human beings. significant extent these criticisms are based on ethical considerations, for they question the value of scientific Ill research and the scientific outlook to humankind. Here are 10 categories of Yet the scientific approach, which has such objections. There are no doubt 3 had such powerful effectiveness in others. extending the frontiers of knowledge, 1. After World War II great anxiety is now under heavy attack. Of special arose about a possible nuclear holo­ concern has been the dramatic growth caust. This fear is not without foun­ of the occult, the paranormal, and dation; for there is some danger of pseudosciences, and particularly the fallout from nuclear accidents and promotion of the irrational and sensa­ testing in the atmosphere, and there tional in these areas by the mass media. is the threat that political or military

258 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 leaders might embark, consciously or accidentally, upon a devastating nuclear war. Fortunately, for the "It is true that we cannot make moment the danger of a thermonu­ absolute statements in science. clear holocaust has abated, though it surely has not disappeared. However, Nonetheless, there are reliable such critiques generated the fear of standards for testing claims and scientific research, and even, in some quarters, the view that physicists were some criteria of objectivity, and diabolical beings who, in tinkering these transcend specific social with the secrets of nature, held within their grasp the power to destroy all and cultural contexts." forms of life on this planet. The fear of nuclear radiation also applies to technologies. nuclear power plants. The accident at 3. In large sectors of the popula­ Chernobyl magnified the apprehen­ tion, there is a phobia about any kind sion of large sectors of the world's of chemical additive. From the 1930s population that nuclear energy is to the 1950s, it was widely held that dangerous and that nuclear power "better things and better living can be plants should be closed down. In achieved through chemistry" and that countries like the United States, no chemicals would improve the human nuclear power plants are being built, condition. Today there is, on the although France and many other contrary, a widespread toxic terror— countries continue to construct them. of PCBs and DDT, plastics and fer­ The nuclear age has thus provoked an tilizers, indeed of any kind of additive— antinuclear reaction, and the benef­ and there is a worldwide movement icent symbol of the scientist of the calling for a return to nature, to past, Albert Einstein, has to some been organic foods and natural methods. transmogrified into a Dr. Strangelove. No doubt we need to be cautious about Although some of the apprehensions untested chemical additives that may about nuclear radiation are no doubt poison the ecosystem, but we should warranted, to abandon nuclear fuel not forget that the skilled use of fer­ entirely, while the burning of fossil tilizers led to the green revolution and fuels pollutes the atmosphere, leaves a dramatic increase in food production few alternatives for satisfying the that reduced famine and poverty energy needs of the world. This does worldwide. not deny the need to find renewable resources, such as solar and wind 4. Suspicion of biogenetic engi­ power, but will these be sufficient? neering is another dimension of the growth of antiscience. From its very 2. The fear of science can also be inception biogenetic research has met traced to some excesses of the envir­ opposition. Many feared that scien­ onmental movement. Although the tists would unleash a new, virulent environmentalists' emphasis on eco­ strain of E. coli bacteria into sewer logical preservation is a valid concern, pipes—and then throughout the eco­ it has led at times to the fear that system—that would kill large num­ human technology has irreparably bers of people. Jeremy Rifkin (Rifkin destroyed the ozone layer and that the 1991, 1990; Howard and Rifkin 1977) greenhouse effect will lead to the and others have demanded that all degradation of the entire planet. Such forms of biogenetic engineering fears often lead to hysteria about all research be banned because of its

Spring 1994 259 "dehumanizing" effect. A good illus­ Cuckoo's Nest, by Ken Kesey (1962), tration of this can be seen in the film dramatizes the view that it is often Jurassic Park, produced by Steven the psychiatrist himself who is dis­ Spielberg. Here not only does a Dr. turbed rather than the patient. Many, Frankenstein seek to bring back the like Szasz, even deny that there are dead, but we are warned that a new mental illnesses, though there seems diabolical scientist, in cloning dino­ to be considerable evidence that some saurs, will unleash ominous forces patients do suffer behavioral disorders across the planet. Although there may and exhibit symptoms that can be be some dangers in biogenetic engi­ alleviated by anti-psychotic drugs. neering, it offers tremendous poten­ 7. Concomitant with the under­ tial benefit for humankind—for the mining of public confidence in the cure of genetic diseases as well as the practice of medicine and psychiatry creation of new products. Witness, for has been the phenomenal growth in example, the production of synthetic "alternative health cures," from faith insulin. healing and Christian Science to the 5. Another illustration of the relaxation response, iridology, home­ growth of antiscience is the wide­ opathy, and herbal medicines. This is spread attack on orthodox medicine. paradoxical, because medical science Some of these criticisms have some has made heroic progress in the merit. With the advances of the conquering of disease and the devel­ scientific revolution and the growth opment of antibiotics and the highly of medical technology, we have been successful techniques of surgical able to extend human life, yet many intervention. These have all been a people are kept alive against their will boon to human health. But now the and suffer excruciating pain; and the very viability of medical science itself right to die has emerged as a basic has been questioned. ethical concern. Medical ethicists have 8. Another area of concern is the correctly pointed out that the rights impact of Asian mysticism, particu­ of patients have often been ignored larly since World War II, whereby by the medical and legal professions. Yoga meditation, Chinese Qigong, In the past physicians were considered gurus, and spiritualists have come into authoritarian figures, whose wisdom the Western world arguing that these and skills were unquestioned. But to ancient forms of knowledge and many vociferous critics today, doctors therapy can lead to spiritual growth are demons rather than saviors. The and health in a way that modern medi­ widespread revolt against animal cine does not. Unfortunately, there research is symptomatic of the attack are very few reliable clinical tests of on science. Granted that animals these so-called spiritual cures. What should not be abused or made to suffer we have are largely anecdotal ac­ unnecessary pain, but some animal counts, but they hardly serve as objec­ rights advocates would ban all medical tive tests of alternative therapies. research on animals. 9. Another form of antiscience is 6. Another illustration of anti- the revival of fundamentalist religion science is the growing opposition to even within advanced scientific and psychiatry. Thomas Szasz (1984; educational societies. Fundamentalists 1977) has no doubt played a key role question the very foundation of scien­ here. As a result of his works, large tific culture. Indeed, in the modern numbers of mental patients were world, it is religion, not science, that deinstitutionalized. One Flew Over the seems to have emerged as the hope

260 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "Unless the scientific community and those connected with it are willing to take the challenge to science seriously, then I fear that the tide of antiscience may continue to rise" of humankind. Far more money is tion of many cultures and the role of being poured into religion than into women in science throughout history; scientific research and education. on the other hand, some multicultural Especially symptomatic is the con­ critics undermine the very possibility tinued growth of "scientific creation- of objective science. ism" and widespread political opposi­ tion to the teaching of evolution in IV the schools, particularly in the United States. What I have presented is a kaleido­ 10. A final area of antiscience is the scope illustration of many current growth of multicultural and feminist trends that are undermining and critiques of science education, partic­ threaten the future growth of science. ularly in the universities and colleges. They raise many questions. Why has The multiculturist view is that science this occurred? How shall those who is not universal or transcultural, but believe in the value of scientific relative to the culture in which it methods and the scientific outlook emerges. There are, we are told, non- respond? Western and primitive cultures that This is a complex problem, and I are as "true" and "valid" as the scien­ can only suggest some possible solu­ tific culture of the Western world. tions. But unless the scientific com­ This movement supports the complete munity and those connected with it relativization of scientific knowledge. are willing to take the challenge to The radical feminist indictment of science seriously, then I fear that the "masculine bias" in science maintains tide of antiscience may continue to that science has been the expression rise. Scientific research surely will not of "dead, white Anglo-Saxon males"— be rejected where there are obvious from Newton to Faraday, from technological uses to be derived from Laplace to Heisenberg. What we must it, at least insofar as economic, pol­ do, the extremists of these move­ itical, and military institutions find ments advise, is liberate humanity these profitable. But the decline in the from cultural, racist, and sexist appreciation of the methods of science expressions of knowledge, and this and in the scientific outlook can only means scientific objectivity as well. have deleterious effects upon the The positive contribution of these long-term role of science in movements, of course, is that they civilization. seek to open science to more women One reason for the growth of and minorities. The negative dimen­ antiscience is a basic failure to educate sion is that multiculturalist demands the public about the nature of science on education tend to weaken an itself. Of crucial significance is the understanding of the rigorous intel­ need for public education in the aims lectual standards essential for effec­ of science. We need to develop an tive scientific inquiry. Clearly we need appreciation of the general methods to appreciate the scientific contribu­ of scientific inquiry, its relationship to

Spring 1994 261 skepticism and critical thinking, and to educate the public about how its demand for evidence and reason science works and what it tells us in testing claims to truth. The most about the world, and we should make difficult task we face is to develop an sure this understanding is applied to awareness that the methods of science all fields of human knowledge. should not only be used in the narrow The growth of specialization has domains of the specialized sciences, made this task enormously difficult. but should also be generalized, as far Specialization has enabled people to as possible, to other fields of human focus on one field, to pour their interest. creative talents into solving specific We also need to develop an appre­ problems, whether in biology or ciation for the cosmic outlook of physics, mathematics or economics. science. Using the techniques of scien­ But we need to develop generalists as tific inquiry, scientists have developed well as specialists. Much of the fear theories and generalizations about the and opposition to science is due to a universe and the human species. failure to understand the nature of These theories often conflict with scientific inquiry. This understanding theological viewpoints that for the should include an appreciation for most part go unchallenged. They also what we know and do not know. This often run counter to mystical, roman­ means not only an appreciation of the tic, and aesthetic attitudes. Thus it is body of reliable knowledge we now time for more scientists and inter­ possess, but also an appreciation of the preters of science to come forward to skeptical outlook and attitude. The explain what science tells us about the interpreters of science must go universe: for example, they should beyond specialization to the general demonstrate the evidence for evolu­ explication of what science tells us tion and point out that creationism about the universe and our place in does not account for the fossil record; it. This is unsettling to many within that the evidence points to a biological society. In one sense, science is the basis for the mind and that there is most radical force in the modern no evidence for reincarnation or world, because scientists need to be immortality. Until the scientific com­ prepared to question everything and munity is willing to explicate openly to demand verification or validation and defend what science tells us about of any claims. life and the universe, then I fear it The broader public welcomes scien­ will continue to be undermined by the tific innovation. Every new gadget or vast ignorance of those who oppose product and every new application in it. technology, where it is positive, is In this process of education, what appreciated for its economic and social is crucial is the development of value. What is not appreciated is the scientific literacy in the schools and nature of the scientific enterprise in the communications media. Recent itself and the need to extend the polls have indicated that a very small critical methods of science further, percentage of the U.S. population has especially to ethics, politics, and any understanding of scientific prin­ religion. Until those in the scientific ciples. The figures are similar for community have sufficient courage to Britain, France, and Germany, where extend the methods of science and large sectors of the population are reason as far as they can to these other abysmally unaware of the nature of fields, then I feel that the growth of the scientific outlook. Thus we need antiscience will continue.

262 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Now it is not simply the task of ideals expressed by the scientific scientists who work in the laboratory, outlook. who have a social responsibility to the greater society; it is also the task of Notes philosophers, journalists, and those within the corporate and the political 1. Dyson's comments have now been world who appreciate the contribution published in his essay in the Fall 1993 American Scholar. of science to humankind. For what is 2. For a useful overview, see the new at stake in a sense is modernism itself. book by Gerald Holton, Science and Anti- Unless corporate executives and those Science (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer­ who wield political power recognize sity Press, 1993). the central role that science and 3. For an extreme case of antiscience paranoia, see David Ehrenfeld's The Arro­ technology have played in the past gance of Humanism (New York: Oxford four centuries, and can continue to University Press, 1975), where the author play in the future, and unless science virtually equates humanism with science and is defended, then I fear that the modernism. irrational growth of antiscience may undermine the viability of scientific References research and the contributions of De Kruif, Paul. 1926. The Microbe Hunters. science in the future. The key is New York: Harcourt, Brace. education—education within the Howard, Ted, and Jeremy Rifkin. 1977. Who schools, but education also within the Should Play God? The Artificial Creation media. We need to raise the level of of Life and What It Means for the Future appreciation, not simply among stu­ of the Human Race. New York: Delacorte Press. dents, from grammar school through Kesey, Ken. 1962. One Flew Over the Cuckoo's the university, but among those who Nest. New York: New American Library. control the mass media, and here, alas, Nicholson, Richard S. 1993. Postmodernism. the scientific outlook is often over­ Science, 261 (5118), July 9. whelmed by violence, lurid sex, the Overbye, D. Time, April 26. Rifkin, Jeremy, ed. 1990. The Green Lifestyle paranormal, and religious bias. Handbook. New York: Henry Holt. The world today is a battlefield of ——. 1959. Biosphere Politics: A New Con­ sciousness for a New Century. New York: ideas. In this context the partisans of Crown. science need to defend courageously Snow, C. P. 1991. The Two Cultures and the the authentic role that science has Scientific Revolution. New York: Cam­ played and can continue to play in bridge University Press. human civilization. The growth of Szasz, Thomas. 1977. The Theology of Medicine. New York: Harper and Row. antiscience must be countered by a ——. 1984. The Myth of Mental Illness, rev. concomitant growth in advocacy of ed. New York: Harper and Row. the virtues of science. Scientists are surely not infallible; they make mis­ Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philos­ takes. But the invaluable contribu­ ophy at the Stale University of New York tions of science need to be reiterated. at Buffalo, is the founding chairman of We need public re-enchantment with the C51COP.

Spring 1994 263 The Antiscience Problem

GERALD HOLTON

Gerald Holton is Mallinckrodt Professor have in common only that they tend of Physics and Professor of History of to annoy or threaten those who regard Science, Harvard University, and concur­ themselves as more enlightened. We rently a Visiting Professor at Massachu­ must disaggregate from the disparate setts Institute of Technology. He is the jumble that which is the truly wor­ author of Thematic Origins of Scien­ risome part of antiscience, so that we tific Thought, The Scientific Imagina­ can discriminate between "real" tion, and other works. He was recently science (good, bad, and indifferent; elected a CSICOP Fellow. These passages old, new, or just emerging); patholog­ are excerpted by permission from his book ical science (as in Irving Langmuir's Science and Anti-Science, Harvard essay on people who thought they University Press, 1993. were doing real science but were misled); pseudoscience (astrology and the "science" of the paranormal); pposition to science as con­ blatant silliness and superstition ventionally defined can take ("pyramid power"); scientism (the O a great variety of forms, overenthusiastic importation of from interest in astrology to attacks "scientific" models into nonscientific on relativity theory, from false beliefs fields; or the vastly exaggerated claims based on scientific illiteracy to support of technocrats for scientific and of Lysenkoism or Creationism. Which technological powers, such as the of these attacks are relatively negli­ "Star Wars" projects); and other gible, and which are dangerous? What forms. do these symptoms of disaffection with the Enlightenment-based tradi­ * * * tion portend for science and culture in our time? Once we have a frame­ Yet, if our aim is to filter out, name, work to deal with the belief in anti- and analyze the really dangerous science (or "alternative science," segment of what some call the "anti- "parascience"), we shall recognize that science movement," we shall not find such belief is grounded in a person's much help in the literature. There functional worldview; it is one symp­ exists no adequate, serious treatment tom of a long-standing struggle over of it, nor even of the modern outlook the legitimacy of the authority of that feels threatened by antiscience. conventional science, as well as of the All of us enter this study equally in concept of modernity within which need of a better understanding. science claims to be embedded. * * *

In a democracy, no matter how poorly The term antiscience can lump together informed the citizens are, they do too many, quite different things that properly demand a place at the table

264 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 where decisions are made, even when ality is at the very heart of conven­ those decisions have a large scientific/ tional science; but it is anathema from technical component. In that lies the the point of view of parascience, with potential for erroneous policy and its celebratory focus on the personal, eventual social instability. For as I shall its introduction of "consciousness" illustrate, history has shown repeat­ even into the atom, and .other quasi- edly that a disaffection with science animistic beliefs. and its view of the world can turn into a rage that links up with far more sinister movements. It is thoughts of this kind that the History records an important and phenomenon of antiscience raises in revealing asymmetry: the original the minds of many intellectuals, West Machine Luddites of the nineteenth and East. By themselves, all the century were soon brutally crushed; astrologers, anti-evolutionists, spiri­ but the Cultural Luddites have often, tualists, psychics, and peddlers of New at least for some time, been the Age thinking could otherwise be winners, although at great cost to merely a target of our condescension their civilization. It is sobering that in or a source of amusement. We seem every case there were intellectuals to discern behind these multi-faceted who tried to stand up to the Cultural phenomena—and the related illiteracy Luddites—but they rose too late, were in history, geography, etc., which we far too small in number, received little shall cover for now with the delicacy encouragement from their peers, and of embarrassed silence—something had less commitment and staying perilous, a potentially fatal flaw in the power than did their opponents. self-conception of the people today. History records that the serious and dedicated portion of the anti- science phenomenon, when married to political power, does signal a major The "pro-science"-imbued world pic­ cultural challenge. At its current level, ture of the late twentieth century is this challenge may not be an irrepar­ a rather vulnerable and fragile minor­ able threat to the modern worldview ity position, the more so as scientists as such. But it cannot be dismissed as and other intellectuals as a group have just a distasteful annoyance either, not managed to create sufficient nor only as a reminder of the failure effective institutional or other intel­ of educators. On the contrary, the lectual forums for even discussing record from Ancient Greece to Fascist among themselves, and with others, Germany and Stalin's U.S.S.R. to our what the powers and limits of science day shows that movements to deleg- in these respects are. itimate conventional science are ever present and ready to put themselves at the service of other forces that wish to bend the course of civilization their Perhaps the most basic aspect of the way—for example, by the glorification scientific method is that despite all of populism, folk belief, and violence, personal passion and ecstasy in the by mystification, and by an ideology doing of it, the results are to be that arouses rabid ethnic and national­ completely invariant with respect to istic passions. ... private longings or individual differ­ ences. . . . The tolerance of imperson­ ©1993 by Gerald Holton

Spring 1994 265 Measuring the Prevalence of False Memories A New Interpretation of a xUFO Abduction Survey7

TED G. GOERTZEL

udd Hopkins, David Jacobs, and Ron Westrum's (1992) assertion, in Unusual B Personal Experiences, that 3.7 million Americans are suffering from "UFO abduction syndrome" has been criticized for methodolog­ ical and logical deficiencies (Stires 1993; Klass 1993; Hall, Rodeghier, and Johnson 1993; Dawes and Mulford 1993). In an attempt to remedy these deficiencies, my research-methods class at =£% Rutgers University undertook to replicate Hopkins, Jacobs, and Westrum's survey. Our A replication of questionnaire included the items that the items from a UFO authors believed were indicators of UFO abduction, but added others that were designed abduction survey' to place their items in a broader psychological shows that it context. actually could be In March and April 1993, we conducted interviews with 697 residents of southwestern a useful measure New Jersey. Our sample was partly random and of the prevalence partly accidental. We began with telephone interviews of randomly selected telephone of false memories subscribers, but it proved too difficult for the in the American students to obtain an adequate sample in that way, so we relaxed the sampling plan to allow population. the students to include their friends and family members. This kind of accidental sampling is not appropriate for generalizing to a population at large, but it is generally viewed as adequate for testing the validity and reliability of a measure. There is no reason to believe that systematic sampling biases were introduced that would have distorted the correlations between questionnaire items. Despite the use of accidental sampling, the

266 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 TABLE 1

South National Jersey Experience Sample Sample 1. "Waking up paralyzed with a sense of a strange person or presence or something else in the room." 18% 25% 2. "Experiencing a period of time of an hour or more, in which you were apparently lost, but you could not remember why or where you had been." 13% 17% 3. "Feeling that you were actually flying through the air although you didn't know why or how." 10% 12% 4. "Seeing unusual lights or balls of light in a room without knowing what was causing them." 8% 13% 5. "Finding puzzling scars on your body and neither you nor anyone else remembering how you received them or where you got them." 8% 18% "Abductee": Having four or five of the above experiences. 2% 3.4% frequency of "unusual personal expe­ scale, which is quite acceptable for a riences' in our sample was close to that five-item scale. This and other stan­ obtained from Hopkins, Jacobs, and dard psychometric analyses we con­ Westrum's representative national ducted suggest that the scale is sample. Table 1 gives the percentages measuring a consistent phenomenon from both samples for the five experi­ of some kind, but it tells us nothing ences Hopkins, Jacobs, and Westrum about what it is that the scale is used as their measure of UFO- measuring. abduction status. By their criteria— Assessing the validity of a measure of having suffered four or five of these is much more difficult and is really the experiences—3.4 percent of our crux of the issue. By validity, we respondents qualified as "abductees." simply mean whether the measure This number is quite high, especially measures what it is supposed to considering the fact that the inter­ measure, in this case UFO abductions. views were done in the suburbs of The best method (known as "criterion Philadelphia, an urban region not validity") is to correlate the measure known for a high frequency of UFO with a known outcome measure. sightings or abduction reports. Thus, a measure of "scholastic ability" Hall, Rodeghier, and Johnson can be validated if it correlates with (1993: 132) note that Hopkins, Jacobs, school performance (other things and Westrum "apparently did not being equal). This method cannot be assess the reliability of this measure used in this case, however, since we by using the customary formulas have no generally accepted measure based on internal consistency, though of abduction status. The only viable it would be quite simple to do so." We alternative is to examine the mea­ applied these formulas to our data and sure's "construct validity." This means achieved a reliability coefficient of .68 examining whether the measure (coefficient alpha) for the abduction performs as the theory predicts.

Spring 1994 267 TABLE 2 Survey Items Correlated with "UFO-lndicator" Experiences

Items Correlation 6. "Feeling as if you left your body." .30 7. "Having seen, either as a child or as an adult, a terrifying figure— which might have been a monster, a witch, a devil, or some other evil figure in your bedroom, closet or somewhere else." .38 8. "Seeing a ghost." .26 9. "Seeing a UFO." .21 10. "Having vivid dreams about UFOs." .16 11 "Having a sudden feeling that something bad was happening to someone you know, and later finding out that you were correct." .37 12. "Seeing a halo or ring of light around another person which other people couldn't see." .23 13. "Being visited by a deceased relative or friend who spoke to you by name." .31

In this case, there are at least two posited by Hopkins, Jacobs, and Wes- alternative theories that can explain trum. These three items are numbers why the measure is internally consist­ 11, 12, and 13 in Table 2. As Table ent. One is that the respondents are 2 shows, these items correlated (Pear­ consistently reporting on experiences son's r) with the "UFO abduction" similar to those of UFO abductees. measure as well as with the other The other is that the individuals who items from Hopkins, Jacobs, and score high on the scale share a Westrum's study that are also included psychological tendency to have false in Table 2. Three of Hopkins, Jacobs, memories. Theodore Flournoy (1911) and Westrum's items (numbers 6, 7, referred to this phenomenon as cryp- and 8) actually say nothing about lomnesia. Psychologist Robert Baker UFOs, but can better be thought of (1992: 78) states that this phenom­ as tapping a cryptomnesiac tendency enon of "seeing complex visual images to have "psychic" or "New Age" in one's head that you cannot remem­ experiences (Ring 1992). If all these ber ever having seen before or . . . 13 items are combined in a single scale, suddenly hearing voices from we obtain a reliability coefficient of unknown and unrecollected sources is .75. not only a much more common occur­ We used a statistical technique rence than is generally known but is known as "factor analysis" to analyze also one of the more interesting and how the responses to the 13 items intriguing anomalies in the field of grouped together empirically. The 'normal' human behavior." factor analysis found that a single To distinguish between these two factor accounts for the consistency of theories, we included three items in the measure. There is no empirical our questionnaire about "unusual basis for separating the "UFO" items personal experiences" that are not part from the items that do not relate to of the "UFO abduction" syndrome as the abduction phenomenon. Table 3

268 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "Only a strong belief in the prevalence of the abduction phenomenon led the researchers to interpret questions about seeing ghosts or having out-of-body experiences as indicators of abduction."

ing to a separate factor, the item most TABLE 3 closely related to them is "seeing a ghost." The factor analysis strongly Item Factor supports the view that these 13 items Number Loadings are a measure of cryptomnesia, not 1 .58 of UFO abduction. We will henceforth refer to them as the cryptomnesia scale. 2 .50 This conclusion is also strongly 3 .47 supported by Dawes and Mulford's 4 .57 (1993) innovative study at the Univer­ sity of Oregon. This study demon­ 5 .42 strated that the dual nature of 6 .49 Hopkins, Jacobs, and Westrum's first item, which asked about "waking up 7 .59 paralyzed" and about sensing a strange 8 .58 person in the room in the same item, 9 .33 actually led to an increased recollection of unusual phenomena as compared 10 .32 to a properly constructed single-issue 11 .60 survey item. Textbooks on question­ naire writing universally warn against 12 .43 "double-barreled" questions of this 1? .55 sort because they are known to give bad results. Dawes and Mulford shows the loadings on this principal confirm this and further offer the factor. The loadings measure how well explanation that the combination of each item correlated with the general the two issues in one item causes a factor the group of items have in conjunction effect in memory that common. As the table shows, the increases the likelihood of false three non-UFO-related items (11, 12, recollection. and 13) fitted right in with the other While the Hopkins, Jacobs, and items, which were intended to mea­ Westrum scale is not a valid measure sure UFO-abduction experiences. An of UFO abduction, its developers have attempt to divide these items into inadvertently constructed a useful groupings through a technique known measure of another phenomenon: the as "rotating the factors" was not tendency to have false memories. successful. The only items that clus­ Therefore, we will henceforth refer tered together were "seeing a UFO" to this measure as the "cryptomnesia and "having vivid dreams about scale." Further support for this inter­ UFOs," which are obviously similar. pretation can be obtained by correlat­ If we treat these two items as belong­ ing the cryptomnesia scale with other

Spring 1994 269 TABLE 4 Items Correlated with a High Frequency of "Unusual Personal Experiences" (Cryptomnesia)

