Ritual Calendar. Change in the Conceptions of Time and Space

RITUAL CALENDAR. CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE

SHINGO EINOO

1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

Between the Vedic and the post-Vedic rituals we can observe a number of changes. The whole system of the Vedic srauta rituals almost dis- appeared and instead of them there emerged a new ritual calendar according to which many Hindu annual ceremonies were performed (Kane 1974b: 81-462; Einoo 1994: 137-140). The method of worshipping gods is shifted from offering oblations into the sacred fire usually called ahavaniya to presenting oblations like flowers etc. before the image of a deity, this method being usually called puja (Einoo 1996). The daily morning and evening offering of heated milk which is called agnihotra, one of the srauta rituals, was replaced by the daily ceremony called saµdhyopasana which had been, in the Vedic period, performed only by the young students of the Vedas but in the post-Vedic period became the duty of the householder (Einoo 1992; 1993). As is well known, the Vedic rituals are described by two groups of the ritual texts, namely the srautasutras and the g®hyasutras. The srautasutras lay down detailed rules for performing a number of the srauta rituals, that is, solemn sacrificial rites in which many officiating priests partici- pated to worship the gods in order to obtain, for the sake of the patron of the ritual, benefits such as offspring, increase of cattle etc. These works are closely connected with the older Vedic literature in the way that most of the srauta rituals are interpreted in the saµhitas and the brahma∞as, and that most of the ritual formulas originated again from these latter texts. The g®hyasutras, on the other hand, are ritual manuals of the head of the family who performs many kinds of simpler domestic

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 100 S. EINOO rites and ceremonies, such as, e.g. the marriage ceremony, the rite for a new-born child, the house construction, some rites concerning agricul- ture and cattle feeding, and so on. It is hardly possible, however, to date each srauta- and g®hyasutra exactly, but compositions of the srautrasu- tras are roughly assigned to several centuries before the middle of the first millennium B.C. and the g®hyasutras are usually regarded as later than the srautasutras1. On the other hand, the post-Vedic rituals or Hindu rituals are mostly described in the pura∞as which, according to R. C. Hazra, belong to the second stage of their development and are supposedly composed from about the beginning of the sixth century A.D. (Hazra 1940: 188-189). The proposed dates of the srauta- and the g®hyasutras on the one hand and the pura∞as on the other show a gap of time of less than one thou- sand years. From my earlier studies of the formation and the development of the post-Vedic rituals I came to know a group of ritual texts that seem to have played an important roles in the formation of the Hindu rituals. They are mostly the supplementary texts (parisiÒ†as) to the several g®hyasutras and in this article I sometimes call them the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level. Among them there are two texts that are especially to be mentioned; they are the Vaikhanasa G®hyasutra and the Agnivesya G®hyasutra. Even if they are titled G®hyasutra, they contain many elements which are clearly post-Vedic2. It is impossible for me to date these texts exactly, but most of them can presumably be assigned to any time between the latest date of the g®hyasutras and the beginning of the sixth century A.D. In this article I examine the changes which occurred between the Vedic and the post-Vedic rituals by selecting two instances which con- cern the conceptions of time and space, namely the correlation between the tithis and their deities on the one hand and the idea of presiding deities of the eight directions which are usually known as guardians of the directions (dikpalas) or guardians of the worlds (lokapalas) mainly by consulting the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level.

1 For the general survey of both the srauta- and the g®hyasutras see Gonda 1977. 2 See Einoo 1993: 62-64.

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2. TITHIS AND THEIR DEITIES

There is a unit of time called tithi or the lunar day. This corresponds to one-thirtieth of a lunar month or one-fifteenth of a half lunar month3. One month is divided into two fortnights, the bright fortnight (sukla pakÒa) or the half month of the waxing moon and the dark fortnight (k®Ò∞a pakÒa) or the half month of waning moon. Each fortnight is further divided into fifteen tithis. The first tithi of both fortnights are usually called pratipad or the beginning day. The fifteenth tithi of the bright fortnight is pur∞ima or the day of full moon and that of the dark fortnight is amavasya or the day of new moon. The rest of the thirteen tithis are named with the ordinal numbers like the second (dvitiya), the third (t®tiya) etc. In the post-Vedic periods continuing into even today there are a number of religious festivals and ceremonies which are named after the names of the tithis adding before them the names of the deities to be worshipped. They are, for example, the k®Ò∞ajanmaÒ†ami or the eight (tithi) of the birth of K®Ò∞a (Kane 1974b: 128-143), the ga∞e- sacaturthi or the fourth (tithi) of Ga∞esa (Kane 1974b: 145-149), the nagapancami or the fifth (tithi) of the Serpents (Kane 1974b: 124-125; Einoo 1994b), and so on. So it is clear that in the post-Vedic rituals the use of the various tithis for determining the day of performance of deities is common phenomenon. But the situation in the Vedic ritual is very different. In the srauta rituals the day of the performance of a rite is in principle limited to the full moon or new moon day, with the exception of the agnihotra which should be performed twice daily, in the morning and evening4. Apart from the full moon and the new moon days, from the

3 The tithi is a unit of time, astronomically defined as a period ‘during which the elon- gation of the Moon from the Sun increases by 12 degrees' (Pingree 1981: 44). 4 In the srautasutras I could find only several places where reference to the tithis is made, viz., BaudhSS 24.20 [205,4-8] where it is said that the half month consists of 15 parts, ManSS 5.1.1.1 where the ninth tithi is excluded from the days of performance of the simple sacrifices of the srauta ritual (iÒ†is) and KatySS 15.10.2 where the fourth tithi of the bright half month of asvina is prescribed as the day of the performance of an animal sacri- fice. I must naturally admit that there must be other occurrences of the word tithi in the cor- pus of the srautasutras. There is another rather indefinite expression of the day of the performance such as ‘on an auspicious day in the half year from the winter to summer solstice, in the half month from the new moon to full moon day' (udagayana apuryama∞apakÒasya

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 102 S. EINOO time of the Taittiriya Saµhita, an older Vedic text belonging to the black Yajurveda, a certain importance has been attached to the aÒ†aka, namely the eighth or the middle day of the half month, in that on the aÒ†aka days in the dark fortnight of the months in winter a rite named after this day has to be performed according to the g®hyasutras5, and these three or four aÒ†aka rites can be reduced to one day which is called ekaÒ†aka and coincides with the winter solstice6. It is worth noticing that this eighth day is called aÒ†aka, not aÒ†ami as in the post-Vedic period. In the g®hyasutras we come across more cases in which the word tithi or an ordinal number indicating a certain tithi is employed to denote the day of performance of a rite. For the day of setting up of the fire for the g®hya ritual, GobhGS 1.1.13 prescribes as follows: «In this way, on the coincidence of an (auspicious) tithi and an (auspicious) lunar mansion (nakÒatra), (or of such a lunar mansion) and the day of new or full moon (parvan).»7 The date of the performance of the ceremony of the tonsure (cu∂akar- man) is prescribed in the ManGS 1.21.1 as follows: «When the third year (after the birth of the child) is almost over, he should cut (the hair of the boy) so that a single lock of the crown of the head remains; (this ceremony of the tonsure takes place) during the northern course of the sun, in the bright half of the month, under an auspicious lunar mansion, except on the ninth tithi.»8 There are other cases of the ritual employment of the tithi in which the tithi itself or the presiding deity of a tithi becomes the object of the pu∞yahe) (BaudhSS 5.1 [128,2-3]). For the same or similar expressions see, e.g. BaudhSS 21.1 [69,16-17]; ApSS 15.1.1; HirSS 13.7.33; VaikhSS 8.3 [80,12]. 5 For the description of the aÒ†aka rite see Gonda (1980: 450-453). For the relevant literature see ibid., p. 450, n. 24. See further, e.g. Weber (1862: 337), Apte (1939: 245- 251), Gopal (1959: 414-418). 6 See Falk (1986: 144-153). 7 GobhGS 1.1.13 tatha tithinakÒatraparvasamavaye. In translating this passage I follow the interpretation of H. Oldenberg (Oldenberg 1892: 15). 8 ManGS 1.21.1 t®tiyasya varÒasya bhuyiÒ†he gate cu∂aÌ karayet / udagayane jyaut- sne pu∞ye nakÒatre ‘nyatra navamyam /1/ For similar cases where a certain tithi is mentioned as the day of performance of any ritual rite see further, e.g. KausS 22.8; SankhGS 2.11.7; 4.6.1; 5.2.2; AsvGS 3.5.3; GobhGS 2.8.1; Ka†hGS 48.1; ManGS 2.1.2; 13.2; 18.1; BodhGS 1.11.2; 2.6.29; 11.2; 4; 3.8.1; BharGS 1.19 [19,7]; ParGS 2.10.2. See Gonda (1980: 241-243).

