UNIVERSITY OF FINANCE AND ADMINISTRATION

Faculty of Economic Studies

Field of Study: Marketing Communication

Follow-up master’s study programme in the full time.

Bc. Iana Pavlenko

Xenophobia in Asia: exploring media environment and marketing solutions

DIPLOMA THESIS

Prague 2019

Final Thesis Supervisor:

Mgr. Jitka Cirklová, M.A., Ph.D Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to thank my thesis supervisor Ms. Jitka Cirklová, for her continuous guidance, support and understanding during the whole process of writing this paper. This study would not be the same without her meaningful recommenda- tions and feedback.

Secondly, I would like to thank my family and friends who have always been there for me during this busy period and showed sincere interest in my work. Declaration

I hereby declare that I have compiled this final thesis on my own and all the quoted literature as well as other sources used in the thesis are listed in the bibliography. The electronic copy of the thesis is identical with the hard-bound copy. I approve that this diploma thesis is published pursuant to Section 47b Act No.111/1998 Coll., on Higher Education and on the amendment and modification of other acts (the Higher Education Act), as amended.

15.04.2019 ______Abstracts

In the contemporary VUCA world, topics of xenomania and xenophobia are being discussed more than ever and are affecting societies and businesses worldwide. The advertising and media industry is a direct reflection of the zeitgeist and topical social issues, including xenomania and xenophobia. Since the media landscape has become a highly sensitive ground with emergence of social media and blogger culture, companies need to be very cautious and careful in their messages to consumers. While these topics are widely discussed in the Western world, one cannot ignore such player as China, as the world top producer and the second advertising market in the world.

The following paper provides an exploration of contemporary Chinese advertising environment and how it addresses issues of xenophobia and xenomania. The purpose of the research was to find out whether there were explicit manifestations of these phenomena in Chinese video ads. In this paper, xenophobia was explored from the pespective of racial representation of cast, while xenomania was considered from the translated lifestyle point of view. A qualitative content analysis of 40 Chinese video commercials compared and referenced to US commercials of the same brands and products was conducted.

The findings of the research show that, even with a low represention of black cast, no explicit xenophobic or race-wise discriminitive manifestations could be observed in Chinese video commercials produced by international brands. In contrast, Western attributes and the promotion of the Western lifestyle seem to be widespread and common. However, Westernization in video advertising goes hand in hand with promoting national attributes and culture. This may show a high level of glocalization of products as well as a reflection of cultural nationalism, which is a prominent social movement in contemporary China. In general, the findings suggest that brands and advertising professionals need to be clear and transparent in the communication with consumers and involve intercultural expertise in crafting their messages for different markets. Keywords

Xenophobia, racism, xenomania, China, Asia, Asian lifestyle, advertisement, Western lifestyle, marketing, discrimination. Table of Contents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... 6

INTRODUCTION ...... 7

CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11 1.1. Phenomena of Xenophobia and Xenomania ...... 11 1.2. Xenophobia and Xenomania in China ...... 14 1.3.Functions of Advertising Today ...... 16 1.4. Controversy in Advertising ...... 18 1.5. Media Environment in China ...... 21 1.6. Advertising and Consumer Culture in China ...... 23

CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 27 2.1. Research Approach and Analysis Method ...... 27 2.2. Data Collection Techniques ...... 29 2.3. Units of Analysis and Sample ...... 30 2.4. Coding and Data Analysis ...... 34 2.5. Limitations ...... 38

CHAPTER 3. FINDINGS ...... 41 3.1. Racial Representation of Cast ...... 41 3.2. Voice acting and Musical Accompaniment ...... 46 3.3. Location ...... 50 3.4. Translated Lifestyle ...... 55

CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS ...... 62

CONCLUSION ...... 66 Limitations and Recommendations for Further Research ...... 69

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 72

INDEX OF APPENDICES ...... 81

A. TABLE 1.VIDEO CONTENT SOURCE ...... 82

B. TABLE 6. CULTURAL ATTRIBUTES ...... 87 Introduction

Today, the international community is continuously challenged by ever increasing social tensions caused by economic, political and sociodemographic instability. The modern world is commonly referred to as a VUCA world, an acronym standing for volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (Bennette and Lemoine, 2014). The VUCA nature of the present concerns all aspects of life, including a variety of social phenomena where social perceptions are often shaped by dynamic contexts (volatility), missing information (uncertainty), numerous grounds for categorization (complexity) and lack of clarity of existing cues (ambiguity) (Bodenhausen and Peery, 2009). As a result, issues of social categorization and identity become more and more topical both for academic research and everyday lives.

In this respect, current manifestations of xenophobia worldwide cannot be ignored as this phenomenon forms the basis for social categorization and consequent racial, national, religious and cultural prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. While xenophobia as a social phenomenon has always been present thoughout the world’s history and is a natural aspect of human’s psyche (Bolaffi et al., 2003), its manifestations may lead to social unrest, controversy and segregation (Brodkin, 2008). In addition, xenophobia is closely related to and sometimes overlaps racism, the latter being an extensively discussed topic worldwide today. However, xenophobia is a broader term incorporating a wider variety of features rather than purely race as a basis for exclusion (Adam and Moodley, 2015). The fact that in 2016 ‘xenophobia’ was named the word of the year (Time, 2016) , reflecting central social and political notions of the time, such as Brexit and Syrian refugees’ inflow, emphasizes that xenophobia is a salient phenomenon of the zeitgeist. In the discussion of xenophobia, the opposite term ‘xenomania’, i. e. ‘an inordinate attachment to foreign things (as customs, institutions, manners, fashions)’ (the Dictionary by Merriam-Webster, needs to be considered as well. Influenced by the ongoing globalization, rapid spread of information and new communication technologies, xenomania especially towards developed Western countries, is a present characteristic shaping youth’s identities worldwide (Dewey and Brison,

7 2012; Comaroff and Comaroff, 2005; Huq, 2006; Cole and Durham, 2007). Thus, both xenophobia and xenomania are notable features of the modern world and are reflected among societies on a variety of levels, including politics, economics, culture and social life.

The advertising industry is one of the important elements of the today’s complex and everchanging world affected by ongoing globalization processes. As just as any other sector, it needs to meet the challenges of the VUCA world and adapt its strategies and communication accordingly.Today, advertising is not just a source of brand names and images, it is the essence of commercial media and its development driver (Sinclair, 2012). Existing between the old media, such as print, television, radio and outdoor, and new media, in particular the internet, advertising more than ever is defining and directing people’s ways of life. Moreover, it serves as a visual medium of creation of globalized memory and a way to transmit values and behaviours of certain cultures to another cultures (Mao Sihui, 2009). In that light, advertising has the power to provoke a certain degree of xenomania by promoting certain lifestyles among communities.

The rapid development of technology and communication tools and the following spread and availability of information have transformed the context of advertising today. Internet audiences are active and interactive target groups who quickly and freely respond to commercial messages and spread the word across social media, which may lead to both positive or negative publicity for brands (Zhao and Kumar, 2013). This has resulted in a number of extensively covered media scandals related to advertising campaigns in the recent years accusing companies of various forms of xenophobia, racism and discrimination. However, in many cases companies provoke controversy unintentionally by touching sensitive topics, especially related to violence, racism or sexism (Waller, 2004; Fam et al., 2005). Therefore, the current media environment has become a highly sensitive ground where companies need to be extremely cautious when crafting their commercial messages to the audience.

A particular focus of the following paper is on the Chinese advertising environment and how it reflects notions of xenophobia and xenomania. Being the world’s top

8 consumer goods exporter and the most populated country with the second largest economy in the world (Statista, 2017), China cannot be ignored in discussing existing social developments and trends. In addition, the country is currently the second largest advertising market in the world after the United States (Zenith Media, 2018). Despite these facts, China is a paradoxical country combining consumerism and commercialization while still existing under political ideology that restricts and controls economic, technological and social aspects of people’s lives (Donald et al., 2002). This creates a complex and multi-layered society in which Western- orientation and xenomania coexist with many notions of xenophobia, including attitudes towards different races, geographical origins, social status, level of education, gender or sexual orientation (Shaffer et al., 1999; Yu Hai, 2005; Jenny X. Liu and Kyung Cho, 2006) Therefore, exploration of how commercial practices reflect social controversies that are topical in the world community in such a self- contradictory country as China brings a major research interest.

A number of scholars have researched controversies in advertising in China, including gender representation in print media (Feng, 2008), westernization in real estate advertising (Mao Sihui, 2009), generational perceptions of brands and advertising (Chan, 2008), a research gap exists in the analysis of the modern video advertising content and its relation to notions of xenophobia or xenomania, which has been chosen as a research focus of the following paper.

The overall aim of the research is to attempt to answer the following question:

“How does contemporary Chinese advertising environment address issues of xeno- phobia and xenomania?” with a closer emphasis on the following sub-questions, as: 1 What racial xenophobia manifestations (if any) may be observed in Chinese video advertising? 2 What xenomania manifestations (if any) may be observed in Chinese video adver- tising?

In order to achieve the stated aim, the following research objectives have been

9 determined:

1. To execute a literature review covering broader concepts of xenophobia and xenomania and controversy in advertising, as well as specifics of Chinese consumer market and current media environment.

2. To conduct qualitative analysis of contemporary Chinese video ads and research local media responses towards controversial international advertising cases.

3. To assess the results and evaluate findings.

4. Based on the findings, describe the current situation of xenophobic and xenomanic manifestations in Chinese video advertising, as well as provide general recommendations.

The following study starts with a Literature Review presenting main academic findings, covering phenomena of xenophobia and xenomania, the role of and existing controversies in advertising, as well as China-specific observations related to these concepts. This is followed by the Research Methodology chapter covering research methods and approaches together with limitations of the following paper. After this, Findings are presented, including a detailed analysis of Chinese video ads and media coverage, followed by a Discussion chapter. Finally, main Conclusions of the research are provided with consequential managerial and theoretical implications and recommendations.

10 Chapter 1. Literature Review

The following section covers main findings from the literature review related to the constructs of xenophobia and xenomania both from a worldwide perspective and related specifically to China. Moreover, main functions of advertising and related controversies are discussed, followed by an overview of existing media environment as well as advertising and consumer cultures in China.

1.1. Phenomena of Xenophobia and Xenomania

The construct of xenophobia has been extensively discussed in the academic literature. To better understand this phenomenon, it is necessary to define it. The word ‘xenophobia’ is derived from the Greek words xénos and phóbos meaning ‘stranger, foreign’ and ‘fear’ respectively. In other words, the term is literally defined as ‘fear of strangers or foreigners’. However, often the term ‘xenophobia’ also has a connotation of hatred of strangers (Smelser and Baltes, 2001).

According to the UN Declaration on Racism, discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance against Migrants and Trafficked Persons (2001), xenophobia is defined as:

“Attitudes, prejudices and behaviour that reject, exclude and often vilify persons, based on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the community, society or national identity.”

This definition describes xenophobia as a collective phenomenon. Even though xenophobia is considered to be attributed mostly to a group or community (Solomon, 2013), some scholars identify a personal dimension of xenophobia where it is developed from the personal background of the individual (Field, 2017; Bolaffi et al., 2003). Nevertheless, it is observed that both personal and collective aspects of xenophobia are intertwined and reinforce each other.

11 Several causes underlying xenophobia may be identified. First of all, the fear of others and a desire to exclude or even eliminate outgroups in order to keep a perceived purity of the ingroup may be specified as ‘a fear of losing national, ethnic identity’ (Bolaffi et al, 2013). Furthermore, scholars observe that manifestations of xenophobia are often underpinned by structures of power where xenophobia serves as a motif for ingroups to exert power on outgroups (Bobo and Hutchings, 1996; Salam, 2016 ). Field (2017) identifies several factors reinforcing xenophobia, including strong assertion of national identity, economic inequality and deprivation, exploitation of migrants in the economy and manipulation of xenophobic attitudes by the elite. In addition, it is noted that the more poor and underprivileged the ingroup is, the stronger xenophobic behaviours they tend to express (Field, 2017; NGO Working Group UN, 2001). Therefore, existing research empathises that causes of xenophobia may vary with contexts.

In the academic literature, the phenomenon of xenophobia is often discussed together with racism. Even though both terms are similar and sometimes overlap, scholars draw some distinctions between them. According to Blumer (1958), xenophobia is mostly related to attitudes, whereas racism has a more behavioural nature. In addition, while racism is mainly based on the idea of racial superiority and distinctions between specific physical features, xenophobia is built on ‘putative marks of “foreignness”, cultural incompatibility or religion as a basis for exclusion’ (Adam & Moodley 2015:21). Moreover, encounters of hostility may occur among representatives of the same racial group and, therefore, being the case of xenophobia rather than racism (Amoh-Anti, 1993). Pillay (2017) points out that racist people may tolerate the presence of other races and express maltreating behaviours towards them, while xenophobic people generally reject the presence of those individuals and groups that are perceived to be different since the latter are considered to be a threat. Thus, xenophobic behaviours have a broader nature than racism and deal with any constructs related to ‘otherness’, which may include but not limited to ethnicity and racial characteristics.