Items Correlation 14. "High government officials were involved in the Kennedy assassination." .21 15. "The AIDS virus was created deliberately as part of a conspiracy against certain groups in our society." .15 16. "The Air Force is hiding evidence that the United States has been visited by flying saucers." .20 17. "I believe in astrology." .16 18. "I can usually trust my neighbors." -.16 19. "I can usually trust my relatives." -.15 20. "When I was growing up, I could usually trust my parents." -.12 21. "I often wake up in the middle of the night worrying about things." .16 22. "I sometimes feel that people are conspiring against me." .22 23. "I sometimes find it difficult to deal with all the stress in my life." .16 24. "I enjoy reading books about UFOs and other strange phenomena." .22 items in the questionnaire. To the strange phenomena. We did not, extent that the scale behaves as however, obtain significant correla­ Baker's theory would predict, we can tions with items measuring anomie (a be more confident of its validity as a personal lack of purpose or ideals, or measure of cryptomnesia. Table 4 a feeling of not really belonging to shows correlations between cryptom­ society). nesia and a number of other question­ Many of these findings are not naire items. All the correlations surprising. David Jacobs (1992) has reported in this study are statistically noted high stress levels and frequency significant (p < .05). of psychosomatic symptoms among The first three items show that "UFO abductees," which he attributes high scores on the cryptomnesia scale to the trauma of the abduction expe­ are related to belief in conspiracies, rience. The question here is one of including the JFK assassination and distinguishing cause from effect—do AIDS conspiracies, as well as the UFO the abductions cause stress, or does cover-up conspiracy. Cryptomnesiacs the stress cause the false memories, are also more likely to believe in which are interpreted as abductions astrology and less likely to trust their under hypnosis? It is difficult to neighbors, relatives, and parents. resolve this kind of cause-and-effect They are more likely to have difficulty issue with data gathered at one point dealing with the stress in their lives, in time. Since our analysis suggests to wake up with worries at night, and that we are dealing with cryptom­ to feel that people are conspiring nesia, not UFO abduction, however, against them. They are more likely to we undertook a causal path analysis enjoy reading about UFOs and other based on the assumption that this is

270 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Cryptomnesia i.2 6 Belief in Conspiracies

FIGURE 1 a psychological phenomenon rooted in analysis does, however, provide a early life experiences. The results of more plausible interpretation of the this analysis are summarized in the data than does the UFO-abduction path diagram (Figure l). hypothesis. It is also consistent with The path analysis suggests that the results of detailed psychological cryptomnesia is rooted in a lack of testing on "abductees" (Slater 1985; trusting relationships. This problem Klass 1989). may have its origins in early childhood, David Jacobs was kind enough to but it continues into adult life with speak to our class to familiarize the a lessened feeling of trust of friends students with the issue, and I had the and neighbors. This lack of trust leads opportunity to speak with him infor­ to feelings of anomie and anxiety that mally after the lecture. At that time, make the individual more likely to I mentioned the "UFO abduction" case construct false memories out of discussed in Siegel's (1992) book Fire information stored in the unconscious in the Brain. Jacobs was not interested mind. People who think in this way in learning of Siegel's findings and are susceptible to belief in conspiracy expressed the view that no one was theories, since these theories help qualified to speak on this issue unless them to make sense of an otherwise they had done dozens of interviews incoherent world. with abductees under hypnosis, as he This causal analysis is consistent had. He clearly fit the profile of the with our data, but certainly not proved true believer as described in my book by it. Path analysis is not a substitute Turncoats and True Believers (Goertzel for in-depth psychological case stud­ 1992). He used numerous ideological ies. The path coefficients are modest defense mechanisms to avoid con­ in size, probably because most of the fronting unwelcome evidence. variables were measured with brief The UFO-abduction survey data three-item scales because of the need promise some relief from this subjec­ to keep the questionnaire brief. This tivity, thanks to the objectivity of

Spring 1994 271 random sampling and statistical anal­ Dawes, Robyn, and Matthew Mulford. 1993. ysis. However, even when the data are Diagnoses of alien kidnappings that result collected and reported accurately as from conjunction effects in memory. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, i8:5o-5i, Fall. they apparently were in this case, the Flournoy, Theodore. 1911. Spiritism and biases of the investigator can enter Psychology. New York: Harper. into the interpretation. In this case, Goertzel, Ted. 1992. Turncoats and True only a strong belief in the prevalence Believers. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus of the abduction phenomenon led the Books. Hall, Robert, Mark Rodeghier, and Donald researchers to interpret questions Johnson. 1992. The prevalence of abduc­ about seeing ghosts or having out-of- tions: A critical look. Journal of UFO body experiences as indicators of Studies, n.s. 4:131-135. abduction. Our data show that there Hopkins, Budd, David Jacobs, and Ron is no objective basis for that assump­ Westrum. 1992. Unusual Personal Experi­ ences: An Analysis of the Data from Three tion. The observed correlations are Major Surveys. Las Vegas: Bigelow Hold­ part of a broader psychological syn­ ing Corporation. drome that includes non-UFO-related Jacobs, David. 1992. Secret Life. New York: phenomena. Simon & Schuster. Klass, Philip J. 1989. UFO-Abductions: A Of course none of this proves that Dangerous Game. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prome­ UFO abductions have not occurred in theus Books. a small number of cases. In fact, two . 1993. Additional comments about the of our respondents volunteered that 'Unusual Personal Experiences' survey. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 17:145-146. they had experienced such events. (We Ring, Kenneth. 1992. The cosmic connection. made no attempt to verify their Interview by Jonathan Adolph and Peggy accounts.) However, the public can Taylor. New Age journal, July-August, pp. rest assured that there is no evidence 66-69, 122. that millions of Americans are being Siegel, Ronald. 1992. Fire in the Brain. New York: Dutton. abducted. Further research on the Slater, Elizabeth. 1985. "Conclusions on psychological phenomenon of cryp- Nine Psychological." In Final Report on tomnesia, however, is warranted. the Psychological Testing of UFO "Abduc- Both our survey and Hopkins, Jacobs, iees." Mount Rainer, Md.: Fund for UFO and Westrum's representative Research. Stires, Lloyd. 1993. Critiquing the 'Unusual national sample suggest that it is an Personal Experiences' survey. SKEPTICAL identifiable syndrome affecting sev­ INQUIRER, 17:142-144. eral million people in American society. Ted Goertzel is professor of sociology and References director, Forum for Policy Research, Baker, Robert. 1992. Hidden Memories. Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Camden, N) 08102.

272 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Bleuler's Views on Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and on Psi Phenomena

GEORGE WINDHOLZ

rom the late 1920s on, the famous Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler (1857-1939) F staunchly propagated the reality of the inheritance of acquired characteristics and the existence of parapsychological phenomena. As Bleuler was considered an outstanding scholar, his views could not be ignored. He was a popular It speaker, attracting large audiences; the Swiss The famous Swiss newspaper Neue Zurcher Zeitung reported that psychiatrist Eugen on January 19, 1927, when Bleuler spoke on Bleuler advocated "The Problems of Occultism," the university pseudoscientific auditorium was so overfilled that there was apprehension that the audience's safety was in views during the last jeopardy. years of his life. The Bleuler was then the foremost authority on apparent reason was schizophrenias, and, as his writings in psychi­ to continue to atry show, he was a rational scientist. What factors, therefore, inclined him toward pseudo- contribute to science science? It seems that when Bleuler read after his retirement, materials that failed to support his notions, his when he lost access sound judgment was suspended, and he spent considerable time and effort to refute such to schizophrenic views; the somber, rational scientist trans­ subjects he had formed himself into a bitter, sarcastic critic. studied during his Bleuler thus joins the long list of prominent professional career. scientists, such as William Crookes, Alfred Russel Wallace, J. C. F. Zoellner, and Sir Oliver Lodge, who risked their reputations by inves­ tigating and endorsing the reality of various psychical phenomena (Hyman 1989). I will attempt to explain the reasons for Bleuler's insistence on the reality of the inher­ itance of acquired characteristics and of the

Spring 1994 273 occult. The explanations are only the adaptation; to survive, it must deal initial step in hypothesis formation with the environment. Adaptation to and must be considered tentative. But the changing external environment is first let us consider Bleuler's record the function of the central nervous as scholar and psychiatrist. system, primarily the brain. According From 1898 to 1927, Bleuler was the to Bleuler, one fundamental process director of Burgholzli, the psychiatric of the brain is the mneme, which is clinic of the University of Zurich. The both the conscious and unconscious directorship carried with it the pro­ memory. fessorship in psychiatry at the univer­ The individual's mneme has a sity. Bleuler's Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie function, he said; it furthers survival. (Textbook of psychiatry) was popular; To survive, the organism adapts. The it appeared from 1916 to 1937 in six adaptive responses modify the German- and four English-language mneme. The mneme is thus a repos­ editions. Bleuler was rigorous in itory of information. This information scientific matters; early in his career, makes it easier for the organism to in the 1870s, he performed physiolog­ adapt to similar environmental situa­ ical experiments at the University of tions in the future. Zurich (Gaupp 1940; Minkowski The mneme receives information 1941). In a 1919 monograph, titled Das by the associative process, he said, but Autistisch-Undisziplinierte Denken in der this information forms integrated Medizin und seine Uberwindung, he totalities or configurations—the exhorted physicians and researchers engrams. Engrams were said to be to beware of autistic thinking that configurations of specific incidents "does not seek truth, but the fulfill­ that were experienced by the organ­ ment of wishes" (Bleuler 1919:1). ism in the past and serve as guides Bleuler's seminal contribution to in similar present or future situations. psychiatry—the concept of schizophre­ Everything that an individual expe­ nias—was derived from observing the riences is fixated in terms of engrams. behavior of institutionalized patients. The mneme consists of many different He proposed that schizophrenias may engrams (Bleuler 1932). emerge at any period in an individual's In contrast to the mneme, instincts life and does not have to end in are not acquired by the individual but dementia. This meant that some are the innate characteristics of a schizophrenic patients may recover— species. Instincts, however, further an optimistic conclusion that was at the individual's adaptation. How can variance with the commonly held view it be that instincts have adaptive that there was no remission in schiz­ properties? The answer is that adap­ ophrenias (Gaupp 1940). tation acquired by the individual's After Bleuler retired in 1927, he mneme becomes the property of the worked on a project that had claimed instincts, or, in Bleuler's words: "the his attention for many years: the acquisition by the mneme can be construction of a theory of psychology transferred to the next generations" that he called "mnemistic biopsychol- (Bleuler 1933:102). With this argu­ ogy" and described in numerous books ment, Bleuler ventured that acquired and articles published in the 1920s and characteristics are inherited. 1930s. I will describe here only the Bleuler defended his thesis of the most salient aspects of Bleuler's (1932) inheritance of acquired characteristics theory. in a 1925 book titled Die Psychoide als Life depends on the organism's Prinzip der organischen Entwicklung and

274 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 in a paper published in 1934. In the book, Bleuler declared his support of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, yet he asserted that it required modification. Bleuler maintained that Darwin's random variations and nat­ ural selection are valid concepts but alone could not explain evolution. Darwin himself thought the concept of struggle for existence insufficient in explaining evolutionary change and therefore proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics through "gemmules" (cf. Ruse 1979). Bleuler discarded Darwin's gemmules, pro­ posing instead the concept of mneme in explaining the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Bleuler (1925) stated that random variations cannot account for the entire mechanism of evolution Eugen Bleuler, one of the leading psychi­ atrists of his time. because the probability of adaptation as the product of chance alone is still continue to sprout. minimal. For instance, consider the Evolution occurs, according to formation of the animal eye. As the Bleuler (1925), because ontogenic functioning eye consists of six changes become an aspect of the parameters (retina, transparent skin, mneme, or, more specifically, of lid, etc.), Bleuler figured out that the engrams. The engram is not modified probability of simultaneous occur­ alone; the adaptive processes provide rence of three parameters was at least: relevant information to the entire organism. This can be seen in biolog­ 1/131072 x 10-10 ical regeneration; as soon as the organism's body is damaged, the He said this probability is far too low organism's nervous system receives to be accepted as likely in the forma­ the information and reacts to restore tion of the eye. Nor was Bleuler the damaged part. The restorative willing to consider experiments in work is not random; it is directed which some body part was damaged according to the principle of psy- in successive generations and no choide. Psychoide is the organizing change was observed in the subse­ principle of the mneme; it provides the quent ones. Bleuler referred to Weis- "blueprint" that makes the function­ mann's experiment where the tails of ing of the organism possible. more than 20 generations of mice Information resulting from some were cut off, with no diminution in adaptive action, in his view, is received the length of the tails in subsequent by the engram. He said the gene is generations. Anyway, he argued, it itself an engram. The gene becomes was a poor experiment for we should modified and organized by psychoide. not have expected any experimental The adaptive, ontogenic experiences results; it is known that after cutting that affect the gene in a series of grapes for thousands of years, grapes generations are passed on phylogen-

Spring 1994 275 ically, furthering the evolutionary process (Bleuler 1925). Bleuler found evidence for the "He felt that ordinary laws of inheritance of acquired characteristics physics were suspended during in the St. Bernard dog's complex behavior. According to Bleuler, the St. the seance: objects moved Bernard displays special attachment to through space in the pattern of the rescued individual. If two St. Bernards work together, one stays a horizontal curve; material with the victim and provides warmth objects penetrated closed doors and the other runs toward human habitation to summon help. Helping and windows." humans is not a natural instinct of St. Bernards; this highly complex behav­ phenomena, he said, are characterized ior serves the survival of humans by a specific kind of relationship be­ rather than that of the dogs. Rescue tween the environment and the behavior cannot be the consequence psyche; the environment impinges of selection. It is also unlikely, Bleuler upon the psyche but not through the said, that the St. Bernard's action is medium's senses, and the psyche the consequence of mutation or influences the environment but not spontaneous variation; the probability through the medium's muscles. that such complex behavior emerged Attempts were made by critics to by chance is minimal. The training of declare such phenomena fraudulent, St. Bernards began, asserts Bleuler, and Bleuler said some are, but not all. only 250 years ago. About 100 years He said those that are genuine demand ago the training ceased because this explanation. acquired activity was inherited by its Bleuler used two strategies in offspring. Additional training that a support of his thesis: first, he provided dog gets now only perfects its innate stories that could not be explained tendency to rescue people. However, naturalistically; and, second, he relied there are cases where St. Bernards, on seances. without any training or observation, rescued people. Chance might bring As an example of the first about an arrangement of letters to approach, Bleuler (1930) told a story form a poem, but it is difficult to of a man who was robbed and mur­ envision a chance emergence of a dered. His friend had a vision of this group of atoms so arranged as to event and told it to the victim's wife. produce a rescue instinct. The emer­ She had the friend arrested, and he gence of an instinct requires guidance, spent six weeks in jail, but was and this can be provided by the mneme released after the real murderer was that fixates experiences that subse­ convicted of the crime. quently become inherited (Bleuler Bleuler participated in telekinetic 1934). seances held by the well-known mediums Rudi and Willy Schneider. In the 1930s, Bleuler advocated the Bleuler saw Rudi Schneider move a reality of parapsychological, or occult, curtain, start and stop a record player, phenomena. Bleuler (1930) described and replace one record with another, parapsychological phenomena as by what he thought to be parapsy­ events that cannot yet be explained chological means. Some accusations naturalistically because our knowl­ were made that the curtain was edge is inadequate. Parapsychological manipulated by the medium's legs.

276 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Bleuler replied that Rudi could not are achieved through trickery. He have used his legs because they were rationalized that mediums are resting on Bleuler's knees. requested to demonstrate parapsy­ The manifestations of occult phe­ chological powers at times when they nomena Bleuler felt, testify to their are unable to do so because parapsy­ authenticity. Ectoplasm produced by chological phenomena are the pro­ the mediums had been observed. He ducts of the unconscious and do not felt that ordinary laws of physics were respond to the medium's will. Unwil­ suspended during the seance; objects ling to disappoint the audience, they, moved through space in the pattern in an emergency, may resort to of a horizontal curve; material objects trickery, which, considering the con­ penetrated closed doors and windows. ditions, Bleuler felt was understand­ Bleuler (1930:663) writes that "heavy able. objects fall slowly . . . light objects He felt that the occult deserved to show the opposite action." He regret­ be studied, but with methods that ted that he had never had the oppor­ differed from those used in physics tunity to see such phenomena, but and chemistry. Chemistry, main­ maintained that these were observed tained Bleuler, can be studied in the by thousands of people, many of them laboratory whenever the scientist as critical and clever as we are. wants, but parapsychological Bleuler was saddened that many phenomena as manifestations of the outstanding scientists refused to unconscious cannot be produced by acknowledge the veracity of parapsy- the medium on demand. The reaction chological phenomena. For instance, in of the physical and chemical substan­ a seance with Willy Schneider, Rudi's ces is always the same, but the brother, the curtain and a handker­ sensitive human mind may react chief moved. One scientist said that differently to identical stimulus. It is the movement of the curtain was unlikely that Goethe would have been caused by the medium's manipulation able to write Faust in the laboratory of the carpet. Yet Willy's legs were said if he were ordered to do so and were to have been held firmly by a con­ treated with hostility and suspicion, troller, who insisted that he had not as were many mediums. He said one noticed them move. Besides, there should institute rigorous controls only were eight chairs standing on the after treating the mediums warmly carpet, yet none was seen moving. and expressing confidence in their When the carpet was later nailed to abilities. They are very sensitive, he the floor, the curtain did not move said, and when people come to the during the seance, making this scient­ seance and do not even greet them, ist say that his hypothesis was con­ the manifestation of parapsychologi­ firmed. But, wrote Bleuler, this is not cal phenomena cannot be expected. so; the noise made by the nailing of A complete explanation of beliefs the carpet may have destroyed the in pseudoscientific phenomena awaits medium's power, or the medium, future systematic psychological stu­ facing distrust, may have been in a dies. The case of Bleuler, however, is bad mood and thus failed to produce interesting in that it shows the the parapsychological phenomena. expression of irrationality in an Bleuler maintained that even if individual who had been active for some parapsychological feats involve decades in the pursuit of what Thomas fraud, that does not permit the Kuhn (1970) calls "normal science." conclusion that all feats by mediums The motives behind Bleuler's embrace

Spring 1994 277 of pseudoscientific claims may now, at best, be hypothesized. Bleuler's preoccupation with para- "The case of Bleuler is psychological phenomena occurred interesting in that it shows the when he was in advanced age and confronting the inevitability of death. expression of irrationality in an It may be that by accepting the occult individual who had been active he found evidence for the existence for decades in the pursuit of of another world and of immortality. However, Bleuler denies this hy­ what Thomas Kuhn calls pothesis: 'normal science. The spiritualists see . . . evidence that there is life after death and quently, this hypothesis is rejected reward or punishment for our deeds too. during our life span. I have up to now not found any evidence in With the rejection of these hypoth­ support of this hypothesis. (Bleuler eses, a more psychological one may 1930:678) explain Bleuler's propagation of pseu­ doscientific ideas. Manfred Bleuler Another hypothesis is that Bleu­ (1973), Eugen's son, stated that in the ler's training as a physician did not eighteenth century Swiss society was provide him with an understanding of dominated by an aristocratic elite that the scientific method. However, did not allow the rural, peasant class Bleuler performed sensory experi­ members to enter universities. But in ments at the Physiological Laboratory 1830, Switzerland adopted a demo­ at the University of Zurich in the cratic constitution, and the members 1870s (Gaupp 1940). This means that of the lower classes rushed to univer­ Bleuler must have known the rudi­ sities. Among them was Eugen Bleu­ ments of the scientific method. ler, a peasant's ambitious son, who Moreover, in his 1919 book, Bleuler after finishing his studies at the warned his colleagues to beware of University of Zurich in 1881 achieved reaching conclusions based upon the exalted position of professor at wishful thinking rather than facts. this prestigious university and was Therefore, this hypothesis has to be recognized as one of the world's rejected. leading psychiatrists (Gaupp 1940). The third hypothesis is that Bleu­ Bleuler's retirement ended his ler's belief in pseudoscientific concepts work on schizophrenias, as he was cut was derived from his mnemistic off from contact with schizophrenic biopsychology theory. It is true that patients. Yet he still craved to make the concept of the inheritance of a contribution to science. For years he acquired characteristics has a place developed his empirical theory of within the theory, but its absence psychology, but found the doors would not break the theory. As the barred by the rise of experimental theory had to include the concept of psychology. Bleuler was in a quan­ instincts, the neo-Darwinian explana­ dary. He had none of the specialized tion would do as well. However, the skills to venture into, say, chemistry acceptance of parapsychology had or physics, but may have thought that nothing to do with mnemistic bio­ he could contribute to the study of psychology theory, as Bleuler (1930: the inheritance of acquired character­ 678-679) himself admitted. Conse- istics and of parapsychology.

278 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Biologists were then greatly inter­ ihres Bewusstwerdens: Mnemistische ested in resolving the problem of the Biopsychologie (The natural history of inheritance of acquired characteristics the soul and its realization of conscious­ ness: Mnemistic biopsychology), 2nd ed. (cf. Goldschmidt 1931; Haldane 1932). Berlin: Julius Springer. The reality of parapsychology was to . 1933. Die Mneme als Grundlage des be, supposedly, resolved in laboratory Lebens und der Psyche (The mneme as experiments (cf. Rhine 1934). Bleuler basis of life and the psyche). Die Natur- wissenschaften, 21:100-109. could hold his own in those contro­ . 1934. Vererbung erworbener psy- versies. Thus, Bleuler (1934:706) chischer Eigenschaften? (The inheritance dismissed the fact that there was no of acquired psychic characteristics?). experimental support for the inher­ Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift, itance of acquired characteristics by 84:705-707, 740-743. Bleuler, M. 1973. Some aspects of the history stating that "negative results do not of Swiss psychiatry. American journal of prove anything." In a monumental Psychiatry, 130:991-994. study, Gulat-Wellenburg, Klinckow- Gaupp, R. 1940. Eugen Bleuler: Die stroem, and Rosenbusch (1925) con­ Persbnlichkeit und ihr Werk (Eugen cluded, after studying such famous Bleuler: The personality and his achieve­ ments). Zeitschrift fur die gesatnte Neurol- mediums as Eusapia Paladino and ogie und Psychiatrie, 168:1-35. Willy Schneider, that there was no Goldschmidt, R. A. 1931. Gibt es eine scientific evidence for so-called phys­ Vererbung erworbener Eigenschaften? ical mediumship. Bleuler responded (Is there inheritance of acquired charac­ that as soon as proper methods were teristics?). Zuechtungskunde, 6:161-170. Gulat-Wellenburg, W. v., C. v. Klinckow- used, the reality of parapsychological stroem, and H. Rosenbusch. 1925. Der phenomena would be confirmed. physikalishe Mediumismus (The physical Were Bleuler not the famous psy­ mediumism). Berlin: Verlag Ullstein. Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. The hereditary chiatrist that he was, it is doubtful transmission of acquired characteristics. whether his pseudoscientific views Nature, 129:817-819, 856-858. would have been published in profes­ Hyman, R. 1989. The Elusive Quarry: A sional periodicals. Ironically, the Scientific Appraisal of Psychical Research. tragedy of Bleuler's last years was his Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Kuhn, T. 1970. The Stucture of Scientific inability to follow the advice he gave Revolutions, 2nd ed. Chicago: Chicago to scientists—beware of autistic think­ University Press. ing that abandons realistic thought in Minkowski, M. 1941. Zum Andenken an favor of affective belief. Eugen Bleuler, 30. April 1857-15.Juli 1939 (To the memory of Eugen Bleuler 30 April 1857-15 July 1939). Schweize- References rischer Archiv fiir Neurologic und Psychi­ atrie, 46:1-10. Neue Zurcher Zeitung. 1927. "Probleme des Bleuler, E. 1919. Das Autistisch- Okkultismus" (The problems of occul­ Undisziplinierte Denken in der Medizin unci tism). January 25, 1927. No. 126, p. 148. seine Uberwindung (The autistic- undisciplined reasoning in medicine and Rhine, J. B. 1934. Extra-sensory perception its overcoming). Berlin: Julius Springer. of the clairvoyant type, journal of Abnor­ mal and Social Psychology, 29:151-171. . 1925. Die Psychoide als Prinzip der Ruse, M. 1979. The Darwinian Revolution. organischen Entwicklung (The psychoide as Chicago: University of Chicago Press. a principle of organic development). Berlin: Julius Springer. . 1930. Vom Okkultismus und seinen George Windholz is a professor in the Kritiken (On occultism and its critics). Zeitschrift fur Parapsychologie, 5:654- Department of Psychology, University of 680. North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, . 1932. Naturgeschichte der Seele, und NC 28223.

Spring 1994 279 Examining the Satanic Panic...

. . . A Personal Perspective on 'Satanism'

PETER HUSTON

rowing up in the suburbs of upstate New York, I never questioned that G Satanists, or "devil worshippers/' as we used to call them, existed out there—somehow, somewhere, someplace. Yet, like my relation­ ships with Zulus, Eskimos, and cowboys, I never A found reason to give them much thought, at "What we didn't least until I reached my teens. Then in 1980, suspect is that what through a strange, almost accidental series of circumstances, a high-school-age friend of mine we saw in purchased a paperback copy of Anton LaVey's Duanesburg was Satanic Bible. We both had hours of fun showing only one it off and scaring people. Not that LaVey's teachings are particularly dangerous. The first manifestation of a of these was that you should worship Satan. national pattern of We didn't. The second was that you should do similar groundless whatever you felt like doing so long as you didn't harm anyone else. This we had been taught at eruptions of terror." our rather liberal Methodist church and were actively doing already. Unfortunately, the title, if not the book itself, was just a bit too scary for some people, and in 1982 my friend's date, a born-again Christian fundamentalist, tore the book to shreds (not that she'd ever read it). Other things soon took precedence, and we forgot about Satanism and returned to other activities that we could not imagine had any possible connection to devil-worship, for example, playing Dungeons & Dragons and listening to punk-rock music. Over the next few years, Satanism had little importance in my life. Then, in 1986, an interesting thing happened.