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 103 worship. In prescribing the rising of the mother from childbed SankhGS 1.25.5 and 10 says the following: «5. Having made oblations to the tithi of (the child's) birth and to three lunar mansions9 with their (presiding) deities…. 10. And having made oblations in the same way every month to the tithi of (the child's) birth.»10 In prescribing the standard procedure of the g®hya ritual, Ka†hGS 47.12 say ‘One should worship the presiding deities of the seasons, tithis, and the lunar mansions.'11 From the time of the Vedic literature we have much information about the lunar mansions (nakÒatras) and their presiding deities. The correlation between the twenty-seven or twenty-eight lunar mansions and their presiding deities is so well-known that its detailed discussion can be here overlooked12. On the contrary, the information about the presiding deities of the seasons is very scarce. Brahma∞abala, a commentator on the Ka†haka G®hyasutra, flourishing perhaps before the 11th century A.D.13, collects mantras to be used in the worship of the deities of the seasons. Accord- ing to this collection of mantras given by Brahma∞abala on Ka†hGS 47.12 [211,25-212,3], the presiding deities of the seasons are as follows: spring (vasanta), Agni; hot season (griÒma), Indra; rainy season (varÒa),

9 These three lunar mansions may be the later trijanmanakÒatra that P.V. Kane explains by quoting the Nir∞ayasindhu: The lunar mansion on the day of which a child is born and the lunar mansions that precedes and follows it are called three lunar mansions of the birth (janmanakÒatraµ tatpurvottare ca trijanmanakÒatram ucyate) (Kane 1977: 765). The word trijanma also appears in BodhGSS 3.11.1 and HirGSS 1.6.17 [86,6-7] as one of the dates for the performance of the m®tyuµjayakalpa, a ceremony to ward off an untimely death. 10 SankhGS 1.25.5 janmatithiµ hutva tri∞i ca bhani sadaivatani /5/… evam eva masi- masi janmatithiµ hutva /10/ 11 Ka†hGS 47.12 ®tutithinakÒatradevatas ca yajeta /12/ For the cases in which the tithi or the presiding deity of a tithi is worshipped, see further, e.g. GobhGS 2.8.12; 20; ManGS 1.10.9 = 2.2.15; VarGS 1.24. See Gonda (1980: 243). 12 See Weber (1862: 367-376). Weber gives a list of passages where the enumeration of the nakÒatras together with their deities appears in note 2 on p. 367. NakÒatrakalpa 37- 41 can be now found also in the AVPS 1.37-41. See further Kane (1974b: 501-504), Dep- pert (1977: 377-381), and Modak (1993: 209-231). We can also find other lists of this kind in JaimGS 1.19 [17,12-18]; AgnGS 1.2.3 [18,14-19,10]; VaikhGS 3.20 [50,5-14]. 13 Brahma∞abala is regarded as older than Devapala, another commentator on the Ka†hGS (Gonda 1977: 599). Devapala is, in his turn, supposed to live in the 11th century A.D. (Dreyer 1986: XXX).

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Maruts; autumn (sarad), Visve devaÌ; winter (hemanta), Mitra; cold season (sisira), Varu∞a14. Now we turn to the subject of the presiding deities of the tithis, which is the main topic of this paper. The same commentator, Brahma- ∞abala, again gives a collection of mantras to be used in the worship of the presiding deities of the tithis in his commentary on Ka†hGS 47.12 [212,3-10]. Bha††anaraya∞a, a commentator of the GobhGS of unknown date, also gives a collection of mantras for the worship of the presiding deities of the tithis in his commentary on GobhGS 2.8.12 [419,4-6]. According to both commentaries we have the following list of presiding deities of the tithis: 1. Brahma, 2. TvaÒ†®, 3. ViÒ∞u, 4. Yama, 5. Soma, 6. Kumara, 7. Sages (munis), 8. Vasus, 9. Goblins (pisacas), 10. Dharma, 11. Rudras (according to Bha††anaraya∞a, Rudra), 12. Adityas (according to Bha††anaraya∞a, Vayu), 13. Kama, 14. Ghosts (bhutas) (according to Bha††anaraya∞a, yakÒas, a class of demigods), new moon day (amavasya), Ancestors (pit®s), and full moon day (pur∞ima), Visve devaÌ. But here it is necessary to be ascertained that, even if the concept of the presiding deities of the tithis exists in the g®hyasutras themselves, we do not know which deity is correlated with which tithi. Our information so far is derived only from the commentaries on the g®hyasutras. Almost the same list, however, has already been handed down in the B®hatsaµhita, a technical text on divination written by Varahamihira in the sixth century A.D.15 In a succinct description in B®hatsaµhita 98.1-2a we have the following statement: 1. Kamalaja (= Brahma), 2. Vidhat® (= TvaÒ†®), 3. Hari (=ViÒ∞u), 4. Yama, 5. Sasanka (= Soma), 6. ∑a∂vaktra (= Kumara), 7. Sakra, 8. Vasus, 9, Serpents, 10. Dharma, 11. Isa (= Rudra/Siva), 12. Savit®, 13. Manmatha (= Kama), 14. Kali;

14 Among the Vedic saµhita see e.g. MS 3.11.12 [159,1-12] where Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, ¤bhus, Maruts, and gods are related with spring, hot season, rainy season, autumn, winter, and cold season respectively. For further references see Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance, s.v. vasantena ®tuna. For the discussion of this group of mantras and the order of the gods see Gonda (1980b: 188). Cf. also Whitney's note on AV 3.10.9. 15 For the date of Varahamihira see Pingree (1981: 11) and for the detailed analysis of the contents of the B®hatsaµhita and its influence on the later texts see Pingree (1981: 71- 78).