Manifestations of xenophobia are found throughout the whole human history. In fact, xenophobia is an aspect of people’s psyche and the fear of others and the foreign is

12 natural to individuals and groups (Bolaffi et al., 2003). Starting from the end of the 20th century, xenophobic and racist behaviours have been developing in societies and have often been caused by globalisation and migration patterns, where newcomers to a country are considered as competitors for jobs, social benefits and services (NGO Working Group UN, 2001). Hence, contemporary articles commonly discuss xenophobia in the light of existing immigrant and refugee issues as well as anti-Islamic notions in developed societies and related political, economic and social consequences. (McMahon, 2016; Salam, 2016; Weiner, 2012). Interestingly enough, in 2016, ‘xenophobia’ was named the word of the year by Dictionary.com, which has to do with international discussions raised over the Brexit vote, Syrian refugees’ inflow, the American election and various cases on racial and gender discrimination (Time, 2016). To conclude, these observations empathise the relevance and topicality of discussion on xenophobia not only for academic research, but for the world’s contemporary society in general.

As opposed to xenophobia, the modern world also faces the phenomenon of xenomania. According to the Dictionary by Merriam-Webster, xenomania is ‘an inordinate attachment to foreign things (as customs, institutions, manners, fashions)’. Just as xenophobia, xenomania is a social phenomenon that has been observed throughout the world’s history, especially as a result of colonization (Frank, 2006; Mishkova, 2014). In the contemporary setting, however, this phenomenon is often related to the ongoing globalization processes, as well as the availability and the spread of information, Internet and new communication technologies (Dewey and Brison, 2012). A few authors observe that xenomanic behaviours, especially among young people, are in many cases triggered by popular culture and media that today define and shape youth’s identities (Comaroff and Comaroff, 2005; Huq, 2006; Cole and Durham, 2007). While xenomania is often discussed in the light of Western, mostly American and Western European, influences on various cultures and populations throughout the world (Dewey and Brison, 2012), it is argued that in the modern world there is also a visible trend of redefining local cultures and authenticity (Escobar, 2001; Nederveen Pieterse, 2009). These findings suggest that both xenophobia and xenomania are present phenomena in today’s society, which are

13 both acquiring deeper meanings and connotations in the complex globalized and everchanging today’s world.

1.2. Xenophobia and Xenomania in China

In the context of this work, it is also important to look at the academic research related to xenophobia in China. In fact, a few scholars have studied xenophobic behaviours towards China or Chinese people, commonly known as sinophobia (Zhang, 2008). Other scholars agree that the concept of xenophobia and differentiation between the Chinese and the others are deeply rooted in the society dating back to the Confucian times (Yu Hai, 2005; Feng Chongyi, 2007). Yu Hai (2005) indicates that the Chinese express strong xenophobic behaviours not only to foreigners and other races but also on a national level towards different social groups within the country. The latter can be based on different factors, including geographical origin, social status, level of education, gender or sexual orientation (Shaffer et al., 1999; Yu Hai, 2005; Jenny X. Liu and Kyung Cho, 2006). During Mao’s reign in China, gays were equated to persons with destructive mental behavior. Same-sex relationships were considered a crime before decriminalization in 1997. In 2001, homosexuality ceased to be considered a mental disorder. Despite the fact that gay parades are taking place in the country and many gay people live there, the attitude of the authorities remains strictly conservative, the display and mention of same-sex relationships in music, film and literature is prohibited.

Interestingly, the Chinese show opposite attitudes towards other East Asian nations: the South Koreans are respected and even admired, especially among the youth, with Korean pop culture being liked and influential (Zhan, 2017). On the contrary, there exists a strong prejudice against the Japanese people (while Japanese products are still popular), due to historical relations and the Chinese idea of cultural superiority (Yu Hai, 2005).

14 Racial prejudice and xenophobia towards black people in China are rather explicit and undisguised in everyday life matters. According to Yu Hai (2005), dating a white person is considered as ‘social climbing’ in China whereas dating a black person would be regarded as ‘stepping down’. In fact, it is almost impossible to find a Chinese person who will get permission from their parents to marry a black person (Farrer, 2008). In addition, xenophobia towards black people is even expressed on a linguistic level. China has the tradition of regarding the white colour as the symbol of beauty, rather than dark colours. This belief explains why many Chinese prefer white people rather than people with dark skin, which forms a basis for racial prejudice. When the Chinese say LaoWai (老外) meaning layman/foreigner, it is regarded as neither positive nor negative (MacMurchy, 2006) . The term is used to describe a guest who is different in a good way. LaoWai 老外 is commonly used for individuals of the white Western origin. On the contrary, black people are generally called 黑人HeiRen meaining ‘black men’, or 黑鬼HeiGui meaning ‘black devil’, which is an indication of less welcomed visitors. In addition, job descriptions on job websites openly mention that they need only white people and black people are generally not shown in Chinese commercials or films. By and large, in China, black people are viewed as aggressive, impulsive, physical, violent, dangerous, noisy, and less intelligent (Baton, 2013), which forms a strong bias. Therefore, the existence of xenophobia in the Chinese society based on skin colour cannot be denied.

As have been mentioned in the previous paragraph, attitudes towards white people, i.e. westerners, is quite the opposite than towards black people, and can be often described as xenomania. As a result of globalization, culture and media environment in many non-Western societies are dominated by influences of the United States and other developed Western countries, and China is no exception (Mao, 2003). In addition, living in a quite restricted environment, the Chinese are curious about the forbidden outside world, as evidenced by the growth of Chinese tourism abroad and the emigration of millions of Chinese (Huang, 2018).

15 However, Western xenomania cannot be regarded without mentioning Chinese nationalism Modongal (2016) argues that nationalism and Western orientation are closely intertwined in the Chinese society. The author distinguishes between an existing desire for individual success, for wealth and a better, more ‘Western’ standard of living, and ‘pragmatic nationalism’, which is less aggressive and supported by the effort to modernize China and restore its place and influence in the world community, while preserving its cultural values. While China’s socialist ideology actively promotes nationalism, there is also omnipresent Eurocentrism and strive for having a leading position in the capitalist world (Mao Sihui, 2009). Mao Sihui (2009) states that extreme Western orientation has resulted in the inferiority complex that is deeply rooted in the Chinese mindset and is created by no one but the Chinese themselves. On the contrary, a number of authors discuss the emerging phenomena of Chinese cultural nationalism, which is a non-political ideology based on reviving and promoting China’s cultural tradition in a bid to define country’s national identity (Guo Yingjie, 2004; Chen Zhimin, 2006; Bell, 2008). Cultural nationalism is often associated with anti-Western, especially anti-US theme and, in the recent period, has resulted in a more prominent presence of traditional culture attributes in the Chinese media and popular culture, including TV series, music and movies (Pang Qin, 2011). All these factors create a complex paradox of confronting yet intertwined notions of nationalism and the Western orientation, which are reflected in the socio-cultural life of modern China.

1.3.Functions of Advertising Today

In this work, the author would like to explore how xenophobia and xenomania are reflected in contemporary culture through visual advertising, including images and video. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss the advertising zeitgeist.

In today’s world we deal with a constant flow of information, people and knowledge. Appadurai (1990) distinguishes five dimensions of global cultural flow: ethnoscape (flow of persons), technoscape (flow of technology), finanscape (flow of capital),

16 mediascape (flow of media and images), and ideoscape (flow of ideas and concepts). By definition, advertising is ‘the paid promotion that uses strategy and messaging about the benefits of a product or service to influence a target audience’s attitudes and/or behaviors between online, television, radio, and print platforms’ (Frolova, 2014), and, consequently, it is a crucial part of existing mediascape and a visual medium of creation of globalized memory (Mao Sihui, 2009). Therefore, through visual advertising one can observe trends and cultural agendas specific to certain periods in contemporary history.

The function of advertising as a marketing tool is to generate demand for goods or services and to stimulate their sale (Daugherty, 2008). Advertising activity in the system of market operations is considered as a complex of means of non-price stimulation of sales of products and formation of demand for it (Frolova, 2014). Today advertising has become so omnipresent in public life that it has in fact transformed into a special social institution and received a separate comprehensive regulation within the framework of civil law.

In addition to the actual promotion of certain goods and services, advertising affects the mass public consciousness and social relations in general. The social function of advertising is to form and consolidate in people's minds certain consumer models and to promote conscious consumer behaviour, as it helps to compare the features of the proposals, giving the consumer the opportunity to make a decision about the purchase already being informed. Moreover, advertising can be also seen as a way of transmitting lifestyles, values and behaviours of certain cultures to another cultures (Mao Sihui, 2009). It contributes to the formation of certain standards of thinking and social behaviour of various social groups, as well as supports and strengthens existing traditions and habits of consumers (Daugherty, 2008). Furthermore, advertising in some cases offers consumers new consumption patterns and a new social culture, especially in the process of introducing new products and technologies. Thus, it accelerates the introduction of technical and non-technical innovations in various areas of social practice (Daugherty, 2008). All in all, indirectly advertising has a significant impact on social development, as it contributes to the

17 development of social relations in the sphere of consumption, which, in turn, is a system-forming social practice in the consumer society.

1.4. Controversy in Advertising

Nowadays, marketing and advertising efforts often reflect and sometimes may even arouse social controversy as they concern important social and cultural issues worldwide. This primarily has to deal with advertising controversial product and service categories, such as alcoholic products, cigarettes, contraceptives, underwear, female hygiene products, funeral services, or gambling, which may provoke ambivalent reactions from consumers (Fam et al., 2005: Ting and de Run, 2012). Scholars also observe that attitudes towards controversial products may vary by consumer group and influenced by nationality, religion, gender and age of the audience (Kerr et al., 2012; Sheehan, 2014). Even though some companies intentionally engage in controversial advertising in order to attract attention and stimulate a certain marketing response to their brands, some advertising campaigns lead to controversy unintentionally by touching sensitive topics, especially related to violence, racism, sexism and other forms of prejudice and discrimination (Waller, 2004; Fam et al., 2005). In order to get a better idea on what social topics are relevant for advertising today and capture the spirit of the zeitgeist, let us look at some recent marketing and advertising cases.

Racism has been a widely talked about issue in advertising in the past few years. For example, in 2017, the company Hennes & Mauritz AB was accused of racism because of the image in which a black child was dressed in a sweatshirt with the inscription «Coolest monkey in the jungle». The photo was posted in the online store, while other items from the children's collection showed light-skinned models. This resulted in significant social and media resonance in the Western world leading the Swedish retailer to admit their mistake and apologize to the outraged public. “We are deeply sorry that the picture was taken and we also regret the actual print,” H&M

18 said. “Therefore, we have not only removed the image from our channels, but also the garment from our product offering globally.” ( Telegraph Media, 2018)

Another notorious example includes Dove’s 2017 shower gel ad at social media where a black woman takes off her T-shirt and turns into a girl with white skin. The ad attracted a lot of criticism among social media users accusing the company of racist attitude towards black people in the United States. Even though the company apologized on Twitter: «An image we recently posted on Facebook missed the mark in representing women of colour thoughtfully. We deeply regret the offense it caused», but users did not accept the apology (The New Your Times, 2017). A similar case is associated with NIVEA’s campaign targeted at the Middle Eastern market. The brand had to delete the picture with the words "White is purity" from their Facebook page after accusations of racism. The image advertised a new deodorant that does not leave white marks on clothes. The picture was accompanied by the text: "Keep clean, keep the brightness. Don't let anything destroy it». The company removed the picture from its page and apologised: ‘The NIVEA Middle East post was not meant to be offensive. We apologise and it's been removed. NIVEA truly values diversity and equality” (BBC News, 2017).

On the other hand, many companies try to intentionally promote equality and acceptance. For instance, in 2016, Airbnb aired an ad during the Super Bowl in direct response to President Trump’s order to temporarily close America’s borders to refugees. The ad, called “We Accept” showed a montage of people of different nationalities along with the words: “We believe no matter who you are, where you’re from, who you love or who you worship, we all belong. The world is more beautiful the more you accept.” (The New Your Times, 2017 ). Similarly, in February 2017, Nike launched the Equality campaign under the slogan "Where the dream of justice and mutual respect lives". As a part of the campaign, renowned athletes, such as Serena Williams and LeBron James, were saying that a person was determined solely by his or her actions (Huffpost, 2017).

Furthermore, more and more brands highlight the importance of gender equality and address issues discrimination against women. A recent example is Nike’s (2017)

19 video "What are our girls made of?» for the Russian market. The main character of the video is a girl performing on stage with the famous Soviet song “What are our girls made of...?” in the background, which lyrics suggest some common gender stereotypes. At a certain point, famous athletes appear in the video in order to help the girl create new lyrics for the song. The campaign called to abandon the stereotypes that surround women from childhood and promoted equality, inclusiveness, multiculturalism, the right of women to decide who they should be, what to wear and what to do (Meduza, 2017). Another campaign and a video called #WomanNotObjects was launched in 2016 by Badger & Winters where women commented on sexist advertising. The video ends with the following words: "I'm your mother, daughter, sister, colleague or CEO. Don't talk to me like that." At the Cannes Lions festival 2018, where the premiere of the video took place, the audience applauded standing.( Forbes, 2018)

These are just a few cases highlighting controversy around social, racial and gender issues that are present today around the globe. In this way, advertising has become not only a tool of increasing sales and promoting specific products, services and brands but in many cases it has become a powerful medium to send socially meaningful messages to the community and contribute to the promotion of equality and tolerance while diminishing xenophobia. On the other hand, advertising is currently operating on a highly sensitive media ground extensively influenced by social media.