(continued on page 285)

280 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Returning to a theme that occupied portions of several issues of SI in 1990 and 1991, we here present two authors' assessments about the satanic-cult conspiracy legend in the form of essay reviews of Jeffrey Victor's new book, Satanic Panic.—EDITOR

. . . A Sociological and Historical Perspective

TERENCE M. HINES

atanic Panic is an excellent book that should be read by anyone with an interest S in the current epidemic of claims of satanic crimes. Victor provides both a historical and a sociological analysis of this epidemic, along with insights obtained from on-the-scene investigations of a satanic panic in northwestern New York. He describes the history of the development of satanic-conspiracy beliefs in the United States and provides a useful, up-to-date A chronology of the major events in the saga. "One might hope Victor is a professor of sociology at a State that mental-health University of New York campus in Jamestown and was able to investigate a satanic rumor- professionals would panic directly when one broke out there in not fall into the trap October 1987 and lasted until May 1988. Victor of mistaking their interviewed numerous local people about their fears and beliefs. He describes the events that patients' delusions, started the panic and kept it going and the no matter how responses of local teenagers, adults, and officials. strongly believed in This is a most valuable section of the book, as by the patients, for it provides insights into the minds of those caught up, in one way or another, in the panic. reports of actual [See Victor's "The Spread of Satanic-Cult events. But... one Rumors," SI, Spring 1990.] would be One chapter is devoted to a discussion of the disappointed in such incidence of panics around the country. This is accompanied by an appendix that lists and briefly a hope." describes all such panics known to the author. Victor compares these panics to rumors of antisocial activity on the part of other disliked members of society at other times and in other places. Victor notes a wave of anti-Semitic rumors in France in 1968 to the effect that teenage girls were being kidnapped in Jewish- run clothing stores and then forced into prostitution. Victor notes that "many people who claimed to know about girls who disap­ peared in local stores . . . came forth

Spring 1994 mitted numerous ritual murders directly. Such claims are never accom­ Satanic Panic: Creation of a panied by any information that would Contemporary Legend. By Jeffrey lead to the identification of the victims S. Victor. Open Court, Chicago, or the location of the bodies or other III., 1993. 408 pp. Hardcover, members of the cult who could pre­ $38.95, paper, $16.95. sumably verify the claims. In some respects, these sorts of claims are a to the police. Yet, the police could find good deal more dramatic than the now no evidence of any girl being kid­ old-hat "I was abducted by a UFO and napped" (p. 74). Likewise, while in the they stuck a probe up my nose" from grip of a satanic panic, people confi­ the UFO abductees, in that the dently report events that never satanic-cult survivors are actually happened. admitting to participation in horrible Victor highlights the roles of self- crimes. Some survivors seem to be proclaimed "Satan experts," self- suffering from serious psychiatric proclaimed survivors of satanic cults, disease. and naive psychotherapists in spread­ Nonetheless, when they tell their ing much of the nonsense about stories on a talk show or in a therapy satanic activity. The frequently well- session, their emotional turmoil, even paid "experts" are often clergy of one terror, is very real. Of course that does sort or another or police officers who not mean that the stories they tell are are convinced, in spite of the total lack true. But, as is often the case with of physical evidence, that Satanists are UFO reports, it is the strong belief and roaming the nation killing hundreds, obvious sincerity of the witness (or or even thousands, of children and survivor) that convinces others that adults each year. These experts attrib­ their stories are factual, no matter ute the lack of physical evidence, even how absurd and no matter how when extraordinarily messy murders unsupported by objective evidence. are said to have taken place, to the One might hope that mental- amazing ability of Satanists to clean health professionals (psychiatrists, up after themselves. Of course this clinical psychologists, social workers, explanation is nonfalsifiable. These counselors, etc.) would not fall into experts also help fuel rumor-panics by the trap of mistaking their patients' issuing unfounded statements. These delusions, no matter how strongly are then "reported in local news believed in by the patients, for reports articles, often as 'objective' news, of actual events. But, at least where without any critical evaluation of the stories about satanic crimes are con­ claims" (pp. 67-68). Victor likens these cerned, one would be disappointed in "experts" to propagandists. such a hope. Victor points out that "Survivors," who claim to have a great deal of satanic-cult propaganda been directly involved in actual satanic comes precisely from a portion of the activity in one way or another, also psychotherapeutic community that is fuel the belief in satanic activity. They unable to distinguish their patients' have become quite popular on TV talk- delusions from reality. This is also a shows. Some of their claims are, to problem with reports of UFO abduc­ say the least, bizarre. These include tees, but not to so great an extent. claims that they became pregnant to The degree to which some therapists provide babies for ritual satanic have come to believe their patients' murder and claims that they com­ paranoid ideation can be seen in a

282 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "Victor . . . traces the history of belief in Satanism from the medieval period. It is clear that tales of terrible doings by Satanists and their allies have been around for a long, long time."

statement by Bennett Braun, Director usually receive minimal training in of Rush Presbyterian-St. Lukes Med­ psychology (topics like memory, per­ ical Center's Dissociative Disorders ception, the physiological basis of Program in Chicago, quoted by Victor: normal and abnormal behavior) and "We are working with a national- critical and scientific thinking. This is international type organization that's often especially true of students who got a structure somewhat similar to end up with Master's or "Psy.D." the Communist cell structure . . ." (p. degrees. Further, students who want 96). to become therapists feel that such Why do psychotherapists believe scientific knowledge is not relevant to survivor stories? Victor attributes the their planned career. I don't know how belief to a process of "group-think" many times I've suggested that a and related social pressure within student take a course in, say, statistics, segments of the psychotherapeutic or experimental method, or physiolog­ community. Such social pressure ical psychology, only to hear the reply, occurs at psychiatric seminars on "Oh, I'm going to become a therapist, satanic-cult activity. Most of these are so I don't need all that science stuff." organized by the International Society Thus, in the same way that schools for the Study of Multiple Personality of education select the least able and Dissociation (ISSMPD), which students to teach our children, and Victor identifies as "the main agency provide them with the poorest train­ disseminating the satanic cult legend ing, so schools turning out psycho­ to the psychiatric profession" (p. 95). therapists of various varieties often Their seminars are structured in a way attract students with little interest in that "does not allow the audience to critical thinking and provide little critically cross-examine speakers or to training in it. Further, two recent engage in dialogue with them" (p. 96). studies in the Journal of Social Work Papers given at their meetings are not Education (Russel et al., 29: 121-129, subject to peer review or published, 1993; Black et al., 29: 171-180, 1993) but often cited nonetheless as "scien­ have found high rates of traumatic tific" evidence for the reality of satanic childhood and family experiences cults. among social-work students. I suspect that the same would be found in While group-think, especially in the students in clinical psychology and context of ISSMPD activities, may counseling programs. Thus the indi­ provide an explanation for some belief viduals who go into therapy may be on the part of psychotherapists for the the least able to exercise critical reality of their patients' delusions, I judgment about what their patients think that Victor ignores another are telling them, because of both their important factor. Individuals who plan lack of training and their own history a career as psychotherapists, especially of trauma. if they opt for a non-M.D. degree and become clinical psychologists, social Having discussed the origins of the workers, counselors, and the like, false information on satanic activity,

Spring 1994 283 Victor spends three chapters on conflicted feelings that the children specific claims about satanic influence. they love are a stressful burden in These chapters cover satanic threats their already stressful lives." to children, Satanism and teenage This type of "explanation" seems crime, and Satanism in schools, books, to me to be utterly useless. It is almost music, and games. All three chapters as nonfalsifiable as the foul deeds of provide excellent reviews of their the supertidy Satanists. A more respective topics. parsimonious explanation would point The next five chapters consider the to the great amount of media hype sociology of the anti-Satan crusade, about this topic, along with the for a crusade is really what has seeming plausibility of the claims, developed. Victor points to the wide­ compared to the implausibility of the spread belief in a moral crisis in claims of UFO abductees. Further, the America as a root cause of the belief satanic crusade is far more organized in satanic activity. He then describes than the UFO abductees and has far the dynamics of moral crusades over more credible-sounding spokesmen, the centuries, including separate including some clergy and police chapters on the search for scapegoats, officials. No need, it seems to me, to the rhetoric of the anti-Satan crusade, hypothesize vague internal, uncon­ the organization of the crusade, and scious processes to account for the the politics of the crusade. These reactions to rumors of satanic activity. chapters are well done and very Finally, another strength of Vic­ informative. However, at the end of tor's book is its substantial historical Chapter 10 ("The Search for Scape­ content. Victor places today's crusade goat Deviants"), Victor has a most in the context of similar happenings unfortunate attack of psychobabble. throughout history. One of the most He contends (p. 205) that the fascinating chapters traces the history responses to claims of satanic activity of belief in Satanism from the medie­ have been so strong because Satan is val period. It is clear that tales of ter­ a "kind of projective mirror of the self. rible doings by Satanists and their It enables people, individually and allies (often identified as Jews) have collectively, to project outward all been around for a long, long time. Nor their own self-perceived 'sins' and are "survivor" stories new. During the shortcomings. By hating Satan, they wave of anti-Catholic feeling in the are able to convince themselves that United States in the 1830s and 1840s, they need not feel guilt or responsi­ claims were made that women were bility for those things they most forced into convents where all sorts passionately condemn." Further, "the of awful things (sex, murder, etc.) scapegoat deviance of Satanism can be occurred. Sure enough, individuals viewed as a projection of serious appeared who wrote books claiming unconscious inner conflicts in the to have survived such horrible experi­ feelings of a great many parents about ences. One, by Maria Monk, became how they relate to their children." Fear a bestseller of the time. of Satanism "may also reflect parental feelings of ambivalence and even hostility toward children, born out of Terence M. Hines teaches psychology at Pace University, Pleasantville, New York.

284 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 (continued from p. 280)

Sparked off by graffiti in the form of "AC/DC rules!!" "Ozzy Osbourne," and a couple of pentagrams, many residents of the nearby rural town of Duanesburg became terrified by rumors of hidden satanic cults that mutilated cattle and perhaps conspired to sacrifice children. Of course, being young, we knew that Ozzy Osbourne was a particularly idiotic and childish rock star who used satanic motifs as an attention-getting device. To us it seemed obvious that some particularly idiotic Ozzy fan, who had felt com­ pelled to spray-paint Ozzy's name on a building, would add a pentagram or two for good measure. Still, the town was terrified and people panicked. Sensing the pure ridiculousness of the idea of a long-hidden cult, we mechanisms and effects of these responded in a natural fashion. We occurrences. Since many readers are watched the developments on TV and familiar with Robert D. Hicks's excel­ laughed a lot. We did contemplate lent book, In Pursuit of Satan: The Police intervening though. For example, we and the Occult, it seems beneficial to toyed with the idea of dressing like compare the two works. (See SI, Satanists and also plotted a hoax Spring and Fall 1990, for Hicks's two- recruiting drive in the town. We soon part article "Police Pursuit of Satanic sensed that this plan might involve Crime." Can we learn anything from dodging 12-gauge shotgun blasts fired a second book on this fascinating by misguided farmers and deer hun­ subject? The answer, somewhat sur­ ters intent on protecting their three- prisingly, is a definite "yes." year-olds from an imaginary threat of As Hicks's work details in page satanic child-sacrificers. Therefore we after page, there is little or no evidence did nothing, and ultimately the town of a mounting satanic conspiracy to calmed down without further event. undermine and disrupt the American Then, in 1990, the rumors broke out way of life. The occasional rumors, again in nearby Cobleskill. (I was out hysteria, and panics that break out of the area that time.) Obviously, because of these fears are groundless. there was something quite peculiar at When such claims are looked at work here. What we didn't suspect carefully and systematically they was that what we saw in Duanesburg either fall apart completely or have a was only one manifestation of a much more mundane cause than had national pattern of similar groundless been suspected. As a sociologist, eruptions of terror. If we had, perhaps Victor quickly surveys the facts of the we would not have laughed so hard matter but then soon moves beyond about it all. that to focus on the reasons such In The Satanic Panic, sociologist panics find fertile ground. He explains Jeffrey S. Victor fully describes the the sociological processes of rumors

Spring 1994 285 and describes the way they spread, the find the idea of hidden satanic cults effects they have on society, and the quite consistent with their theologi­ systems that propel them. Hicks's cally based view of the world; and work focuses on the "what" of the persons working in mental health, matter; Victor's, on the "how" and child protection, and law enforcement "why." The two books complement who have come to sincerely believe in each other. the existence of these cults and According to Victor, tension in our unconsciously prompt children to tell society is mounting. This is particu­ stories consistent with their own larly true in rural areas, and especially preconceived beliefs. so in the so-called rust belt (where the Victor's work expands considerably events described above took place). As on the content of In Pursuit of Satan. factories close and jobs move out, For example, one weakness of Hicks's incomes go down; as the divorce rate work is that he ignores many of the climbs, and malevolent outside influ­ "Satanists" who we know exist. The ences like drugs come into the area, disturbing fact is that many people, people become more and more inse­ such as the above-mentioned anony­ cure and worried about the future. mous spray-painting Ozzy fan, do find And, as Victor points out, justifiably satanic motifs exciting. Seeing "disil­ so. What happens next is that these lusioned youths," teenagers, and fears become personified—particu­ others who have a growing interest larly under the stimulus of local in Satanism and a constant flirtation fundamentalists—and the fear of a with literature, pop music, and much satanic cult in the area grows. else with satanic themes, one begins Although not created by them, such to wonder exactly how these youths rumors are spread quickly by network fit into the overall picture. If nothing talk-shows and other mass and local else, a group of antisocial delinquents media. Tension continues to rise. decorated with pentagrams and "666" Eventually something outside of the emblems makes it difficult to convince experience of the local population laypeople that Satanism is nothing to comes along, sparks off excitement, worry about. Victor addresses this and then after being severely distorted troublesome phenomenon. These by local teenage and adult rumors, people do have an interest in Satanism becomes labeled as possibly satanic. As and can be vicious and dangerous. the population reacts in an appropriate However, they are not really ap­ manner to what they perceive to be proaching Satanism in the way most a very real threat, further and even people normally approach a religion. wilder rumors find fertile ground. If questioned, such individuals gener­ People respond by keeping their ally have only a very crude interest children home from school for fear of in, and knowledge of, any theology. satanic kidnappers, looking for Satan- They are using satanic elements ists everywhere, or calling for gathered from easily accessible works increased police action. It's a fright­ (such as the above-mentioned Satanic ening process. Bible), as well as pop-culture repre­ sentations of Satanism in motion Victor describes the "moral cru­ pictures and rock music. They tend to sade" that responds to the perceived pick and choose from among these in satanic threat. It is made up of several order to form what Victor describes .disparate and widely divergent as a "deviant ideology." They are using groups. Among these are fundamen­ crude notions of Satanism to form a talist clergy and televangelists, who

286 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 justification for their antisocial acts. the incident is footnoted so that The end result is not really Satanism readers can investigate further, but it in the sense of a religion. Further­ remains frustrating. more, there is absolutely no evidence Victor includes an extensive bibli­ that any effort is being made by adult ography and a useful list of experts Satanists to recruit these people into and organizations that deal with an organized movement or religious satanic-cult rumors from a skeptical group. Their ideology, their organiza­ point of view. Satanic Panic is a rational tion, and their actions tend to exist study of beliefs and panics about at only a local level, and are not satanic-cult conspiracies in America. I indicative of a national conspiracy of highly recommend it. Although Victor any sort. makes it clear that such panics are Victor's work is sweeping in its likely to continue until the underlying scope. He cites incident after incident causes of social stress are reduced, a to prove his point. In fact, if his book clear understanding of the situation has a fault it is that at times he gives should at the very least reduce the examples of incidents without provid­ potential for damage when such ing enough substantive detail to back outbreaks do occur. up his points. For example, in 1988 in Montezuma Creek, Utah, a high- Peter Huston has long since stopped trying school counselor was dismissed from to scare people, and now attempts to calm his position because of allegations that them down by occasionally contributing to he was promoting Satanism. Victor the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. He is knowl­ uses this as an example, but does not edgeable on Asian cultures and hopes to explain what it was that the counselor pursue graduate study in that field. His was in fact promoting. This is a trend interests include psychology, history, that crops up in a few places in this religion, pre-hospital care, and, of course, nevertheless excellent book. Of course skepticism.

The Tradition of the Scientific Method

It is usual that wrong results produce a few people who continue to believe in them. Blondlot, for example, published a book on N-rays two years after they were shown not to exist by Wood. And although the consensus of the scientific community has now turned against cold fusion, a few hundred researchers continue to list positive results, whether consistent or not, and to ignore or criticize the more numerous null experiments often performed with superior apparatus. In contrast, there are some who listen to criticism and who are self-critical, who take the possibility of error seriously and perform experiments designed to look for falsification. It is to the credit of Andrew Hime, Nick Jelley and Eric Norman that they have resisted the human desire not to prove oneself wrong, have checked and repeated their experiments [which they originally interpreted as supporting the discovery of a neutrino with a mass of 17 keV] and have announced errors that are identified. One respects them for following the tradition of the scientific method.

—Douglas R. O. Morrison, "The Rise and Fall of the 17-keV Neutrino," Nature, 366:29-32, November 4,1993.

Spring 1994 287 Philosophy and the Paranormal Part 2: Skepticism, Miracles, and Knowledge

WILLIAM GREY

n Part 1 of this article I examined the nature of paranormal belief and suggested that such beliefs are a pathological expression of the same capacities that have provided profound insights. I noted in conclusion that paranormal claims often conflict with laws of nature. The violation of a law of nature is one definition of a miracle, and it is to this topic that I now turn. David Hume's essay "Of Miracles" (1748), written more than two centuries ago, still Hume felt that the provides timely advice for evaluating "psi" and comparable anomalous claims. Indeed, Hume's problem of epistemological principles are helpful for witness credibility, evaluating any situation in which we are confronted with conflicting testimony. human credulity, Hume's essay was written in response to conflicts of what he regarded as an upsurge in credulity, testimony and though one that occurred within the then prevailing context of Christian belief, which was the tribal origins of in many ways different from our contemporary superstition New Age enthusiasms. But the eighteenth century had its own Shirley MacLaines, making undermine the claims conspicuously at odds with deliverances credibility of any of ordinary experience, and Hume wanted to assess the credentials of these claims. As well claim in support as being a topic of interest to Hume's con­ of the miraculous. temporaries, miracles played a role in natural theology—the attempt to prove the existence of God, and sometimes human immortality, on

This is the second and concluding part of an article examining some fundamental issues raised by paranormal claims.

288 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 the basis of observation and experi­ ence—and this was a subject that also interested Hume deeply. The classical "Hume maintained that there refutations of the central arguments never was a miraculous event of natural theology were systemati­ cally developed by Hume in his post­ established on sufficiently humously published Dialogues Con­ strong grounds to warrant cerning Natural Religion (1779). What is a miracle? In the vernacular rational belief in its we use the term miraculous to char­ occurrence." acterize an event that is extremely unlikely—at odds with the normal We have therefore to weigh the course of experience—such as a evidence that a miraculous event "miraculous escape." A miracle in this happened against the evidence that it (weak) sense is a very improbable did not in fact happen. In evaluating event. Hume had a stronger sense of a claim that a miracle has occurred, "miracle" in mind, namely, something Hume (1748: 115-116) advanced the that violates a law of nature. It is in following principle which—echoing this sense that miracles have com­ Ockham—has been called Hume's monly featured in religious systems Razor: of belief, as the means by which God has been thought to have demon­ strated his power to his chosen people. No testimony is sufficient to estab­ lish a miracle unless that testimony The question that Hume addresses is: be of such a kind that its falsehood Are we justified in believing that would be more miraculous than the miracles have in fact occurred? He fact which it endeavours to estab­ argued for the very strong conclusion lish. that we are never justified in believing that a miracle ever occurred. The second stage of the argument There is a common misunderstand­ claims that even though the evidence ing that must be corrected at the in favor of miracles might outweigh outset. Hume was not claiming to the evidence against them, in practice show that miracles have never this never happens. Hume maintained occurred. Proving negative existence that there never was a miraculous claims is notoriously problematic. event established on sufficiently Hume's claim was the importantly strong grounds to warrant rational different one that we are never belief in its occurrence. There are four rationally justified in believing that factors that undermine the credibility miracles have occurred. That is, Hume of any claim in support of the addresses the epistemological issue of miraculous. what it is rational to believe, rather First there is the problem of wit­ than the metaphysical question of ness credibility. Witnesses who testify what is and is not possible in our sort to the occurrence of miracles are of world. seldom totally above suspicion either The argument has two parts. First, of having been deceived or of having Hume argues that the evidence against the intent to deceive. In evaluating miracles is usually very strong. (And their testimony we must always according to one of Hume's epistemo­ choose between believing (a) that a logical maxims, "A wise man propor­ miracle occurred, and (b) that the tions his belief to the evidence.") witnesses were deceived or deceitful.

Spring 1994 289 According to Hume (1748: 116), no of these traditions is intended to miracle has ever been "attested by a establish the truth of that tradition. sufficient number of men, of such But it also is intended to discredit the unquestioned good sense, education claims of other, competing traditions, and learning as to secure us against and in particular to undermine the all delusion in themselves; of such miraculous claims of its competitors. undoubted integrity as to place them In the absence of independent sup­ beyond all suspicion of any design to port, claims about miracles cannot deceive others. . . ." All claims for endorse any one of these traditions miracles, that is, suffer from what we over any of the others. call a credibility gap. Hume believed that the propensity The second problem that Hume of humankind to superstition and the identifies is human credulity. There marvelous may receive some check is a natural human affinity for the from sense and learning, but he also novel, the surprising, and the marvel­ seems to have believed that it could ous. Recognizing this propensity for never be thoroughly extirpated from credulity, we must take note of and human nature. Hume, I suspect, be guided by the following maxims in would not be surprised to find beliefs evaluating claims for the miraculous: in astrology, UFOs, crystals, channel­ ing, and similar credulous ideas wide­ Objects of which we have no experi­ spread in the twentieth century. ence resemble those of which we do I repeat that Hume was not claim­ have experience. ing that he knew that miracles never occur. His claim was rather that it What we have found to be most would never be rational to suppose usual is most probable. that they do. He was advancing an In case of dispute, give preference empirical argument (that is, an argu­ to the side favoured by the greatest ment based on factual claims) against number of observations. the credibility of miracles. Hume was a skeptical philosopher par excellence, These sound, if somewhat pedestrian, and I turn next to the virtues of maxims are frequently overridden by skepticism. the excitement and novelty that is often the basis of human credulity. The Virtues of Skepticism The third point about miraculous claims to which Hume (1748: 119f.) Skepticism can be characterized as a draws our attention is the tribal critical stance with regard to knowl­ origins of superstition. Miracles occur edge (or existence) claims, and a mainly in primitive (in Hume's words, skeptic is one who calls such claims "ignorant and barbarous") nations, or into question. Skepticism can refer to are derived from "ignorant and bar­ either (a) the critical stance adopted barous" ancestors. in subjecting knowledge claims to Finally, Hume (1748: 121f.) points careful scrutiny or (b) a state of doubt to the problem of conflicts of testi­ or disbelief that may be the outcome mony that confronts claims of the of such an inquiry. Being skeptical in miraculous. It is impossible that the the second sense (withholding assent, religious traditions of "ancient Rome, or suspending belief in a particular of Turkey, of Siam, and of China" can claim) need not involve believing the all be established on a solid foundation. opposite. Skepticism is a matter of Every miracle claimed within any one doubt rather than denial. If I withhold

290 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 assent from the claim that God exists, it need not be the case that I believe that God does not exist. I might believe "The purpose of skepticism is that the evidence is just not strong (usually) not to raise enough to settle the matter either way. extravagant doubts (although We need to distinguish between that is sometimes an unintended critical and dogmatic skepticism, and between selective and global skepticism, consequence), but rather to though these terms do not mark clarify our understanding of the absolute distinctions. That is to say, subject of inquiry." skepticism can be more or less dog­ matic and more or less global. Skep­ ticism is dogmatic if assent is withheld here inevitably creates controversy) a priori, that is, on the basis of prior there are various disputed cases and conviction without considering the claims, such as God, supply-side evidence. For example, Galileo's col­ economics, nuclear deterrence, and leagues expressed a perfectly intelli­ paranormal phenomena. Disputed gible skepticism about the existence cases are also the coal-face for the of the moons of Jupiter; they became professional philosopher: On which dogmatic when they refused to look side of the dividing line, for example, through his telescope. Skepticism is should we put minds, beliefs, desires, global if it is general and encompasses meanings, properties, and numbers? all claims to knowledge; selective if it When confronted with a claim is targeted to specific knowledge claims. about some strange, paranormal, or Global skepticism is rare. Perhaps the similarly anomalous phenomenon (an Greek philosopher Cratylus, an older accurate premonition, a "near death" contemporary of Plato (c. 428-C.348 or an "out of body" experience, say), B.C.), is the most global skeptic we should adopt a scrupulously skep­ recorded in the annals of philosophy. tical approach. By this I do not mean His skepticism is said to have been so that we should conclude that the extreme that he refused to answer experience did not occur or that questions and would only wave a whoever had the experience must weary finger at his interlocutor to have been somehow deluded. Rather, indicate that truth was so elusive and we should be alert to the possibility ephemeral that it would be useless to of natural and ordinary explanations reply. of unnatural and extraordinary occur­ Skepticism that falls short of the rences. We must be especially careful global, as it usually does, always has in evaluating the evidence that to be qualified by specifying the appears to support such anomalous subject matter to which it is directed. events. While rejecting a dogmatic There are various beliefs, for example, skepticism that refuses to counten­ beliefs about rocks and tables, that are ance anomalous events, critical skep­ relatively immune to skeptical ticism seeks to gather as much doubts—at least outside philosophy evidence as possible concerning any seminars. At the other extreme, there extraordinary or allegedly paranormal are tooth fairies and Santa Claus, event, claim, or theory. which most will immediately dismiss Critical skepticism means keeping as lacking sufficient epistemic war­ an open mind and not rejecting rant. In between (drawing boundaries disputed claims a priori (that is, on the