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 105 pur∞ima, Visve devaÌ; amavasya, pit®s16. From this it is clear that there has been a tradition of presiding deities of the tithis. As will be seen later, this tradition handed down by the B®hatsaµhita and two commentaries on the g®hyasutras, however, does not correspond exactly to that recorded by the pura∞a texts. When we read the pura∞as, we come across a number of passages where this correlation is described. The tithis and their presiding deities are enumerated in the following pura∞ic passages: BhaviÒya Pura∞a 1.102.11-15ab; Garu∂a Pura∞a 1.116.3-8; Padma Pura∞a 6.96.15cd-19; Skanda Pura∞a 1.1.33.79cd-82ab; Varaha Pura∞a 19- 3617. P.V. Kane adds Garu∂a Pura∞a 1.137.16cd-19 (Kane 1974b: 70). Nilamata 842-846 contains a similar list, even though that list does not contain all the fifteen tithis (Einoo 1994: 158). We can further add to this list, for example, Agni Pura∞a 33.2-3a; BhaviÒya Pura∞a 1.102.19-34; Devi Pura∞a 61; Kalika Pura∞a 59.39-43ab; Vamana Pura∞a 17.6-1318. When we compare the statements in above texts we have the following list of the tithis and their presiding deities. (In this list Roman numerals represent the tithis and the numbers given after the names of the deities show the number of the passages in which they stand for the presiding deities of the tithis.) I: Agni 4, Brahma 4, Kubera 4, Asvins 1, Sri 1. II: Sri 5, Asvins 3, Yama 2, Agni, Brahma, Naraya∞a, Siva, Uma, Visvakarma 1. III: Uma/Parvati 7, Saµkara 2, Vighnesa 1, YakÒaraja 1, Radha 1. IV: Ga∞esa 11, Caturvyuha19 1, Dhanada 1, Mahadeva 1

16 According to P.V. Kane, ViÒ∞udharmottara Pura∞a 1.83.22-23ab and Naradiya Pura∞a 1.56.133cd-135 give similar lists (Kane 1974b: 69-70). 17 According to the Subject-Concordance of the critical edition of the Varaha Pura∞a, p. 1351, s.v. tithayas taddevatas ca (The Titihis and their presiding deities). 18 See further BhaviÒya Pura∞a 4.134.65cd-69; 193.1-66 (dealing with rules for the donation on each tithi); ViÒ∞udharmottara Pura∞a 3.221.9-94ab; Skanda Pura∞a 5.3.26. 102cd-127. 19 Garu∂a Pura∞a 1.116.5a caturthyaµ ca caturvyuhaÌ ‘and on the fourth tithi the Caturvyuha.' The Caturvyuha is a group of four gods in the doctrine of the Pancaratra, a Tantric school of ViÒ∞uism. They are Vasudeva, SaµkarÒa∞a, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. See, e.g. Gupta (1971), Gonda (1977b: 60-61) and Colas (1996: 114).

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V: Serpents 7, the Moon, Sri 2, Yama, Parvati, Sarasvati, Varu∞a, ViÒ∞u 1. VI: Skanda 12, the Sun 1. VII: the Sun 12. VIII: Durga 5, Siva 4, Mat®s 3, Indra 1. IX: Durga 6, Mat®s 4, Gayatri 2, Directions, TakÒaka 1. X: Yama 4, Serpents 3, Directions 2, the Moon, Brahma, Dhanada, Indra 1. XI: Munis 4, Rudra/Siva, Visve devaÌ 2, Bull, Dhanada, ViÒ∞u 1. XII: ViÒ∞u 11, Serpents 1, Kama 1. XIII: Kama 7, Yama 3, Mahesvara 1. XIV: Siva 8, Pit®s, Brahma, Kali, YakÒas 1. XV: Brahma 4, Pit®s 2, Directions, Indra, Siva, the Moon 1.

Even if the deities assigned to each tithi vary more or less widely in the enumerations in the pura∞a texts, we can observe that particular deities are statistically more often associated with certain tithis. When we pick out deities that are associated with certain tithis most often, we have the following artificial list of the presiding deities of the tithis extracted from the materials gathered in the pura∞as: 1. Agni or Brahma or Kubera, 2. Sri, 3. Uma/Parvati, 4. Ga∞esa, 5. Serpents, 6. Skanda, 7. the Sun, 8. Durga, 9. Durga, 10. Yama, 11. Sages, 12. ViÒ∞u, 13. Kama, 14. Siva, 15. Brahma. A comparison with the presiding deities given in the B®hatsaµhita and with those found in this artificial list, shows that it is only the presiding god of the sixth tithi, Skanda, and that of the thirteenth tithi, Kama, who appear in both lists. The list of the presiding deities in the pura∞as is so different from that of the B®hatsaµhita that we can rather safely assert that there have been at least two traditions of presiding deities of the tithis, the one handed down through the astro- logical texts represented by the B®hatsaµhita, and the other recorded in many pura∞a texts, though showing some variations20.

20 In my artificial list Brahma together with Agni and Kubera appears for the first tithi as in the list of the B®hatsaµhita. The Moon is listed in two passages of the pura∞as in the statistical table as the deity of the fifth tithi just like in the B®hatsaµhita. Rudra for the 11. tithi and YakÒas for the 14. tithi in the list of Bha††anaraya∞a are recorded in the statistical table of the pura∞a twice and once for these two tithis respectively. So when we take

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The texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level contain, as far as I have seen, twenty-eight instances of the relationship between tithis and deities. In the following I list them in accordance with the number of references to the deities.

ViÒ∞u 7th and 12th tithis (bali-offerings to ViÒ∞u in BodhGS 1.11.2, AgnGS 2.5.7 and HirGSS 1.3.15 [34,19-20]). 11th tithi (bali-offerings to Naraya∞a in AsvGPS 3.15) 11th and 12th tithis (installation ceremony of the image of ViÒ∞u in Bod- hGSS 2.13.1) 12th tithi (worship of ViÒ∞u for obtaining offspring in AgnGS 2.5.6 and ¤gvidh 3.26.1, bali-offerings to Naraya∞a in AgnGS 3.11.4 and BodhGSS 3.20.1, worship of ViÒ∞u in BodhGSS 3.7.1, AVPS 18b.8.1 and ¤gvidh 3.26.4) Rudra 4th, 8th, and 14th tithis (installation ceremony of the image of Rudra in BodhGSS 2.16.1) 8th tithi (worship of Rudra in BodhGS 3.8.1 and BodhGSS 3.15.1) 8th and 14th tithis (a rite to avert an untimely death in AgnGS 2.5.4) 14th tithi (worship of Rudra in HirGSS 1.5.9 and ¤gvidh 1.30.4cd-31.2ab) Skanda/Dhurta 6th tithi (worship of Dhurta in AVPS 20.1.3) 7th and 13th tithis (bali-offerings to Dhurta in BodhGSS 4.2.1) the Sun god 7th tithi (in BodhGSS 2.5.1) Upasruti 4th, 8th, and 14th tithis (worship of Upasruti in BodhGSS 3.4.1) Durga 9th tithi (festival of Durga in AVPS 18b.2.4) Serpents 5th tithi (bali-offerings to the Serpents in AsvGPS 3.16) Yama 8th and 14th tithis (in ¤gvidh 3.7.1-2) these facts into consideration, it is true that the degree of variations between two kinds of list decreases a little more.