Today, social media is a rapidly growing platform for the transmission of information, the formation of the worldview and the values of society. In the modern reality social media largely impacts and may even manipulate public consciousness and impose attitudes that adversely affect the moral and ethical image of society. This is also intensified by the emergence of bloggers who, being opinion leaders, influence the public opinion and may form online pressure groups (Kerr et al., 2012; Zhao and Kumar, 2013). General public is especially attentive and sensitive to any notions of xenophobia, racism or any prejudice, including images and wording of advertising messages, and reacts immediately through social media. In fact, any word or image can lead to a profound public reaction and can be interpreted in a way that

20 would harm the brand image and destroy company’s reputation. Thus, advertisers are constantly challenged by the need to take on social responsibility not to offend others while still being able to effectively communicate the message to the audience in a constantly changing, complex and globalized world (Waller, 2004). Therefore, today’s advertising industry is in a difficult position where it can both be a powerful voice of the time promoting equality, acceptance and diversity, and at the same time quickly and unintentionally provide reasons for accusation of discrimination, xenophobia, racism and bias.

1.5. Media Environment in China

Since internet is a key channel for any media today, Chinese media environment cannot be regarded apart from the Great Firewall of China. The term is used to describe a nation-scale firewall imposed by the country’s government in order to censor and control the internet traffic (Ensafi et al., 2015).

The first internet cafes appeared in Shanghai and other major cities in 1996 leading to an ever increasing number of individuals approaching the Internet. With the developing popularity of the internet, the need to control another virtual space showed up (Foster, 2001). China has embraced various temporary guidelines for overseeing system content, including the dispersal and protection of classified information, the responsibility of infrastructure owners and the maintenance of international lines of communication. The rules established by the Ministry of Public Security forbade the use of the Internet that may result in harming national security, exposure of state insider information, and harming the interests of the state or society (Thompson, 2016). In addition, it became prohibited by law to create and disseminate information which was directed against the Chinese Constitution, laws or administrative regulations and undermined country’s ideology; twisted reality, spread rumours or harmed public peace; and contained sexual material or encouraged gambling, violence, or murder (Ma, 2018).

21 Later on, in 2000, the Ministry of Public Security presented the Golden Shield Project, an integrated security system with the ability to filter network content, one of the subsytems of which was later called ‘the Great Firewall’ (Ford, 2014). Today, the Great Firewall continues to be in charge of filtering network content in accordance with the laws of the country. Laws oblige Internet providers and other companies to monitor and filter content. For example, Google in China independently removed from search results resources that can violate the law (Dow, 2015).

As a result of Great Firewall policies, most of the major international social networks, search engines, video hosting, messengers, streaming services are "behind the Great Chinese firewall". It is impossible to use them while in China without bypassing the blocking. However, many blocked resources have allowed local analogs - Sina Weibo instead of Twitter, Youku instead of YouTube, Renren instead of Facebook (Beevers, 2017). Local versions of social networks are also processed by the content filtering system. The capitalization of national Internet companies listed on domestic or foreign exchanges markets reached $ 1.4 trillion. Tencent, Alibaba and Baidu account for 73.9% of the total. In 2018, Tencent took over Facebook in the list of the five largest companies by capitalization in the world (Boyd, 2017). Thus, local companies become real competitors for the largest foreign corporations.

Great Firewall of China is not only blocking information from the outside, it is a complex strategy for controlling the flow of information and manipulating the human psyche. The whole system of internet censorship in China and related legislation is built in such a way that people and companies not only could not bypass the obstacles established by the state, but that no one even thought of doing something unreliable, thus, leading to the development of self-censorship (Tsui, 2007) . In addition, there are no rules or a ‘guidebook’, so people are forced to self-censor. This has resulted in the reality where all major websites with custom content have dedicated content review staff in order to have any ‘harmful’ information removed as soon as possible (Chen, 2014).

22 The Great Firewall of China is an extensively research topic, however, it is not the only state-controlled medium in the country. All communication tools, starting from print media to broadcasting, mass media and advertising, are regulated by the government and are subject to censorship, with dissident journalists and media personas being jailed (Beina Xu, 2014).

There are quotas for showing foreign films on the big screen in China. Now is allowed import of 34 foreign paintings per year. Such measures are due to the protection of local cinema and the market from Hollywood.

In addition to quotas in China, there is a censorship mechanism in cinema that is regulated by the State Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Cinema and Television of China (SARFT). Films can simply ban to show, or cut out scenes that expose the Chinese people in a bad or "stereotypical" light, affect other political sensitive topics (the independence of Taiwan, Tibet, etc.) and also interpret the history of China in some other way. what is officially recognized (including the “time travel ban”)

Today, China is a paradoxical country where ‘rapidly commercializing media industries confront slow-changing power relations between political, social and economic spheres’ (Donald et al., 2002). This means, that having evolved under political and economic pressures dictated by the socialist market economy system, Chinese media operates under a unique model that both characterizes and contorts country’s ideology.

1.6. Advertising and Consumer Culture in China

Advertising is a relatively new communication medium in China. From 1949 to 1978, i.e. in the first few decades after the establishment of the People’s Republic in China, advertising was prohibited in the country due to its capitalist nature (Mao Sihui, 2009). As the country was transformed into a socialist market economy, the state control has been reduced and free market mechanisms started to emerge (Luo,

23 2004). As a result, since 1979, major Western and Japanese advertising agencies have been establishing their presence on the Chinese market via joint-venture arrangements (Sinclair, 2008). Hung et al. (2013) point out that since joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, the country’s advertising industry has changed significantly and has become the fastest-growing advertising market in the world with the biggest pool of internet users. The unprecedented growth of the advertising market, which has been increasing at 40% rate annually starting from the mid-80s (Business Alert China, 2004), made China the second largest advertising market after the United States (Zenith Media, 2018).

Just as other areas of contemporary China's development, advertising is facing the challenges brought by country’s ideology and Western influences. In his exploration of the formation and transformation of the Chinese advertising industry from the late 1970-s, Li (2017) highlights China’s desire to emulate the Western model of development balancing between such contradictions as nationalism and cosmopolitanism, the local and the global, tradition and modernity. These paradoxes have been present in the country’s advertising for decades, and today, while some Chinese commercials use national pride, others express a desire to associate their products with Western images, symbols, and values, reinforcing the idea of Western supremacy (Li, 2017). Advertising in China is, thus, is a contradictory area since, on the one hand, it exists between the heart of the present ideology of the social market economy, while, on the other hand, portraying Western capitalistic values (Mao Sihui, 2009). This means that though omnipresent today throughout the country advertising is still a somewhat paradoxical issue for the country regarded as socialist.

As advertising is driven by and interrelated with consumer behaviour, therefore, it is important to highlight main features of the latter in China.

Today China, being the second largest economy in the world, is known as the ‘factory of the world’. The production growth has started in the 1980s when foreign companies started entering the Chinese market attracted by the significant number of consumers and country’s cheap labour (Ciochetto, 2011). As a result, China is commonly perceived as a country of inexperienced labour with a large number of

24 factories producing low-end goods of poor quality and forgeries for export. While this is still partly true, the situation is often different in large and developed cities (Hanson, 2008). In addition, in the recent years the Chinese government has started to concentrate on developing internal markets in order to protect the economy against external factors and ensure future growth (Ciochetto, 2011).

The rapid growth of consumer goods and advertising sectors in China have led to increasing consumerism. China is considered to be one of the most attractive markets in the world due to its population and purchasing power. In the past three decades, there has been a dramatic change in Chinese consumers’ shopping habits since incomes have risen and new products and concepts have entered the Chinese market (Ling, 2015). Moreover, Chinese consumer behaviour seems to change faster than in other markets, especially with the growing exposure to and integration of social media in daily lives (Kee-young, 2017).

Currently, people in their late 20s and early 30s represent the country’s consumer force. Yu (2014) observes significant cultural changes occurred in the society since Chairman Mao days. According to the author, today’s younger generation in China is focused on creating a positive image based on the visibility of their purchases, with brand value playing an important role and self-esteem coming from the external perception of the individual, not from within. Furthermore, today’s younger generation is generally better educated and spends more than older generations (Yu, 2014).Thus, while in the past, function and price were the main factors for purchising decisions among the Chinese, today value and quality are being prioritised over low prices. Sinclair (2008), however, argues that these buying patterns are more common for bigger and more developed areas of the country, while consumers outside Beijing and the coastal metropolises still purchase products based on the price rather than ‘the kind of brand image imparted by Western-style advertising’.

In addition, since in China people cannot express themselves too freely due to the existing ideology and regime, purchases have become a form of self-expression, through fashion, cosmetics, cars and so on (Ling, 2015). Therefore, there is an evergrowing interest in premium segment products emphasising good taste and

25 status. This trend can be attributed to the Western xenomania of the Chinese: brand names and the country of origin play an important role in purchasing, and the Chinese would often opt for products representing a Western lifestyle (Yu, 2014).

The online era has also significantly influenced the Chinese consumer culture. According to Kee-young, China has more than 700 million monthly active users on social media and 300 million consumers shopping online using such platforms, as TaoBao, Tmall, JD, and Xiao Hong ShuMobile, and online payment systems, such as Wechat Wallet. The data from SMO Group (2017) indicates that in 2015, of every 10 RMB spent on consumer goods in China, 1.3 RMB were from e-commerce. While online shopping has become a visible trend and even a lifestyle for many Chinese, traditional shopping is still popular among the population, with more and more Chinese going abroad to buy luxury goods (Kwan, 2016).

Today China constitutes a hybrid society where the government still carefully controls and restricts many areas of people’s lives, and where, on the other hand, consumption is encouraged and rewarded. The existing purchasing behaviours have started relatively recently and, therefore, the current generation has no role models from within their own culture (Yu, 2014). It can be concluded that the country has a rapidly evolving consumer culture with consumers becoming more sophisticated and Western-like in their buying patterns.

26 Chapter 2. Research Methodology

The following chapter outlines the research design underpinning this study. A detailed explanation is provided about the research approach and analysis method employed, followed by a description of data collection techniques, units of analyses and the sample. Moreover, the coding system and data analysis approach are discussed. Finally, limitations to the current research are presented.

2.1. Research Approach and Analysis Method

The overall aim of the research is to attempt to answer the following question:

“How does contemporary Chinese advertising environment address issues of xenophobia and xenomania?” with a closer emphasis on the following sub- questions, as:

1. What racial xenophobia manifestations (if any) may be observed in Chinese video advertising?

2. What xenomania manifestations (if any) may be observed in Chinese video advertising?

In order to answer these questions and due to the exploratory nature of research objectives, qualitative research was chosen as it is primarily used to gain an understanding of intrinsic reasons and motivations of certain phenomena and to provide insights and develop further hypotheses for quantitative research (Altinay and Paraskevas, 2008). Moreover, qualitative research is descriptive in nature and deals with meanings of behaviours, attitudes and studied concepts gained through words and pictures (Atieno, 2009), which corresponds with the researcher’s interest and aims within this work. Qualitative research methodology was adopted due to time constraints and resource availability. Even though, using both quantitative and qualitative types of research would be more meaningful and generic, due to time

27 constraints and the scope of this study, qualitative research was considered to be more feasible.

While several analysis methods can be used within qualitative research, including phenomenology, hermeneutics, grounded theory, ethnography and content analysis (Burnard,1995), the latter was chosen as the most appropriate approach for this work as it deals with the analysis of video advertising materials and their interpretation. Content analysis is defined as a method of analysing written, verbal or visual communication messages (Cole, 1988). Hsieh and Shannon (2005) define content analysis as “a research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns”. Its goal is “to provide knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon under study” (Downe-Wamboldt, 1992, p. 314). Content analysis focuses on the contents and contextual meaning of the text where text data is represented in print, verbal or electronic format and is received by means of narrative responses, open-ended questions, interviews, focus groups, observations, or print media such as articles, books, or manuals (Kondracki &Wellman, 2002). Within the context of this research, video materials are regarded as text data with observations being the main analysis tool.

In addition, qualitative content analysis was chosen due the flexibility of the method and a possibility to use various concepts applicable both for qualitative and quantitative research, which are not applied in other qualitative research methods (Long and Johnson,2000). However, even though quantitive techniques are used in content analysis, it is not limited just to quantitative data but it attempts to link the outcomes to the context or to the environment in which they were obtained (Downe- Wambolt,1992), which corresponds with the overall aim of this work where the researcher tries to connect the observed results and frequencies to the Chinese contemporary environment.

Qualitative research is normally associated with inductive approach, meaning that the researcher searches for certain patterns in their observations in order to formulate hypotheses or theories for further exploration based on the conducted analysis

28 (Bernard, 2011). It is also described as “a ‘bottom-up’ approach to knowing, in which the researcher uses observations to build an abstraction or to describe a picture of the phenomenon that is being studied” (Lodico et al, 2010). Moreover, inductive approach is often applied when there is limited prior knowledge of the phenomenon or this knowledge is fragmented (Lauri and Kyngas, 2005), which is the case for this work as notions of xenomania and xenophobia in Chinese advertising have not been extensively explored. However, Armat et al (2018) point out that qualitative content analysis cannot be regarded as solely inductive research, since the researcher still uses deductive characteristics, such as research questions and relevant assumptions, prior research and knowledge as well as pre-determined concepts. Therefore, it can be said that this research employs both inductive and deductive modes of reasoning with induction being a dominant approach.