Spring 1994 291 basis of prior conviction without times an unintended consequence), considering the evidence). We must be but rather to clarify our understand­ scrupulous in examining the evidence. ing of the subject of inquiry. There But it means refusing to accept as true are apparently more modest forms of claims for which there is insufficient skepticism that challenge, for exam­ or ambiguous evidence, and recogniz­ ple, theological or metaphysical ing that withholding belief is prefer­ knowledge. And in some cases—for able to accepting claims for which example, with respect to astrology or there are not sufficient grounds. And phrenology—skepticism seems to be it means adopting as a methodological not merely defensible, but appro­ maxim the principle that in seeking priate. explanations we should prefer the When pressed to extremes, skep­ ordinary to the extraordinary and the tical arguments sometimes turn out simple to the complex. This is one to be self-defeating, and the critical interpretation of a methodological pursuit of knowledge leads to a denial principle commonly attributed to that knowledge is attainable. Extreme William of Ockham (c.1285-1349) and or global skepticism has often been the known as Occam's Razor. consequence of setting unreasonably Skepticism is the disposition, or art, high standards as to what is acceptable of matching belief to evidence. There as knowledge: in particular, setting is at present no convenient antonym absolute certainty (the impossibility of for "skeptic." For convenience, I being mistaken) as a requirement for propose to revive the archaic expres­ genuine knowledge. sion "credulist" to serve this role. A Common objections to skepticism credulist can be understood as some­ are: first, the claim that skeptics one who is apt to accept claims demand unrealistically high standards without sufficient evidence, that is to of proof (often accompanied by the say, someone whose epistemic stand­ charge that the skeptic's insistence on ards are too low. these standards is unjustified), and Etymologically, skeptikos means second, an insistence (sometimes "inquirer," and the value of skepticism dogmatic) that a disputed category of is that it leads to—and when seriously experience (a psychic experience, say) entertained is usually the result of— is more certain than any skeptical a systematic inquiry into the founda­ argument that calls it into question. tions of knowledge. Skeptical argu­ Regarding the first point, the ments play a central role in inquiry, insistence on protocols, controls, and particularly philosophical inquiry, repeatability are based on the belief where they have been directed not just that nature is consistent—and human at eccentric belief systems but also at nature suspect. No one demands 100 beliefs that most regard as self- percent repeatability. There are evident. Thus skeptical arguments always anomalous observations due to have been raised about the existence the quirks of experimenters or their of other minds, knowledge of the past, apparatus. (Indeed, with complex knowledge of material objects (the scientific experiments it is a formid­ "external world"), moral truths, able task to get anything to work at sensory knowledge, and even about all.) But for any extraordinary claim knowledge of logic and mathematics. to gain respectability, it has to be The purpose of skepticism in these replicable by someone somewhere. cases is (usually) not to raise extrav­ The problem with psi phenomena agant doubts (though that is some­ is not that it is difficult for careful

292 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "While rejecting a dogmatic skepticism that refuses to countenance anomalous events, critical skeplicism seeks to gather as much evidence as possible concerningany extraordinary or allegedly paranormal event,claim, or theory." researchers to get it to work occasion­ afflict any belief system, but skeptics ally under rigorously controlled con­ must remain alert to the possibility of ditions; it is difficult for careful falling prey to rigidities of their own. observers to get anything at all that Skepticism is all about matching belief can't be dismissed as noise, error, to evidence. It is a difficult and wishful thinking, chance, or fraud. It continuing challenge to maintain the is for this reason that the require­ right proportion of skepticism in our ments of controlled experiments and inquiries. Only then are we able to repeatability cannot be dismissed as steer between the Scylla of dogmatism unduly fussy: experience shows that and the Charybdis of credulism. nature does not cheat and that people do. There are a number of manipu­ Concluding Remarks lative techniques, such as "cold read­ ing" (see Hyman 1981), that are well Understanding the process of theoret­ known to psychics (and magicians) and ical development helps us to under­ are used to fool people into believing stand the nature and appeal of that some individuals possess special paranormal and deviant belief sys­ psychic powers. tems. As in medicine, where we learn In the history of philosophy we find about the economy of the healthy skeptical arguments are repeatedly body through examining its pathol­ proposed and then attacked and ogy, so in the case of belief systems "refuted." Skepticism is a continuing we learn much through examining the challenge to dogmatic claims and helps pathological cases presented by alter­ to maintain the spirit of free inquiry. native epistemologies. Our under­ Without skepticism we would be in standing of the health of cognitive danger of failing to distinguish en­ systems, like the health of organic thusiasm, prejudice, and superstition systems, is deepened by a study of from serious, rational, and well- their pathology. This is why the study grounded beliefs, which are essential of paranormal beliefs has implications to the task of making sense of the for our understanding of systematic world. Perhaps the main danger for inquiry. And—to continue the medical skeptics is that they sometimes have analogy—one of the principal virtues difficulty in distinguishing hard and of skepticism is its role in promoting soft data; that they set their standards epistemological hygiene. of epistemic acceptability at too high No blanket rejection of paranormal a level (in contrast to credulists, whose claims is possible: each claim has to epistemic standards are too low) and be assessed on its merits. And psychic may tend to promote their own form claims, even if they ultimately turn out of dogmatic conservatism. The aim of to be nonsensical, may be the source skepticism, however, should be to of harmless amusement. For some combat doctrinal rigidities that can people, belief in psi provides a map of

Spring 1994 293 their experiential territory for which pattern—to locate ourselves in net­ no other is available. Many hope that works of meanings. There is pattern somewhere in the dross there is some that we discover and pattern that we nugget of psychic or paranormal invent. A major and continuing epis- truth. But the prospects are not temological task is to distinguish promising. After more than a century between the two. of controlled investigation following The search for—and discovery of— the establishment of the Society for pattern is a lietmotif of perhaps the Psychical Research in 1882, the search most distinctive human characteristic: for incontrovertible evidence for psi the cognitive capacity to develop an is at best inconclusive. The psychol­ understanding of ourselves and our ogist David Marks argues that until world. Perhaps a final moral to be parapsychology produces at least one drawn is that humanity's character­ repeatable demonstration it can be istic love of wonder, which Hume justifiably ignored (Marks 1986: 123). lamented, is—if unconstrained—as But even if the pursuit of psi has likely now as it was when Hume was not revealed anything interesting writing to lead us astray in our search about the world, it has revealed much for truth. of interest about human psychology and about how we think about the References world. While we have no reason to suppose that there are any hidden Hume, David. 1902 [1748]. "Of Miracles." forces, synchronicities, or noncausal In Enquiries Concerning Human Under­ standing, 2nd ed., §10, ed. by L. A. Selby- determining factors, the search for psi Bigge, 108-131. Oxford: Clarendon Press. phenomena does reveal a lot about Hume, David. 1779. Dialogues Concerning human credulity and the love of Natural Religion. London. wonder that Hume lamented. Hyman, Ray. 1981. "Cold Reading: How to Convince Strangers That You Know All It shows that we are pattern- About Them." In Paranormal Borderlands making creatures par excellence; we of Science, ed. by Kendrick Frazier, 79-96. have a great capacity to discover Buffalo: Prometheus Books. pattern in the world, and when we Marks, David. 1986, Investigating the para­ don't find it we are disposed to invent normal. Nature, 320: 119-123. it. What we find, above all, is a thirst for pattern in the chaotic gestalt of William Grey is in the Department of our experience. There is a powerful Philosophy, University of New England, urge to embellish our lives with Armidale, Australia.

Focus and Attitude

[Richard P.] Feynman's cryptic remark, "no one is that much smarter . . . ," to me, implies something Feynman kept emphasizing: that the key to his achievements was not anything "magical" but the right attitude, the focus on nature's reality, the focus on asking the right questions, the willingness to try (and to discard) unconventional answers, the sensitive ear for phoniness, self-deception, bombast, and conventional but unproven assumptions.

—P. W. Anderson, Joseph Henry Laboratories of Physics, Princeton University (Science, 259, January 22,1993, p. 22).

294 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Book Reviews

Irrational Disbelief

Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. By Deborah Lipstadt. Free Press, New York, 1993. 278 pp. Hardcover, $22.95.

TERENCE M. HINES

keptics are obviously familiar Denying the Holocaust presents the with irrational belief. But there results of her work. It is a chilling S is a flip side to it that is far rarer. book. The deniers tend to be well This is irrational disbelief, the con­ organized and well funded. Their tinued lack of acceptance of some major goal is to get their claims dis­ event or phenomenon in spite of cussed as a serious and legitimate overwhelming evidence of its reality. "other side" of a previously nonexis­ Until very recently, the best- tent debate about whether the holo­ known example of irrational disbelief caust actually took place. One method was the claim that the manned moon of doing so, in addition to putting ads landings were hoaxes that had been in campus newspapers, is to create filmed by NASA in a Hollywood movie mock-scholarly organizations, such as studio. In the past few years, however, the Institute for Historical Review another irrational disbelief has (IHR), and to publish books and become more common and has journals, such as the IHR's Journal of attracted public attention. This is the Historical Review, that include all the claim that the holocaust never took trappings (footnotes, references, etc.) place and that claims that it was real of real scholarship. are part of a massive Jewish plot to One can reasonably ask how discredit Germany and enrich Israel. anyone could seriously contend that This contention first achieved wide the holocaust didn't happen. The public exposure in 1991, when Bradley deniers manage to do this only by Smith, an active holocaust denier, frequently misrepresenting and dis­ tried to place a large ad in college torting historical sources. They also newspapers across the country deny­ contend that reports of survivors of ing the reality of the holocaust. Some concentration and death camps are papers accepted the ad and some frauds and that admissions from didn't; but, whatever the decision, the convicted war criminals, camp guards, ad sparked great controversy and got and other personnel were coerced and the claims of the deniers into the are untrue. The vast number of public eye more than they ever had documents captured after the war been before. from the Nazis are said to have been Deborah Lipstadt has investigated created at the end of the war by the the holocaust denial movement, and Allies, in league with the Jews, to

Spring 1994 295 discredit Germany. The gas chambers are ignorant of history, will be misled at Auschwitz are said either not to into doubting the reality of the have existed in the first place or to holocaust. This is not a trivial point. have really been used for disinfection. We have read much, in this journal In short, the claim is that a massive and elsewhere, about the appalling plot, conspiracy, and cover-up is in lack of knowledge of science, especially operation that makes the claim that on the part of today's students. These the government is hiding the "truth" students show an almost equally about UFOs look like a fixed parking appalling lack of knowledge of history. ticket. Thus they are easy targets for claims Can anyone really believe such made by the denial movement. nonsense? Readers of this journal will Lipstadt's book is explicitly not a not find it difficult to accept that any debunking one. She specifically argues idea, no matter how far divorced from that to attempt to debunk the claims reality, will find acceptance some­ of the deniers would be to be drawn where. The more interesting ques­ into their argument and thus to give tion, it seems to me, is whether the them some of the very legitimacy they organizers of the denial movement seek as the "other side" of a debate. really believe their own claims. It is To this end, she has refused to appear difficult to be sure, of course, but on talk shows to counter the claims Lipstadt documents so thoroughly of the deniers. Readers will disagree their misuse and misrepresentation of about whether this is a proper stra­ historical sources that I find it difficult tegy. Nonetheless, in the course of to believe that this is not done with outlining the deniers' claims, Lipstadt total knowledge that the holocaust has provided excellent rejoinders to was very real. Such misrepresenta­ their arguments. tions would be impossible to do simply This is an important book that by being sloppy. The real motivating should be widely read. factors seem to be anti-Semitism and a desire to impugn Israel. Terence Hines is a professor of psychology People who read the output of at Pace University, Pleasantville, New organizations like the IHR, and who York.

Insightful History of Cold Fusion Drama

Bad Science: The Short Life and Weird Times of Cold Fusion. By Gary Taubes. Random House, New York, 1993. 503 pp. Hardcover, $25.00.

TERENCE M. HINES his is by far the most detailed than 260 people at universities and history of the cold-fusion episode. laboratories all over the country who TIn the course of writing this had been involved one way or another excellent book, Taubes, a well-known in cold-fusion research. The result is science journalist, interviewed more an almost day-by-day account of what

296 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 happened at all the important centers to the findings that emerged from the in the cold fusion story. The writing laboratory of John Bockris at Texas is so well done that the reader feels A&M University. While Pons and like an eyewitness to the unfolding Fleischmann claimed only to find ex­ drama. This is an extremely valuable cess heat in their fusion cells, the contribution to the literature on this Texas lab also claimed to find tritium, topic. a product of fusion that would have The detail provided makes it very to be found if it were really taking clear that sloppy experimental design place. and even sloppier logic were respon­ The combined finding of tritium sible for the belief in cold fusion. The and heat was taken as strong support major participants in the story, of for the reality of cold fusion. Alas, the course, are Stanley Pons and Martin tritium appeared only sporadically Fleischmann, the University of Utah and, like other cold-fusion findings, chemists who first reported cold could not be reproduced. The actual fusion to the press in March 1989. The pattern of the appearance of tritium, two previous books on cold fusion that only a few fusion cells and only every I reviewed here earlier (Too Hot to now and then, led to a suspicion that Handle, by Frank Close, Winter 1992, someone was adding tritium to the and Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco water to fake positive results. Taubes of the Century, by John Huizenga, analyzes this possibility at some length Winter 1993) both painted unfavor­ and makes it fairly clear that a able portraits of them. Taubes's book graduate student in the lab was makes it clear that both Pons and responsible. Fleischmann, and especially Pons, The finding of excess heat in were more mendacious in reporting Bockris's lab was as ephemeral, if not their research than has been reported as suspicious, as the finding of tritium. previously. For example, the first Bockris's claim that the finding was claims by Pons and Fleischmann were real is a perfect example of how based on experiments run without the disregard for the basic rules of scien­ control conditions that even a high- tific evidence kept the cold-fusion school chemistry student would have debate going. As might be expected, realized were needed. But Pons and sometimes a fusion cell would run a Fleischmann were not at all forthcom­ bit hotter than would be expected and ing about this lack. sometimes a bit cooler. This would be The lack of proper control experi­ the case even if no fusion at all was ments, Taubes makes clear, was a taking place. The temperature would major problem with research at many vary around some mean. However, labs that reported findings used to cells running cooler than expected support cold fusion. were negative results. Bockris wasn't This book's revelation that the interested in negative results, saying cold-fusion ruckus was not the first that they "can be obtained without time that Pons and Fleischman had skill and experience" (p. 322). Thus, made major errors and false claims is findings of cells running cooler than especially useful. Taubes describes expected, which would have argued several other such incidents that against the reality of cold fusion, resulted in published papers that "were considered mistakes and "range(d) from dead wrong to reck­ stashed in a drawer. When the cells lessly interpreted" (p. 11). appeared to produce excess heat, this was considered evidence for fusion" Considerable space is also devoted

Spring 1994 297 (p. 322). ing the previous cold-fusion claims Taubes shows that, like Pons and covered in Huizenga's book. The Fleischmann, Bockris has a history of wealth of detail and insight into the making wild claims based on faulty operation of the cold-fusion sup­ experiments. In 1982, for example, he porters more than makes up for this claimed to have found a "secret lack. The book is also more up to date catalyst" for a process to reduce water than the others, having been finished to hydrogen and oxygen. If true, the late in 1992. At that time, Pons and result would have greatly facilitated Fleischmann had set up shop at a the production of hydrogen. But it secret laboratory somewhere in wasn't true, and the ensuing contro­ France, allegedly supported by funds versy "ran like a prototype of cold from a company called Technova, fusion" (p. 278). Bockris is now owned by Toyota. It is a great irony working on the "electrochemical that Pons now lives in Nice. One gets transmutation of elements" (p. 427). the sad image of this man spending Overall, this book is much less the rest of his life vainly trying to technical than the two mentioned convince the world of the reality of earlier. It also includes only a small cold fusion, just as Rene Blondlot did amount of material on previous epi­ with N-rays in the same city so many sodes of pathological science, includ­ years go.

Nary A Miracle In Sight

Looking for a Miracle: Weeping Icons, Relics, Stigmata, Visions and Healing Cures. By Joe Nickell. Prometheus Books, Buffalo, N.Y., 1993. 253 pp. Hardcover, $23.95.

ROBERT A. BAKER

n the latter part of the eighteenth metaphysical question of what is and century the Scottish philosopher is not possible in our sort of world. I David Hume asked himself the Recognizing that Hume's argument question, Are we ever justified in that the evidence against miracles is believing that miracles have in fact usually very strong, the multi- occurred? Hume's answer was no. He talented Joe Nickell nevertheless did not, however, claim to show that believes that we should never "put the miracles have never occurred, since cart before the horse by deciding, proving negative existence claims is antecedent to inquiry, whether or not notoriously problematic. Hume's miracles exist." Nickell insists that, claim is the importantly different one like other mysteries, the problem of that we are never rationally justified miracles should be neither fostered in believing that miracles have nor dismissed, but should be occurred. In essence, Hume is address­ approached in a rigorous and fair ing the epistemological issue of what manner and investigated. is rational to believe, rather than the In Looking for a Miracle, the most

298 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 recent volume of his series of inquir­ tecostal Powers, i.e., such things as ies, Nickell investigates a large healing via the "laying on of hands"; number of "miracles." Forgoing bib­ glossolalia, or "speaking in tongues"; lical claims of the miraculous, Nickell prophecy, or the "gift of the spirit"; focuses instead on more modern snake handling and strychnine drink­ "miracles"—those that, being more ing; and the eating of burning recent, can be successfully investi­ materials. gated. While some biblical phenomena The next chapter explores claims have to be referred to occasionally, of faith healing, including those made Nickell's main focus is on the "ques­ for the so-called "miracle" cures at tion of whether or not miraculous Lourdes. Most enlightening is a events are part of the reality of today's section on exactly how a faith healing world." To complete this mission "cures" the subject. Nickell's account Nickell looks first at the assertions of how many TV evangelists and other surrounding the Shroud of Turin, i.e., con artists carry out their swindles is claims that the Shroud is tangible amusing. Another section dealing proof of Jesus' resurrection. Then he with Mary Baker Eddy and the Chris­ examines the claims surrounding the tian Scientists, as well as Edgar Cayce Image of Guadalupe—a supposedly and his naturopathic treatments, is miraculous self-portrait of the Virgin insightful—even for those familiar Mary—as well as other miraculous with these "healers" and their work. pictures. In the following chapter Chapter 7, which is concerned with Nickell looks at "magical icons," "Ecstatic Visions," looks closely at a animated statues, statues that weep number of Marian apparitions, i.e., and move and bleed and, on rare claims that the Virgin Mary has occasions, even move about as if in appeared, often to peasant children, search of someone or something. in such remote places as Fatima, In Chapter 4, Nickell reviews the Portugal, and Medjugorje, Yugoslavia. "mystical relics like the periodically Also noted is the poignant Garabandal liquefying blood of Saint Januarius." hoax in the mountains of northwest­ Also studied are the reputedly "incor­ ern Spain and the apparitions that ruptible" bodies of a number of other showed up in the Coptic St. Mary's saintly figures, such as Saint Cecilia, Church in Zeitoun, Egypt. Saint Sperandia, Saint Philip Neri, Nickell closes the book with a Saint Alphege of Canterbury, and fascinating survey of a number of numerous others whose bodies were mystical or sanctified powers, such as claimed never to have deteriorated. A luminosity, i.e., halos or radiance particularly intriguing phenomenon surrounding the head or entire body; that has, thus far, received little levitation as claimed by St. Teresa or attention is that of "burning hand­ Joseph of Copertino; and bilocation, prints"—prints found scorched into i.e., being in two places at the same the pages of books or onto consecrated time. Finally, the author takes a close cloth—which are alleged to be from look at the problem of stigmata—the the unrequited spirits of the dead. duplication of the wounds attending Nickell's reproduction of these mys­ Christ's crucifixion. All these phe­ terious handprints and his exposure nomena are, to a degree, comprehens­ of how they are accomplished are both ible in terms of wishful thinking and clever and entertaining. Chapter 5 is the intense fervor of belief. The phe­ particularly stimulating because it nomenon of inedia, however, which concerns claims of the so-called Pen­ is the alleged ability to forgo all eating

Spring 1994 299 and drinking, brings to mind the natural human affinity for the mar­ claims of the contemporary philos­ velous and our inclination toward opher Wiley Brooks. Brooks argues superstition. According to the philo­ that people only need lots of very fresh sopher William Grey in his excellent air and huge amounts of sunshine to essay "Skepticism and Miracles" (New survive and thrive. Wiley, is perhaps Zealand Skeptic, June 1993, No. 28, pp. the chief proponent of Breatharian- 1-6): ism—the belief that the human body can get along perfectly well without Hume believed that the inclination food, water, or sleep. Unfortunately, of mankind towards superstition and the marvellous may receive Brooks's top assistant deserted him a some check from sense and learn­ few years ago in total disillusionment. ing, but he also seems to have Seems he caught Brooks and other believed that it could never be Breatharians sneaking into their thoroughly extirpated from human rooms at night with Big Macs and nature. Hume, one suspects, would other junk food. not be surprised to find beliefs in astrology, UFOs, crystals, channel­ In his summary of his lengthy ing, and similar credulous ideas in search for a simple, ordinary, run-of- the twentieth century. the-mill miracle, Nickell figuratively shakes his head and concludes that he is forced to agree with David Hume: Not only does Nickell agree, but in the evidence against miracles is very answering the question "Do miracles strong. If we weigh the evidence that exist?" he cites the lack of compelling a miraculous event happened against evidence for the existence of miracu­ the evidence that it did not, we lous phenomena beyond the range of invariably find that the latter evidence nature and man's natural capabilities. outweighs the former. Moreover, Nickell confidently asserts that those even though evidence in favor of who claim otherwise bear the burden miracles might outweigh the evidence of proof. This burden, it appears, has against them, in practice this never not been met. happens. Hume also tells us that all claims for miracles suffer from a Robert A. Baker is professor emeritus of credibility gap, and we must face the psychology at the University of Kentucky problem of human credulity—the and author of Hidden Memories.

Fire in the Body?

Spontaneous Human Combustion. By Jenny Randies and Peter Hough. Dorset Press, New York, 1993. 224 pp. Hardcover, $7.98

GORDON STEIN

pontaneous human combustion body, without an external source of (SHC) is supposedly the condi­ flame. The net result, it is claimed, is S tion in which a very hot fire a fire so hot that the body is reduced erupts from the inside of the human to ashes. Some of the more thoroughly

300 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 investigated cases of SHC have pres­ ented us with a body completely reduced to ashes except for a protrud­ ing hand or foot, which was left completely unburned. In addition, and perhaps most mysterious, the sur­ rounding furniture and environment near the body were rarely damaged very much by the fire. The current scientific thinking about SHC is that it is a physiological impossibility. The human body is 70 percent water. It does not burn spontaneously. In fact, it is really rather hard to get a human body to burn at all. At one time, it was suggested that all of the victims of SHC were alcoholics, and that it was the alcohol they had consumed that was burning. Of course, we know now that alcohol is rapidly metabolized and not try to prove, or think they have does not stay as alcohol in the cells proved, the existence of SHC, in of the body. In fact, modern medicine discussing several of the more famous can conceive of no way by which a cases they do sweep away some of the fire could be started inside the human more common objections to it. The body that would produce the inciner­ result is to suggest that there is only ation described. Some external energy a slight possibility that SHC exists. source would be required. Some of the needed facts are missing, Spontaneous Human Combustion, by or are being hidden. Jenny Randies and Peter Hough, is the The authors do present various first real attempt at a book-length, ideas about the possible causes of the objective treatment of the subject. phenomena that are supposedly (Michael Harrison's Fire from Heaven observed. They recognize that the "no was not objective.) In many of the external source'" explanation will not cases the authors investigated them­ work, but that does not mean that selves, they were blocked by the they have abandoned the idea that coroner's office or other government what has been purportedly observed offices that did not want to release has not happened with external causes. information to them. Although fire In other words, they are looking for departments knew of many cases that some external energy source that seemed to meet the definition of SHC, could penetrate the human body and they (the fire departments) were thereby produce a very hot fire that extremely hesitant to call anything appeared to come from inside the body. SHC. Rather, they (at the inquest) Among the things they consider are pressed for the verdict of accidental ball lightning, high-voltage electricity, death or an "open" (unknown causes) plasmas of an electromagnetic sort, verdict. Therefore, the authorities and "kundalini." This last one is were not very likely to acknowledge thought by some to be the body's own that SHC might exist either. electricity, concentrated up through Although Randies and Hough do the spinal column, in a way supposedly

Spring 1994 301 perfected by yogas. healthy skeptical investigatory out­ While none of these explanations look. The authors conclude with a set were convincing to me, I was encour­ of abstracts of 111 cases of possible aged to see the authors trying to come spontaneous human combustion. up with some rational explanation. Although this book leaves much to They completely reject supernatural be desired as a definitive work on or paranormal explanations, but con­ SHC, it is by far the best treatment tinue to search for a physical explan­ of the subject yet done at length. As ation. In other words, they refuse such, it ought to be read by all simply to reject the existence of the interested in spontaneous human phenomenon, but, being unable to combustion, whether skeptic or not. conclusively demonstrate it, try to see if some explanation would at least allow the theoretical possibility that Dr. Stein is a physiologist and Scientific SHC could exist. In this attitude, we Consultant to CSICOP, as well as director should at least see progress toward a of the Center for Inquiry Library.

A Travesty of Truth from A to Z

The Paranormal: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. By Stuart Gordon. London Headline Book Publishing, 1992. 722 pp. Paperback. Available from Barnes & Noble for $15.95.

GORDON STEIN

ecause there are so few good reference works in the field, the B publication of a new encyclope­ dia on the paranormal is a noteworthy event. Therefore, the arrival in the U.S. of the British paperback edition of Stuart Gordon's The Paranormal: An Illustrated Encyclopedia was an opportunity to fill an important gap in the literature. It was an opportunity completely missed, for Gordon's book is one of the most inaccurate ever written about the paranormal. The author says that there is nothing original about the contents, that he has simply lifted the informa­ tion from already published sources. I'm sure he is correct about this, but *I^RT GORDO, he has failed to check the accuracy of his sources. There is a lot of erroneous

302 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 "information" about the paranormal out there, and it should be carefully checked before becoming enshrined in an encyclopedia. Obviously, in the examples that To preserve your copies of follow, I will be dealing only with those topics about which I know something from having written about them Skeptical myself. This does not mean that all of the other articles, not mentioned, are Inquirer any more accurate. Starting from the beginning, the article on Aura is Order handsome and durable library binders unintelligible. The article on Cleve Each binder holds 6 issues Backster fails to mention that no one One binder $7.95; three for $21.00; six for $40.00 has been able to replicate his experi­ (plus $1.50 for one. 50e for each additional binder, ments on feelings in plants. The for postage and handling.) Bermuda Triangle article mentions Please send me Skeptical Inquirer Binders. Total $ only Charles Berlitz's book. Annie Besant is said to have become a Visa and MasterCard customers call Toll-free Theosophist because of an affair with 800-634-1610 George Bernard Shaw! She also is said • Check or money order enclosed to have reached the age of 90, when Charge my o MasterCard • Visa the (correct) dates given for her show that she did not. The article on # Exp Biorhythms is totally misinformed Sig about the "research" that supposedly underlies the field. Madame Blavatsky Name (PLEASE PRINT) is identified as a friend of Daniel Dunglas Home (whose name is con­ Address sistently misspelled throughout the book). The pineal gland is said to be City State Zip influenced by serotonin, which came Or mail to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER from the bo tree, and supposedly Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226-0703 affected the Buddha as he sat under nothing else in the article is. No it. The article on Cattle Mutilation is sources are given, of course. completely wrong in its conclusions Throughout, only one or two and analysis. The Cottingley Fairies references (if any) follow each article, article fails completely to mention the and these references are never to the proved fraudulence of the photos, and skeptical literature. No skeptical implies they are genuine. CSICOP literature appears in the bibliography gets only a short paragraph, which is at the end either. negatively slanted. False statements about Houdini abound. There actually Although I have taken you only is one skeptical article, about the through the letter "H," this travesty hollow earth. Then we come to the of truth goes on through "Z." Stay piece de resistance. Can you imagine an far away from this one. encyclopedia article in which not one sentence is correct? Yes, Daniel Dun­ Dr. Stein is the author of two encyclopedias glas Home's dates are correct, but and the director of the Center for Inquiry library.