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Vinayaka 4th or 5th tithi (worship of Vinayaka in BodhGSS 3.10.1) Sri 5th tithi (worship of Sri in BodhGSS 3.5.2) Sarasvati 13th tithi (worship of Sarasvati in BodhGSS 3.6.1)

Most of the passages regard the twelfth tithi as that belonging to ViÒ∞u just as do the pura∞a texts, but two texts connect the eleventh tithi with ViÒ∞u. In the pura∞a texts, when the presiding deities are enumerated it is always the twelfth tithi which is presided over by ViÒ∞u. But, as P.V. Kane discusses in great detail, the eleventh tithi is said to be dear to ViÒ∞u and fasting on this day is highly meritorious especially for the followers of ViÒ∞u (Kane 1974: 95-117), so it can be supposed that in the course of time the shift from the twelfth to the eleventh occurred regarding the tithi of ViÒ∞u. The determination of Rudra/Siva's tithi is more uncertain. The choice is left to us between the eighth and fourteenth tithis. The same choice between these two tithis is given also in the case of Upasruti, a goddess of the night21, and Yama, the god of death. The fourteenth tithi of the dark half of the month is determined for a rite performed with the inten- tion of destroying the enemy in ¤gvidh 2.3.5-4.4, Samavidh 2.6.16 and 3.6.12. The apam®tyuµjayakalpa, a rite to ward off the fear of an untimely death, is performed either on the eighth or the fourteenth tithi. Thus these eighth and fourteenth tithis show an association with such ominous things as death, night, sorcery, etc., and this aspect of these two

21 The ominous character of Upasruti can be understood from her appearance in the mantra used at the offering of mustard seeds into the fire of childbirth, e.g. in JaimGS 1.8 [8,1]; HirGS 2.3.7; AgnGS 2.1.3 [47,8]; ParGS 1.16.23 where she is mentioned among many demons threatening a newly born child. Upasruti is a goddess to be worshipped in the upasrutikalpa described in BodhGSS 3.4 and HirGSS 1.6.10 [81,11-25]. Regarding the object of this ceremony P.N.U. Harting says: ‘I do not understand the real meaning of the interesting but enigmatic ceremony which is described' (Harting 1922: XXII). On the basis of the Vasantaraja, P.V. Kane suggests the connection of Upasruti with a rite of prognostication and refers to the ‘Padmapura∞a, Patalakha∞∂a chap. 100 verses 62-166' where in verse 79 the word upasruti appears (Kane 1977: 809-12). For Upasruti in the Mahabharata, see Hopkins (1915: 130-131).

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 109 tithis brings them into a relationship with two dreadful deities, viz., Rudra/Siva and Durga/Kali in the pura∞a texts. Besides the 7th and the 13th tithis, the sixth tithi is assigned to Skanda/Dhurta as in the B®hatsaµhita and the pura∞as. Apart from the tithis connected with ViÒ∞u, Rudra/Siva and Skanda/Dhurta, we have here in the texts belonging to the G®hyaparisiÒ†a level a single source of information for the relation between other presiding deities and tithis. Besides Sarasvati, whose rite is to be performed on the thirteenth tithi, other deities are assigned almost to the same tithis as in the pura∞a texts22. As we have ascertained above, there is no mention of the presiding deities of tithis by name in the g®hyasutras proper, so we can perhaps safely conclude that it is in the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level that we have the first mentions of the presiding deities of the tithis, which, though not containing the complete fifteen tithis, correspond more or less exactly to the descriptions in the pura∞a texts. It is necessary, however, to point out several facts that show the float- ing situation of the tradition of the presiding deities of tithis in the tran- sitional period from the time of the g®hyasutras proper to that of the g®hyaparisiÒ†as. For instance, BodhGS 1.11.1-14, AgnGS 2.5.7, and HirGSS 1.3.15 prescribe the seventh and twelfth tithis as dates of performance of the bali-offerings to ViÒ∞u (viÒ∞ubali), but the BodhGS 1.10.13-17, that is, in a passage just before that mentioned above, describes the viÒ∞ubali succinctly mentioning only that this rite is to be performed in the eighth month after the pregnancy. It means that Bod- hGS 1.11 describes the same rite repeatedly or in an additional way again after BodhGS 1.10.13-17. Moreover, this additional BodhGS 1.11 is the last chapter of the first book of the Bodhayana G®hyasutra, and it contains several elements of the puja ceremony, a newly developed,

22 The fifth tithi that is associated with Sri in BodhGSS 3.5.2 is assigned also to Sri two times in the pura∞as. In several pura∞as we have the description of an annual festival called sripancami or the fifth (tithi) for Sri. P. V. Kane (1974b: 432-433) describes four kinds of sripancami. He refers to BhaviÒya Pura∞a 4.37.1-58 for the first kind of this festival. For the third one we can add B®haddharma Pura∞a 1.15.41 and for the fourth one B®haddharma Pura∞a 1.16.1-2, Nilamata 644-646 and ViÒ∞udharmottara Pura∞a 3.221.42cd. The first type of the sripancami is referred to in Kalika Pura∞a 88.21 and Skanda Pura∞a 7.1.132.8 and 290.40.

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 110 S. EINOO post-Vedic method of worshipping gods23. So we can assume, with P.N.U. Harting (1922: XVIII), that this BodhGS 1.11 is a later interpo- lation belonging to the same milieu as the AgnGS 2.5.7 and HirGSS 1.3.14, namely to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level. By the way, this viÒ∞ubali is also prescribed in VaikhGS 3.13 without any reference to its date of performance, it means that the viÒ∞ubali in VaikhGS 3.13 still belongs to the older tradition of the g®hyasutras proper. A rite called vinayakakalpa or worship of Vinayaka is described in Manava G®hyasutra 2.14, Santikalpa 2.4-9 and Yajnavalkyasm®ti 1.271- 29424. As the first description of the vinayakakalpa is that of the Manava G®hyasutra, a text of the g®hyasutra proper, it is natural that we do not find any mention of tithis for the date of its performance. BodhGSS 3.10 and HirGSS 1.6.16 also describe the vinayakakalpa. The name of this rite is the same with that of the Manava G®hyasutra but its ritual procedure is greatly different and these two texts mention either the fourth of fifth tithi of the bright half of the month as its day of performance, the fourth tithi being later regarded as the tithi of Vinayaka/Ga∞esa. Thus the determination of the day of performance of worship of certain deity according to the tithi assigned to this deity can be observed only in the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a and the later texts like many pura∞as25. AgnGS 2.4.11 describes the ravikalpa, the worship of the Sun god, BodhGSS 1.21 and HirGSS 1.6.5 the Yamayajna, BodhGSS 3.3 and HirGSS 1.6.9 the durgakalpa, but in their prescriptions there is no mention of the tithis as a date for performance, even though these works belong to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level.

23 For the formation and development of the puja ceremony, see Einoo (1996: 73-87). 24 See Gonda (1980: 438-439). For further references see Gonda's note 72 on page 438. See further Kane (1977: 748-749). 25 So it is easily understandable that the festival of bathing of Vinayaka on the fourth tithi (vinayakasnapanacaturthivrata) in BhaviÒya Pura∞a 1.23.1-31 and 4.32.1-30 is to be performed on the fourth tithi of the bright half of the month, even if this festival reflects, according to Kane (1974b: 409), the influence of the rite described in the Yajnaval- kyasm®ti. On the other hand, the bathing of Vinayaka (vinayakasnana) in ViÒ∞udharmottara Pura∞a 2.105.1-26, which also has many elements common to that of the Yaj- navalkyasm®ti, has no mention of the tithi as its date of the performance, even if it appears in the pura∞a.