This work is based on seven steps сharactertic of qualitative content analysis research, namely: formulating the research questions , selecting the sample to be analysed, defining the categories to be applied, outlining the coding process, implementing the coding process, determining trustworthiness, and analysing the results of the coding process (Kaid, 1989).

2.2. Data Collection Techniques

With regards to the data analysed, this research was conducted by using both primary and secondary data. Secondary data relates to the existing information collected by parties other than the researcher, whereas primary data are new original data gathered from firsthand experience (Finn et al, 2000).

With regards to the secondary data, it was collected during the literature review process. Sources of the secondary data included, for the mospart, academic journals available via databases (e.g. Emerald, EBSCOhost, ProQuest), as well as digital books, reports and professional articles available via the internet. In general, the secondary data served as a basis to provide generalisations and comparisons according to the findings obtained from the primary data.

29 Video materials used for the qualitative content analysis are regarded as primary data and were obtained through online video-sharing platforms, predominantly Youtube (e.g. ‘Ads CHINA’ and ‘Advertising China’ channels).

2.3. Units of Analysis and Sample

As has been previously mentioned, the primary unit of analysis for this research are video commercials. First of all, this is due to accessibility and availability of video materials through online platforms, as opposed to print media or national broadcasting. Secondly, video materials can be analysed based on visual cues, which does not necessarily require advanced knowledge of the Chinese language, which would not be possible for the content analysis of other types of text data. Last but not least, videos are one of the most popular communication media today reflecting the contemporary environment and social issues and are easily understood across countries and audiences. Therefore, video advertising was regarded as the best means to analyse the zeitgeist and chosen as the unit of analysis.

When conducting qualitative content analysis, it is also important to consider whether the research is going to be manifest or latent. Manifest analysis deals with the obvious in the text and stays very close to it, whereas latent analysis is interpretive and intends to find underlying meaning of the text (Berg, 2001). In this view, the following research can be regarded as a manifest analysis as it aims to objectively describe obvious visual cues presented in various advertising videos and their meanings without deeper investigation of the ‘untold’ due to language limitations and lack of professional expertise in the Chinese culture and socioeconomics.

In qualitative content analysis, there are no established criteria regarding the size of a unit of analysis or the required number of objects under study (Bengtsson, 2016). Therefore, a sample of 40 Chinese commercials was chosen to be sufficient and feasible taking into consideration time constraints and potential issues of data availability.

30 In order to increase the trustworthiness of the research, it was decided to conduct a comparative analysis of Chinese and international commercials against the same criteria, resulting in a total sample size of 80 video commercials (see Appendix 1). As a point of comparison and/or reference, US video advertising materials were used, since the USA represent the biggest advertising market and the largest economy in the world (Zenith Media, 2018) having a global outreach. In addition, when discussing xenomania and global Westernization, the USA is the most referred country within these topics, which translates the image of the Western world. Moreover, language limitations would made it much harder to analyse commercials shot in languages other than English.

Video commercials of the same product types or/and campaigns produced by the same brands were compared with each other in order to ensure relevancy and transferability of analysed data. Therefore, only international brands and Chinese brands available on international markets were considered within the research.

Within the product categories, the research focused on those representative of mass market segments, since this work aims to consider a broad view of issues of xenomania and xenophobia from the point of view of everyday life and mass consumers. The chosen commercials cover the following product categories: Automotive, Food and Beverages, Cosmetics, Fashion, and Electronics. In addition, due to a significant scope of video advertising continuously produced by brands and a limited time frame of the research, only commercials released between 2017 and 2019 were considered as a relevant representation of the modern market. The brands and products analysed per category include:

Table 1. Brand, product category, product/campaign name, year.

BRAND PRODUCT PRODUCT/ YEAR CATEGORY CAMPAING NAME BMW Automotative The BMW 2 Series 2018 Buick Automotative Buick Enclave 2018 Ford Automotative Ford Escort 2018

31 HONDA Automotative Brand Image Com 2017/18 mercial Lexus Automotative Brand Image Com 2017/18 mercial Mazda Automotative Mazda CX-8 2018 Mercedes Automotative She's Mercedes 2017/18 TOYOTA Automotative TOYOTA C-HR 2017/18 Dove Cosmetics Brand Image Com 2018 mercial Dove Cosmetics Dove Body Wash 2018 L'Oréal Cosmetics Beauty For All 2017 NIVEA Cosmetics In- 2017 Shower Body Lotio n NIVEA Cosmetics Brand Image Com 2017/18 mercial L'Oréal Cosmetics Excellence Crème 2018 Adidas Fashion Create the Answer 2017/18 adidas Origina Fashion Original is never fini 2017/18 ls shed H&M Fashion Brand Image Com 2018/19 mercial Levi’s Fashion Performance Jeans 2018/19 Levi’s Fashion Brand Image Com 2018/19 mercial New Balance Fashion New Balance Shoes 2017/18 New Balance Fashion Brand Image Com 2017/18 mercial Nike Fashion Dream Crazy 2018/19 Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 Reebok Fashion Be More Human 2017/18 Carlsberg Food and Beverages Carlsberg 1883 2018 Coca Cola Food and Beverages Taste the feeling 2017/18 Coca Cola Food and Beverages New Year Holidays 2017/18

32 Dove Food and Beverages Each and Every Day 2017 Guinness Food and Beverages Taste of black 2017 KFC Food and Beverages Brand Image Com 2018/19 mercial McDonald’s Food and Beverages Brand Image Com 2018 mercial Nestle Food and Beverages Brand Image Com 2019 mercial Pepsi Food and Beverages Brand Image Com 2019 mercial Tsingtao Food and Beverages Brand Image Com 2017/18 mercial Apple Electronics iPhone 7 Plus 2018 Apple Electronics iPad 2018 HUAWEI Electronics HUAWEI Mate 20 2019 HUAWEI Electronics HUAWEI Mate20 2018 Samsung Electronics Galaxy Note8 2018

Samsung Electronics Galaxy Note7 2017

Source: Author’s own work

• Automotive - Automotive industry (Automotive) - an industry engaged in the production of trackless vehicles (e.g. cars, motorcycles and carts), mainly with internal combustion engines (ICE). Brands: BMW, Buick, Ford, Honda, Lexus, Mazda, Mercedes, Toyota.

• Food and Beverages - is a complex, global collective of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population, such as: soft drinks; confectionery; dairy; fruit and vegetable; sugar; milk; bakery; meat; fish; alcohol; tobacco and others. Brands: Carlsberg, Coca Cola, Dove, Guinness, KFC, McDonald’s, Nestle, Pepsi, Tsingtao.

• Cosmetics - industry producing products and methods to improve the human appearance. Cosmetics are also called means and methods of skin care, hair

33 and nails, oral cavity, used to improve the appearance of a person, as well as substances used to give freshness and beauty to the face and body. Brands: Dove, L’Oréal, Nivea,

• Fashion - industry which summarizes the types of trade and production and life chain of clothing and garments, starting with the textile industry (producers of cotton, wool, fur, and synthetic fibre) via fashion industry to fashion retailers up to trade with second-hand clothes and textile recycling. Brands: Adidas, Adidas Original, H&M, Levi’s, New Balance, Nike, Reebok.

• Electronics - the industry for the production of electronic components and products from them. Analog or digital equipments intended for everyday use, typically in private homes. Consumer electronics include devices used for entertainment (flatscreen TVs, DVD players, video games, remote control cars, etc.), communications (telephones, cell phones, e-mail-capable laptops, etc.), and home-office activities (e.g., desktop computers, printers, paper shredders, etc.). Brands: Apple, Huawei, Samsung.

The aforementioned brands and products were selected on the basis of the availability of relevant video content, both Chinese and American, on Youtube.

2.4. Coding and Data Analysis

Even though there are many angles xenophobia and xenomania can be looked at in relation to China, for the purpose of this research and due to time limits only several aspects were looked into in relation to these two phenomena. With regards to xenophobia, the research was limited only to racial xenophobia and, thus, representation of black people, whites (as a reference for ‘Western people’) and Asians in the casting of video commercials. In respect of notions of xenomania, units of research were analysed from the perspective of the promotion of the Western orientation and lifestyles through advertising content. By this are meant the aspects that were possible and easy to observe in Chinese commercials and compare to the

34 US alternatives, such as the use of audio elements (e.g. preference for using international songs as an accompaniment) and visual cues. The latter includes aspects that may be related to a Western environment, such as the choice of locations (e.g. preference for international locations, or promoting ‘big city’ life); lifestyle elements (e.g. big families as opposed to Chinese one-child families, promotion of higher levels of income and, thus, consumerism, use of Western products, westernised appearance, such as whitened skin); and cultural features (e.g. explicit use of typical Western cultural attributes, such as holiday decorations).

As a result of the selected criteria, a coding system emerged throughout the research process. The approach used for this research can be described as summative content analysis where keywords and codes were identified before and during data analysis and were derived from the interest of the researcher and prior literature review (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005).

Furthermore, the selected broad categories for analysis, namely cast, music and sound, location, and lifestyle, were initially developed based on the author’s professional experience in dealing with advertising agencies and production companies. In the course of several years, the author has translated numerous treatments of Russian and international directors for advertising campaigns for the Russian market. Judging from the experience, the outlined categories present a common structure for every video commercial as these are the points any brand or advertising agency consider when developing a commercial script and translating their messages to the audience. It is suggested that the same structure is used throughout the advertising industry worldwide.

The following codes and categories were used in the process of data collection:

Cast (reflects the racial representation in commercials: Asians, whites and/or blacks):

• Asian – Based on visiual traits: people with yellowish skin, face shape is ranges from medium broad to very broad, lips, as a rule, thin, eyes slanting and deeply

35 planted with a hanging upper eyelid, nasal bridge is normally medium broad; commonly straight dark hair with a coarse texture.

• White - Based on visual traits: skin colour - from pale white to olive brown, narrow to medium broad face with no prognathism, laterel eye-fold is widespread, the form of a nasal bridge – narrow to medium broad; hair colour – from light brown to dark brown, with a straight to wavy form.

• Black - Based on visual traits: skin colour – from brown to brown-black or yellow- brown, medium broad to narrow face with strong, commonly vertical eye-fold, nasal bridge is usually medium broad to very broad; brown black coarse hair with a woolly of frizzly form.

• Asian + White – Mix of representatives of Asian and White races.

• Black + White - Mix of representatives of Black and White races.

• Asian + Black - Mix of representatives of Asian and Black races.

• Mixed - Mix of representatives of three or more races.

• N/A - There were no people in the video or it was impossible to determine the race.

Voice acting (reflects whether a commercial is presented in the local language, dubbed or subtitled):

• CN - Voice acting in the Chinese language.

• ENG - Voice acting in the English language.

• CN + CN subs - Voice acting in the Chinese language with Chinese subtitles.

• CN + Mix subs - Voice acting in the Chinese language with more than one language of subtitles used.

• CN + ENG subs - Voice acting in the Chinese language with English subtitles.

• N/A + CN subs - Without voice acting with Chinese subtitles.

• ENG + ENG subs - Voice acting in the English language with English subtitles.

36 • ENG + CN subs - Voice acting in the English language with Chinese subtitles.

• N/A - Without voice acting and subtitles

Music (reflects the choice of musical accompaniment for the commercials – instrumental or Chinese/Western songs):

• Instrumental - Music played on instruments without a human voice.

• Western song - Works of various musical genres, using vocals mainly in English and European languages, focused on the mass audience.

• Chinese song - Musical works with classical Chinese musical instruments: flute, gong, a large variety of stringed instruments, are mainly used. Vocals are always in Chinese.

Location (reflects shooting locations – China or abroad, choice of rural or urban environments):

• Rural environment - Geographic areas located outside towns and cities.

• Urban environment - Settlements with high population density and infrastructure of built environment.

• Futuristic location - Non-existent locations or areas with a fictional design and forms of environment.

• Mix urban and rural – A combination of urban and rural areas in one video.

• China - The territory of China, distinguishing features: billboards and banners in Chinese, Chinese architecture, Chinese attractions, well-known city views (e.g. panoramic view of Shanghai).

• Indoor - Locations inside a building, rather than outside (house, apartment, office, cafe/restaurant, etc)

37 Lifestyle (reflects visible elements attributed to daily lives and behaviours and typical and well-known Chinese and Western cultural features):

• Asian lifestyle – Asian attributes: tea thermos, chopsticks, dragon, red lanterns, red wedding dress, traditional Chinese food (like fried rice, noodles, dumplings), Chinese flag, traditional Chinese outfit, traditional Chinese buildings, swords, tai- ditiuan, paper-cutting, Chinese new year decorations, red envelope, calligraphy, family of three, karaoke.

• Western lifestyle – Western attributes:white wedding dress, skateboard, graffiti, pillow fight, surfing, own house, private jet, factory, teddy bear, mansion, butler, suburb, Christmas wreath on the door, Christmas tree, snowboard, loft, cereal and milk, guitar, hockey, red wine, gulls, modern art gallery, surfing, yoga, ballet dancer, soccer, BMX, fur coats, vinyl record, swag, coffee, lacrosse stick, American flag, tennis, Santa Claus, diner, burger, barber shop, comics.