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Ancient American Inscriptions: Plow developments, beginning with experi­ Marks or History? William R. mental parapsychology and Rhine's McGlone et al. Early Sites Research Duke experiments, through the Society, P.O. Box 303, Sutton, MA remote-viewing experiments of the 01590. 415 pp. Paper. An attempt to 1970s and the ganzfeld experiments provide a more thoughtful, rigorous of the 1980s and 1990s. Beloff's point approach to the analysis of evidence of view is that of someone who wants for American epigraphy—the sup­ to find evidence of psi but who realizes posed identification of marks on most claims fall short of demonstra­ North American rocks as messages in ting it. ancient Old World alphabets and languages. The five authors say they Psychology, 2nd ed. Douglas A. hope that the book will cause critics Bernstein, Edward J. Roy, Thomas K. who have summarily rejected the Srull, and Christopher D. Wickens. claims of the epigraphers to take Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Mass. 869 another look and advocates who have pp. $51.96, hardcover. Comprehen­ accepted them uncritically to reflect sive textbook by University of Illinois on the deficiencies and rectify them. psychologists. While exploring the full range of psychology, it is designed to Great Essays in Science. Edited by foster scientific attitudes and draw Martin Gardner. Prometheus Books, students' attention to the importance 59 John Glenn Drive, Amherst, NY of critical thinking and rules for, and 14228-2197. 427 pp. $16.95, paper. A practice at, approaching phenomena welcome new edition of this work, from a scientific viewpoint. Each intended to spread before the reader chapter contains a thinking critically "a sumptuous feast of great writing section in which students are asked about science." Includes essays by to evaluate assertions (e.g. "Can you Isaac Asimov, Rachel Carson, Charles be influenced by subliminal percep­ Darwin, Albert Einstein, Stephen Jay tions?") using a five-step system. Gould, the Huxleys, Bertrand Russell, Carl Sagan, Lewis Thomas, H. G. Responses to Iben Browning's Predic­ Wells, and others. tion of a 1990 New Madrid, Missouri, Earthquake. William Spence, et al. Parapsychology: A Concise History. USGS Circular #1083. U.S. Geological John Beloff. St. Martin's Press, New Survey, Washington, D.C. 1993. 248 York. 330 pp. $35.00, hardcover. A pp. Free from USGS, paper. When parapsychologist summarizes the Iben Browning, inventor and business history of the use of scientific methods consultant, predicted an earthquake in by psychical researchers of the nine­ Missouri, many things happened. teenth century and parapsychologists Thirty TV camera crews invaded the of the twentieth century. Probably of town, T-shirts and souvenirs were most interest is the second half of the sold, schools closed down, at least one book, which deals with modern man lost his job and one family their

Spring 1994 305 home. What did not happen was the are not explicitly aligned with one of predicted earthquake. This book the other three communities. While contains a 20-page report by geolo­ representatives of each of the three gists investigating why scientific cultures may not necessarily agree criticism of Browning's prediction with everything in the analyses pre­ never caught up with media exploi­ sented, Hess exhibits a steady fairness tation. The rest of the book is a and his judgments are at the least fascinating set of appendices that based upon close reading of the include Browning's writings, official serious writings of those persons and responses, 100 pages of press clip­ groups he analyses. pings, advertisements for quake- related merchandise, and prepared­ The Sorcerer of Kings. Gordon Stein. ness literature.—Robert Lopresti Prometheus Books, Amherst, N.Y. 140 pp. $22.95, hardcover. An exam­ Science and Anti-Science. Gerald ination of the case of Daniel Dunglas Holton. Harvard University Press, Home and William Crookes. Stein Cambridge, Mass. 203 pp. $24.95, takes readers inside the testing proce­ hardcover. A Harvard physicist and dures of Crookes to explore just what science historian examines what is the investigation did (and did not) good science, what is the proper goal entail. of scientific activity, what authority science may legitimately claim, and Uncommon Sense: The Heretical how serious a threat is posed by the Nature of Science. Alan Cromer. antiscience movements. The final long Oxford University Press, New York. chapter scrutinizes the "antiscience $23.00, hardcover. A physicist argues phenomenon," the increasingly com­ that science is not the natural unfold­ mon opposition to science as practiced ing of human potential but the inven­ today. (See excerpts this issue.) tion of a particular culture, Greece, in a particular historical time. He Science in the New Age: The Para­ contends that far from being natural, normal, Its Defenders and Debunk- scientific thinking goes so far against ers, and American Culture. David J. conventional human thinking that if Hess. University of Wisconsin Press, it hadn't arisen in Greece, it might not Madison, Wis. 243 pp. $17.95, paper. have arisen at all. He sees science as A cultural anthropologist explores a radically new and different way of ideologies of the paranormal in the thinking that provides essential ways United States. He provides guidance to understand and demonstrate the to the views of parapsychologists and counterintuitive concepts nature skeptical debunkers, spirit channelers constantly challenges us with and for and crystal healers, Hollywood script which normal human, subjective writers, and New Age prophets. In the thinking is not well designed. He opening chapter Hess sets the stage explains why scientific thinking didn't by examining three cultures: New develop in China and India, and offers Age, parapsychology, and skepticism numerous other provocative ideas. A (represented mostly by CSICOP), and part of the chapter "Science and he returns to this trio of cultures Nonsense," on pathological science, frequently. His viewpoint throughout appeared as an article in SI (Summer is from what he calls a fourth cultural 1993). perspective: anthropologists, sociolo­ gists, culture critics, and the like, who —Kendrick Frazier

306 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Articles of Note

Argyrou, Vassos. "Under a Spell: The 18, 1993. Critical review of graphol­ Strategic Use of Magic in Greek ogy claims. Keyed to a statement Cypriot Society." American Ethnolo­ issued November 18 by the British gist, 20(2): 256-271, May 1993. The Psychological Society that presents a use of witchcraft serves nonmagical highly negative picture of the value political and social goals in Cypriot of graphology in personnel assess­ society, as does the opposition to ment. witchcraft. Crews, Frederick. "The Unknown Beardsley, Tim. "Fads and Feds." Freud." New York Review of Books, Scientific American, September 1993, November 18, 1993, pp. 55-66. Long pp. 39-44. News report on the clash essay review providing critical re- of holistic therapy with reductionist evaluation of Freud and Freudian medical science and the formation of psychoanalytic therapy. the Office of Alternative Medicine at the National Institutes of Health. Damphousse, Kelly R., and Ben M. Crouch. "Did the Devil Make Them Bernet, William. "False Statements Do It? An Examination of the Etiology and the Differential Diagnosis of of Satanism Among Juvenile Delin­ Abuse Allegations." Journal of the quents." Youth and Society, 24(2): 204- American Academy of Child and Ado­ 227, December 1992. High attach­ lescent Psychiatry, September 1993, pp. ment to peers was the factor that most 903-910. An attempt to provide a distinguished juvenile delinquents consistent way to classify and define who reported involvement in Satan­ the various ways in which false state­ ism from those who did not. Being ments occur in allegations of abuse. white, above average in intelligence, Reviewing 40 articles, chapters, and and having weak attachment to par­ books that contain examples of false ents, were lesser but significant statements in child-abuse contexts, factors. the author clarifies such concepts as indoctrination, suggestion, fantasy, Drucker, Barry J., and Dan W. delusion, misinterpretation, miscom- Knox. "The Blob: Investigating the munication, innocent lying, deliberate Abnormal." journal of Environmental lying, confabulation, etc. Health, 56(2): 19-23, September 1993. When a bizarre lump of tissue was Blinkhorn, Steve. "Extrasensory discovered in a glass jar near a Deceptions." Nature, 366:382, Missouri stream, scientists were November 25,1993. Critical review of unable to identify it. Careful manage­ John Beloff's Parapsychology: A Concise ment of publicity allowed the health History. department to discover its nature (plant bacteria) and origin (a restau­ Blinkhorn, Steve. "The Writing Is on rant) without creating a media the Wall." Nature, 366:208, November circus.

Spring 1994 307 Duncan, Kirsty. "Was Ergotism Hacking, Ian. "Some Reasons for Not Responsible for the Scottish Witch­ Taking Parapsychology Very hunts?" Area, 25(1): 30-36, March Seriously." Dialogue, 32(3): 587-594, 1993. Ergot poisoning from rye Summer 1993. Addresses and replies fungus has been implicated in the to charges by philosopher Stephen Salem witch trials. Agricultural and Braude in his book The Limits of medical records do not support such Influence: Psychokinesis and the Philo­ a connection with seventeenth- sophy of Science that scientists and century Scottish witch frenzies, but scholars ignore the wide range of other fungal ailments might be evidence for psychic phenomena. involved. Jaroff, Leon. "Lies of the Mind." Time, Goodstein, David L. "Scientific Elites November 29, 1993, pp. 52-59. Good and Scientific Illiterates." Engineering report on how repressed-memory & Science (Caltech), Spring 1993, pp. therapy is harming patients, devasta­ 23-31. Explores how it is that our ting families, and intensifying a apparently miserable education sys­ backlash against mental-health practi­ tem has produced such a brilliant tioners. A sidebar deals with hypnosis- community of scientists. The author induced "memories" of alien abduc­ refers to this as the "Paradox of the tions. Scientific Elites and the Scientific Illiterates." "We have created a kind Kalat, James W., and Art Kohn. "How of feudal aristocracy in American Should Textbooks Summarize the science, where a privileged few hold Status of Parapsychology?" A Reply court, while the toiling masses huddle to Roig, Icochea and Cuzzucoli (1991). in darkness, metaphorically, of Teaching of Psychology, 18(3): 157-160, course." October 1991. A defense of psychol­ ogy textbooks against charges by Roig Gray, Paul. "The Assault on Freud." et al. that they have been unjust to Time, November 29, 1993, pp. 46-51. parapsychology. Roig's rejoinder Cover article explores the forces follows. undermining Freudianism, "this troubled century's dominant model Krug, Gary J. "The Day the Earth for thinking and talking about human Stood Still: Media Messages and Local behavior." This good, balanced article Life in a Predicted Arkansas Earth­ summarizes all the difficulties con­ quake." Critical Studies in Mass Com­ fronting Freudian foundations while munication, 10(3): 273-285, September quoting others who contend Freud's 1993. In 1990 Iben Browning pre­ impact and importance remain dicted an earthquake, possibly along strong. the New Madrid fault. Krug reports on the media coverage and the Grey, William. "Hume, Miracles and attempts of local people to integrate the Paranormal." Cognito, 7(2): 100- the rumors and information into their 118, Summer 1993. Philosopher says lives. some of David Hume's arguments developed two and a half centuries ago McCarter, P. Kyle, Jr. "Let's Be bear directly on some of the problems Serious About the Bat Creek Stone." today in evaluating conflicting testi­ Biblical Archaeology Review, 19(4): 54- mony about psychic and paranormal 55, 83, July/August 1993. A compan­ claims. ion piece to the McCullough article

308 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 below. McCarter argues that the and a birth year that Chinese astrol­ apparent Hebrew inscription is a ogy considers ill-fated, and that this nineteenth-century fraud. effect holds more strongly for those most attached to Chinese traditions. McCullough, J. Huston. "The Bat This was not true of white controls. Creek Inscription: Did Judean Refu­ The authors, from the University of gees Escape to Tennessee?" Biblical California at San Diego, conclude that Archaeology Review, 19(4): 46-53, 82- their findings result at least partly 83, July/August 1993. A carved stone from psychosomatic processes. "Our found in an Indian burial ground in data suggest that psychosomatic Tennessee has some scholars thinking factors can markedly affect the lon­ that some Judeans reached North gevity of patients with most diseases." America 2,000 years ago. The article is well illustrated with examples of the Pool, Robert. "Alchemy Altercation at writing and artifacts from the mound. Texas A&M." Science, 262:1367, See also the McCarter article above. November 26, 1993. Eleven full pro­ fessors in Texas A&M's chemistry Nemeth, David J. "A Cross-Cultural department called on colleague John Cosmographic Interpretation of Bockris to resign for his lack of Some Korean Geomancy Maps." objectivity and his involvement in an Cartographica, 30(1): 85-97, Spring alchemy scheme in which a self- 1993. Nemeth examines geomantic described inventor, Joe Champion, maps based on the Neo-Confucian claimed to have a method of turning philosophy, and compares them to silver into gold. In 1990 Bockris had photographs and Western-style maps been criticized in an internal univer­ of the same areas. He explains the sity review for a "breakdown in principles behind Korean geomancy scientific objectivity" after allegations and ends with the observation that of an occurrence of intentional "spik­ wealthy Asian immigrants have ing" in his lab in cold-fusion experi­ recently forced real-estate developers ments. in the U.S. and Canada to take geo­ mancy—and therefore natural bal­ Sargent, Mark L. "The Witches of ance—into consideration. Salem, the Angel of Hadley, and the Friends of Philadelphia." American Palter, Robert. "Black Athena." His­ Studies, 34(1): 105-120, Spring 1993. tory of Science, 31(3): 227-287, Sep­ Several nineteenth-century American tember 1993. A lengthy critique of the romanticists included the Salem witch claims made for Egyptian mathematics trials in fiction in order to impose their and science in Martin Bernal's Afro- view of Puritanism's role in American centric book Black Athena. cultures.

Phillips, David P., Todd E. Ruth, and Skolnick, Andrew A. "Christian Lisa M. Wagner. "Psychology and Science Church Loses First Civil Suit Survival." Lancet, 342: 1142-1145, on Wrongful Death of a Child." November 6, 1993. A study of the JAMA, 270(15): 1781-1782, October deaths of 28,169 Chinese-Americans 20, 1993. Report on the case in which and a randomly selected white control a Minnesota jury on August 25 group finds that Chinese-Americans ordered the Christian Science church die significantly earlier than normal to pay $9 million in punitive damages if they have a combination of disease for the death of a boy, Ian Lundman,

Spring 1994 309 whose mother and stepfather with­ "Stop Making Sense." The Economist, held medical care in favor of Christian October 30, 1993, p. 99. Discussion Science prayer. not of what the superstitious believe but of why they believe it, with focus Slakey, Francis. "When the Lights of on psychologist Susan Blackmore's Reason Go Out." New Scientist, Sep­ studies of "psychic" experiences as tember 11, 1993, pp. 49-50. Urgent visual illusions and analysis of the lament about the antiscience fantasies effects of beliefs on perceptions (see of educated, intelligent people. There SI, Summer 1992) and Peter Brugger's is "an elegant and modern fashion in examination of brain hemisphere thought: reject objective reason and differences. question the value of science, embrace subjectivity and trust your feelings. Taub, Diane E., and Lawrence D. According to antiscience intellectuals, Nelson. "Satanism in Contemporary contemporary science has taken us America: Establishment or Under­ maddeningly close to the edge of the ground?" Sociological Quarterly, 34(3): abyss. . . . But it is the abandonment 523-541, August 1993. "Satanism" is of objectivity, not the practice of no more monotheistic than most science which leads to the abyss." Asks religions, and the label has been ap­ Slakey: "How can we possibly prevent plied both to relatively mainstream the death of reason? . . . We must churches and to small groups of socio­ defend science against superstition paths. and subjectivity, and elevate skepti­ cism over faith. We must demand Travis, John. "Schools Stumble on an rigorous explanations and be prepared Afrocentric Science Essay." Science, and eager to doubt them. Only alert 262:1121, November 12,1993. Report objectivity can prevent the death of on the controversy over pseudo- reason." science in multicultural science edu­ cation, specifically the criticism of an­ Spanos, Nicholas P., Patricia A. Cross, thropologist Bernard Ortiz de Mon- Kirby Dickson, and Susan C. tellano of various questionable claims DuBreuil. "Close Encounters: An in the Portland African-American Examination of UFO Experiences." Baseline essays (see SI, Fall 1991 and Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102: Winter 1992). 624-632, November 1, 1993. See —Kendrick Frazier Research Review, this issue. and Robert Lopresti