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Thus, the concept of the presiding deities of the tithis had not perme- ated thoroughly among the g®hyaparisiÒ†as, but it is sure that in the g®hyaparisiÒ†as we can find some first sporadic references to the relationship between the tithis and their presiding deities, and in some cases this relationship plays a decisive role in determining the day of performance of a rite for a certain deity.

3. GUARDIANS OF THE DIRECTIONS

In today's India, we sometimes come across the idea of the eight guardians of the directions (dikpalas) or the eight guardians of the worlds (lokapalas). According to it the east is protected by or associated with Indra. The deities which are assigned to the remaining seven directions are as follows: Agni to the southeast, Yama to the south, Nir®ti to the southwest, Varu∞a to the west, Vayu to the northwest, Soma or Kubera to the north and Isana to the northeast. They play a very important role in the post-Vedic rituals. In the second part of this article I will trace the development of the idea of the eight guardians of the directions by consulting the Vedic and post-Vedic ritual texts. From the time of the Atharvaveda there have been handed down mantras that are used in ritual actions performed repeatedly to all directions. In these mantras we see correlations between the gods and the points of the compass. These correlations are far from being unanimous, however. The number of mantras is either six or five. In the case of six mantras, they are dedicated to the gods presiding over the four cardinal points and the upper and lower directions; in the case of five, the mantra for the lower direction is omitted. Below are some examples of the correlations between the directions and the deities.

AV 3.27.1-6 TS 5.5.10.1-2 KS 7.2 [64,11-16] East Agni Agni Agni South Indra Indra Indra West Varu∞a Soma Soma North Soma Varu∞a Mitra/Varu∞a Upper B®haspati B®haspati B®haspati Lower ViÒ∞u Yama Aditi

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TS 1.8.7.1-2 MS 1.5.4 [71,9-14] MS 4.9.5 [125,4-9] East Agni Agni Agni, Vasus South Yama Indra Pit®, Pit®s West Savit® Maruts Savit®, Adityas North Varu∞a Mitra/Varu∞a Mitra/Varu∞a, Maruts Upper B®haspati Soma B®haspati, Visve devaÌ

In these examples the god of the east is always Agni, the god of the upper direction is, with one exception, B®haspati, and the south is mostly dedicated to Indra. One mantra given in AV 19.17.1-10 deals with the ten directions, namely the four cardinal and four intermediate directions and the upper and lower ones. The four cardinal directions are indicated by proper terms but the four intermediate directions are indicated only by etasya disaÌ ‘from this direction'. The relationship between the directions and the gods given there is as follows: east, Agni and Vasus; southeast, Vayu and AntarikÒa; south, Soma and Rudras; southwest, Varu∞a and Adityas; west, Surya and Heaven and Earth; northwest, Waters and Herbs; north, Visvakarma and Seven Seers; northeast: Indra and Maruts; upper, B®haspati and Visve devaÌ; lower, Prajapati. Many other passages further indicate the relationship between the directions and gods but they vary largely26. In sections 91 and 92 in his Epic Mythology E. W. Hopkins discusses the problem of the World-Protectors and summarizes his discussion as follows (Hopkins 1915: 152):

There are then the following groups of epic Lokapalas: East Agni Kubera Agni Kubera Indra South Yama Yama Yama Yama Yama West Varu∞a Varu∞a Varu∞a Varu∞a Varu∞a North Indra Indra Soma Soma Kubera.

26 In ¤V 10.131.1 the four cardinal points are enumerated in a prayer for protection (Gonda 1980b: 48). For other examples see further, e.g. AV 4,40; 12.3; 15.2; 4; 5; 6; 14; 18.3.25-35; 19.17; 18. TS 1.2.12.2; 6.5.1-2; 4.4.2.1-3; 6.1.5.1; 2.7.4-5. MS 2.13.21 [166,13-167,13]; 3.6.1 [60,1-3]; [60,7-16]; 4.1.10 [13,14-14,2]. KS 23.8 [83,16-20]. VS 9.35. TB 1.6.3.7-8; 3.11.5.1-3. SB 1.2.5.17; 3.1.1.6-7; 5.4.1.3-7; 8.3.1.2; 13.5.4.24; 14.2.2.28. See further, e.g. Heesterman (1957: 31), Gonda (1980b: 48-49), Kuiper (1979: 52-58), and Kuiper (1983: 47-48).

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The representatives of South and West are constant. Agni and Kubera and Indra are assigned to the East; Indra, Kubera, and Soma to the North.

Just at the beginning of his discussion, however, he speaks of the eight gods presiding over the eight directions as follows (Hopkins 1915: 149): The eight gods discussed above… are grouped in later literature as guardians of the four chief and four subsidiary directions, the Sun-god of the South-West, the Moon-god of the North-East, the Wind-god of the North-West, the Fire-god of the South-East, and for cardinal points, Yama of the South, Varu∞a of the West, Kubera of the North, and Indra of the East. The exact district assigned to each is not specified so early as are the names. Thus the eight are found as Lokapalas in Manu 5,96…, but without indication of the localities assigned to the individuals. On the other hand some late authorities make Nir®ti the guardian of the South-West, instead of the Sun; and P®thivi or Siva Isana the guardian of the North-East, instead of the Moon-god. W. Kirfel, in his Die Kosmographie der Inder, p. 95, gives the following list of the guardians of the directions: east, Indra; southeast, Agni; south, Yama; southwest, VirupakÒa (Kurma Pura∞a., Linga Pura∞a.: Nir®ti); west, Varu∞a; northwest, Vayu; north, Soma (Varaha Pura∞a.: Kubera); northeast, Isana (Linga Pura∞a.: Rudra, Kurma Pura∞a.: Saµkara). Thus in later literature, such as the pura∞as, it is an established fact that there are eight guardians of the cardinal and intermediate directions, and lists of them show only minor variation27. In the ritual texts from the g®hyasutras onwards we can trace a development of the concept of these eight deities of the directions. In the g®hyasutras there are many occasions where a ritual action is performed repeatedly towards the directions. In his Vedic Ritual, J. Gonda discusses this point by collecting many passages from various g®hyasutras and other texts (Gonda 1980: 57). In his discussion he refers to twenty passages. Of these passages quoted by Gonda it is only in AgnGS 2.5.1,

27 According to D.C. Sircar ‘The earliest epigraphical reference to the Brahmanical Dikpalas (guardians of the quarters) or Lokapalas (protectors of the worlds) is found in the Nanaghat inscription of queen Naganika of the Satavahana dynasty, who seems to have flourished about the close of the first century B. C.' (Sircar 1971: 239).