• Mixed Western and Asian lifestyle – A combination of signs of both Western and Asian lifestyles.

• Other – Videos that do not have any signs of the categories listed above.

Each commercial was coded according to the coding system developed. The results were examined per defined category. As a quantitative part of the research, simple statistical frequencies in the form of percentage breakdowns were calculated both for Chinese and US commercials to provide a valid point of comparison. This was supported by qualitative exploration of visual cues and descriptive explanations of the results with regards to the context of the study.

2.5. Limitations

There are several limitations attributed to the chosen methodology. Even though the strength of qualitative research is in simplifying and managing data without dismantling context, its findings are subject to a certain level of ambiguity and are

38 not tested to uncover whether they are statistically significant (Atieno, 2009). This, in turn, affects the credibility and validity research. Since content analysis involves elements of quantitate research, simple statistical tools were applied to the results of this work taking into consideration the limited researcher’s knowledge on statistical methods. However, it is understood that more complex statistical analysis would increase overall trustworthiness of the research and would yield more meaningful results. Moreover, a use of supportive qualitative methods, such as interviews with industry professionals working with the Chinese market, would lead to a better understanding of the examined phenomena and context. However, due to time limitations and the scale of this work, only chosen methodology was possible. In addition, in qualitative content analysis, it is recommended to have at least two investigators to collect and assess data to ensure higher objectivity of findings and increase the validity (Graneheim and Lundman,2004), which was not feasible for this study as it was designed as an individual assignment.

With regards to the sample, research choices were made on the basis of resource availability and time constraints of this work. However, with more time, it would be advisable to analyse a larger sample of video advertising materials across a wider selection of products and industries. Moreover, a comparison between more markets, e.g. European countries and Asian countries, could result in additional findings and understandings of the studied phenomena. In addition, the findings of the research are primarily based on the visual cues, without analysing verbal contexts due to language limitations. There also seems to be an availability issue since very few commercials of the same product types were possible to locate online and there is a general issue of a lack of relevant Chinese commercial content available on Youtube. Furthermore, as it turned out during the research process, a higher volume of Chinese commercial shot prior to 2017 can be accessed online, whereas the number of available advertising videos from 2017 seems to be rather limited. However, to execute an analysis of a wider time scale, one would need considerably more time.

39 With regards to understanding of cultural cues, the coding and further analysis was based on researcher’s personal knowledge of Chinese and Western cultures and being exposed to these cultures while living in China and Western countries. It is suggested that professional expertise in intercultural issues would lead to more in-depth understanding of the researched phenomena.

40 Chapter 3. Findings

Findings derived from observations of Chinese and US video commercials as outlined in the research methodology are presented in the following chapter. The data was analysed according to the defined categories and codes, where American advertising videos were used as reference and ,where applicable, as a basis for comparison with Chinese commercials. Firstly, the racial representation of casts in video commercials is discussed. This is followed by an analysis of sound cues and locations. Finally, translated lifestyles are discussed. The chapter ends with the discussion of the findings in relation to the research aim and questions.

3.1. Racial Representation of Cast

Table 2. Racial Representation of Cast

BRAND PRODUCT PRODUCT/ YEAR CHINES USA TYPE CAMPAING E CAST CAST NAME BMW Automotati The BMW 2018 Asian White ve 2 Series Buick Automotati Buick Enclave 2018 Asian Mixed ve Ford Automotati Ford Escort 2018 Asian Mixed ve HONDA Automotati Brand Image 2017/ Asian + White ve Commercial 18 White Lexus Automotati Brand Image 2017/ Asian Black +W ve Commercial 18 hite Mazda Automotati Mazda CX-8 2018 White White ve Mercedes Automotati She's Merced 2017/ Asian + Mixed ve es 18 White TOYOTA Automotati TOYOTA C- 2017/ N/A Black +W ve HR 18 hite

41 Dove Cosmetics Brand Image 2018 Asian Black Commercial Dove Cosmetics Dove Body W 2018 Asian Mixed ash L'Oréal Cosmetics Beauty For All 2017 Asian Mixed

NIVEA Cosmetics In- 2017 Asian White Shower Body Lotion NIVEA Cosmetics Brand Image 2017/ Asian White Commercial 18 L'Oréal Cosmetics Excellence Cr 2018 White White ème Adidas Fashion Create the An 2017/ Asian + Mixed swer 18 White adidas Ori Fashion Original is nev 2017/ Asian + Mixed ginals er finished 18 Black H&M Fashion Brand Image 2018/ Asian Mixed Commercial 19 Levi’s Fashion Performance J 2018/ Asian White eans 19 Levi’s Fashion Brand Image 2018/ Asian Mixed Commercial 19 New Bala Fashion New Balance 2017/ Asian White nce Shoes 18

New Bala Fashion Brand Image 2017/ Asian White nce Commercial 18

Nike Fashion Dream Crazy 2018/ Asian Mixed 19 Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 Mixed Mixed

Reebok Fashion Be More Hum 2017/ Asian White an 18 Carlsberg Food and Carlsberg 188 2018 Asian White Beverages 3 Coca Cola Food and Taste the feeli 2017/ Asian White Beverages ng 18

42 Coca Cola Food and New Year Holi 2017/ Asian Black +W Beverages days 18 hite

Dove Food and Each and Ever 2017 Asian Mixed Beverages y Day Guinness Food and Taste of black 2017 Asian + Black Beverages White KFC Food and Brand Image 2018/ Asian + Mixed Beverages Commercial 19 White

McDonald Food and Brand Image 2018 Asian Asian + ’s Beverages Commercial White Nestle Food and Brand Image 2019 Asian Black +W Beverages Commercial hite

Pepsi Food and Brand Image 2019 Asian Mixed Beverages Commercial

Tsingtao Food and Brand Image 2017/ Mixed Mixed Beverages Commercial 18 Apple Technology iPhone 7 Plus 2018 Asian Mixed Apple Technology iPad 2018 Asian Mixed HUAWEI Technology HUAWEI Mate 2019 Asian White 20 HUAWEI Technology HUAWEI 2018 N/A Mixed Mate20 Samsung Technology Galaxy Note8 2018 Asian Mixed Samsung Technology Galaxy Note7 2017 Asian Mixed

Source: Author’s own work

With regards to the racial representation of cast, out of 40 Chinese commercial the majority (70%) had only Asian cast. Only five videos (13%) had the cast consisting of Asian and white actors, and there is a small proportion of commercials (5%) with a mixed cast, including Asian, white and black actors. Interestingly, there was one video commercial with black cast for Chinese market (see Image 1 as a reference).

43 Image 1. Racial Representation of Cast in Chinese advertisement

Source: Author’s own work

The latter one was represented by the Adidas Originals ad showing swag style which originally associated with black culture. In addition, some videos were classified as N/A (not applicable) as they it was not possible to distinguish any racial characteristics of the cast or those were product ads with no actors (e.g. Huawei advertisement starring astronaut in a spacesuit with no visible race signs). Judging from the analysed video sample, in commercials having black actors, they are shown in party settings with attributes of swag and hip-hop culture (supported by related outfits, accessories and music) as seen in ads by such brands, as Adidas Originals (see Image 2 as a reference), Guiness and Honda. In contrast, the videos that included white cast, the latter are commonly represented as business people or people with higher levels of income and belonging to a better-off social strata (e.g. as observed in the ads by Honda, Mazda, L’Oreal and Nike).

Moreover, in general the contents of the videos were regarded as racially neutral, i.e. neither praising nor diminishing any race.

44 Image 2. Adidas Originals Advertisement

Source:YouTube

When looking at the American commercials, half of the videos (50%) had a mixed (white, black and Asian) cast and 10% of videos had black and white actors. Monoracial cast is dominated by video content with only white actors (33%), whereas there were few commercials with only black (5%) or only Asian (2%) cast (see Image 3 as a reference).

Image 3. Racial Representation of Cast in American advertisement

Source: Author’s own work

45 Overall, there is a stronger preference to employ Asian cast for localised commercials in Asia, while the proportion of presenting other races (among monoracial videos), mainly whites, is relatively not significant. In addition, while being not common for the majority of video commercials, black cast is still represented mainly in mixed-cast videos, while the latter seems to be the regular case for American advertising materials.

3.2. Voice acting and Musical Accompaniment

Table 3. Advertisement Voice acting and Musical Accompaniment

BRAN PRODU PRODUC YEA CHINE USA CHINE USA D CT T/ R SE MUSIC SE VOICE TYPE CAMPAI MUSIC VOICE ACTIN NG ACTIN G NAME G

BMW Automo The BMW 2018 Western Western N/A N/A tative 2 Series song song Buick Automo Buick Enc 2018 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG tative lave ental ental CN su bs Ford Automo Ford Esco 2018 Western Instrum CN + ENG tative rt song ental CN su bs HOND Automo Brand Im 2017/ Western Instrum CN + ENG A tative age Com 18 song ental MIX su mercial bs Lexus Automo Brand Im 2017/ Western Instrum CN + N/A tative age Com 18 song ental CN su mercial bs Mazda Automo Mazda C 2018 Western Instrum CN + ENG tative X-8 song ental CN su bs Merce Automo She's Mer 2017/ Western Instrum N/A + N/A des tative cedes 18 song ental CN su bs TOYOT Automo TOYOTA 2017/ Western Western CN N/A A tative C-HR 18 song song

46 Dove Cosmet Brand Im 2018 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics age Com ental ental CN su mercial bs Dove Cosmet Dove Bod 2018 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics y Wash ental ental CN su bs L'Oréal Cosmet Beauty Fo 2017 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics r All ental ental ENG s ubs NIVEA Cosmet In- 2017 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics Shower B ental ental ENG s ody Lotio ubs n NIVEA Cosmet Brand Im 2017/ Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics age Com 18 ental ental ENG s mercial ubs L'Oréal Cosmet Excellenc 2018 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ics e Crème ental ental CN su bs Adidas Fashion Create th 2017/ Instrum Instrum CN ENG e Answer 18 ental ental adidas Fashion Original is 2017/ Instrum Western ENG + N/A Origina never fini 18 ental song CN su ls shed bs H&M Fashion Brand Im 2018/ Instrum Western N/A N/A age Com 19 ental song mercial Levi’s Fashion Performa 2018/ Instrum Western CN + N/A nce Jeans 19 ental song MIX su bs Levi’s Fashion Brand Im 2018/ Instrum Instrum CN + ENG age Com 19 ental ental MIX su mercial bs New B Fashion New Bala 2017/ Instrum Instrum CN + ENG alance nce Shoe 18 ental ental CN su s bs

New B Fashion Brand Im 2017/ Instrum Instrum CN + N/A alance age Com 18 ental ental CN su mercial bs

47 Nike Fashion Dream Cr 2018/ Instrum Instrum CN + ENG azy 19 ental ental CN su bs Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 Instrum Instrum CN ENG ental ental Reebo Fashion Be More 2017/ Instrum Instrum CN + ENG k Human 18 ental ental ENG s ubs Carlsb Food an Carlsberg 2018 Instrum Instrum CN ENG erg d Bever 1883 ental ental ages Coca Food an Taste the 2017/ Instrum Western CN + ENG Cola d Bever feeling 18 ental song ENG s ages ubs Coca Food an New Year 2017/ Chinese Western CN + ENG Cola d Bever Holidays 18 song song ENG s ages ubs Dove Food an Each and 2017 Instrum Western CN + ENG d Bever Every Day ental song CN su ages bs Guinne Food an Taste of b 2017 Instrum Western ENG + ENG ss d Bever lack ental song CN su ages bs KFC Food an Brand Im 2018/ Chinese Instrum CN + ENG d Bever age Com 19 song ental CN su ages mercial bs McDon Food an Brand Im 2018 Chinese Instrum CN + ENG ald’s d Bever age Com song ental ENG s ages mercial ubs Nestle Food an Brand Im 2019 Instrum Western CN + ENG d Bever age Com ental song CN su ages mercial bs Pepsi Food an Brand Im 2019 Chinese Western CN + ENG d Bever age Com song song ENG s ages mercial ubs Tsingta Food an Brand Im 2017/ Western Instrum CN N/A o d Bever age Com 18 song ental ages mercial Apple Electron iPhone 7 2018 Western Western N/A ENG ics Plus song song

48 Apple Electron iPad 2018 Chinese Instrum N/A ENG ics song ental HUAW Electron HUAWEI 2019 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG + EI ics Mate 20 ental ental CN su ENG s bs ubs HUAW Electron HUAWEI 2018 Instrum Instrum ENG + N/A EI ics Mate20 ental ental CN su bs Samsu Electron Galaxy N 2018 Instrum Instrum CN + ENG ng ics ote8 ental ental CN su bs Samsu Electron Galaxy N 2017 Instrum Western CN + ENG ng ics ote7 ental song CN su bs

Source: Author’s own work

With the respect to the audio cues, voice acting and musical accompaniment of commercials were analysed. The verbal aspects were analysed only from the point of view of the language selection and not according to linguistic contents due to language limitations. From the selected sample, the majority of commercials are presented in the original - Chinese or English - language (80% for China and 75% for the USA), while some of the videos do not have any voice acting as such (13% of Chinese and 25% of the US commercials). Most of the Chinese commercials in the selected sample (78%) have English and/or Chinese subtitles, which may be a way of adaption of the content for Youtube and may not be present in the original commercials. Interestingly, three of the reviewed Chinese commercials were originally shot in the English language. This includes, the videos by Adidas Originals (a multinational brand headquartered in Germany), Guiness (Irish beer brand) and Huawei (Chinese multinational manufacturer).