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WINTER 1994 (vol. 18, n. 2): The New Skepticism, Kurtz. illusions, Blackmore. The scientist's skepticism, Bunge. The Philosophy and the Paranormal, Part 1: The problem of persistent popularity of the paranormal, Lett. Self-help 'psi,' Grey. Electromagnetic field cancer scares, Deutsch. books: Pseudoscience in the guise of science? Gambrill. Attacks on role-playing games, Cardwell. Global fortune- SPRING 1992 (vol. 16, no. 3): Special Report: The telling and Bible prophecy, Tremaine. Chernikov pattern Maharishi caper: JAMA hoodwinked, Skolnick. Myths of puzzle, Pickover. subliminal persuasion: The cargo-cult science of sublim­ FALL 1993 (vol. 18, no. 1): 'Perspectives on education inal persuasion, Pratkanis; Subliminal perception: Facts and in America': Sandia study challenges misconceptions, fallacies, Moore; Subliminal tapes, Phelps and Exum. The Avro trailer. Do 'honesty' tests really measure honesty? VZ-9 'flying saucer,' Blake. Two 19th-century skeptics: Lilienfeld. Astrology strikes back—but to what effect? Dean. Augustus de Morgan and John Fiske, Rothman. Diagnoses of alien kidnappings that result from WINTER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 2): On being sued: The chilliing conjunction effects in memory, Dawes and Mulford. of freedom of expression, Kurtz. The crop-circle phenom­ Mathematical magic for skeptics, Benjamin and Skermer. The enon, Nickell and Fischer. Update on the 'Mars effect,' Ertel. blind girl who saw the flash of the first nuclear weapon A dissenting note on Ertel's 'Update,' Kurtz. Magic test, Sinclair. Science: The feminists' scapegoat? 'Walker. Melanin: Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities, SUMMER 1993 (vol. 17, no. 4): The right hemisphere: Part 2, de Montellano. Adventures in science and cyclosophy, An esoteric closet? Saravi. Improving science teaching: The de Jager. Searching for security in the mystical. Grimmer. textbook problem, Padian. The eyewitness: Imperfect FALL 1991 (vol. 16, no. 1): Near-death experiences, interface between stimuli and story, Reich. Pathological Blackmore. Multicultural pseudoscience: Spreading scien­ science: An update, Cromer. Jack Horkheimer, "Star tific illiteracy. Part 1, de Montellano. Science and common- Hustler," interview by Gabriel Seabrook. The false memory sense skepticism, Aach. Spook Hill, Wilder. Lucian and syndrome, Gardner. Alexander, Rowe. 1991 CSICOP conference. Shore and SPRING 1993 (vol. 17, no. 3): Anguished silence and Frazier. helping hands: Autism and Facilitated Communication, SUMMER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 4): Lucid dreams, Blackmore. Mulik, Jacobson, and Kobe. Faciliated Communication, Nature faking in the humanities, Gallo. Carrying the war Autism, and Ouija, Dillon. Treading on the edge: Practicing into the never-never land of psi: Part 2, Gill. Coincidences, safe science with SETI, Tarter. Education for science. Gore. Paulos. Locating invisible buildings, Plummer. True A threat to science, Schatzman. Charles Honorton's legacy believers. Bower. to parapsychology, Blackmore. 1993 CSICOP Conference. SPRING 1991 (vol. 15, no. 3). Special report: Hi-fi WINTER 1993 (vol. 17, no. 2): Special report: 3.7 million pseudoscience, Davis. Searching for extraterrestrial intelli­ Americans kidnapped by aliens? Stires and Klass. Psychics: gence: An interview with Thomas R. McDonough. Getting Do police departments really use them? Sweat and Durm. smart about getting smarts, Faulkes. Carrying the war into Psychic detectives: A critical examination, Waller Rowe. the never-never land of psi: Part 1, Gill. Satanic cult Therapeutic Touch, Bullough and Bullough. Improving 'survivor' stories, Victor. 'Old-solved mysteries': The science teaching in the U.S., Marek and Wayne Rowe. The Kecksburg incident. Young. Magic, medicine, and meta­ Big Sur 'UFO,' George. The strange case of the New Haven physics in Nigeria, Roder. What's wrong with science oysters, Quincey. education? Look at the family, Eve. FALL 1992 (vol. 17, no. 1): A celebration of Isaac Asimov: WINTER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 2): Special report / Gallup A man for the universe, Kendrick Frazier, Arthur C. Clarke, poll: Belief in paranormal phenomena, Gallup and Newport. Frederik Pohl, Harlan Ellison, L Sprague de Camp, Carl Sagan, Science and self-government, Piel. West Bank collective Stephen Jay Gould, Martin Gardner, Paul Kurtz, Donald Goldsmith,hysteri a episode, Stewart. Acceptance of personality test James Randi, and E. C. Krupp. Gaia without mysticism. results, Thiriart. Belief in astrology: A test of the Barnum Shannon. Gaia's scientific coming of age, Frazier. The curse effect, French, Fowler, McCarthy, and Peers. A test of clairvoy­ of the runestone: Deathless hoaxes, Whittaker. Night ance using signal-detection, McKelvie and Gagne. Interces­ terrors, sleep paralysis, and devil-stricken telephone cords sory prayer as medical treatment? Wittmer and Zimmerman. from hell, Huston. Scientific creationism: The social agenda FALL 1990 (vol. 15, no. 1): Neural Organization of a pseudoscience. Shore. Observing stars in the daytime: Technique: Treatment or torture, Worrall. The spooks The chimney myth, Sanderson. Does an ancient Jewish of quantum mechanics, Stenger. Science and Sir William amulet commemorate the conjunction of 2 B.C.? Rubincam. Crookes, Hoffmaster. The 'N' machine, Gumming. Biological SUMMER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 4): Freedom of scientific cycles and rhythms vs. biorhythms, Wheeler. 1990 CSICOP inquiry under siege, Kurtz. Psychic experiences: Psychic Conference. (continued on next page) SUMMER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 4): Ghosts make news: How Budd Hopkins). The MJ-12 Papers: Part 2, Klass. Dooms­ four newspapers report psychic phenomena, Klare. day: The May 2000 prediction, Meeus. My visit to the Thinking critically and creatively. Wade and Tavris. Police Nevada Clinic, Barrel!. Morphic resonance in silicon chips, pursuit of satanic crime, Part 2, Hicks. Order out of chaos Varela and Letelier. Abigail's anomalous apparition, Durm. in survival research, Berger. Piltdown, paradigms, and the The riddle of the Colorado ghost lights, Bunch and White. paranormal, Feder. Auras: Searching for the light, Loftin. WINTER 1987-88 (vol. 12, no. 2): The MJ-12 papers: Part SPRING 1990 (vol. 14, no. 3): Why we need to understand I, Philip }. Klass. The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression science, Sagan. The crisis in pre-college science and math revisited, Baker. The brain and consciousness: Implications education, Seaborg. Police pursuit of satanic crime, Part for psi, Beyerstein. Past-life hypnotic regression, Spanos. 1, Hicks. The spread of satanic-cult rumors, Victor. Fantasizing under hypnosis, Reveen. The verdict on Lying about polygraph tests, Shneour. Worldwide disasters creationism, Gould. and moon phase, Kelly, Saklofske, and Culver. FALL 1987 (vol. 12, no. 1): The burden of skepticism, WINTER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 2): The new catastrophism, Sagan. Is there intelligent life on Earth? Kurtz. Medical Morrison and Chapman. A field guide to critical thinking, Controversies: Chiropractic, Jarvis; Homeopathy, Barrett, Lett. Cold fusion: A case history in 'wishful science'? M.D.; Alternative therapies, ]ones; Quackery, Pepper. Rothman. The airship hysteria of 1896-97,Bartholomew. Catching Geller in the act, Emery. Special Report: Newspaper editors and the creation-evolution contro­ CSICOP's 1987 conference. versy, Zimmerman. Special report: New evidence of SUMMER 1987 (vol. 11, no. 4): Incredible cremations: MJ-12 hoax, Klass. Investigating combustion deaths, Nickell and Fischer. FALL 1989 (vol. 14, no. 1): Myths about science, Rothman. Subliminal deception, Creed. Past tongues remembered? The relativity of wrong, Asimov. Richard Feynman on Thomason. Is the universe improbable? Shotwell. Psychics, fringe science. Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest, computers, and psychic computers, Easton. Pseudoscience Muller. The two cultures, Jones. The 'top-secret UFO and children's fantasies, Evans. Thoughts on science and papers' NSA won't release, Klass. The metaphysics of superstrings, Gardner. Special Reports: JAL pilot's UFO Murphy's Law, Price. report, Klass; Unmasking psychic Jason Michaels, Busch. SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 4): The New Age—An SPRING 1987 (vol. 11, no. 3): The elusive open mind: Examination: The New Age in perspective, Kurtz. A New Ten years of negative research in parapsychology, Age reflection in the magic mirror of science, O'Hara. Blackmore. Does astrology need to be true? Part 2: The The New Age: The need for myth in an age of science, answer is no. Dean. Magic, science, and metascience: Some Schultz. Channeling, Alcock. The psychology of channeling, notes on perception, D. Sagan. Velikovsky's interpretation Reed, 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield, Thomason. of the evidence offered by China, Lo. Crystals, Lawrence. Consumer culture and the New Age, WINTER 1986-87 (vol. 11, no. 2): Case study of West Rosen. The Shirley MacLaine phenomenon, Gordon. Special Pittston 'haunted' house, Kurtz. Science, creationism and report: California court jails psychic surgeon, Brenneman. the Supreme Court, Seckel, with statements by Ayala, SPRING 1989 (vol. 13, no. 3): High school biology Gould, and Gell-Mann. The great East Coast UFO of August teachers and pseudoscientific belief, Eve and Dunn. Evidence 1986, Oberg. Does astrology need to be true? Part 1, Dean. for Bigfoot? Dennett. Alleged pore structure in Sasquatch Homing abilities of bees, cats, and people, Randi. footprints, Freeland and Rowe. The lore of levitation, Stein. FALL 1986 (vol. 11, no. 1): The path ahead: Opportunities, Levitation 'miracles' in India, Premanand. Science, pseudo- challenges, and an expanded view, Frazier. Exposing the science, and the cloth of Turin, Nickell. Rather than just faith-healers, Steiner. Was Antarctica mapped by the debunking, encourage people to think, Seckel. MJ-12 papers ancients? jolly. Folk remedies and human belief-systems, 'authenticated'? Klass. A patently false patent myth, Sass. Reuter. Dentistry and pseudoscience, Dodes. Atmospheric WINTER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 2): Special report: The electricity, ions, and pseudoscience, Dolezalek. Noah's ark 'remembering water' controversy, Gardner and Randi; and ancient astronauts, Harrold and Eve. The Woodbridge Bibliographic guide to the 'dilution controversy.' UFO incident, Ridpath. How to bust a ghost, Baker. Pathologies of science, precognition, and modern SUMMER 1986 (vol. 10, no. 4): Occam's razor, Shneour. psychophysics, Jensen. A reaction-time test of ESP and Clever Hans redivivus, Sebeok. Parapsychology miracles, precognition, Hines and Dennison. Chinese psychic's pill- and repeatability. Flew. The Condon UFO study, Klass. bottle demonstration, Wu Xiaoping. The Kirlian technique, Four decades of fringe literature, Dutch. Some remote- Watkins and Bickel. Certainty and proof in creationist viewing recollections, Weinberg. thought, Leferriere. SPRING 1986 (vol. 10, no. 3): The perennial fringe, FALL 1988 (vol. 13, no. 1): Special report: Astrology and Asimov. The uses of credulity, de Camp. Night walkers and the presidency, Kurtz and Bob. Improving Human mystery mongers, Sagan. CSICOP after ten years, Kurtz. Performance: What about parapsychology? Frazier. The Crash of the crashed-saucers claim, Klass. A study of the China syndrome: Further reflections on the paranormal Kirlian effect, Watkins and Bickel. Ancient tales and space- in China, Kurtz. Backward masking, Mclver. The validity age myths of creationist evangelism, Mclver. of graphological analysis, Furnham. The intellectual revolt WINTER 1985-86 (vol. 10, no. 2): The moon was full against science. Grove. and nothing happened, Kelly, Rotton, and Culver. Psychic SUMMER 1988 (vol. 12, no. 4): Testing psi claims studies: The Soviet dilemma, Ebon. The psycho pathology in China, Kurtz, Alcock, Frazier, Karr, Klass, and Randi. The of fringe medicine, Sabbagh. Computers and rational appeal of the occult: Some thoughts on history, religion, thought, Spangenburg and Moser. and science, Stevens. Hypnosis and reincarnation, Venn. FALL 1985 (vol. 10, no. 1): Investigations of firewalking, Pitfalls of perception, Wheeler. Wegener and pseudos- Leikind and McCarthy. Firewalking: reality or illusion, Cience: Some misconceptions, Edelman. An investigation Dennett. Myth of alpha consciousness, Beyerstein. Spirit- of psychic crime-busting, Emery. High-flying health quackery, rapping unmasked, V. Bullough. The Saguaro incident, Hines. The bar-code beast, Keith. Taylor and Dennett. SPRING 1988 (vol. 12, no. 3): Neuropathology and the SUMMER 1985 (vol. 9, no. 4): Guardian astrology study. legacy of spiritual possession, Beyerstein. Varieties of alien Dean, Kelly, Ration, and Saklofske. Astrology and the commod­ experience, Ellis. Alien-abduction claims and standards of ity market. Ration. The hundredth monkey phenomenon, inquiry (excerpts from Milton Rosenberg's radio talk- Amundson. Responsibilities of the media, Kurtz. 'Lucy' out show with guests Charles Gruder, Martin Orne, and of context, Albert. SPRING 1985 (vol. 9, no. 3): Columbus poltergeist: I, SUMMER 1981 (vol. 5, no. 4): Investigation of 'psychics,' Randi. Moon and murder in Cleveland, Sanduleak. Image Randi. ESP: A conceptual analysis, Gendin. The extrover­ of Guadalupe, Nickell and Fisher. Radar UFOs, Klass. Phren­ sion-introversion astrological effect, Kelly and Saklofske. Art, ology, McCoy. Deception by patients, Pankralz. Commun­ science, and paranormalism, Habercom. Profitable night­ ication in nature, Orstan. mare, Wells. A Maltese cross in the Aegean? Loftin. WINTER 1984-85 (vol. 9, no. 2): The muddled 'Mind Race,' SPRING 1981 (vol. 5, no. 3): Hypnosis and UFO Hyman. Searches for the Loch Ness monster, Razdan and abductions, Klass. Hypnosis not a truth serum, Hilgard. Kielar. Final interview with Milbourne Christopher, H. Schmidt's PK experiments. Hansel. Further comments Dennett. Retest of astrologer John McCall, lanna and Tolbert. on Schmidt's experiments, Hyman. Atlantean road, Randi. FALL 1984 (vol. 9, no. 1): Quantum theory and the Deciphering ancient America, McKusick. A sense of the paranormal, Shore. What is pseudoscience? Bunge. The new ridiculous, lord. philosophy of science and the 'paranormal,' Toulmin. An WINTER 1980-81 (vol. 5, no. 2): Fooling some people eye-opening double encounter, Martin. Similarities all the time, Singer and Benassi. Recent perpetual motion between identical twins and between unrelated people, developments, Schadewald. National Enquirer astrology Wyatt et at. Effectiveness of a reading program on study, Mechler, McDaniel, and Mulloy. Science and the paranormal belief, Woods, Pseudoscientific beliefs of 6th- mountain peak, Asimov. graders, A. 5. and S. ]. Adelman. FALL 1980 (vol. 5, no. 1): The Velikovsky affair — articles SUMMER 1984 (vol. 8, no. 4): Parapsychology's past eight by Oberg, Bauer, Frazier. Academia and the occult, Green- years, Alcock. The evidence for ESP, C. £. M. Hansel. well. Belief in ESP among psychologists, Padgett, Benassi, $110,000 dowsing challenge, Randi. Sir Oliver Lodge and and Singer. Bigfoot on the loose, Kurtz. Parental expec­ the spiritualists, Hoffmasler.Misperception , folk belief, and tations of miracles, Steiner. Downfall of a would-be psychic, the occult, Connor. Psychology and UFOs, Simon. McBumey and Greenberg. Parapsychology research, Mishlove. SPRING 1984 (vol. 8, no. 3): Belief in the paranormal SUMMER 1980 (vol. 4, no. 4): Superstitions, Bainbridge worldwide: Mexico, Mendez-Acosta; Netherlands, Hoebens; and Stark. Psychic archaeology, Feder. Voice stress analysis, U.K., Hutchinson; Australia, Smith; Canada, Gordon; France, Klass. Follow-up on the 'Mars effect,' Evolution vs. Rouze. Debunking, neutrality, and skepticism in science, creationism, and the Cottrell tests. Kurtz. University course reduces paranormal belief. Gray. SPRING 1980 (vol. 4, no. 3): Belief in ESP, Morris. UFO The Gribbin effect, Roder. Proving negatives, Pasquarello. hoax, Simpson. Don Juan vs. Piltdown man, de Mille. WINTER 1983-84 (vol. 8, no. 2): Sense and nonsense Tiptoeing beyond Darwin, Greenwell. Conjurors and the in parapsychology, Hoebens. Magicians, scientists, and psy­ psi scene, Randi. Follow-up on the Cottrell tests. chics, Ganoe and Kirwan. New dowsing experiment, Martin. WINTER 1979-80 (vol. 4, no. 2): The 'Mars effect' — The effect of TM on weather, Trumpy. The haunting of articles by Kurtz, Zelen, and Abell; Rawlins; Michel and Franchise the Ivan Vassilli, Sheaffer.Venu s and Velikovsky, Forrest. Gauquelin. How I was debunked, Hoebens. The metal FALL 1983 (vol. 8, no. 1): Creationist pseudoscience, bending of Professor Taylor, Gardner. Science, intuition, Schadewald. Project Alpha: Part 2, Randi. Forecasting radio and ESP, Bauslaugh. quality by the planets, Dean. Reduction in paranormal FALL 1979 (vol. 4, no. 1): A test of dowsing, Randi. Science belief in college course, Tobacyk. Humanistic astrology, and evolution, Godfrey. Television pseudodocumentaries, Kelly and Krutzen. Bainbridge. New disciples of the paranormal, Kurtz. UFO SUMMER 1983 (vol. 7, no. 4): Project Alpha: Part 1, Randi. or UAA, Standen. The lost panda, van Kampen. Edgar Cayce, Goodman's 'American Genesis,' Feder. Battling on the air­ Randi. waves, Slavsky. Rhode Island UFO film, Emery. SUMMER 1979 (vol. 3, no. 4): The moon and the SPRING 1983 (vol. 7, no. 3): Iridology, Worrall. The Nazca birthrate, Abell and Greenspan. Biorhythms, Hines. 'Cold drawings revisited, Nickell. People's Almanac predictions, reading,' Randi. Teacher, student, and the paranormal, Donnelly. Test of numerology, Dlhopolsky. Pseudoscience Krai. Encounter with a sorcerer, Sack. in the name of the university, Lederer and Singer. SPRING 1979 (vol. 3, no. 3): Near-death experiences, WINTER 1982-83 (vol. 7, no. 2): Palmistry, Park. The Alcock. Television tests of Musuaki Kiyota, Scott and Hutchin­ great SRI die mystery, Gardner. The 'monster' tree-trunk son. The conversion of J. Allen Hynek, Klass. Asimov's of Loch Ness, Campbell. UFOs and the not-so-friendly corollary, Asimov. skies, Klass. In defense of skepticism, Reber. WINTER 1978-79 (vol. 3, no. 2): Is parapsychology a FALL 1982 (vol. 7, no. 1): The prophecies of Nostradamus, science? Kurtz. Chariots of the gullible, Bainbridge. The Cazeau. Prophet of all seasons, James Randi. Revival of Tunguska event, Oberg. Space travel in Bronze Age China, Nostradamitis, Hoebens. Unsolved mysteries and extra­ Keightley. ordinary phenomena, Gill. Clearing the air about psi, FALL 1978 (vol. 3, no. 1): An empirical test of astrol­ Randi. A skotography scam, Randi. ogy, Bastedo. Astronauts and UFOs, Oberg. Sleight of SUMMER 1982 (vol. 6, no. 4): Remote-viewing, Marks. tongue, Schwartz. The Sirius "mystery," Ridpath. Radio disturbances and planetary positions, Meeus. Divin­ SPRING1SUMMER 1978 (vol. 2, no. 2): Tests of three ing in Australia, Smith. "Great Lakes Triangle," Cena. psychics, Randi. Biorhythms, Bainbridge. Plant perception, Skepticism, closed-mindedness, and science fiction, Beyer- Kmetz. Anthropology beyond the fringe, Cole. NASA and stein. Followup on ESP logic, Hardin and Morris and Gendin. UFOs, Klass. A second Einstein ESP letter, Gardner. SPRING 1982 (vol. 6, no. 3): The Shroud of Turin, Mueller. FALL/WINTER 1977 (vol. 2, no. 1): Von Daniken, Story, Shroud image, McCrone. Science, the public, and the The Bermuda Triangle, Kusche. Pseudoscience at Science Shroud, Schafersman. Zodiac and personality, Gauquelin. Digest, Oberg and Sheaffer.Einstei n and ESP, Gardner. N- Followup on quantum PK, Hansel. rays and UFOs, Klass. Secrets of the psychics, Rawlins. WINTER 1981-82 (vol. 6, no. 2): On coincidences, Ruma SPRING/SUMMER 1977 (vol. 1, no. 2): Uri Geller, Marks Folk. Croiset: Part 2, Hoebens. Scientific creationism, Schade­ and Kammann. Cold reading, Hyman. Transcendental Medi­ wald. Follow-up on 'Mars effect,' Rawlins, responses by tation, Woodrum. A statistical test of astrology, MrGervey. CSICOP Council and Abell and Kurtz. Cattle mutilations, Stewart. FALL 1981 (vol. 6, no. 1): Gerard Croiset: Part 1, Hoebens. FALL/WINTER 1976 (vol. 1, no. 1): Dianetics, Wallis. Test of perceived horoscope accuracy, lackey. Planetary Psychics and clairvoyance. Fine. "Objections to Astrology," positions and radio propagation, lanna and Margolin. Westrum. Astronomers and astrophysicists as astrology Bermuda Triangle, 1981, Dennett. Observation of a psychic, critics, Kurtz and Nisbet. Biorhythms and sports. Fix. Von Mclntyre. Daniken's chariots, Omohundro. Follow-up

It's All an Illusion! And Here's How It's Done D RAY HYMAN

news article in the Winter 1993 Some found them frustrating. Several SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (pp. 127- felt shortchanged because the article A 128) gave an account of hadn't provided an explanation and CSICOP's "Skeptic's Toolbox" work­ wrote asking the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER shop/seminar I had hosted in Eugene, to provide one. Oregon. The article was illustrated by Here are the explanations for the photographs of two illusions—Jerry Oregon Vortex Illusion and the Impos­ Andrus's "The Impossible Box" and sible Box. the "Oregon Vortex Plank Illusion"— I hope the explanation, photo­ erected in a park in Eugene for the graphs, and diagrams by Jerry Andrus workshop. Judging from the mail I on the following pages will make clear received, readers found the photos, to the secret behind the impossible crate. say the least, intriguing, even baffling. Jerry created and built this crate to

The camera used for this photo was on a tripod and not moved between taking the first photo and taking the second. The plank is level. All that took place between the two exposures was that the two people changed places on the plank. (Photos by George Andrus.)

314 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 The Plank Illusion

The person on the left is the same size as the person on the right. The diagonal lines simulate Mthe type of background that confronts th e eye when a level surface is sur­ rounded by sloping ground and obscured horizons. Under these conditions the perceptual system tends to treat the assumed horizon and ground as level and adjusts other objects accordingly. accompany an article about him that When care is taken to make sure that appeared in the May 1981 Omni the lens is the same distance from each magazine. end of the plank, the person's size does The most striking phenomenon at not change on the photograph regard­ the House of Mystery at the Oregon less of where he or she is on the plank. Vortex is the apparent change in Two reasons account for the fact height of an individual as she or he that visitors to the House of Mystery walks from one end to the other on get the photographic effect. One is a short, level plank. Jerry Andrus has that the situation is such that it is al­ found that he can duplicate this effect most physically impossible to place the in any wooded area that has a sloping camera dead center. The other reason surface. Jerry has supplied diagrams is that, because of the optical illusion and explanations to account for two that I will describe, people mistakenly of the three separate illusions in­ believe their camera is dead center volved. when it is not. You have to carefully The proponents of the paranormal- use good measuring instruments to ity of this phenomenon have always get the camera exactly centered. argued that the photographic evidence Jerry also describes why the two shows that it is not an illusion. The people on the plank perceive a change heights show a measurable change on in their respective heights as they ex­ the photograph. As Jerry has shown, change places. The ground under the simply because one end of the plank level plank slopes. Persons standing on is physically closer to the camera lens. this ground tend to perceive it as level. (continued on p. 318)

Spring 1994 315 1 Explanation of the Impossible Box and the Plank Illusion

]ERRY ANDRUS

ie picture of the person in a The paradox is more puzzling when 'crate" is an example showing we are told that there is no retouching Tthat our point of view influences or trick photography. If you had been what we believe we see. We "see" by there looking from the camera posi­ the interpretation that our minds put tion, it would have looked to you like on the signals that come from the the "Impossible Box" that the picture retina. shows. From the view of the original photo With the person in the same posi­ our minds "see" a person in a sort of tion as in the first picture, if you had box framework. Looking closer, we seen it from this other angle it would see that there is a paradox as the left look nothing like a box framework, front upright board seems to be be­ but exactly like what it really is, an hind the back horizontal one. Like­ odd arrangement of two-by-fours. wise, the right rear upright seems to Note that one of the ropes is held be in front of the front horizontal out with a stiff rod behind the lower board. part. In the other picture it looks as though it is bent over the front horizontal board. The actual bend, as you can see, is out in thin air, near nothing. So, in this case, point of view is everything! Also see the drawing of the crate. It will help give a better idea of how the ends will look as though they fit the corners when viewed from the proper distance and angle.

Jerry Andrus is a magician, inventor, and iconoclast. He lives in Albany, Oregon, in a Charles Addams-style house that he calls the Castle of Chaos. Jerry performs only magic effects that he has personally created. Mar­ tin Gardner has written that Jerry is the only magician who can consistently fool other magi­ cians. He has invented many optical illusions, some of which are on exhibit in museums around the world.

316 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Details on method used to set up scene to photograph two people on a level plank who apparently change relative height by merely changing places on the plank. The photos will show it "true." To the people on the plank it will look true. Is it some strange vortex or optical illusion or what? The basic explanation is that the one person is closer to the camera than the other and thus will be taller in the picture when he is on the end of the plank that is closer to the camera, etc.

20 Inches

Plank 0' '0

Two people standing on plank with toes about 20 inches apart. /

Camera position Plank blocked up level on hillside offset about where the two people can see both 30 inches down and up the hill some distance. When the uphill person is asked to look straight ahead and say where his eyes hit on the other person, he Camera on tripod with lens about will misjudge and be looking downhill 3 feet above level of plank. some, thinking that he is looking straight With camera in this position it is ahead. closer to the person on the left, The opposite is true for the person so he or she will be larger in the looking uphill. picture. Thus, if the camera is set up as shown, The camera was tipped a little so the people on the plank will have the that the plank was square with same illusion as the picture will show. the picture.

Impossible Box By Jerry Andrus

Viewed from a distance at this angle.

This end of this board will seem to fit this corner of the framework, etc.

Spring 1994 317 (continued from p. 315) Their line of sight tends to parallel the obscured true horizon creates an slope of the ground. When someone optical illusion for the observers. I is on the downhill side of the plank have indicated how this works by from them, this would result in their adding a few sloping lines. This looking at the person at a spot much particular form of the illusion is lower than if they were on level known as the "Ponzo Illusion." ground. If the people are actually the The three different explanations same height, this results in the person for the illusion probably account for on the uphill side of the plank looking why so many otherwise knowledge­ below the downhill person's eye-level. able individuals have been baffled by The downhill person thus looks taller. the Plank Illusion. Depending on the On the other hand the downhill arrangement of the camera and the person is now looking above the uphill background, the three separate effects person's eye-level, making the uphill can be consistent with each other or person seem smaller. one of them can produce the illusion A third explanation accounts for in an opposite direction from the other why observers who are not on the two. plank also see an apparent change in height as the two people on the plank Ray Hyman is a professor of psychology exchange places. The illustration that at the University of Oregon and a I have labeled "The Plank Illusion" CS1COP Fellow who specializes in shows why this is so. The sloping hill understanding how our minds work to along with a sloping background or deceive us.

Skeptic Wanted

CSICOP is soliciting applications from committed skeptics who would like to work for CSICOP and the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Junior staff position now open; responsibilities involve all aspects of our publishing and outreach efforts. High, growth potential. Salary open to negotiation. Please send resume and salary requirements in confidence to: - Paul Kurtz, Chairman CSICOP Box 703 Buffalo NY 14226-0703

318 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Letters to the Editor

Honesty tests interest in integrity-testing research by those outside the personnel-testing I am generally inclined to respond to industry. Such lack of interest has specific criticisms regarding integrity created the impression that test publish­ tests on an issue-by-issue basis. How­ ers discourage outside research. How­ ever, the article—or more accurately, ever, with the increased media attention "polemic"—entitled "Do 'Honesty' Tests on the subject of personnel testing in Really Measure Honesty?" (51, Fall general, as well as integrity testing, 1993) is so inaccurate, outdated, and there seems to be a greater interest in biased that such a response would be this area from academic researchers, voluminous. I am compelled, however, which reputable test publishers have to offer the following current facts welcomed and supported. Furthermore, regarding integrity tests. as any competent research psychologist 1. The vast majority of integrity knows, specific knowledge regarding a tests that are sold (85% or more) are test's key is not imperative to conducting developed and validated by industrial validation research. and/or measurement psychologists who 4. A basic issue of selection is: Which are members of the American Psychol­ test/technique results in the lowest level ogical Association (APA). Mainly of classification errors? Robert Guion, through the work of these psychologists a prominent personnel psychologist, has and other recognized experts, in con­ asserted that "while integrity tests are junction with the Association of Person­ far from perfect, they are better than nel Test Publishers, the Model Guidelines any available alternative for screening for Pre-employment Integrity Testing and selecting honest job applicants." An Programs were developed and published APA task force concurred in their report in 1990. These Guidelines provide pub­ titled Questionnaires Used in the Prediction lishers and users with specific standards of Trustworthiness in Pre-employment regarding test development, validation, Selection Decisions, wherein they recog­ use, interpretation, marketing, etc. nized the validity of integrity tests and 2. Companies and universities com­ stated: "We do not believe there is any monly pay technical experts (chemists, sound basis for prohibiting their [integ­ biologists, physicians, etc.) to conduct rity tests'] development and use; indeed research and development on products, to do so would only invite alternative including industrial/measurement psy­ forms of pre-employment screening that chologists for the purpose of internal would be less open, scientific, and test development and use. Regardless of controllable." Moreover, in a letter their affiliation (test publisher or other describing this study, the APA stated: organization), all psychologists are obli­ "In reviewing nearly 200 studies and gated to adhere to a number of guide­ other documents, it is apparent that the lines, including but not limited to the industry leaders have already produced APA's Standards for Educational and a scientific level of evidence for integrity Psychological Testing and the Principles for tests parallel to that accepted for other the Validation and Use of Personnel tests and instruments." Selection Procedures. I trust I have introduced a modicum All psychologists must also comply of current fact-based information to with the Ethical Principles of Psychologists. your readership whereby they may 3. In the past, there has been little recognize the prior article for what it

Spring 1994 319 is—a diatribe developed to support a pre­ refuting my criticisms (e.g., excessive false- existing opinion of integrity testing. positive rate, fakability, positive correlations Should your readers be interested in with lie scales, potential systematic error). further factual or scientific information, I Before addressing his criticisms, I believe would recommend that they contact the that readers are entitled to know that Reid Association of Test Publishers (a Psychological Systems, of which Arnold is Washington, D.C.-based trade associa­ General Counsel, is one of the primary tion) or the APA Science Directorate. marketers of honesty tests and was for years one of the principal developers and distrib­ David W. Arnold utors of polygraph tests in the United States. Vice President, Research These facts may help to place Arnold's Reid Psychological Systems remarks in context. Chicago, 111. 1. Arnold's assertion that "reputable [honesty] test publishers have welcomed and supported" research by outside investigators Kudos to Scott Lilienfeld for having is disingenuous at best. As one example, asked, Do "honesty" tests really measure one of my academic colleagues recently honesty? I suggest that the tests are attempted to obtain permission from a large more seriously flawed than he realizes, number of honesty testing firms to conduct for two reasons: a study on the trainability of honesty tests. 1. Cheating is trivial. I've enclosed an He was turned down by every publisher, article from the Autumn 1991 issue of and in one case was berated over the telephone 2600, which explains how to beat the by the head of a major honesty testing firm test. Such tutorials are widely available. for attempting to perform research that might 2. Honesty testing insults employees call the validity of honesty tests into question! and creates an atmosphere of distrust Similarly, a graduate student and 1 were that, together with low pay and lack of refused permission by 6 of 10 honesty testing autonomy, fosters dissatisfaction. My publishers, including Reid Psychological experience lies in data security rather Systems, for a study of the association than retail sales, but the central principle between honesty tests and moral reasoning. remains the same: employee satisfaction 1 should point out that these refusals occurred is the determining factor in fraud and after the publication of the "Model Guide­ theft. No screening system, no alarms lines" to which Arnold refers. Honesty will do a bit of good if your employees testing researchers we have spoken with have don't like you. encountered similar difficulties. As an aside, have you noticed a class Moreover, Arnold's contention that distinction in the tests administered? "specific knowledge regarding a test's key Polygraphs have become necessary for is not imperative to conducting validation many upper-class jobs, with honesty research" is mistaken. To the contrary, tests reserved for working class or "new knowledge of a test's key is absolutely collar" jobs. necessary for performing research on a test's Keep up the good work. structural validity. Structural validity concerns the extent to which the internal Michael Stern structure of a test is consistent with New York, N.Y. theoretical predictions, and includes evidence concerning a test's factor structure. Such evidence is an essential component of test Scott O. Lilienfeld responds: validation, and cannot be conducted without information at the item level. David Arnold's letter is riddled with 2. Arnold overlooks the potential moral misstatements and misrepresentations. implications of honesty testing. Surely Arnold appeals to authority rather than screening potential employees on the basis data, selectively referring to summary of a variety of characteristics that have been opinions of authors favorable to honesty found to be associated with theft-proneness testing but failing to cite any research (e.g., low socioeconomic status, presence of