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AVPS 25.1.3ff., and Samavidh 3.3.5 that reference to the eight guardians of the directions is made. In other cases there is no mention of them. And these three texts are, in my opinion, texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level. From this we can, at first, certainly conclude that in the g®hyasutras proper, the concept of the four or the eight guardians of the quarters was not fully established28. In describing an ceremony performed on the occasion of annual sus- pension of a Vedic study in autumn (utsarjana), BodhGS 3.9.3 mentions five kings, Indra, Yama, Varu∞a, Soma, and Vaisrava∞a as follows: ‘I arrange (a seat) for Brahma, for Prajapati, for B®haspati, for Agni, for Vayu, for the Sun, for the Moon, for the lunar mansions, for the seasons, for the year (saµvatsara), for the king Indra, for the king Yama, for the king Varu∞a, for the king Soma, for the king Vaisrava∞a, for the Vasus, for the Rudras, for the Adityas, for the Visve devaÌ, for the Sadhya devaÌ'29. It is doubtful that here Indra, Yama, Varu∞a, Soma, and Vais- rava∞a are referred to as deities of the directions. It is worth noticing, however, that here five candidates of the four presiding deities of the directions are enumerated at one place in the same order of the positions which they later take over30. In the g®hyasutras proper, however, we have a distinct reference to the four guardians of the cardinal points together with a fifth god related to the centre in the description of the vaisvadeva, a daily offering of por- tions of food to the various gods in different places in a house twice in the morning and evening31. The text of AsvGS 1.2.5-6, for instance, reads as follows:

28 As cases where a certain ritual action is performed repeatedly towards the directions without mentioning the four or eight deities of the directions, we can add further, e.g. KausS 49.7-8; AsvGS 1.23.14-15; 4.9.21-22; SankhGS 4.6.5; Ka†hGS 24.12; ManGS 2.15.1; BharGS 2.22 [55,12-14]; HirGS 1.4.5; 7.10; 2.6.7. 29 BodhGS 3.9.3 brahma∞e kalpayami prajapataye b®haspataye agnaye vayave suryaya candramase nakÒatrebhyaÌ®tubhyaÌ saµvatsaraya indraya rajne yamaya rajne varu∞aya rajne somaya rajne vaisrava∞aya rajne vasubhyaÌ rudrebhyaÌ adityebhyaÌ visvebhyo devebhyaÌ sadhyebhyo devebhyaÌ. 30 The same enumeration of these five kings is given also in BharGS 3.9 [76,10-12] and HirGS 2.8.19.1 in the same context of the description of the utsarjana. 31 See SankhGS 2.14.6-7, AsvGS 1.2.5-6, ManGS 2.12.12-16, and Ka†hGS 54.11- 16.

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5. To Indra and Indra's men, to Yama and Yama's men, to Varu∞a and Varu∞a's men, to Soma and Soma's men — these (oblations he makes) to the different quarters (of the horizon, of which those are the presiding deities). 6. To Brahman and Brahman's men in the middle. (Oldenberg 1886: 161)

In order to have a full list of the eight guardians, it is first necessary to have certain gods assigned to the intermediate directions of the horizon. In the rite for the building of a house GobhGS 4.7.36 enumerates gods of the ten directions, viz., the eight directions and the lower and upper directions. They are, beginning with the east, Indra, Vayu, Yama, Pit®s, Varu∞a, Maharaja, Soma, Mahendra, Vasuki, and Brahma32. Here the four gods related to the four intermediate directions, viz., Vayu, Pit®s, Maharaja, and Mahendra, are wholly different from those in the later standard list. It is again in the description of the vaisvadeva that a reference of the gods of the intermediate regions is found, viz., BodhGS 2.8.36-37: 36. Now to the cardinal points: ‘To the eastern direction, svaha.' ‘To the southern direction svaha.' ‘To the western direction, svaha.' ‘To the northern direction, svaha.' ‘To the upper direction, svaha.' ‘To the lower direction, svaha.' 37. Now to the intermediate directions: ‘To Yama, svaha.' ‘To Nir®ti, svaha.' ‘To the RakÒas, svaha.' ‘To Isana, svaha.'33

In the mantras uttered in the offerings to the four cardinal points there is no mention of the names of the god, but in the offerings to the intermediate directions, four gods, viz., Yama, Nir®ti, RakÒas, and Isana, are allotted perhaps to the south-east, south-west, north-west, and north-east respectively, of which already Nir®ti and Isana occupy the same positions as in the late list of the eight guardians of the directions.

32 As S. Konow suggests, the same list of these ten gods appears also in the Samavidh 3.3.7 [169,7-12] (Konow 1893: 69). ¤gvidh 4.26.3 gives a slightly different list: ‘suryo vayur yamaÌ pitaro varu∞o nir®tis tatha / somo mahendra ity ete dikÒu vai devata sm®taÌ //'; ‘Surya (the Sun), Vayu (Wind), Yama, the Forefathers, Varu∞a and Nir®ti (Destruc- tion), Soma (the Moon) and the great Indra, these are the divinities who are traditionally held (v.l.: praised) as (presiding) in the quarters of the sky.' (Gonda 1951: 123) 33 BodhGS 2.8.36-37 atha dikÒu pracyai dise svaha, dakÒi∞ayai dise svaha, praticyai dise svaha, urdhvayai dise svaha, adharayai dise svaha iti /36/ athavantaradikÒu yamaya svaha, nir®tyai svaha, rakÒobhyas svaha, isanaya svaha /37/

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In the description of the vaisvadeva BharGS 3.13-14 [81,5-17] enjoins a curious usage of the mantras as follows: 13. Now he pours down the bali offering clockwise: ‘To the eastern direction, svaha.' ‘To the southern direction, svaha.' ‘To the western direction, svaha.' ‘To the northern direction, svaha.' ‘To the upper direction, svaha.' ‘To the direction of Agni, svaha.' ‘To the direction of Nir®ti, svaha.' ‘To the direction of Vayu, svaha.' ‘To the direction of Isana, svaha.' ‘To Brahma, svaha. To Prajapati, svaha.' Thus in the middle. 14. In the east: ‘To Indra, svaha. To Indra's men, svaha.' In the south: ‘To Yama, svaha. To Yama's men, svaha.' In the west: ‘To Varu∞a, svaha. To Varu∞a's men, svaha.' In the north: ‘To Soma, svaha. To Soma's men, svaha.' In the east: ‘To Agni, svaha.' In the south: ‘To Yama, svaha.' In the west: ‘To Varu∞a, svaha.' In the north: ‘To Soma, svaha.' In the north-eastern place: ‘To the seven Seers, svaha. To the all beings, svaha.'34

What is remarkable here is that in the latter half of sutra 13, four offerings are prescribed by using the names of the gods of the intermediate directions and these four names, namely Agni, Nir®ti, Vayu and Isana, correspond perfectly to the names of the standard list of the eight guardians of the directions. Moreover, BharGS 3.13-14 seems to lay down the employment of three groups of mantras: the first group of mantras are those given in sutra 13; the second, those given in the first half of sutra 14; and the third, those given in the second half of sutra 14, beginning with ‘To Agni, svaha.' The second group corresponds to those mantras given, e.g. in AsvGS 1.2.3, as mentioned above, and the first group has its counterpart in the mantras given in BodhGS 2.8.36. The third group of mantras seems to belong to the more archaic tradition according to which the east is related to Agni. This part of the prescrip- tion of the vaisvadeva of the BharGS seems, thus, a compilation of three different traditions, and the four mantras used in the offerings to the four

34 BharGS 3.13-14 [81,5-17] atha pradakÒi∞aµ baliµ ninayati pracyai dise svaha dakÒi∞ayai dise svaha praticyai dise svahodicyai dise svahordhvayai dise svahagneyyai dise svaha nair®tyai dise svaha vayavyai dise svahaisanyai dise svaha brahma∞e svaha prajapataye svaheti madhye /13/ indraya svahendrapuruÒebhyaÌ svaheti purastad yamaya svaha yamapuruÒebhyaÌ svaheti dakÒi∞ato varu∞aya svaha varu∞apuruÒebhyas svaheti pascat somaya svaha somapuruÒebhyaÌ svahety uttarato ‘gnaye svaheti purastad yamaya svaheti dakÒi∞ato varu∞aya svaheti pascat somaya svahety uttarataÌ saptarÒibhyaÌ svaha sarvabhutebhyaÌ svahety uttarapurve dese… /14/