49 Image 4. Chinese and American Advertisement Voice acting

Source: Author’s own work

As for the musical accompaniment, around two thirds of the commercials used instrumental music, with 64% and 68% for China and the USA respectively. Instrumental compositions were neutral and universal, with no explicit national or folk motives identified. Among the commercials with songs, 23% of Chinese videos used Western songs in the English language as a musical accompaniment, and 13% used songs in the Chinese language (see Image 4 as a reference). This may suggest a slight tendency to prefer Western music over local pieces.

3.3. Location

Table 4. Location

BRAND PRODUC PRODUCT/ YEA CHINESE USA T TYPE CAMPAING R LOCATION LOCATION NAME BMW Automotati The BMW 2018 Modern metr Mix urban an ve 2 Series opolis d rural enviro nment Buick Automotati Buick Enclav 2018 Mix urban a Urban enviro ve e nd rural envir nment onment

50 Ford Automotati Ford Escort 2018 Urban enviro Mix urban an ve nment d rural enviro nment HONDA Automotati Brand Image 2017/ Mix urban a Rural environ ve Commercial 18 nd rural envir ment onment

Lexus Automotati Brand Image 2017/ Modern metr Mix urban an ve Commercial 18 opolis d rural enviro nment Mazda Automotati Mazda CX-8 2018 Urban enviro Mix urban an ve nment d rural enviro nment Mercede Automotati She's Merce 2017/ Modern metr Mix urban an s ve des 18 opolis d rural enviro nment TOYOTA Automotati TOYOTA C- 2017/ Modern metr Urban enviro ve HR 18 opolis nment

Dove Cosmetics Brand Image 2018 Mix urban a Indoor Commercial nd rural envir onment Dove Cosmetics Dove Body 2018 Indoor Mix urban an Wash d rural enviro nment L'Oréal Cosmetics Beauty For Al 2017 Rural enviro Mix urban an l nment d rural enviro nment NIVEA Cosmetics In- 2017 Indoor Indoor Shower Body Lotion NIVEA Cosmetics Brand Image 2017/ Indoor Rural environ Commercial 18 ment L'Oréal Cosmetics Excellence C 2018 Indoor Indoor rème Adidas Fashion Create the A 2017/ China Indoor nswer 18 adidas O Fashion Original is ne 2017/ Futuristic loc Urban enviro riginals ver finished 18 ation nment H&M Fashion Brand Image 2018/ Urban enviro Urban enviro Commercial 19 nment nment

51 Levi’s Fashion Performance 2018/ Urban enviro Urban enviro Jeans 19 nment nment

Levi’s Fashion Brand Image 2018/ Urban enviro Urban enviro Commercial 19 nment nment New Bal Fashion New Balance 2017/ China Urban enviro ance Shoes 18 nment

New Bal Fashion Brand Image 2017/ China Indoor ance Commercial 18 Nike Fashion Dream Crazy 2018/ China Mix urban an 19 d rural enviro nment Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 Urban enviro Mix urban an nment d rural enviro nment Reebok Fashion Be More Hu 2017/ Urban enviro Futuristic loc man 18 nment ation

Carlsber Food and Carlsberg 18 2018 Modern metr Urban enviro g Beverages 83 opolis nment Coca Co Food and Taste the feel 2017/ China Urban enviro la Beverages ing 18 nment

Coca Co Food and New Year Hol 2017/ China Urban enviro la Beverages idays 18 nment

Dove Food and Each and Ev 2017 China Urban enviro Beverages ery Day nment Guinnes Food and Taste of blac 2017 Urban enviro Urban enviro s Beverages k nment nment

KFC Food and Brand Image 2018/ China Indoor Beverages Commercial 19 McDonal Food and Brand Image 2018 China Urban enviro d’s Beverages Commercial nment Nestle Food and Brand Image 2019 China Urban enviro Beverages Commercial nment Pepsi Food and Brand Image 2019 China Urban enviro Beverages Commercial nment Tsingtao Food and Brand Image 2017/ Rural enviro Modern metr Beverages Commercial 18 nment opolis

52 Apple Technolog iPhone 7 Plu 2018 China Urban enviro y s nment

Apple Technolog iPad 2018 China Mix urban an y d rural enviro nment HUAWEI Technolog HUAWEI Mat 2019 China Rural environ y e 20 ment

HUAWEI Technolog HUAWEI 2018 Futuristic loc Mix urban an y Mate20 ation d rural enviro nment Samsun Technolog Galaxy Note8 2018 Indoor Urban enviro g y nment Samsun Technolog Galaxy Note7 2017 Indoor Urban enviro g y nment

Source: Author’s own work

Regarding the locations used in the video commercials, around one third of Chinese commercials show locations that explicitly represent China and local environment. This includes well-known city view, such as a panoramic view of Shanghai (see Image 5 as a reference), and national sights, as well as well-recognized traditional Chinese architecture (see Image 6 as a reference). Moreover, locations showing road signs, billboards or interior/exterior elements with the Chinese characters were considered as local locations.

Image 5. Panoramic view of Shanghai

53 Source:YouTube

Image 6. Traditional Chinese architecture

Source:YouTube

Furthermore, a third of commercials (33%) are shot in the neutral urban environment and big metropolises, which seems to be a popular location choice for the US commercials as well (47%). This means that in the analysed sample such locations showed skyscrapers, modern architecture, city roads and streets that can be generally found in any developed and populated city both in China and other countries (see Image 7 as a reference).

Image 7. Neutral metropolis

Source:YouTube

54 For the Chinese commercials no visible signs of these locations being specifically in China (e.g. use of Chinese characters in exterior signs and elements) were observed.

In contract, rural locations tend to be a less common choice both for China and the US representing only a small portion of analysed videos ( 5% and 8% respectively). In addition, around 15% of commercials in both countries used indoor locations, such as apartments or houses (see Image 8 as a reference). These locations mostly demonstrated common interior designs and furniture, which might be found almost anywhere in the world.

Image 8. Chinese and American Advertisement location

Source: Author’s own work

In general, for the Chinese commercials there seems to be a stronger preference of using either local locations or shooting in a modern urban business environment.

3.4. Translated Lifestyle

Table 5. Translated Lifestyle BRAND PRODUC PRODUCT/ YEAR CHINESE USA T TYPE CAMPAING LIFESTYLE LIFESTYLE NAME BMW Automotati The BMW 2018 Western lifest Western lifest ve 2 Series yle yle

55 Buick Automotati Buick Encla 2018 Family Western lifest ve ve yle Ford Automotati Ford Escort 2018 Western lifest Western lifest ve yle yle HONDA Automotati Brand Imag 2017/ Western lifest Active lifestyl ve e Commerci 18 yle e al Lexus Automotati Brand Imag 2017/ Other Western lifest ve e Commerci 18 yle al Mazda Automotati Mazda CX-8 2018 Western lifest Western lifest ve yle yle Mercede Automotati She's Merce 2017/ Western lifest Western lifest s ve des 18 yle yle

TOYOTA Automotati TOYOTA C- 2017/ Other Western lifest ve HR 18 yle Dove Cosmetics Brand Imag 2018 Mixed Weste Family e Commerci rn and Asian al lifestyle Dove Cosmetics Dove Body 2018 Other Other Wash

L'Oréal Cosmetics Beauty For 2017 Asian lifestyl Other All e NIVEA Cosmetics In- 2017 Asian lifestyl Other Shower Bod e y Lotion NIVEA Cosmetics Brand Imag 2017/ Other Western lifest e Commerci 18 yle al

L'Oréal Cosmetics Excellence 2018 Other Other Crème Adidas Fashion Create the A 2017/ Active lifestyl Party nswer 18 e adidas O Fashion Original is n 2017/ Party Party riginals ever finishe 18 d

H&M Fashion Brand Imag 2018/ Western lifest Party e Commerci 19 yle al

56 Levi’s Fashion Performanc 2018/ Asian lifestyl Western lifest e Jeans 19 e yle

Levi’s Fashion Brand Imag 2018/ Western lifest Western lifest e Commerci 19 yle yle al New Bal Fashion New Balanc 2017/ Western lifest Western lifest ance e Shoes 18 yle yle New Bal Fashion Brand Imag 2017/ Asian lifestyl Humor ance e Commerci 18 e al Nike Fashion Dream Craz 2018/ Active lifestyl Active lifestyl y 19 e e Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 Other Active lifestyl e Reebok Fashion Be More Hu 2017/ Active lifestyl Active lifestyl man 18 e e Carlsber Food and Carlsberg 1 2018 Party Party g Beverages 883 Coca Co Food and Taste the fe 2017/ Asian lifestyl Western lifest la Beverages eling 18 e yle Coca Co Food and New Year H 2017/ Asian lifestyl Western lifest la Beverages olidays 18 e yle Dove Food and Each and Ev 2017 Asian lifestyl Western lifest Beverages ery Day e yle Guinnes Food and Taste of bla 2017 Party Party s Beverages ck KFC Food and Brand Imag 2018/ Western lifest Western lifest Beverages e Commerci 19 yle yle al McDonal Food and Brand Imag 2018 Asian lifestyl Western lifest d’s Beverages e Commerci e yle al Nestle Food and Brand Imag 2019 Asian lifestyl Other Beverages e Commerci e al Pepsi Food and Brand Imag 2019 Asian lifestyl Western lifest Beverages e Commerci e yle al

57 Tsingtao Food and Brand Imag 2017/ Asian lifestyl Party Beverages e Commerci 18 e al Apple Technolog iPhone 7 Pl 2018 Asian lifestyl Humor y us e Apple Technolog iPad 2018 Mixed Weste Humor y rn and Asian lifestyle HUAWEI Technolog HUAWEI Ma 2019 Asian Lifestyl Humor y te 20 e HUAWEI Technolog HUAWEI 2018 Humor Other y Mate20 Samsun Technolog Galaxy Note 2018 Other Other g y 8 Samsun Technolog Galaxy Note 2017 Other Western lifest g y 7 yle

Source: Author’s own work

With regards to the translated lifestyle, the data was analysed primarily from the point of view of the presentation of the Asian or Westernised lifestyle (see Appendix 2 for a more detailed breakdown of collected data).). Around one third (33%) of the Chinese commercials translate what can be regarded as the Asian lifestyle and another third (30%) present the Western lifestyle, while 15% of the videos have elements that can be attributed to both lifestyles. Around 22% of commercials were regarded as neutral on this criteria since no explicit features related to the researched phenomena were observed (see Image 9 as a reference).

Image 9. Chinese and American Advertisement Translated Lifestyle

58 Source: Author’s own work

Asian lifestyle and cultural characteristics observed in the commercials mostly include cultural attributes related to food (traditional food and sweets, chopsticks, drinking tea), attractions and traditional outfits, use of red colour, which symbolises happiness, beauty, success and good luck in China (red envelopes, red lanterns) and calligraphy (see Image 11 as a reference), as well as typical festive elements, such as dragon dance, fireworks or Chinese New Year decorations (see Image 10 as a reference).

Image 10. Dragon dance

Source:Youtube

Image 11. Chinese New Year decorations/calligraphy

Source:Youtube

59 Moreover, a number of the commercials show a traditional Chinese family consisting of three members (parents and one child). Furthermore, traditional activities, such as karaoke and tai-ditiuan are demonstrated in several videos.

With respect to the Western lifestyle, the codes emerged in the process of data collection and American TV commercials were used as point of reference rather than a basis for comparison. The Western elements in the Chinese commercials often include use of Western holiday elements (e.g. a birthday cake, Santa Claus, Christmas trees and decorations, Christmas gifts) and food and drinks (e.g. popcorn, chocolates, coffee, red wine, champagne). In addition, many commercials show bigger families and non-traditional housing (e.g. own houses with a garage, lofts). Furthermore, a part of commercials promote active lifestyle and sports activities that originated in the Western world like football, basketball, skateboarding or snowboarding. A number of analysed videos also showed party settings with elements of hip-hop/swag culture (gold chains, extravagant outfits, jacuzzi), (see Image 12 as a reference).

Image 12. SWAG style example

Source:Youtube

Interestingly, it was noted that many heroes of US commercials represent working class population, while this was never the case for the Chinese advertising, which, in turn, explicitly translates a better-off lifestyle and a high quality of life. In addition,

60 some American commercials showed disabled people, whereas this topic was not present in the Chinese commercials, which may be attributed to xenophobic characteristics of the Chinese society.

61 Chapter 4. Discussion of Results

The aim of this research was to explore whether Chinese commercials explicitly translate notions of xenophobia and xenomania, according to the racial representation of cast and shown lifestyles. The findings described above provide a basis for a further discussion, which relates the results of the study to the research questions.

First of all, the findings showed that there is a clear preference for Asian actors in commercials, which is an expected result. Employing local cast for promoting products for local markets is a common practice for international brands and a reflection of glocalization strategy. Even though black cast is not widely represented in the Chinese video commercials (as they might not be represented in any other markets where black population is not historically widely present), there are still videos including black actors, which might be a part of brands’ strategies of promoting diversity on a global scale. In addition, international brands generally tend to be very cautious and conscious about discrimination issues and it would be surprising to observe explicit racial xenophobia.

