DOCSLIB.ORG

008 Transcript

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Episode 008 The Middle Kingdom Mariners When we left off, the Old Kingdom had collapsed and the First Intermediate Period had begun. There is little maritime-related evidence from this period, but let’s take a brief look at the synopsis of events from the First Intermediate Period and we’ll get a good idea why there isn’t much in the way of maritime evidence. Following Pepi II’s death there was a drought, the Nubians waged a war to gain their independence from Egyptian control, and the Egyptian government had become highly unstable because of Pepi’s long reign. All these circumstances culminated in a long dispute over succession to the throne. The seventh and eighth dynasties were periods of relative impotence for the pharaohs. Only one of them managed to hold on to the throne for longer than a year, and that same pharaoh, Ibi, was the only one who managed to complete a monument in his honor. Far had the pharaohs fallen from the decadence of the Old Kingdom. After the 8th dynasty, Egypt reverted back to the regional power bases that had been the main players before Narmer originally unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Those who controlled Lower Egypt were loosely confederated under the leadership of a ruler from the town of Herakleopolis and are considered to be the start of the 10th dynasty. The 11th dynasty though was partially concurrent with the 10th, and was made up of rival rulers who controlled Upper Egypt, with their overlord exercising his control from the province of Thebes. As I said earlier, we don’t have much evidence of maritime matters from the First Intermediate Period, but this period came to an end when a Theban ruler named Mentuhotep II emerged victorious from a civil war. After leading the Theban provinces to victory against Herakleopolis, Mentuhotep II began consolidating his power over both Upper and Lower Egypt, effectively reunifying Egypt and ushering in the Middle Kingdom. As we transition into the maritime history of Egypt’s Middle Kingdom, we’ll take a look at archaeological evidence and the ancient depictions of boats as we have been doing thus far, but one thing that sets the Middle Kingdom apart is the rise of literature as an art form. While artifacts and depictions give us good insight into the technicalities of maritime history, literary works such as the ‘Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor’ give us some of our earliest glimpses into the imaginations of ancient Egyptian sailors and the everyday citizens who wondered what lay outside the Nile Valley. Episode 008 1 In today’s episode, we’re going to look at a few artifacts from the Middle Kingdom and then one literary piece that relates to maritime history. First, a landmark early in the Middle Kingdom concerns an explorer named Hannu. He was the first to reopen the trade routes with both Libya and the land of Punt after pharaoh Mentuhotep III ordered him to take ships from the Nile and make the trek over 100 miles east across the wadi that led to the shores of the Red Sea. The following inscription, found inscribed on the rocky walls of Wadi Hammamat, reveals Hannu’s pride at having fulfilled the pharaoh’s orders and having defeated his opposition along the way: His holiness sent me to dispatch a ship to Punt to bring for him fresh myrrh from the sheiks over the Red Land, by reason of the fear of him in the highlands. Then I went forth from Koptos upon the road, which his majesty commanded me. There was with me an army of the South; . every office of the king's house, those who were in town and field, united, came after me. The army—I cleared the way before, overthrowing those hostile toward the king, the hunters and the children of the highlands were posted as the protection of my limbs. Every official body of his majesty was placed under my authority. They reported messengers to me, as one alone commanding, to whom many hearken. I went forth with an army of 3,000 men. I made the road a river, and the Red Land (desert) a stretch of field, for I gave a leathern bottle, a carrying pole, 2 jars of water and 20 loaves to each one among them every day. The asses were laden with sandals ……… Now, I made 12 wells in the bush, and two wells in Idehet, 20 square cubits in one, and 31 square cubits in the other. I made another in Iheteb, 20 by 20 cubits on each side ……… Then I reached the (Red) Sea; then I made this ship, and I dispatched it with everything, when I had made for it a great oblation of cattle, bulls and ibexes. Now, after my return from the (Red) Sea, I executed the command of his majesty, and I brought for him all the gifts, which I had found in the regions of God's-Land. I returned through the valley of Hammamat, I brought for him august blocks for statues belonging to the temple. Never was brought down the like thereof for the king's court; never was done the like of this by any king's-confidant sent out since the time of the god. I did this for the majesty of my lord because he so much loved me ….' Episode 008 2 Aside from the significance of the fact that Hannu reopened some of the important trade routes to Egypt’s east, trade routes that had been significant during the Old Kingdom, there’s also an interesting line from the inscription that may allude to something that we’ve already mentioned. The line where Hannu states that he “made the road a river” has been seen as possibly alluding to the Egyptian practice of building their seagoing vessels in the Nile Valley and then disassembling them, carrying them east across the wadi of their choice, and reassembling them for use on the Red Sea. If this is indeed the idea that Hannu intended to convey by that line, it’s an apt turn of phrase that captures the commercial functions of roadways, both on solid ground and in the water. A rock inscription from Wadi Hammamat (possibly the inscription left by Hannu). Before we jump over to another of our main items for today’s episode, let’s take a minute to look at a debate about an event that may or may not have occurred during a timeframe near Hannu’s expedition at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom began somewhere in the vicinity of 2000 BC, give or take. If we assume that Hannu did indeed conduct his expeditions during the reign of Mentuhotep III, then that places their occurrence somewhere near 1950 BC. Our debated event is claimed by the famous Greek geographer/historian Strabo to have occurred during the reign of Senusret III, a pharaoh who reigned in the latter half of the 1800s BC, well into the 12th dynasty. Episode 008 3 In his ‘Geographica', Strabo claims that Senusret III oversaw the cutting of a canal that connected the northern part of the Nile River with the Red Sea. This canal would in classical times become known as the ‘Canal of the Pharaohs,’ and the benefit of such a canal is obvious, as it would eliminate the need for overland caravans to haul goods the distance from the Red Sea to the Nile. What is more, we have a great deal of evidence to suggest that there was indeed a canal between the two bodies of water in the vicinity that Strabo claimed it to have been located. The main problem though is not whether the canal existed but when it was first dug in way that fully connected the Red Sea with the Nile. While Strabo claims the 19th century BC for its construction, Herodotus instead claims that the canal wasn’t fully constructed until the 6th century BC when pharaoh Nekau II oversaw its creation. While it would be interesting to claim such an early date for the construction of an ancient precursor of the Suez canal, the preponderance of the evidence indicates that the canal wasn’t constructed in full until the 6th century BC, if even that early. Herodotus does indeed recognize the fact that Senusret III constructed canals, but he implies that these canals were smaller offshoots of the Nile for local purposes, rather than one gargantuan project to radically alter the way Egypt communed with the Red Sea. Debate still continues about when exactly the ‘Canal of the Pharaohs’ was first completed, and some maintain that it was never fully finished until the time of the Ptolemaic dynasty. In the end, regardless of whether Senusret did or didn’t actually complete the canal our next item for today gives us a unique perspective on Egypt’s connection with the Red Sea and the land of Punt that we’ve encountered on several occasions now. The ‘Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor’ is generally seen as being the oldest written shipwreck narrative. It’s ostensibly the account of a shipwreck survivor, and although it reveals a little more about how Egypt viewed the mythical or not-so-mythical land of Punt, and it gives us one of the earliest examples of sailor’s being able to forecast the weather at sea, the contents of the tale also veer off into the realm of the fantastical and make us have to look for the line between reality and fantasy.
Recommended publications
  • Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth Fonctions Et Usages Du Mythe Égyptien

    Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth Fonctions Et Usages Du Mythe Égyptien

    Revue de l’histoire des religions 4 | 2018 Qu’est-ce qu’un mythe égyptien ? Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth Fonctions et usages du mythe égyptien Katja Goebs and John Baines Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/rhr/9334 DOI: 10.4000/rhr.9334 ISSN: 2105-2573 Publisher Armand Colin Printed version Date of publication: 1 December 2018 Number of pages: 645-681 ISBN: 978-2-200-93200-8 ISSN: 0035-1423 Electronic reference Katja Goebs and John Baines, “Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth”, Revue de l’histoire des religions [Online], 4 | 2018, Online since 01 December 2020, connection on 13 January 2021. URL: http:// journals.openedition.org/rhr/9334 ; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/rhr.9334 Tous droits réservés KATJA GOEBS / JOHN BAINES University of Toronto / University of Oxford Functions and Uses of Egyptian Myth* This article discusses functions and uses of myth in ancient Egypt as a contribution to comparative research. Applications of myth are reviewed in order to present a basic general typology of usages: from political, scholarly, ritual, and medical applications, through incorporation in images, to linguistic and literary exploitations. In its range of function and use, Egyptian myth is similar to that of other civilizations, except that written narratives appear to have developed relatively late. The many attested forms and uses underscore its flexibility, which has entailed many interpretations starting with assessments of the Osiris myth reported by Plutarch (2nd century AD). Myths conceptualize, describe, explain, and control the world, and they were adapted to an ever-changing reality. Fonctions et usages du mythe égyptien Cet article discute les fonctions et les usages du mythe en Égypte ancienne dans une perspective comparatiste et passe en revue ses applications, afin de proposer une typologie générale de ses usages – applications politiques, érudites, rituelles et médicales, incorporation dans des images, exploitation linguistique et littéraire.
  • Temples and Tombs Treasures of Egyptian Art from the British Museum