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 117 intermediate directions are probably a further, later addition to this compilation of the three traditions. The mantras prescribed by AgnGS 1.7.2 and VaikhGS 3.7 for the use in the vaisvadeva are more easily explainable. They read as follows: AgnGS 1.7.2 [41,18-20] To Brahma and Brahma's men, to Indra and Indra's men, to Agni, to Yama and Yama's men, to Nir®ti, to Varu∞a and Varu∞a's men, to Vayu, to Soma and Soma's men, to Isana. VaikhGS 3.7 [40,19-41,3] Homage to Indra, homage to Indra's men, homage to Yama, homage to Yama's men, homage to Varu∞a, homage to Varu∞a's men, homage to Soma, homage to Soma's men, homage to Agni, homage to Nir®ti, homage to Vayu, homage to Isana35. Both of them make use of the mantras handed down, e.g. by AsvGS 1.2.3. The AgnGS 1.7.2 intersperses the mantras for the four gods of the intermediate directions into the whole collection in their due order, whereas the VaikhGS 3.7 adds them after the mantras dedicated to the gods of the four cardinal points. Now we have good reason to believe that already in these two g®hyasutras the tradition of the eight guardians of the directions are fully established: in AgnGS 1.5.1 [26,11-12] there is a collection of mantras using these gods: ‘Homage to Inra, homage to Agni, homage to Yama, homage to Nir®ti, homage to Varu∞a, homage to Vayu, homage to Soma, homage to Isana'36, and these mantras are used in AgnGS 1.6.3 [39,12- 13] in the description of the wedding ceremony. VaikhGS 1.4 [5,6-9] has a set of mantras: ‘I satisfy Indra, I satisfy Yama, I satisfy Varu∞a, I satisfy Kubera, I satisfy Agni, I satisfy Nir®ti, I satisfy Vayu, I satisfy Isana'37. In these two texts the directions are indicated by using the names of these deities38.

35 AgnGS 1.7.2 [41,18-20] brahma∞e brahmapuruÒebhya indrayendrapuruÒebhyo ‘gnaye yamaya yamapuruÒebhyo nir®tyai varu∞aya varu∞apuruÒebhyo vayave somaya somapuruÒebhya isanaya. VaikhGS 3.7 [40,19-41,3] indraya nama indrapuruÒebhyo namo yamaya namo yamapuruÒebhyo namo varu∞aya namo varu∞apuruÒebhyo namaÌ somaya namaÌ somapuruÒebhyo namo ‘gnaye namo nir®taye namo vayave nama isanaya namaÌ. 36 AgnGS 1.5.1 [26,11-12] indraya namaÌ / agnaye namaÌ / yamaya namaÌ / nir®taye namaÌ / varu∞aya namaÌ / vayave namaÌ / somaya namaÌ / isanaya namaÌ / 37 VaikhGS 1.4 [5,6-9] indraµ tarpayami yamaµ tarpayami varu∞aµ tarpayami kuberaµ tarpayamy agniµ tarpayami nir®tiµ tarpayami vayuµ tarpayamisanaµ tarpayami. 38 See, e.g. VaikhGS 1.9 [10,3-4]; 4.13 [65,14-15]. AgnGS 2.4.11 [73,16-19]; 5.1 [77,5-9]; 3.4.4 [137,13-14].

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 118 S. EINOO

I would like to mention only a few examples of references to the eight guardians of the directions found in the g®hyaparisiÒ†a texts39. BodhGSS 1.8.3 [199,14-15] and HirGSS 1.4.7 [42,19] give a definition of the eight guardians of the directions: Indra, Agni, Yama, Nir®ti, Varu∞a, Vayu, Soma and Isana are eight deities of the directions40. AVPS 25.1.3-8 refers to the fire altars (ku∞∂as) of these eight gods. There are collections of mantras for these eight dikpalas, e.g. in ManSS 11.7.1.7; AVPS 36.1.5-11; BodhGSS 1.16.30; 4.18.5; 4.20.5 [377,9-14]; HirGSS 1.2.11 [15,13-16]; AsvGPS 2.7 [157,14-20]; 2.8 [158,9-12]41. We thus can conclude that in the g®hyasutras proper the tradition of the eight guardians of the directions is not yet established, but a list of the gods of the four cardinal points is already known. We can find ritual application of the gods of the four cardinal points, however, only in the case of the description of the vaisvadeva in five or, if the BharGS is included, six g®hyasutras; in other cases where a certain action is performed repeatedly to the different directions, mantras that have nothing to do with these guardians of the directions are used. The tradition of the

39 In the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level there are cases where the four intermediate directions are not mentioned. See, e.g. a collection of five mantras of invo- cation for Brahma, Indra, Yama, Varu∞a and Soma in BodhGSS 4.18.5 and a collection of mantras of Indra, Yama, Varu∞a, Kubera, Vasuki (the lower direction), and Soma (the upper direction) in AVPS 36.1.6-11. There is another example showing that the four intermediate directions do not come to the fore. AVPS 67 classifies various adbhutas or ominous phenomena into ten groups which are then related to ten different gods, viz., Indra, Varu∞a, Yama, Agni, Vaisrava∞a, ViÒ∞u, Vayu, Soma, Rudra, and Surya, and AdB 3-12 and AsvGPS 4.12-18 further associate these ten gods with ten regions, viz., Indra, east; Varu∞a, west; Yama, south; Agni, earth; Vaisrava∞a, north; ViÒ∞u, the highest sky (AsvGPS, all regions); Vayu, atmosphere; Soma, sky (AsvGPS, night); Rudra, the lower region; and Surya, all regions (AsvGPS, sky). Regions besides the four cardinal points are earth, atmosphere, sky, the highest sky, and all regions, so there is no assignment of gods to the subsidiary directions. See also Santikalpa 6.5-19 where mention of eight gods presiding over the eight directions is made: east, Indra; south, Yama; west, Varu∞a; north, Soma; fixed direction, ViÒ∞u; intermediate direction, Vayu; all directions, Brahma, but in the mention of the directions the four intermediate directions and their associated deities do not appear. 40 BodhGSS 1.8.3 [199,14-15], HirGSS 1.4.7 [42,19] indragniyamanir®tivaru∞avayu- somesana aÒ†a digdevatyam. 41 In the pura∞as we find collections of the mantras of the eight guardians of the directions, for example, in Agni Pura∞a 56.17cd-31; Linga Pura∞a 2.48.18-25, and Matsya Pura∞a 266.19cd-29ab; 274.42-49.

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 119 eight guardians of the directions is fully introduced for the first time in the texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level, beginning with the AgnGS and VaikhGS.

4. CONCLUSION

In the present paper two conceptions of time and space are discussed: the idea of the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities on the one hand and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions on the other. Both of them share a common feature that they are not known in the Vedic ritual texts but fully established in the post-Vedic ritual texts like the pura∞as. Between the Vedic and the post-Vedic ritual texts there are a group of ritual texts most of which are supplementary (parisiÒ†a) to the Vedic g®hyasutras. These g®hyaparisiÒ†a texts can be dated very roughly between several centuries B.C. and the sixth century A.D. And it is in these texts belonging to the g®hyaparisiÒ†a level that both the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions appear for the first time.