However, the fact that black actors present in the Chinese ads are only shown in the settings translating hip-hop culture, which was originally developed in the black society, raises a question of cultural stereotyping. Such one-sided representation of the black race may serve as an evidence of existing cultural bias towards black people in the Chinese society. In this regard, it becomes unclear why such a vision of black people is explicitly promoted by international brands as the same advertisements showing just one dimension of the black culture could quite possibly provoke a negative response from consumers in the Western world and accusations of discrimination. As opposed to it, the roles of white actors mainly represent successful business people with living a modern and quality life, which also can signify a certain cultural stereotype among the Chinese where whites are considered to be educated, successful and privileged. This translated image, in turn, only supports the imposition of xenomania by international brands through advertising.

62 In addition, even though not falling under the limitations of this research, another relevant issue was noticed, which can be further explored in future research. While some of the American commercials showed disabled people, which may be a part of brands’ dedication to promoting inclusivity, there were no such videos for the Chinese market produced by the international brands. This may mean that there are socially important issues and social minorities that are intentionally avoided in the Chinese media, which leads to a broader perspective of xenophobia in the country’s society.

In contrast, the significance of diversity can be clearly observed in the US commercials where employing a mixed cast seems to be an important part of advertising messages. On the other hand, even in the US commercials representing only white actors (among monoracial cast selections) is still a dominant practice, which raises questions of racial xenophobia and discrimination from a wider global perspective and not only in rather closed societies as China but also in such multinational and multicultural societies, as the US.

Therefore, within the scope of this research, it can be concluded that no explicit notions of racial xenophobia in video advertising in China were observed although cultural stereotyping still takes place and avoidance of certain social topics is observed, which could form a basis for further exploration and discussion. In addition, more understanding could be gained in the analysis of Chinese commercials produced by local brands (which do not operate in international markets) with products targeted at the local market.

Language-wise, no explicit patterns related to xenomania and/or xenophobia were observed. While there are several commercial that were originally shot in the English language and translated, the overall number of such video materials is insignificant and may be rather due to specific brand’s decisions and advertising strategies than to the intentional promotion of the Western lifestyle. With regards to the music selection, the majority of commercials used neutral instrumental compositions. However, among the commercials with a song accompaniment, a higher preference of using songs in the English language was observed, which can be perceived as an

63 element promoting Westernisation. In addition, in relation to the audio cues and xenomania, it would also be recommended to conduct a linguistic analysis of the video contents in order to observe the possible use of English words in dialogues and voice-overs as a possible part of common daily language.

Since one third of the commercials explicitly show China as a location, it can be concluded that using a local environment is somewhat important for international brands to target their products for local markets. There is also a tendency to use non country-specific contemporary urban environments, which, on the one hand, may be a way of promoting a Westernised business and big-city life, but, on the other hand, might show that products are targeted to modern Chinese consumers having a higher level of income and living in bigger cities, such as Shanghai or Beijing.

With regards to the presentation of specific cultural elements and lifestyles, similar proportions represent either perceived Asian lifestyle or Western lifestyle. This may mean that international brands pay close attention to localising their messages to the Chinese market and tend to adapt to the cultural nationalism, which is becoming an important non-political social movement in China. However, there also might be more underlying issues for such decisions rooted in the imposed political ideology and brands being inclined to promote national culture and traditions. This argument, nevertheless, needs further investigation and analysis.

Equally, international brands still promote the Western essence of their products and translate Westernised lifestyles and behaviours, which are typically not common for an average Chinese person. For instance, Western holidays may be generally known but typically not celebrated in China by the local population. The same concerns some food and drinks items, such as coffee and red wine. Traditionally, these beverages are not widely consumed in China and are mostly popular among younger and more advanced population and those who are introduced to the Western culture. These observations may demonstrate that the analysed commercials are mostly targeted at more modern and educated Chinese consumers with higher levels of incomes and liking of the Western culture and traditions. In addition, these findings lead to a further question of whether the brands show the Western lifestyle purely as

64 a representation of their Western origins and values or as intentional attempt to promote and impose Western ways of life on Chinese consumers.

The aforementioned findings give an outline for conclusions and implications of the study discussed in detail in the following chapter.

65 Conclusion

This research has attempted to explore phenomena of xenophobia and xenomania and observe whether there are any explicit notions of each in the contemporary Chinese video advertising. The study was underpinned by a qualitative methodology by means of a qualitative content analysis of Chinese and American recent video commercials.

Overall, the research findings demonstrated that there is no sufficient reasoning to imply that Chinese video advertising translates xenophobic notions in relation to racial xenophobia. Even though there are few commercials where black actors are present, no explicit xenophobic cues were observed and the existing representation rather has to do with the fact that traditionally black population forms a very minor proportion of the total population of China and is not common. However, certain patterns of racial stereotyping in relation to blacks and whites were noticed, which suggests that if not xenophobia but some degree of cultural bias is existent in the Chinese society and translated in the modern media. Surprisingly, this image is translated by international brands, which asks for further investigation of reasons for such a paradox.

In addition, according to the findings of the research, it can be argued that xenomanic notions are present in the contemporary Chinese video advertising and the promotion of the Western lifestyle and behaviours by international brands is rather explicit. Once again, this can be regarded as an expected result as the research analysed international brands, which are ‘xenomanic’ in essence: having mainly Western origins they obviously promote this lifestyle.

However, the presence of Western attributes goes hand in hand with a clear and widely observed promotion of the traditional Chinese culture and lifestyle in video ads. This, in turn, might be a part of glocalization efforts undertaken by international brands in order to appeal to local consumers, This also correlates with the cultural nationalism movement currently present in China as was outlined in the literature review (Guo Yingjie, 2004; Chen Zhimin, 2006; Bell, 2008). In addition, this may

66 also be related to the country’s imposed ideology and efforts to promote nationalism, which may influence advertising media and international brands as well. The latter considerations require further research and analysis to have a better understanding of the big picture and more subtle issues within the society.

All in all, China continues to be a paradoxical country where Western orientation and innovations are closely intertwined with tradition and conservatism. For brands and advertising professionals, this implies that they need to strive to find a fine balance between these two extremes in targeting services and products, where a Western essence of products is linked to Chinese cultural and social features. In a broader sense, this, once again calls for profound intercultural expertise during the execution of advertising campaigns and raises several debatable considerations from a wider perspective.

Firstly, this concerns China and its unquestionable influence on the world. Today China is a multicultural society with a significant number of expats, modern metropolises and a prominent presence of international brands with their poducts and services available for local consumers. Still, all media and modes of communication are carefully scanned, censored and restricted by the national ideology and legal system.

The question is, whether the existing ideology and explicit avoidance of important social themes within this ideology contribute to developing countrywide xenophobia towards specific races, nations or social minorities. The recent case related to the award-winning film “Bohemian Phapsody’’ is an illustrative example of this consideration. The film was released in Chinese film distribution in a cropped form, where six episodes that mention Freddie Mercury's homosexuality and all scenes with the word “gay” and all hints of homoerotism or same-sex relationships were cut out. In addition, in February 2019, the Chinese streaming service Mango TV during the broadcast of the Oscars ceremony corrected the speech of Remi Malek, who received an award for the role of Mercury.Malek said his hero was "gay man," but this was translated into Chinese as "representative of a special group" ( Le Fil, March, 2019). In this view, it is definitely of interest to further observe how long

67 China will be able to supress the powerful flow and spread of information from the ‘outside’ world and what influence this will have both on the Chinese and world’s society. In general, this concerns not only China but any country where political and ideological pressures are high and not open to the external world.

Secondly, the existing position and functions of advertising are open for further discussion and argumentation. It is suggested that currently global brands generally expose a rather high level of awareness and cautionessness in their messages due to possible negative implications and publicity that may be caused by any ambiguity and dubious signals. This is especially true nowadays with numerous ongoing media scandals arising around brands and their messages which are often interpreted in a negative and discriminative light. Positions of brands and their the brand images have become vulnerable in the world where borders of what is socially acceptable and what is not are becoming more subtle and less defined, especially with the rise of internet and social media. Media landscape today resembles a minefield where one wrong step, be it an image or choice of words, can lead to drastic results, as consumers may see latent notions and xenophobia, racism or discrimination while the initial message was not intended for any misinterpetation.

Even though these issues are mainly discussed in the Western world with its clear social agenda of inclusivity, equality and anti-discrimination, China seems to be affected by these social trends as well. Take the recent scandal around Dolce and Gabbana’s ad where a Chinese woman is struggling to eat spaghetti with chopsticks (The Guardian, 2018). The ad raised a wave of negative comments from both Chinese and international consumers accusing the brand of being racist. As a result, the Italian brand had to cancel its Shanghai fashion show. This only emphasises the sensitivity and vulnerability of any information that is exposed publicly today, which means that brands and advertising professionals today more than ever need to be transparent, cautious, respectful and clear in their messages. In addition, there seems to be more and more obvious need for involving intercultural experts in crafting messages for different markets.

68 In addition, it seems that brands’ operations and marketing in local markets is an important issue for further considerations. The question here is in where there is a fine line for global companies between pursuing commercial interests in local markets and bending to local ideologies and governments that undermine global values of equality, inclusivity and acceptance. The issue of ethics and double standards, therefore, arises and needs to be addressed. On the other hand, it is also important to further look into how local societies can preserve their national identity and deal with existing challenges while still being inevitably affected by the culture promoted by international brands, globalization and growing consumerism.

Judging from ongoing media scandals and discussions, xenophobia and xenomania are to stay topical and relevant topics for the modern global community, as well as business and academic worlds, bringing to the surface numerous cultural, social and ethical issues.

Limitations and Recommendations for Further Research

The main limitation of this research is attributed mainly to a fixed time frame and language limitations, which put boundaries on a scope of research, choice of methodology and a final sample size. Since this research was limited to manifest analysis and observing only visible cues, it would be interesting to explore more latent underlying issues. For example, interviews with advertising professionals and brands’ marketers could be conducted in order to better understand brands adapt and adhere to existing legal, ideological, cultural and social restrictions and realities in China. In general, to gain more profound insights on the researched phenomena, it would be recommended to undertake qualitative research with a focus on cultural, historical, political and social perspectives of xenophobia and xenomania in China. Moreover, no definite statistically significant and valid conclusions can be drawn from this research due to simplicity of applied statistical methods and statistically unrepresentative sample size. Therefore, a more sophisticated statistical analysis

69 would be needed in order to find significant correlations and interdependencies among data sets.

It is crucial mentioning that the results were obtained via analysing the commercials produced by international brands and more meaningful and profound conclusions might be achieved with an analysis of commercials by local brands and their messages from the perspective of xenophobia and xenomania. Therefore, the question for further exploration becomes: ‘What are the notions of xenophobia and/ or xenomania in Chinese local advertising?’ To execute, such an analysis would require a profound linguistic and cultural expertise on China, as well as a larger sample and more sophisticated statistical methods.

Furthermore, it seems likely that a controversial topic like this is prone to distortions in explicit perceptions versus implicit perceptions of xenomania and xenophobia and personal bias. Future research should aim to control analysis biases related to the broad definitions of these terms and personal perceptions of researchers.

In addition, the results were restricted only to video advertising and may not generalise to other types of advertising and media. Replications are needed, including other media means, to validate the findings and gain a deeper understanding of the phenomena. Analysis of manifestations of xenomania and xenophobia in other types of advertising, including print advs or TV commercials as shown on national television, as well as other types of media in a broader sense, including print media, films, national news, would be recommended.

Since this research was limited to racial aspects of xenophobia and basic lifestyle aspects of xenomania, it is also advisable to explore issues of these phenomena in China in a broader context. For instance, xenophobia can be considered from a gender perspective or LGBT and minorities’ issues, whereas a more in-depth approach to xenomania can be undertaken with a thorough investigation of historical, linguistic and socioeconomic aspects.

It is hoped that this work may serve as a catalyst for future work using more detailed and sophisticated research designs and approaches to better understand the phenomena of xenophobia and xenomania and how advertising and media contribute

70 to or hinder their spread. Since this topic has not been extensively discussed in the previous academic research, the results of this study might be of interest for researchers and contribute to the body of knowledge on the topic. Moreover, considering the limitations, this study may serve as a basis for further academic investigation.