320 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 learning disabilities, family history of might lend a clue. criminality) would result in a decreased I'm puzzled that Barbara Walker has number of classification errors. Nevertheless, authored 19 books, at least three of such screening methods would never be which have feminist-sounding titles, and tolerated because of their problematic ethical yet does not accurately describe any consequences. A reduction in "classification "we" that I, an active feminist, belong errors" is simply not sufficient to justify use to. Of course every large group, espe­ of a psychological test (witness the downfall cially as diffuse a group as "feminists," of the polygraph); but this is the only has a fringe element, so I am sure there justification Arnold offers. are some feminists who trash science. 3. Arnold's nearly exclusive emphasis But it sounds as if Walker doesn't attend upon classification errors misses the point meetings sponsored by the National in another way. In my article, I acknowl­ Organization for Women, the National edged that honesty tests, like the polygraph, Abortion Rights Action League, the appear to possess above-zero validity for some Coalition of Labor Union Women, the criteria (e.g., workplace theft). My central League of Women Voters, or any other criticism, which Arnold does not address, groups where mainstream feminist is that the classification errors made by activists are likely to gather. honesty tests may not be unsystematic or Probably the most talked about random (like the misses of a dart thrower feminist book this year was Backlash: around a target), but rather systematic and The Undeclared War Against American biased against certain groups (e.g., highly Women by Susan Faludi. Barbara religious individuals, individuals who are Walker's article seems to be perfect especially, candid in their responses). The "backlash" material. First, the article honesty testing industry's failure to conduct reinforces the antifeminist notion that adequate studies to examine this possibility women (feminists?) are uncomfortable can only be regarded as self-serving. with science, technology, and the dis­ Regrettably, Arnold's letter only rein­ cipline of objective reasoning. Second, forces the widespread perception of the it suggests that feminism has failed honesty-testing industry as inimical to women by implying that women do not outside criticism and scientific scrutiny. need to be scientifically aware. Third, it detracts readers from real feminist issues, such as violence against women, Science and feminism pay inequity, the anti-choice movement, and child care, just to name a few. From the opening paragraphs, I was very Fourth, this article would comfort those disappointed in the article "Science: The who would like to believe that female Feminists' Scapegoat?" by Barbara scientists are not representative of the Walker (SI, Fall 1993) and in your majority of women (feminists?) who are magazine for printing it. Perhaps it is presented as intuitive, emotional just the skeptic in me that bristles thinkers. Finally, it might cause female whenever someone overuses the inclu­ skeptics who are not in the feminist sive "we." But as I continued to read, network to feel unnecessarily isolated. I became increasingly disturbed. Who are these feminists that "are in danger Toni Tumonis of going too far . . . when we label Silver Spring, Md. patriarchal and bad everything that is modern/scientific, while declaring mat­ riarchal (or natural) and good everything I am writing to praise Barbara G. that is primitive/magical?" Who is it that Walker's excellent article, "Science: The engages in the "indiscriminate trashing Feminists' Scapegoat?" of all scientific disciplines"? Gloria I have frequently encountered the Steinem? Robin Morgan? Patricia Ire­ ostensibly feminist view that science is land? I don't think so, and there are no inherently male and rapacious to the quotations and no references cited that environment, society in general, and

Spring 1994 321 women in particular. Most recently, this unquestioned objectivity—recognizing issue arose in a conversation with a that what we select to study, what we friend of mine who has B.S. and M.S. end up seeing, and how we interpret degrees in biology from Stanford what we see—involves not just scientific University. method but also how we have been While I agreed with her that science socialized. has often been used as an oppressive and For how many years (and repeated destructive tool against women and experiments) was it "hard knowledge" other disenfranchised groups, I couldn't that women and people of color were agree that science as a whole is morally scientifically and objectively measured bankrupt. I view science as a tool, like to have smaller brains and thus con­ a hammer; one can use it in productive cluded to be inferior to white European ways (e.g., to build a house) or destruc­ males? No doubt scientific objectivity tive ways (e.g., to split someone's skull); has been, at times, a mask for racism but the problem lies in its application, and sexism. I am not a relativist, but not the tool itself, as Walker lucidly I believe Walker misleads by implying argued. that subjective and objective states are What is needed is greater public polar opposites in the real world. debate about which applications of Feminist scholars, Stephen Jay Gould, science are of greater and lesser public and others have shown otherwise. I value, not a wholesale condemnation of believe Walker errs in not mentioning science. No amount of "intuition" or their insights. "wishful thinking" will bring a cure to the AIDS virus or any other pressing Rhonda Roland Shearer problem. (Not to totally discount intui­ New York, N.Y. tion, either; intuition can lead to inter­ esting hypotheses to be tested scientifically, even though it is an Barbara G. Walker responds: ineffectual means to verify those hypotheses.) Toni Tumonis seems to have misread my After being subjected to what some­ reference to the patriarchal view of women's times seems like a tide of antiscientific alleged illogic, "a major prop for the myth sentiment, I appreciate Walker's well- of female intellectual inferiority," as an reasoned and sane defense of science. endorsement of that view. On the contrary, the central message of my article was that Dennis E. Lee women should not tolerate such putdowns Los Angeles, Calif. of their mental capacities. I commend Tumonis's political activism, but 1 think she knows little about the I agree with Barbara Walker that "to spiritual side of the feminist movement. She exclude personal attitudes of the inves­ seems unaware of the numerous women's tigator no matter what they are and to groups now drawing away from patriarchal concentrate on the subject matter alone" organized religion to explore less misogynous is a right and admirable goal within alternatives. Unfortunately, it's not uncom­ science. However, acknowledging that mon for such groups, in the name of open- humans do science within a social mindedness, to become loo open to some forms context despite this intention may be the of New Age nonsense. real objectivity. We know too much now, My article made the point that women in great part due to feminist scholarship, should not be seduced into embracing new to refer to scientific objectivity as self- varieties of irrationality by the old contention evident truth as Walker seems to in her that they are all basically irrational anyway, article. because this contention is absurd. See my Most important, feminist scholars are books Women's Rituals, The Skeptical not just questioning the misapplications Feminist, and The Woman's Encyclope­ of science but the very notion of dia of Myths and Secrets (with plenty of

322 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 references) about the rapidly burgeoning field classroom. Imagine my surprise to find of feminist spirituality. Kendrick Frazier's article in the Fall 1993 Rhonda Shearer's point is certainly well SI defending the Sandia study, which taken, but she may be confusing the social flies in the face of such direct experience sciences with "hard" science. There is a ("Our comparison of technical work­ difference between the discovery of fads forces reflected well on the U.S. edu­ outside the human context, as in chemistry cation system"). or physics, and the recognition of investigator The problems I see with the study bias in such disciplines as anthropology, described in this article can be divided sociology, history, and psychology. As the into three categories: current reassessments of Freudian theory 1. Straw-man argumentation. Ameri­ demonstrate, we should never take loo can education may not be cost effective, literally the conclusions of those who claim but I don't know anyone who's running scientific objectivity without really compre­ around claiming "American schools are hending it. the worst in the world." I have it on good authority that the combined effects of the earthquake and the war with 'Perspectives on Education' Azerbaijan have left the Armenian school system in shambles. We doubtless As a retired educator, I was very pleased also look pretty darned good compared to read "Perspectives on Education" (SI, to Chad and Bolivia! Fall 1993). 2. The Sandia study failed to measure From the inside, it has always ap­ anything meaningful. SAT scores sup­ peared to me that we were doing a good posedly measure aptitude rather than job. I was sure the apparent downward preparation, and thus are an intrinsically trend was due to more and more poor measure of school performance. students' being included in the process, The irony here is that most of the people many who a few years ago would have misinterpreting these scores graduated been labeled "uneducable." from American schools. We do have an educational problem A high school diploma is meaningless in the U.S., but it is not the system; it as an indicator of what a student can is the attitude of much of the public. actually do. The fact that the present Many, far too many, do not value rate of completion of four-year degrees education. There are several reasons for is comparable to high school graduation this, not the least of which are dema­ rates in the 1930s merely confirms my gogic persons who simply do not want suspicion that the modern bachelor's to spend money on others. Many on the degree is roughly equivalent to the high- Religious Right for several reasons school diploma of my parent's genera­ attack public education and educators. tion. Making fun of the "smart" and those who do well is a ubiquitous source of A recent survey by the Education "humor." Scholarly work "gets no Testing Service, which attempted to respect." The few bad apples get all the measure skills (rather than "aptitude"), attention. Somehow we must restore found that almost half of adult Amer­ education as a "value." icans can't handle basic English and math. Any bets on how many of those folks are high-school graduates? P. M. deLaubenfels 3. The "primary challenges" identified Corvallis, Ore. in the report are useless fluff. At what point in history has "adjusting to In seven years of teaching introductory demographic changes and immigra­ courses at universities and community tion" not presented a challenge to colleges I've been astonished at the poor American education? basic skills and almost willful ignorance of the world around them that high- G. Kent Colbath school graduates bring into the college Brea, Calif.

Spring 1994 323 Kendrick Frazier responds: sight, nothing, complete blackness. Thankfully this is a relatively rare For further behind-the-scene details of the condition. Medically, however, "blind­ suppression, peer review, and eventual ness" starts at the "little E" (Snellen 20/ publication of the Sandia report, and for 200) and runs the gamut through the a view of its significance contrary to that "big E" (Snellen 20/400), count-fingers expressed by G. Kent Colbath in his letter, vision (from one to ten feet), hand- see the nine-page article "A Nation 'Truly' motion vision (at one to twelve inches at Risk," by Daniel Tanner (Rutgers from the face), to light perception (from University), in the December 1993 Phi four different quadrants), finally to Delta Kappan, the professional education "total" blindness or ophthalmologically organization. Readers may also be interested "no light perception." in Peter Huber's column "The Lie of The history of this girl was that she Averages," stimulated by our article, in the "had vision" (what kind was never December 20, 1993, Forbes. explained) in only one eye since birth. What level of blindness was present in the other eye? Then, at age seven, she The 'blind girl' story damaged her "good" eye on a refriger­ ator and "essentially lost its use" (italics As a lay person, I would like to know added). the difference between a lie and a myth. "Essentially" used in this context Rolf Sinclair, in his article "The Blind could mean anything in the gamut of Girl Who Saw the Flash of the First blindness, but does imply at least light Nuclear Weapon Test" (SI, Fall 1993), perception—the last thing to go before refers to the perpetuation of this story total blackness, or the lay concept of as a myth. It seems to me that in order blind. Hence it would be expected that this for the story to have been reported at girl could see light with one eye, or all somebody lied to make the event of perhaps both. the nuclear bomb test more significant. Sinclair cannot be faulted for not I am not so concerned with the people having access to medical records. How­ who perpetuated the myth as I am with ever, a clear understanding of what the the individual who lied. Most people definition of blindness is, is a pre­ trust the media, expecting all the little requisite to judging the merits of news­ details in a report to be factual. What paper reporting. can the public do otherwise? A lie that gets carried on the wind and takes on Christopher Lyon, M.D. mythical proportions is simply due to the Board Certified Ophthalmologist public's lack of resources, time, and Newport Beach, Calif. knowledge to check out the story's valid­ ity. We trust our free press to do that. I am an average Joe Public who picks Rolf M. Sinclair responds: up my local paper every day wondering what facts have been omitted to suit the Christopher Lyon is of course correct. reporter's agenda. At the same time I Medically, "blindness" is not a specific term am at a loss about what to do about it. and must be qualified in each case. 1 used I do not like being lied to. "blind" in the popular sense (like "Blind Pew" in Treasure Island! This is the sense A. R. Kelly in which it was used in my references, and Stockton, Calif. the sense in which the public understoood it. My point was that Georgia Green could detect light to some extent, which took away Sinclair's "The Blind Girl . . ." article is the basis of the myth that sprang up. infuriatingly imprecise to an ophthal­ 1 appreciate A. R. Kelly's concern—but mologist. no one "lied" consciously. 1 think it was To the layman, "blind" means no that people simply took the easy path. The

324 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 first report referred to Georgia Green as if cultural fusion is to be forestalled on "blind" without qualification, although she the basis of race. did have limited vision. Then successive It is worth noticing that multicultur- writers and the public assumed that "blind" alism, in the sense of preserving, and meant a total lack of vision. The story grew even fostering, the separate existence of from this simplification. If at some point a multitude of cultures, is a product of a writer had been interested in the actual the postmodern view of the world. With degree of vision she had, and had introduced its emphasis on subjective and spiritual the proper medical terms, the whole story experiences, its rejection of the concept might have come into focus. But 1 suspect of historical truth, and its equal regard that all concerned found the story of the for all cultural behaviors regardless of "blind girl" to be interesting and news­ their instrumental success, postmodern­ worthy in its own right and didn't think ism often comes too close to a pseudo- to raise these questions. scientific creed. This is not surprising since postmodernism is, after all, an attack on rationalism. In my view, multi- Indians, New Agers, and racism culturalism is one of the few concepts worth rescuing from the postmodern Being from Mexico, I sympathize with mess, but we have to handle it with care. Rick Romancito's frustration with It is important to avoid both cultural misconceptions about "Indian spiritual­ relativism and racism. ism," since, as he points out (Forum, Fall I find racism to be one of the most 1993), there isn't just one Indian reli­ difficult topics in the United States, gion. I feel the same way when the terms perhaps because it is plagued with Mexican, Mexican-American, Hispanic, misconceptions. One common mistake, Latin American, etc., are used inter­ seemingly made by Romancito, is think­ changeably. However, Romancito's ing that all stereotypes are racist. In fact, concern about the loss of identity of the difference between a stereotype and Indian peoples when their spiritual the meaning of a word is very thin. We practices are "stolen" by outsiders seems all think in partial truths; rarely do we to me misguided. It is clear that spiritual possess all the relevant information. practices, as any socially defined behav­ Thus concepts are almost always stereo­ ior, acquire meaning within a system of types. Their usefulness depends, obvi­ beliefs. Surely, when an alien cultural ously, on their accuracy; they become behavior is adopted, part of its original prejudices only when they are taken to meaning is lost. But perhaps because, be the whole unshakeable truth. as human beings, we share enough In so far as many Indian tribes do common background, cultures are not have unique religious beliefs, the idea hopelessly isolated from one another. that they possess special spiritual knowl­ The important point is that with edge does not seem demeaning. Further­ global communications, the present more, since this idea is based on a cul­ identity of every culture is threatened tural rather than a racial trait, it is not by outside influences and usurpations, racist (but then, of course, the impor­ but I find it perverse to try to keep them tant difference between "racial group" intact. Cultural diversity is enriching and "cultural group" is very often only in so far as cultures mix, presenting blurred). us with choices. Also, there is no moral obligation to I believe the only way out of the try to solve the problems of a community catch-22 of racism is cultural and genetic before you are allowed to be culturally assimilation. Strangely, this view is seen influenced by it. If Picasso had worried as racist by some, on the grounds that about the low educational standards, the it leads to the dilution of "minority" health problems, and the issue of cultures into the Western culture. Yet, constitutional rights in Africa, he would ethnic isolationism appears to me dan­ never have painted "Les Demoiselles gerously close to Apartheid, especially D'Avignon."

Spring 1994 325 Large mammal discoveries

Kendrick Frazier (SI, Fall 1993, p. 12) the field that were later named as writes: "The discovery of a new new species by my fellow hidebound species of mammal [a Vietnamese establishment scientists. antelope of the family Bovidae] . . . Frazier continues, "It has been is ... a sobering lesson for all who more than 50 years since any com­ might have thought such a thing parable find of a large mammal impossible." I suspect that the people species was made." Frazier doesn't tell Frazier has in mind are those pro­ us what he means by "comparable," verbial hidebound establishment but it should be noted that the scientists—because that is the only following 13 species of good-sized to group I have ever seen accused of very large mammals were discovered being in need of such a "sobering as living animals in the past 50 years: lesson." The accusers have always two porpoises—Lagenodelphis hosei been the fringe-scientists known as (1956) and Phocoena sinus (1958); "cryptozoologists." These people three beaked whales—Mesoplodon consistently misrepresent informed ginkgodens (1958), Mesoplodon carl- scientists' justified and specific skep­ hubbsi (1963), Mesoplodon peruvianas ticism concerning the Loch Ness (1991); a wild pig—Sus heureni (1987); monster, Bigfoot, living African dino­ a peccary—Catagonus wagneri (named saurs, etc., as a misguided general from old bones in 1930 but reported skepticism of there still being undis­ as a living animal in 1975); four covered creatures of any sort. The deer—Mazama chunyi (1959), cryptozoologists can then portray Moschus fuscus (1981), Muntiacus themselves as the only ones who atherodes (1982), Muntiacus gongsha- know better, so that every time some nensis (1990); a gazelle—Gazella bilkis previously unknown animal turns up, (1985); and a wild sheep—Pseudois they can trumpet it as a vindication schaeferi (1963). One of these recently of their position. described animals (the first-named The new animals that do turn up, porpoise) was placed in a new genus, of course, are always creatures and the peccary is in a genus that was completely undreamt of by the cryp­ thought to be extinct. The last eight tozoologists, and are always discov­ of the species listed are in the same ered and made known to the world order (Artiodactyla) as the newly by the supposedly hidebound estab­ described Vietnamese antelope; the lishment scientists—never by the gazelle is likewise an antelope, and cryptozoologists. As we informed it, along with the wild sheep, are in hidebound establishment scientists the same family Bovidae as the well know, we are now naming about Vietnamese animal. One of the 16 or so new species of mammals porpoises, and especially the whales, every year, and there's no end in of course, are much larger than the sight. Of course most of our newly new Vietnamese bovid and weigh discovered species are small mam­ much more than it does. mals, because most kinds of mammals The animal referred to incorrectly are small. I myself have discovered by Frazier as the "kouprey bos" is and named three new species of properly known either as the kouprey opossums, a new species of bat, two (English "common" name) or Bos new species of "field mice," and have sauveli (scientific name). Frazier "co-named" one new species of states it is the last species of large porcupine. I have also encountered mammal discovered. The much larger three additional kinds of mammals in beaked whale, Tasmacetus (new

326 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 genus) shepherdi, was named the same in 1976 science acknowledged the year (1937) as the kouprey, how­ existence of Catagonus wagneri, a new ever. genus of peccary from South Amer­ It is a measure of how insidious ica, weighing in at nearly 40 kilo­ fringe-scientific misrepresentations grams (around 100 lbs.). Like are that even such an ur-skeptic as Pseudoryx, its appearance was pres­ Frazier can apparently be taken in by aged by many reports of "the third one of them. I am reminded of various peccary" by local hunters, and a pseudoscientific claims that have substantial number of bones and been made by creationists and that teeth from kitchen middens. The have come to be widely accepted by curious thing is that this wild pig- otherwise well-informed people who relative had managed to avoid notice are totally unaware of the origins of by Western science for so long despite these supposed facts. Frazier, of living in open grassland and thorn- course, is by no means the only scrub habitats—quite different from journalist to be misled by the cryp- the tropical forests where Pseudoryx tozoologists' representations of lives. things. Newsweek for October 26, 1992, went ape—as did the press Paul Handford generally—over the unremarkable Zoology Department discovery of a new kind of small University of Western monkey and stated outright that this Ontario sort of event gives support to the London, Ont., Canada contentions of cryptozoologists. Somewhat less extreme misconcep­ tions and misinformation were Kendrick Frazier responds: responsible for the errors made by journalists in the magazine Nature for I thank Ronald Pine, and Paul Handford June 3, 1993, and even by the scien­ too, for the interesting information about tists who reported the Vietnamese mammal species discovered in the last animal in that issue—and that's half-century, which I'm glad to share where Frazier got his understanding with our readers. The new Vietnamese of this matter. bovid, the discoverers say, is a new genus as well as species. The phrase "more than Ronald H. Pine 50 years since any comparable find of Illinois Mathematics a large mammal species" and the term and Science Academy "kouprey bos" are taken directly from Aurora, 111. the Nature paper (363:443), so pre­ and Field Museum sumably Pine's complaint is directed to Chicago, 111. its authors. 1 did not mention crypto­ zoologists. ^

Kendrick Frazier tells us the good news of the recent reporting of Pseudoryx from Indochina, and sug­ gests that this is the first new species of large mammal to be recorded since 1937, when the kouprey was announced. The accuracy of this claim depends on what we mean by "large." At any rate, it might be worth noting that Cranium of the new Vu Quang bovid.

Spring 1994 327 I applaud CSICOP's stated efforts to be serving long sentences or even have diversify its rational reach beyond just been executed. In that society, the the paranormal, but in investigating ethical standard to which people were other claims it is important to keep the held, and the degree of punishment, rigorous analysis for which the increased with their status and the level SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is known. As I of public office that they occupied. hinted above, racism is rooted in a failure to exercise skepticism of our beliefs Bernard Ortiz de Montellano about other people. Therefore, racism Pleasant Ridge, Mich. lies squarely within CSICOP's new range. It was not necessary to refer to New Age ideas to introduce the subject. Science and truth

Alvaro Caso One does not very often encounter more Dallas, Texas confused thinking than that displayed in "Science and Truth and Us" (Forum, Fall Alvaro Caso is a cultural attache, Consul 1993) by Ralph Estling. The author of Mexico, in Dallas. seems to take exception to scientists' preference for facts over truth. ... It seems to me that the author's principal Science, Aztecs, and ethics objection is to physicist John Archibald Wheeler's statement, "No phenomenon In his review of Anthony Aveni's, is a real phenomenon unless it is an ob­ Conversing with the Planets (SI, Fall 1993), served phenomenon." The statement L. Stephen Coles has slipped into the embodies the long-standing dispute kind of argument that scientists decry between classical and quantum physics. when others criticize the ends to which It poses no logical problem in the context science and technology are put. Science of classical physics. Would Estling advo­ and the scientific method should not be cate that scientists accept as facts phe­ blamed if the resulting technology is nomena that have never been observed used in ways that are inappropriate or but only conjectured? Wheeler's state­ reprehensible. It is equally inappropriate ment, made in the context of quantum for Coles to state: ". . . if they [the Maya] physics, however, does make some peo­ were so knowledgeable and 'civilized,' ple uncomfortable because of its impli­ judging by their mathematical calendar- cation that observation affects reality by making skills, how come they indulged altering the phenomenon being in ritual human sacrifice. . . ? Today, observed. This does not in any way clash we would consider such a practice with scientists' preference for facts; it barbaric and highly uncivilized." Would only states that facts, as observed, are a Mayan be justified in judging our level results of modification by the act of of scientific development by Auschwitz observation. No conflict with objectivity or Hiroshima? is inherent in this proposition. . . . The glory of the scientific method is Estling's chief difficulty is in under­ that in the past several hundred years standing that truth is subjective because there has been measurable progress, so it requires a human mind together with that one can speak of "primitive" its attendant presumptions to be con­ technology and "advanced" technology. ceived, while facts are manifestations of This cannot be said of such things as the immutable laws of nature at work. languages or religions. Non-Western Championing truth over facts is not a and even preliterate societies can have scientific or objective procedure. Truth extremely complex and sophisticated is always biased and therefore disput­ religions and languages, and high ethical able. Facts cannot be disputed. . . . standards. The participants in Water­ gate, Iran-Contra, and the S&L affairs, Anutosh Moitra if judged by Aztec standards, would all Yorktown, Va.

328 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 How ungrateful of Ralph Estling to see be said to exist, and so neither do his the universe as unconcerned with him. arguments. Q.E.D. This is a universe concerned enough to Not only is the universe unconcerned devote 15 billion years to painstakingly with me, what is far worse, it is also creating him, today expressing its con­ unconcerned with Al Clarke. The sad truth cern for his feelings and beliefs through is (for "truth" see above) that the universe the empathy of other humans. His did not create itself with either Clarke or conclusion that the truth cares not a me in mind either at its outset or later on— whit for people requires that he ignore after it settled down into galaxies and things the grandest truth of all, the evolution and could have a think. 1 am very much of minds that contemplate their uni­ afraid the universe does not think at all. verse, including themselves. 1 am aware that the person who informed The author of the assertion that the us that "the truth shall make us free" was truth shall make you free was a some­ Jesus. Unfortunately, the "truth" he was body all right, the Jesus of the Fourth referring to is not the truth 1 am referring Gospel (John 8:32), referring to servi­ to (again see above). The "truth" Jesus had tude to sin. It is odd that Estling finds in mind was not scientific truth but merely no merit in this claim. Surely there is new forms and interpretations of that freedom in the release from superstition "superstition and dogma" from which and dogma that has been offered by the Clarke says he seeks release. revelations of science.

Al Clarke Why are so few skeptical? Thousand Oaks, Calif. You ask why so few women are skeptics. Better ask why so few people are Ralph Estling responds: skeptical. Our entire socialization process and Confusion there certainly is. If Anutosh education are designed to foster respect Moitra thinks 1 draw a distinction between for and acceptance of authority—if the facts and truth he is very confused indeed. population at large learned critical And if he believes that truth is subjective, thinking, then there might be wide­ something created by us, then 1 can only spread rejection of standard political and say that the truth he has in mind is not religious ideas. Thus even scientific the truth I have in mind. education concentrates on learning facts The real distinction is between what we and not on the scientific method, so that believe to be facts (or truths) but which many who are successful in the technical in fact and in truth are only our observations and scientific fields never examine their and subsequent interpretations. The central inherited dogmas. (Or, what is worse, mystery of quantum mechanics is one result find "scientific" justifications of religious of this clash between external, objective principles or ethnic and sexual reality states and our internal subjective superiority.) observations of them, summarized in the Formal skepticism is found among "Strong Copenhagen Interpretation," of women even less frequently than among which John A. Wheeler is an advocate. The men, for several reasons. The first is, question is not merely a case of our of course, that fewer women receive observation affecting reality but, says technical education. (This starts in Wheeler (and others), a matter of that childhood—one learns more about cause observation effecting it, that is, bringing it and effect by building and dismantling into existence from a previous state of objects than by assisting with cooking nonexistence. Has Moitra recently observed or childcare.) As to the studies claiming all his constituent subatomic particles and women have less innate mathematical does he continually keep them all under and analytical ability (but which really constant observation? If he has not and does show just different statistical distribu­ not, then, by his own contention, he cannot tions of abilities; so I guess I won't have

Spring 1994 329 to give back my A in calculus), I consider yarns from the Bible about miraculous these studies methodologically flawed healings and resurrections. When the and unable to erase the effects of former are exposed as instances of cultural conditioning. (You'll need to gullibility or fraud, belief in the latter show me a good PET-scan study dem­ becomes more difficult. onstrating differential brain activation Some scientists give lip service to in untrained subjects.) religion in their public pronouncements, More important is the all pervasive probably in the hope of avoiding the cultural conditioning that urges women stigma that society attaches to avowed not to rock the boat; not to question atheism. Often this is done through authority (civil, religious, masculine); to semantic sleight of hand: the "God" in act emotionally and intuitively. The whom belief is professed is defined in social message is clear—flaky hyper- some idiosyncratic way that bears no emotional behavior is desirable, calm relation to the traditional meaning of the rationality is not. Remember even Lucy word. Even Einstein played that game. (the apotheosis of ditziness) got Ricky Such obfuscation calls for rebuttal, Ricardo, and he was a nice-looking guy though not necessarily in the SI. But with a good job. And the Vulcans, those when it is claimed that specific evidence pinnacles of logic and rationality, clearly for religion is to be found in the facts prefer emotional Earthwomen to their of science, a reaction from CSICOP is own females. entirely appropriate. As to how to attract more women to your readership—Gee, I dunno. I've David A. Shotwell kind of been hoping for skeptical singles Alpine, Texas ads.