SELECTED LIST OF SANSKRIT TEXTS

AdB: Adbhuta Brahma∞a. See Weber 1859. AgnGS: Agnivesya G®hyasutra. Agnivesyag®hyasutra edited by L. A. Ravi Varma. Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, No. CXLIV. Trivandrum: University of Travancore. 1940. ApGS: Apastamba G®hyasutra. Apastamba-G®hya-Sutra with the ‘Anakula' Commentary of Sri Haradatta Misra, The ‘Tatparyadarsana' Commentary of Sri Sudarsanacarya and Notes in Sanskrit, ed. by Umesh Chandra Pandey. Varanasi, The Chow- khamba Sanskrit Series Office. 1971. ApSS: Apastamba Srautasutra. The Srauta Sutra of Apastamba belonging to the Taittiriya Saµhita with the Commentary of Rudradatta. Edited by R. Garbe. Vol. I. Prasna 1-7. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882.

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 120 S. EINOO

AV: Atharvaveda. Atharva Veda Sanhita. Herausgegeben von R. Roth/ W. D. Whitney. Bonn: Ferd. Dümmlers Verlag. 1966. AVPS: Atharvaveda ParisiÒ†a. The ParisiÒ†as of the Atharvaveda. Edited by G. M. Bolling and J. von Negelein. Parts I and II. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz. 1909 and 1910. AsvGPS: Asvalayaniya G®hyaparisiÒ†a. Asvalayanag®hyasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, No. 105, pp. 141-183. BaudhSS: Baudhayana Srautasutra. The Baudhayana Srauta Sutra belonging to the Taittiriya Saµhita. 3 vols. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1904-1924. BharGS: Bharadvaja G®hyasutra. The Domestic Ritual according to the School of Bharadvaja, ed. by H.J.W. Salomons, Leiden. 1913. BodhGS: Bodhayana G®hyasutra. Bodhayanag®hyasutram of BodhayanamaharÒi. Edited by L. Srinivasachar and R. Shama Sastri. Mysore: Oriental Research Institute. 1983. BodhGSS: Bodhayana G®hyaseÒasutra. Bodhayanag®hyasutram of BodhayanamaharÒi. Edited by L. Srinivasachar and R. Shama Sastri. Mysore: Oriental Research Institute. 1983, pp. 187- 400. GobhGS: Gobhila G®hyasutra. Gobhilag®hyasutram with Bha††anaraya∞a's Commentary. Critically edited from original Manuscripts with Notes and Indices by Chintamani Bhat- tacharya. Metropolitan Printing and Publishing House, 1936. (Repr. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1982) HirGS: Hira∞yakesi G®hyasutra. SatyaÒa∂haviracitaµ Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-8. 1929. HirGSS: Hira∞yakesi G®hyaseÒasutra. SatyaÒa∂haviracitaµ Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-8, pp. 1-126 after p. 654. 1929. HirSS: Hira∞yakesi Srautasutra. SatyaÒa∂haviracitaµ Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-1. 1907. JaimGS: Jaimini G®hyasutra. The Jaiminig®hyasutra belonging to the Samaveda with Extracts from the Commentary edited with an Introduction and translated for the first time

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124 CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 121

into English by Dr. W. Caland. Lahore: The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot. 1922. Ka†hGS: Ka†haka G®hyasutra. The Ka†hakag®hyasutra with Extracts from three Commentaries, an Appen- dix and Indexes. Edited for the first Time by Dr. Willem Caland. 1925. Lahore: The Research Department, D. A. V. College. KatySS: Katyayana Srautasutra. The Srautasutra of Katyayana with Extracts from the Commentaries of Karka and Yajnikadeva. Edited by A. Weber. Varanasi: The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. 1972. KausS: Kausikasutra. The Kausika Sutra of Atharva Veda. With extracts from the Commentaries of Darila and Kesava. Edited by M. Bloomfield. (Rep. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1972.) ManGS: Manava G®hyasutra. Manavag®hyasutra of the Maitraya∞iya Sakha. With the Commentary of AÒ†avakra. Edited with an Indtroduction, Indexes, etc. by Ramakrishna Harshaji Sastri. New Delhi: Panini. 1980. ManSS: The Manava Srautasutra belonging to the Maitraya∞i Saµhita. Edited by Jeannette M. van Gelder. New Delhi. 1961. ¤gvidh: ¤gvidhana. ¤gvidhanam. Edidit cum Praefatione. Rudolf Meyer. Berlin: Ferd. Dümm- lers Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1878. See also Bhat 1987. Samavidh: Samavidhana Brahma∞a. Samavidhana Brahma∞a with Vedarthaprakasa of Saya∞a and Padarthama- trav®tti of Bharatasvamin. Critically edited by B. R. Sharma. Tirupati: Ken- driya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha. 1964. VaikhGS: Vaikhanasa G®hyasutra. Vaikhanasasmartasutram, The Domestic Rules of the Vaikhanasa School Belonging to the Black Yajurveda critically edited by Dr. W. Caland. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1927. VaikhSS: Vaikhanasa Srautasutra. Vaikhanasa-Srautasutram. The Description of Vedic Rites according to the Vaikhanasa School belonging to the Black Yajurveda. For the first Time critically edited by W. Caland. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1941. VarGS: Varaha G®hyasutra. Un Ritul Domestique Védique. Le Varahag®hyasutra. Traduit et annoté par Pierre Rolland. 1971. Publications Universitaires de Lettres et Sciences Humaines d'Aix-en-Provence.

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Santikalpa. The Santikalpa of the Atharvaveda. By. G.M. Bolling. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 33, 1913, pp. 265-78.

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SUMMARY In the present paper two conceptions of time and space are discussed: the idea of the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities on the one hand and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions on the other. Both of them share a common feature that they are not known in the Vedic ritual texts but fully established in the post-Vedic ritual texts like the pura∞as. Between the Vedic and the post-Vedic ritual texts there are a group of ritual texts most of which are supplementary (parisiÒ†a) to the Vedic g®hya sutras. These g®hya parisiÒ†a texts can be dated very roughly between several centuries B.C. and the sixth century A.D. And it is in these texts belonging to the g®hya parisiÒ†a level that both the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions appear for the first time. Key-words: Post-Vedic ritual, g®hya parisiÒ†a, jour du calendrier lunaire (tithi), gardiens des directions (dikpala), changes in Hindu ritual.

RÉSUMÉ L’auteur confronte ici deux conceptions du temps et de l’espace. D’une part l’idée de corrélation entre les jours du calendrier lunaire (tithi) et les divinités qui les président et, d’autre part, l’idée de “gardiens des huit directions de l’e- space”. Inconnues des textes du rituel védique, ces deux conceptions sont bien établies dans les textes rituels post-védiques, tels les Pura∞a. Entre les textes rituels védiques et post-védiques l’on trouve une collection de textes dits “supplé- mentaires” (parisiÒ†a) qui sont une sorte d’ouvrages annexes au g®hyasutra védiques, remontant approximativement à la période comprise entre quelques siècles avant notre ère et le sixième siècle après. C’est dans ce groupe de textes que l’on trouve les deux conceptions analysées ici. Mots clefs: Rituel post-védique, supplément aux g®hyasutra (g®hya parisiÒ†a), jour du calendrier lunaire (tithi), gardiens des directions (dikpala), changement du rituel hindou.

Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124