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78 Image 3. Author’s own work Image 4. Author’s own work Image 5. Beauty For All by L'Oréal - China (EN). In: Youtube [online]. 25.01.2017. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YvotNcRgdas [Accessed 13 Apr. 2019]. Youtube channel L'Oréal #BeautyForAll Image 6. iPhone 7 Plus — The City — Apple. In: Youtube [online]. 05.05.2018 Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dkkPl3_pjW0 [Accessed 13 Apr. 2019]. Youtube channel Chester Bennington Image 7. She's Mercedes – Official Trailer. In: Youtube [online]. 07.09.2018 Avail- able at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zdH74u67tk [Accessed 13 Apr. 2019]. Youtube channel Mercedes-Benz. Image 8. Author’s own work Image 9. Author’s own work

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List of Images Image 1. Racial Representation of Cast in Chinese advertisement Image 2. Adidas Originals Advertisement Image 3. Racial Representation of Cast in American advertisement Image 4. Chinese and American Advertisement Voice acting Image 5. Panoramic view of Shanghai Image 6. Traditional Chinese architecture Image 7. Neutral metropolis

79 Image 8. Chinese and American Advertisement location Image 9. Chinese and American Advertisement Translated Lifestyle Image 10. Dragon dance Image 11. Chinese New Year decorations/calligraphy Image 12. SWAG style example

80 Index of Appendices

A. Table 1. Video content source

B. Table 6. Cultural Attributes

81 A. Table 1.Video content source

BRAND PRODUCT/ COU LINK CAMPAING NTRY NAME BMW The BMW 2 Series CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=RLFaZqpmoQs BMW The BMW 2 Series USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=wRj7Vy9cDDA Buick Buick Enclave CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=bVRKAdoKjbE Buick Buick Enclave USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=UA-I-cN9mh8 Ford Ford Escort CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=SFBNFAVOg0c Ford Ford Escort USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=HVlfclOpsK8 HONDA Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=Lp_4my7kSQg HONDA Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=uiUXLWQH2U4 Lexus Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=tAAZb6BMMTs Lexus Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=GBYp79QLW9U Mazda Mazda CX-8 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=3VFDWfMKiSo Mazda Mazda CX-8 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=gtjetJt2zk0 Mercedes She's Mercedes CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yPU9wOvpfVM Mercedes She's Mercedes USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=_zdH74u67tk TOYOTA TOYOTA C-HR CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fF7aoi5VhOU TOYOTA TOYOTA C-HR USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=yI-d250f38w

82 Dove Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=4dugtsolOWM Dove Dove Body Wash CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=WTUegKbpFG0 Dove Dove Body Wash USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=b_DjvkQ7aRc Dove Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=7OufbVVpqV0 L'Oréal Beauty For All CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=YvotNcRgdas L'Oréal Beauty For Al USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ZM_9nBiGAGo NIVEA In- CN https://www.youtube.com/ Shower Body Lotio watch?v=H2i_m5qCFwc n NIVEA Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=LkgGkq-ua9A NIVEA In- USA https://www.youtube.com/ Shower Body Lotio watch?v=mRNhThupb9w n NIVEA Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=cpVbezXOWwo L'Oréal Excellence Crème USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=z74JES5XjXg L'Oréal Excellence Crème CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9JwWhk4vbTw Adidas Create the Answer CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=uvuAakfbCQM Adidas Create the Answer USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=hqaUF2JNY_U adidas Origi Original is never fin USA https://www.youtube.com/ nals ished watch?v=xtQ6Aak9Kpk adidas Origi Original is never fin CN https://www.youtube.com/ nals ished watch?v=m6Ap_RLbjek H&M Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=QQ7yYYpuVps H&M Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=t-ioZDeER-s

83 Levi’s Performance Jean CN https://www.youtube.com/ s watch?v=Dy1Lw29cytE Levi’s Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=QsLQ3evZXIA Levi’s Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=iMM03naIXNA Levi’s Performance Jean USA https://www.youtube.com/ s watch?v=T6x6sZ5N4-E New Balanc New Balance Shoe CN https://www.youtube.com/ e s watch?v=rj4R0xDmst8 New Balanc Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ e mercial watch?v=-X4as8bmw94 New Balanc Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ e mercial watch?v=_cSOy8AkLiU New Balanc New Balance Shoe USA https://www.youtube.com/ e s watch?v=SOEAQueqvMI Nike Dream Crazy CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ioD46DVNa-w Nike Just do it CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=zFygbbsdXBQ Nike Dream Crazy USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Fq2CvmgoO7I Nike Dream Crazy USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=whpJ19RJ4JY Reebok Be More Human CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=02p7JQGOEBc Reebok Be more human USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Jc0Ohriv-cw Carlsberg Carlsberg 1883 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=gkOV8J2zuow Carlsberg Carlsberg 1883 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=w9CegjgVXuw Coca Cola Taste the feeling CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=CohtSBsIXBE Coca Cola New Year Holidays CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=hJKtvB3Rm2A

84 Coca Cola New Year Holidays USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=vrCNRAsD4C0 Coca Cola Taste the feeling USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=PSIPL7FIlu4 Dove Each and Every Da CN https://www.youtube.com/ y watch?v=UPcOiV65i4s Dove Each and Every Da USA https://www.youtube.com/ y watch?v=3sFSelSVFlo Guinness Taste of black CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=7tg9kZVi4E4 Guinness Taste of black USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=fMp2Wptp_rU KFC Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=TmYGbsmmOi0 KFC Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=FU_U11WXaTM McDonald’s Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=mbvb2qbV0ZQ McDonald's Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=JeCzITTfNKE Nestle Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=SZzyNZwrYFY Nestle Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=fjrxDf4Us-U Pepsi Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=TUHRU9C-BRA Pepsi Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=JZPkCntVNSo Tsingtao Brand Image Com USA https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=KKTCNTH4RzY Tsingtao Brand Image Com CN https://www.youtube.com/ mercial watch?v=Gl650HzOv6w Apple iPhone 7 Plus CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=dkkPl3_pjW0 Apple iPad CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=rXj90FhCLCI

85 Apple iPhone 7 Plus USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=J2uSGFgFn2Q Apple iPad USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IprmiOa2zH8 HUAWEI HUAWEI Mate 20 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=DGrwpAeHHVE HUAWEI HUAWEI Mate20 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=nf3a181Ip3E HUAWEI HUAWEI Mate20 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=viENSJ6uDcs HUAWEI HUAWEI Mate20 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6z4KbVfLly0 Samsung Galaxy Note8 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Ey8C6XBlS1A Samsung Galaxy Note7 CN https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9GBIVM74L-o Samsung Galaxy Note 8 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=cL3hX_Flb5o Samsung Galaxy Note7 USA https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=1mohGej0lFc

Source: Author’s own work

86 B. Table 6. Cultural Attributes

BRAND PRODU PRODUCT YEAR CN USA CT / CULTURAL CULTURAL TYPE CAMPAIN ATTRIBUTE ATTRIBUTE G NAME S S

BMW Automot The BMW 2018 guitar, pillow surf, surfing, ative 2 Series fight, family skate, iphone of four , graffiti, appl e watch Buick Automot Buick Encl 2018 video call, ip dog, own ho ative ave hone, moder use, children, n apartment, children's co family of thr stumes ee Ford Automot Ford Escor 2018 own house, movie celebri ative t garage, bike ty , private jet , stone lights , miner, factor , suburban a y, rea, kids HONDA Automot Brand Ima 2017/ salute, obser car, ladder, ro ative ge Comme 18 vation deck, ck, climber rcial own house, party, micro phones, neo n, tablet, aq uarium, tent, skydiving, Lexus Automot Brand Ima 2017/ stage, audie skateboard, ative ge Comme 18 nce hall, leat boat, champ rcial her sofa, lam agne, rocket, ps, own house Mazda Automot Mazda CX- 2018 teddy bear, suburb, famil ative 8 mansion, bu y of four, bab tler, family of y seat, teddy four bear, own ho use

87 Mercede Automot She's Merc 2017/ Christmas w gulls, family o s ative edes 18 reath on the f four, moder door, Christ n art gallery, mas tree, sn surfing, yoga owboard, lo ft, cereal an d milk, guitar , hockey, red wine, own h ouse TOYOTA Automot TOYOTA 2017/ Satellite, spa car, plastic c ative C-HR 18 ce, drone, y up, ice coffee acht, pier Dove Cosmeti Brand Ima 2018 skateboard, billboards, m cs ge Comme food market, agazines, yell rcial cafe, dancin ow taxi, disa g, selfie, trad bled people, itional Chine football, jewe se food llery, Dove Cosmeti Dove Body 2018 drop of wate baby bottle, s cs Wash r, body wash wing, bathro , foam, water om, soap, flo , avocado, p wers, towel, each, lavend baby er, rose, tow els, bathroo ms, bubbles L'Oréal Cosmeti Beauty For 2017 Chinese flag sunset, sea, cs All , traditional eyebrow pen Chinese out cil, lipstick, m fit, traditiona irror, makeup, l Chinese ho white weddi uses, sword ng dress s, tai- ditiuan, food market NIVEA Cosmeti In-Shower 2017 New red bedroom, cs Body Paper- fan, shower, Lotion cutting, Year water, cream cards, red envelope, body creme

88 NIVEA Cosmeti Brand 2017/ book, pen, saws, logs, cs Image 18 shooting a axes, Commerci TV show, HP competitions, al computer, stands, earrings, cream, mirror, woodcutter creme L'Oréal Cosmeti Excellence 2018 shower, shower, cs Crème water, cream water, cream Adidas Fashion Create the 2017/ basketball, concert, Answer 18 football, backstage, athletes, soccer ball, Celebrity: basketball, David celebrities, Beckham, boxing ballet dancer

adidas Fashion Original is 2017/ gold chains, gold, fur Originals never 18 jacuzzi, da coats, vinyl finished Vinci record, paintings, leveler, BMX SWAG H&M Fashion Brand 2018/ vintage car, bar, tape Image 19 family of recorder, Commerci four, cafe, coffee, al christmas chess, tree celebrity Levi’s Fashion Performan 2018/ thermos, skateboard, ce Jeans 19 tea, red graffiti, envelopes, guitar, red lanterns, concert, Chinese soccer ball, celebrity inflatable pool

Levi’s Fashion Brand 2018/ tattoo Celebrity, Image 19 master, record player, Commerci tattoo, diner, road al skateboard, signs in book, cat, English, loft chinese cat, tattoo sketch

89 New Fashion New 2017/ birthday magazine, Balance Balance 18 cake, puppy, ice cream, Shoes popcorn, book, phone, bar, lacrosse stick bartender, iPhone, MacBook, proposal New Fashion Brand 2017/ Running, statue of Balance Image 18 handwash, liberty, Commerci asian style sunrise, al dormitory, american flag Chinese attractions, selfie, Chinese food Nike Fashion Dream 2018/ cups, disabled Crazy 19 medals, people, martial arts, swimming, boxing, snowboardin basketball, g, football, gymnastics marathon, athletes, traditional chinese clothes Nike Fashion Just do it 2018 drone, fans, Skateboard,d beauty isabled salon, people, hijab, autographs, surfing, tears, boxing, factory, VR basketball, glasses football, American flag, tennis Reebok Fashion Be More 2017/ rock celebrity, Human 18 climbing, warm up boxing, barbell, tire, rope, stretching, chinece food

90 Carlsberg Food Carlsberg 2018 Karaoke, boat, sailors, and 1883 text mes- dancing, bar, Beverag sages in live es chinese, orchestra, firework bartender, pier Coca Food Taste the 2017/ Chinese Celebrity, Cola and feeling 18 food, jeep, Beverag chopsticks bodyguard, es paparazzi, selfie Coca Food New Year 2017/ Chopsticks, Christmas Cola and Holidays 18 red lanterns, tree, Beverag traditional Christmas es Chinese lights, food and homeless, house Santa Claus Dove Food Each and 2017 red lanterns, skateboard, and Every Day calligraphy, helmet, Beverag Phone coffee, darts, es huawei, strike, police wechat, traditional Chenese new year home decorations Guinness Food Taste of 2017 gold jewelry, gold jewelry, and black leopard, fur leopard, fur Beverag coats, coats, es champagne, champagne, party party KFC Food Brand 2018/ Panini, Fried chicken and Image 19 Santa Claus, in buckets, Beverag Commerci coffee candles, es al elegant clothes, robocop, cowboy

91 McDonal Food Brand 2018 Traditional Diner, d’s and Image Chinatowns, cashier, milk Beverag Commerci traditional bottle, es al Chinese skateboard, outfits, red kitchen lanterns, burger on a steam bun with shrimps Nestle Food Brand 2019 Coffee, Scene, and Image chocolate, microphone, Beverag Commerci red lanterns, spotlights, es al selfies, red stands, table, packages, coffee red envelopes, traditional Chinese houses Pepsi Food Brand 2019 chopsticks, Diner, waiter, and Image dumplings celebrities, Beverag Commerci burgers, es al ketchup, SWAG Tsingtao Food Brand 2017/ Football, LOFT, Roof and Image 18 flags of top party, Beverag Commerci different pop corn es al countries Apple Electroni iPhone 7 2018 crowd, Barber shop, cs Plus aquarium, Barbers, park, chinise scissors, hair, food, Red photos, pho- lanterns to frames, phone Apple Electroni iPad 2018 synthesizer, school, cs guitar, blackboard, microphone, BMX, helmet, loft, flowers, comics, Ipad child, violin, red envelope, IPad

92 HUAWEI Electroni HUAWEI 2019 dragon fishermen, cs Mate 20 dance, red boat, fish, lanterns, storm, fireworks, seagulls, traditional whale, check Chinese sheet, kettle, sweets life jacket, lifeboat HUAWEI Electroni HUAWEI 2018 space, station, cs Mate20 satellite, office, laptop, astronaut, wireless earth, moon, charging, poster pier, sea, art gallery, picture, phone Samsung Electroni Galaxy 2018 purce, airport, cs Note8 parrots, board, cages, charger, potted office, toy, plants, plane selfies, elegant outfits

Samsung Electroni Galaxy 2017 men's club, airport, cs Note7 hats, chess, luggage, water, office, laptop, potted suitcase, plants, asian street selfies, food, elegant business outfits meeting Source: Author’s own work

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