Sharon N. Farber, M.D. Asimov urban myth? Chattanooga, Tenn. In the Fall 1993 SI (Letters), Joseph Aspler suggests that a new urban myth Keep Si's unique status is making the rounds that states that the late Isaac Asimov had been reluctant The SI letters column sometimes fea­ to admit his disbelief in religion. This tures advice from readers who wish that "myth" is based on fact. CSICOP would broaden the scope of its In the second volume of his auto­ activities to include the debunking of biography, In Joy Still Fell, Asimov religion. 1 believe that this would be a describes his appearance on the David mistake. The task of showing that Frost show that was taped August 15, religion is irrational and intellectually 1969. Frost began the interview by indefensible has already been accom­ asking Asimov point blank if he believed plished. Hume's critique, extended and in God. Asimov recalls: "That rather sharpened by his successors, makes it took my breath away. It was a dreadful clear that the "proofs" of God's existence way of putting a person on the spot. are fatally flawed. The effect of rehash­ To answer honestly, 'No,' with millions ing these arguments in SI would be to of people watching could arouse a great turn it into just another philosophy deal of controversy I didn't feel much journal and would compromise its need of." Asimov eventually brushed off unique status as a forum for the the question with a wisecrack. examination of claims that can be Doubleday chose to print this passage evaluated and refuted by observation on the rear dust jacket of In Joy SHU and experiment. Felt. No doubt it has been read by many Reports of weeping or bleeding people who picked up the book but did statues, poltergeists, or supernaturally not take the time to read the book bent spoons do fall within CSICOP's thoroughly. Not included on the dust domain and invite comparison with jacket is the fact that Asimov's father

330 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 had died a few days before, perhaps those strange moments when things contributing to his reluctance to stir up seem to take on a life of their own. a public controversy. Of course anyone . . . Are we assisting in the unfurling who has read the complete autobiog­ of a new form of life? Are inorganic raphy would be familiar with Asimov's things that have surrounded us from views on religion. the stone age to the computer age really coming to life? Have we invested them with that life through William E. Vanderlinde our attention to them? And are we Ellicott City, Md. . . . about to surrender our dominion to machines?

Did the spoof come first? Note the strange similarity of this summary to the passage in the review Readers of SI who enjoyed Robert of Ludd's Automagic. Also, one of the Baker's review of Lyall Watson's The subheadings in Chapter 6 of Watson's Nature of Things: The Secret Life of book is "Automagic." What happened Inanimate Objects (Fall 1993) may be was that New Scientist had invited interested to know of a book review that Watson (and some of its other favorite appeared in New Scientist in 1985 (19/ "science writers") to concoct spoof 26 December, p. 71). The book was reviews of imaginary books that they Automagic: The Secret Life of Machines by would like to read (and there is no point Ned Ludd. The reviewer summarized in looking for Gardner's Automagic the provocative ideas put forward in the review in SI). Another mystery solved. book: However, SI readers might like to know which came first, the spoof or the idea Something for all those . . . who ever for The Nature of Things? had cause to curse a recalcitrant lawn mower. . . . And for those . . . who cope easily with the technological David J. Fischer revolution, but nevertheless harbour Cardiff, U.K. a sneaking suspicion that their com­ puters are involved in unprogrammed speculations on their own account, Anecdotes on TV talkshows perhaps even in collusion with others of their kind. . . . This is a lucid and "Exploring the Television Wasteland," authoritative treatment of the whole by Paul Kurtz (SI, Summer 1993), vexing question of artificial intelli­ gence, which plots every step of our describes a common problem among displacement by a more dominant life people who use anecdotes as evidence form. . . . No one reading the final of phenomena. Media events, such as chapters can be left in any doubt about the "Shirley" show offer troubled people ... the ability of souls in new machines and others support for their unhealthy to survive built-in obsolescence. behaviors and perhaps foster the notion that we are not necessarily in control At the end of the review, he concluded: of ourselves and therefore not com­ pletely accountable for our behavior. I heartily endorse Martin Gardner's Hence the plea of "insanity" by accused enthusiastic review in the SKEPTICAL murderers could be modified to a plea INQUIRER, where he describes Auto­ of "I subscribe to the power of my magic as "absolutely metal-bending." dreams, a force beyond reproach." Lewis Wolpert's book. The Unnatural Those who have read the UK edition Nature of Science argues (p. 136): "Doing of Watson's The Nature of Things will a proper experiment on paranormal recall seeing the following blurb on the phenomena makes the subjects self- cover. aware and so eliminates the phenomena. We all have experiences of the natural . . . It is thus very difficult to assess perversity of inanimate objects— the reality of such phenomena." Wolpert

Spring 1994 331 explains that it is not easy to challenge reported to it, by a critical verification paranormal claims because proper eval­ of the facts. This procedure did much uation methods are not subscribed to by to discredit the belief in witchcraft, paranormal proponents who prefer to demoniac possession and supernatural get their knowledge "on the cheap" and intervention in human affairs which was even then beginning to lose its not through the painstaking ways of influence over the minds of many in true scientists. the educated classes, (p. 29) H. L. Mencken expressed the opinion . . . There were also many rumors, that nobody ever went broke under­ reports and strange occurrences estimating the intelligence of the public. which came before them for explana­ Wolpert says, "The capacity of self- tion or enquiry; among these were the delusion, even among scientists, should supposed virtues of May-dew col­ never be underestimated: conviction can lected before sunrise; Dr. Dee's skill have profound effects on observation!" in weather forecasting reported by Sir K. Digby; the petrification of wood in Exploiters like Shirley Solomon are Ireland; the production of young more dangerous to society than the vipers from the powdered livers and quacks selling cancer cures. There are lungs of vipers; a poison which turned no appropriate bounds or limits placed a man's blood into jelly; the compo­ on her behavior. sition of a "sympathetic" powder which would cure a wounded man if John Philion the weapon or his blood were treated with it; divining by means of hazel Brentwood Bay rods; whether a spider set within a British Columbia, Canada circle of powdered unicorn's horn could cross it: that it could not do so was refuted by an experiment; the tale CSICOP and the Royal Society of a city in northern Africa where all the inhabitants had been petrified was The Royal Society was founded in 1660 vouched for by a friend of Sir K. and supported by King Charles II. Digby. (p. 30) Continuously in existence since that time. Great Britain's Royal Society is one Clearly, CSICOP enjoys some distin­ of the oldest scientific associations in guished historical antecedents. It is also history. There are some interesting clear that the more things change the parallels between R.S. activities and more they stay the same, judging by the those of CSICOP. The latter "encour­ phenomena investigated by the two ages the critical investigation of para­ groups. normal and fringe-science claims from a responsible scientific point of view and Bruce A. Thyer disseminates factual information about School of Social Work the results of such inquiries to the University of Georgia scientific community and the public." Athens, Ga. Contrast this with Royal Society activ­ ities (quoted from H. Lyons's The Royal Society: 1660-1940 [Cambridge Univer­ sity Press, 1944]). The letters column is a forum for views on matters raised in previous issues. Brief letters Many local superstitions were also (less than 250 words) are welcome. We brought before them, and these were reserve the right to edit longer ones. They seriously considered and tested in should be typed double-spaced. Due to the order to either establish their validity or to refute them. One of the most volume of letters, not all can be published. valuable tasks which the Society set Address them to Letters to the Editor, before itself from its earliest days was SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto that of testing any legends or ill- Dr. NE, Albuquerque, NM 87111. supported statements, which were

332 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Guide for Authors The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER critically examines scientific approaches to answering key out­ claims of paranormal, fringe-science, and standing questions relating to it. Well- pseudoscientific phenomena from a respon­ balanced articles that report on and evaluate sible, scientific point of view and provides controversial scientific claims within science a forum for informed discussion of all itself are also needed. relevant issues. It encourages science and scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and the Space is at a premium; there are always use of reason and the methods of science many accepted articles awaiting publication, in examining important issues. The reader­ and many submitted articles cannot be ship includes scholars and researchers in published. Be succinct. Articles are typically many fields and lay readers of diverse 2,000 to 3,500 words (about 8 to 12 double- backgrounds. Write clearly, interestingly, spaced typewritten pages, depending upon and simply. Avoid unnecessary technical font size). We cannot publish treatises. terms. Maintain a factual, professional, and Articles should be organized around one restrained tone. All submissions are judged central point or theme. If something is on the basis of interest, clarity, significance, important it can be said briefly. Remember, relevance, authority, and topicality. Watson and Crick's paper reporting the discovery of the structure of DNA took just Direct critiques toward ideas and issues, not over one page in Nature. individuals. Authors should be prepared to provide documentation of all factual asser­ The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER must be a source tions. A useful set of guidelines for those of authoritative, responsible scientific who seek to evaluate paranormal claims, information and perspective. The Editor titled "Proper Criticism" and written by will usually send manuscripts dealing with Professor Ray Hyman, is available from the technical or controversial matters to Editor. Among the guidelines: clarify your reviewers. The authors, however, are objectives, let the facts speak for them­ responsible for the accuracy of fact and selves, be precise and careful with language, perspective. It is good practice to have and avoid loaded words and sensationalism. knowledgeable colleagues review drafts State others' positions in a fair, objective, before submission. Reports of original re­ and nonemotional manner. search, especially highly technical experi­ mental or statistical studies, are best Categories of Papers submitted to a formal scientific journal; a nontechnical summary may be submitted Categories of contributions include Arti­ to the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Studies based cles, Book Reviews, News and Comment, on small-scale tests or surveys of students Forum, Follow-Up, and Letters to the will be considered only if they establish Editor. something new, provide a needed replica­ tion of some important earlier study, or test Articles: Articles may be evaluative, some new theoretical position. investigative, or explanatory. They may examine specific claims or broader ques­ Articles should begin with a succinct, tions. Well-focused discussions on scientific, inviting title followed by a concise, 10-to- educational, or social issues of wide com­ 20-word statement of the main point or mon interest are welcome. We especially theme. This will be set in display type on seek articles that bring fresh perspective to the first page of the published article. familiar subjects. Articles that help people Include a brief cover letter stating that the gain an understanding of unusual experien­ article is submitted for publication and has ces that they might otherwise interpret as not been submitted elsewhere and giving "paranormal" are useful. So are articles that the authors' titles and affiliations and the portray the vigor and excitement of a lead author's address and home and office particular scientific topic and help readers telephone and fax numbers. Include infor­ distinguish between scientific and pseudo- mation in the letter or at the end of the

Spring 1994 333 manuscript for an author note. If you do an original and two photocopies (for re­ not wish your address given in the author viewers); for other categories, one original. note, please so state. References and Notes: For reference cita­ Book Reviews: Most book reviews are tions in text, use author-date style: Smith about 600 to 1,200 words. Both solicited (1994) or (Smith 1994). Arrange entries and unsolicited reviews are used. Include within References section alphabetically by publication data at the top of the review the last name of author. Give full names in this order: Title. Author. Publisher, city, of journals. Lower case article titles except year. Number of pages. Hardcover or paper­ for first word and proper names. Follow the back (or both), price. Include a suggested style used in recent issues for other author note. If possible, include the dust specifics. If explanatory notes are required, jacket of the book for illustration. number them sequentially and include them in a Notes section preceding the References. News and Comment: News articles from 250 to 1,000 words are welcome. They Figures and Illustrations: We welcome should involve timely events and issues and camera-ready illustrations with all submis­ be written in interpretative journalistic sions. Figures and graphs should be in high- style. Use third person. The news sections quality camera-ready form. Photos repro­ of Nature, Science, New Scientist, and Science duce better if they are black-and-white News are excellent models. Balance, fair­ glossy prints. Assign each illustration a ness, and perspective are important. In Figure number and supply captions on a reporting on controversies, seek and include separate sheet. Suggestions for obtaining comment and perspective from the various other illustrations are welcome. opposing parties. Forum: The Forum column consists of brief, Proofs: Once a manuscript has been tenta­ lively, well-written columns of comment tively scheduled, it is phototypeset in house. and opinion generally no more than 1,000 We send proofs of Articles to authors. We words. Space allows only one or two per may send proofs of other types of material issue. at our discretion. The proofs should be re­ turned corrected within 72 hours. At the Follow-Up: The Follow-Up column is for time proofs are sent, authors will be asked response from persons whose work or to sign and return a copyright transfer claims have been the subject of previous form. Upon publication, authors are sent articles. The original authors may respond several complimentary copies of the issue, in the same or a later issue. plus a form for ordering reprints. Letters to the Editor: The Letters to the The Editor's fax number is: 505-293-2757. Editor section is for views on matters raised The fax may be used for important mes­ in previous issues. Letters should be no sages and inquiries. It is generally not for more than 250 words. Due to the volume submission of manuscripts, with the excep­ of letters received, they cannot be acknowl­ tion of short editorial items from abroad edged, and not all can be published. Those or other brief contributions known to be selected may be edited for space and clarity. urgent. Authors whose articles are criticized in the letters column may be given the opportun­ All manuscripts should be sent first-class ity to respond in the same issue. mail (air mail from abroad) to:

Mechanical Requirements for Manuscripts Kendrick Frazier, Editor Text: Type all manuscripts double-spaced, in­ THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER cluding notes and references, on 8Vi" * 11" 3025 Palo Alto Dr. N.E. white opaque bond paper (not onionskin or Albuquerque, NM 87111 U.S.A. erasable bond) with at least one-inch margins on all sides. If longer paper is used Do not send manuscripts to CSICOP's (e.g., A4), allow commensurately bigger top headquarters in Buffalo. It is generally not and bottom margins. Number all pages in necessary to send manuscripts by overnight sequence, including those for references, express, but if you do so please initial the figures, and captions. For Articles, submit signature-requirement waiver.

334 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Local, Regional, and National Skeptics Organizations The organizations listed below have aims MASSACHUSETTS. Skeptical Inquirers of similar to those of CSICOP but are indepen­ New England. Contact Laurence Moss, dent and autonomous. They are not affiliated Ho & Moss, 72 Kneeland St., Boston with CSICOP, and representatives of these 02111. organizations cannot speak on behalf of MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol CSICOP. Lynn, contact, 1264 Bedford Rd., Grosse UNITED STATES Pointe Park, MI 84230-1116. ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics, Emory Kim- MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics, Robert W. brough, 3550 Watermelon Road, Apt. McCoy, 549 Turnpike Rd., Golden Valley, 28A, Northport, AL 35476 (205-759- MN 55416. St. Kloud ESP Teaching 2624). Investigation Committee (SKEPTIC), ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptical Society Jerry Mertens, Coordinator, Psychology (TUSKS), James McGaha, Chairman, Dept., St. Cloud State Univ., St. Cloud, 5655 E. River Rd., Suite #101-127, MN 56301. Tucson, AZ 85715. Phoenix Skeptics, MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Michael Stackpole, Chairman, P.O. Box Skeptical Inquiry, Verle Muhrer, Chair­ 60333, Phoenix, AZ 85082. man, 2658 East 7th, Kansas City, MO CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics, Wilma 64124. Gateway Skeptics, Chairperson, Russell, Secretary, 17723 Buti Park Court, Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave., Univer­ Castro Valley, CA 94546. East Bay sity City, MO 63130. Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay, Presi­ NEW JERSEY. (See New York Area Skeptics, dent, P.O. Box 20989, Oakland, CA 94620 New York.) (510-420-0702). Sacramento Skeptics NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & Society, Terry Sandbek, 3838 Watt Ave., Reason, John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 Suite C303, Sacramento, CA 95821-2664 Montclaire SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108; (916-488-3772). John Smallwood, 320 Artist Road, Santa COLORADO and WYOMING. Rocky Mountain Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-2800). Skeptics, Bela Scheiber, President, P.O. NEW YORK. New York Area Skeptics Box 7277, Boulder, CO 80306. (NYASk), Wayne Tytell, contact person, CONNECTICUT. (See New York Area Skep­ 159 Melrose Ave., E. Massapequa, NY tics, New York.) 11758, (516) 798-6902. Western New DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, DELAWARE, MARY­ York Skeptics, Tim Madigan, Chairman, LAND, and VIRGINIA. National Capital 3965 Rensch Rd., Buffalo, NY 14228. Area Skeptics, c/o D. W. "Chip" Denman, OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens, 8006 Valley Street, Silver Spring, MD 6006 Fir Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44102 20910. (216-631-5987). Association for Rational FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics, Gary Posner, Thinking (Cincinnati area), Joseph F. 1113 Normandy Trace Rd., Tampa, FL Gastright, Contact, 111 Wallace Ave., 33602 (813-221-3533). Covington, KY 41014, (513) 369-4872 or GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Becky Long, (606) 581-7315. President, 2277 Winding Woods Dr., PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating Tucker, GA 30084. Committee of Pittsburgh (PICP), Richard ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee for Rational Busch, Chairman, 8209 Thompson Run Inquiry, Danielle Kafka, President, P.O. Rd., Pittsburgh, PA 15237 (412-366- Box 2792, Des Plaines, IL 60017-2792. 4663). Rational Examination Assoc, of Lincoln TEXAS. Houston Association for Scientific Land (REALL), David Bloomberg, Chair­ Thinking (HAST), Darrell Kachilla, P.O. man, P.O. Box 20302, Springfield IL 62708 Box 541314, Houston, TX 77254. North (217-787-9098). Texas Skeptics, Joe Voelkering, President, INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics, Robert Craig, P.O. Box 111794, Carrollton, TX 75011- Chairperson, 5401 Hedgerow Drive, 1794. West Texas Society to Advance Indianapolis, IN 46226. Rational Thought, Co-Chairmen: George KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Robertson, 4700 Polo Pky., Apt. 183, Educators and Skeptics (KASES), Chair­ Midland, TX 79705-1542. man, Prof. Robert A. Baker, 3495 Cas- WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible tleton Way North, Lexington, KY 40502. Explanations, P.O. Box 7121, Seattle, WA LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of 98133. Rational Inquiry and Scientific Methods WISCONSIN. Wisconsin Committee for (BR-PRISM), Dick Schroth, Director, 425 Rational Inquiry, Mary Beth Emmericks, Carriage Way, Baton Rouge, LA 70808- Convenor, 8465 N. 51st St., Brown Deer, 4828 (504-766-4747). WI 53223. (continued on next page) ARGENTINA. CAIRP, Director, Ladislao Sanal Edamaruku, 779, Pocket 5, Mayur Enrique Marquez, Jose Marti, 35 dep C, Vihar 1, New Delhi 110 091. 1406 Buenos Aires. IRELAND. Irish Skeptics, Peter O'Hara, AUSTRALIA. National: Australian Skeptics, Contact, St. Joseph's Hospital, Limerick. P.O. Box E324 St. James, NSW 2000. ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Controllo Regional: Australian Capital Territory, delle Affermazioni sul Paranormale, P.O. Box 555, Civic Square, 2608. New­ Massimo Polidoro, Editor, Scienza & Para­ castle Skeptics, Chairperson, Colin Keay, normale, P.O. Box 60, 27058 Voghera (PV). Physics Dept., Newcastle University, JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Chair­ NSW 2308. Queensland, P.O. Box 2180, person, 1-31-8-527 Takadanobaba, Brisbane, 4001. South Australia, P.O. Box Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 169. 91, Magill, 5072. Victoria, P.O. Box 1555P, MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical Melbourne, 3001. Western Australia, 25 Research (SOMIE), Mario Mendez- Headingly Road, Kalamunda 6076. Acosta, Chairman, Apartado Postal 19- BELGIUM. Committee Para, J. Dommanget, 546, Mexico 03900, D.F. Chairman, Observatoire Royal de Bel- NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob gique, Avenue Circulaire 3, B-1180 Nanninga, Secretary, Westerkade 20, Brussels. SKEPP, W. Betz, Secretary, 9718 AS Groningen. Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussels (FAX: NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptics, 32-2-4774301). Vicki Hyde, Chairperson, South Pacific BRAZIL. Opcao Racional, Luis Gutman, Av. Publications, Box 19-760, Christchurch 5, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana, 830/904 N.Z., Fax: 64 3 384-5138. Rio de Janeiro 22050.000. NORWAY. NIVFO, K. Stenodegard, Boks 9, CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd- N-7082, Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Ember- Price, Secretary, P.O. Box 5571, Station land, Contact, P. B. 2943 Toyen 0608, A, Calgary, Alberta T2H 1X9. British Oslo 6. Columbia Skeptics, Lee Moller, contact, RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian, Ulya- 1188 Beaufort Road, Vancouver V7G 1R7. novskaya 43, Kor 4, 109004, Moscow. Manitoba Skeptics. Contact John Toews, SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational President, Box 92, St. Vital, Winnipeg, Investigation of the Paranormal (ARIP), Man. R2M 4A5. Ontario Skeptics, Henry Marian Laserson, Secretary, 4 Wales St., Gordon, Chairman, 343 Clark Ave West, Sandringham 2192. SOCRATES, Leon Suite 1009, Thornhill, Ontario L4J 7K5. Retief, contact, 3 Hoheizen Crescent, Sceptiques du Quebec: Jean Ouellette, C.P. Hoheizen, Bellville 7530. 202, Succ. Beaubien, Montreal H2G 3C9. SPAIN. Alternativa Racional a las Pseudo- CZECH REPUBLIC. Contact Milos Chvojka, sciencias (ARP). Contact Mercedes Quin- Inst, of Physics, Czech Academy of Sci­ tana, Apartado de Correos 17.026, E-280 ences, Na Slovance 2, 1 80 40 Prague 8. 80 Madrid. El Investigador Esceptico. ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets, Hori- Contact Felix Ares De Bias, Gamez/Ares/ sont, EE 0102 Tallinn, Narva mnt. 5. Martinez, P.O. Box 904, 20080 Donostia- FINLAND. Skepsis, Lauri Grohn, Secretary, San Sebastian. Ojahaanpolku 8 B17, SF-01600 Vantaa. SWEDEN. Vetenskap & Folkbildning FRANCE. Comite Francais pour l'Etude des (Science and People's Education), Sven Phenomenes Paranormaux, Claude Ove Hansson, Secretary, Box 185, 101 23 Benski, Secretary-General, Merlin Gerin, Stockholm. RGE/A2 38050 Grenoble Cedex. TAIWAN. Tim Holmes, San Chuan Road, 98 GERMANY. Society for the Scientific Alley, #47, Fengyuan. Investigation of Para-Science (GWUP), UKRAINE. Perspectiva, Oleg G. Bakhtiarov, Amardeo Sarma, Convenor, Postfach Director, 36 Lenin Blvd., Kiev 252001. 1222, D-64374 Rossdorf (FAX: +49 6154 UNITED KINGDOM. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 81912). Representative, Michael J. Hutchinson, 10 HONG KONG. Hong Kong Skeptics. Con­ Crescent View, Loughton, Essex IG10 tact Rebecca Bradley, P.O. Box 1010, 4PZ. The Skeptic magazine, Editors, Toby Shatin Central Post Office, Shatin, NT. Howard and Steve Donnelly, P.O. Box HUNGARY. Hungarian Skeptics, Janos 475, Manchester M60 2TH. London Szentagothai, Termeszel Vilaga, P.O. Box 25, Student Skeptics, John Lord, Univ. of Budapest 8, 1444. Fax 011-36-1-118- London Library, Senate House, Malet St., 7506. London WClE 7HU. Manchester Skep­ INDIA. Indian Skeptics, B. Premanand, tics, David Love, P.O. Box 475, Manches­ Chairman, 10, Chettipalayam Rd., ter M60 2TH. Wessex Skeptics, Robin Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Tamil nadu. Allen, Dept. of Physics, Southampton Indian Rationalist Association, Contact Univ., Highfield, Southampton S09 5NH. I 1 The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman Scientific and Technical Consultants George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University. William Sims Bainbridge, professor of sociology, Illinois State University. Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and academic education and professor of chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Washington, D.C. Martin Bridgstock, lecturer. School of Science, Griffith Observatory, Brisbane, Australia. Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. Shawn Carlson, physicist, Berkeley, Calif. Charles J. Cazeau, geologist, Deary, Idaho. Ronald J. Crowley, professor of physics, California State University, Fullerton. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Univ. J. Dath, professor of engineering, Ecole Royale Militaire, Brussels, Belgium. Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer science, University of Basque, San Sebastian, Spain. Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa. J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Observatory, Brussels, Belgium. Natham J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple University. Barbara Eisenstadt, educator, Clifton Park, N.Y. John F. Fischer, forensic analyst, Orlando Fla. Frederic A. Friedel, philosopher, Hamburg, West Germany. Robert E. Funk, anthropologist, New York State Museum & Science Service. Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare, University of California at Berkeley. Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy. Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist. University of Massa­ chusetts. Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president, Interstellar Media. Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology, SUNY, Buffalo. Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology. Pace University, Pleasantville, N.Y. Philip A. Ianna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia. William Jarvis, professor of health promotion and public health, Loma Linda University, School Public Health, California. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology, University of Saskatchewan. Richard H. Lange, M.D. Mohawk Valley Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history and archaeology. University of So. California. Bernard J. Leikind, staff scientist, GA Technologies Inc., San Diego. William M. London, associate professor of health education, Kent State University. Thomas R- McDonough, lecturer in engineering, Caltech, and SETI Coordinator of the Planetary Society. James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot. Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psychiatry, Calabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles. Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology. School of Medicine, University of California. John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and engineering, Iowa State University. Steven Pinker, assistant professor of psychology, MIT. James Pomerantz, professor of psy­ chology. Rice University; Gary Posner, M.D., Tampa, Fla. Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo. Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Amherst College. Milton A. Rothman, physicist, Philadelphia, Pa. Karl Sabbagh, journalist, Richmond, Surrey, England. Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and medicine. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Steven D. Schafersman, geologist, Houston. Bela Scheiber,* system analyst, Boulder, Colo. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England. Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of anthropology, SUNY, Buffalo. Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo. Elie A. Shneour, biochemist; director, Biosystems Research Institute, La Jolla, California. Steven N. Shore, astronomer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Md. Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon. Mark Slovak, astronomer. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Gordon Stein, physiologist, author; editor of the American Rationalist. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics. University of Pittsburgh, editor of Language. *Member of CSICOP Executive Council

Subcommittees Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, I. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational Psychology, University of Saskat­ chewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada. Electronic Communication Subcommittee: Chairman, Page Stephens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, OH 44102. E-Mail: Jim Kutz [email protected] Paranormal Health Claims Subcommittee: Co-chairmen, William Jarvis, Professor of Health Promotion and Education, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D., P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA 18105. Parapsychology Subcommittee: Chairman, Ray Hyman, Psychology Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97402. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024.