    Temples and Tombs Treasures of Egyptian Art from the British Museum

    Temples and Tombs Treasures of Egyptian Art from The British Museum Resource for Educators this is max size of image at 200 dpi; the sil is low res and for the comp only. if approved, needs to be redone carefully American Federation of Arts Temples and Tombs Treasures of Egyptian Art from The British Museum Resource for Educators American Federation of Arts © 2006 American Federation of Arts Temples and Tombs: Treasures of Egyptian Art from the British Museum is organized by the American Federation of Arts and The British Museum. All materials included in this resource may be reproduced for educational American Federation of Arts purposes. 212.988.7700 800.232.0270 The AFA is a nonprofit institution that organizes art exhibitions for presen- www.afaweb.org tation in museums around the world, publishes exhibition catalogues, and interim address: develops education programs. 122 East 42nd Street, Suite 1514 New York, NY 10168 after April 1, 2007: 305 East 47th Street New York, NY 10017 Please direct questions about this resource to: Suzanne Elder Burke Director of Education American Federation of Arts 212.988.7700 x26 [email protected] Exhibition Itinerary to Date Oklahoma City Museum of Art Oklahoma City, Oklahoma September 7–November 26, 2006 The Cummer Museum of Art and Gardens Jacksonville, Florida December 22, 2006–March 18, 2007 North Carolina Museum of Art Raleigh, North Carolina April 15–July 8, 2007 Albuquerque Museum of Art and History Albuquerque, New Mexico November 16, 2007–February 10, 2008 Fresno Metropolitan Museum of Art, History and Science Fresno, California March 7–June 1, 2008 Design/Production: Susan E.
  • Patterns of Evidence: Exodus Lesson 1 – Timeline Watch First 20 Minutes

    Patterns of Evidence: Exodus Lesson 1 – Timeline Watch First 20 Minutes

    Patterns of Evidence: Exodus Lesson 1 – Timeline Watch first 20 minutes on Right Now media Exodus Story – Biblical Summary ◦ Joseph moved his family to Egypt during the 7-year famine ◦ Israelites lived in the land of Goshen ◦ Years after Joseph died, a new pharaoh became fearful of the large numbers of Israelites. ◦ Israelites became slaves ◦ Moses was 80 when God sent him to Egypt to free the Israelites ◦ After Passover, the Israelites wandered in the desert for 40 years ◦ Israelites conquered the Promised Land An Overview of Egyptian History Problems with Egyptian History ◦ Historians began with multiple lists of Pharaoh’s names carved on temple walls ◦ These lists are incomplete, sometimes skipping Pharaohs ◦ Once a “standard” list had been made, then they looked at other known histories and inserted the list ◦ These dates then became the accepted timeline Evidence for the Late Date – 1250 BC • Genesis 47:11-12 • Exodus 18-14 • Earliest archaeological recording of the Israelites dates to 1210 BC on the Merneptah Stele o Must be before that time o Merneptah was the son of Ramses II • Ten Commandments and Prince of Egypt Movies take the Late Date with Ramses II Evidence for the Early Date – 1440 BC • “From Abraham to Paul: A Biblical Chronology” by Andrew Steinmann • 1 Kings 6:1 – Solomon began building temple 480 years after the Exodus o Solomon’s reign began 971 BC and began building temple in 967 BC o Puts Exodus date at 1447 BC • 1 Chronicles 6 lists 19 generations from Exodus to Solomon o Assume 25 years per generation – Exodus occurred
  • Nilotic Livestock Transport in Ancient Egypt

    Nilotic Livestock Transport in Ancient Egypt

    NILOTIC LIVESTOCK TRANSPORT IN ANCIENT EGYPT A Thesis by MEGAN CHRISTINE HAGSETH Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Chair of Committee, Shelley Wachsmann Committee Members, Deborah Carlson Kevin Glowacki Head of Department, Cynthia Werner December 2015 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2015 Megan Christine Hagseth ABSTRACT Cattle in ancient Egypt were a measure of wealth and prestige, and as such figured prominently in tomb art, inscriptions, and even literature. Elite titles and roles such as “Overseer of Cattle” were granted to high ranking officials or nobility during the New Kingdom, and large numbers of cattle were collected as tribute throughout the Pharaonic period. The movement of these animals along the Nile, whether for secular or sacred reasons, required the development of specialized vessels. The cattle ferries of ancient Egypt provide a unique opportunity to understand facets of the Egyptian maritime community. A comparison of cattle barges with other Egyptian ship types from these same periods leads to a better understand how these vessels fit into the larger maritime paradigm, and also serves to test the plausibility of aspects such as vessel size and design, composition of crew, and lading strategies. Examples of cargo vessels similar to the cattle barge have been found and excavated, such as ships from Thonis-Heracleion, Ayn Sukhna, Alexandria, and Mersa/Wadi Gawasis. This type of cross analysis allows for the tentative reconstruction of a vessel type which has not been identified previously in the archaeological record.
  • ROYAL STATUES Including Sphinxes

    ROYAL STATUES Including Sphinxes

    ROYAL STATUES Including sphinxes EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD Dynasties I-II Including later commemorative statues Ninutjer 800-150-900 Statuette of Ninuter seated wearing heb-sed cloak, calcite(?), formerly in G. Michaelidis colln., then in J. L. Boele van Hensbroek colln. in 1962. Simpson, W. K. in JEA 42 (1956), 45-9 figs. 1, 2 pl. iv. Send 800-160-900 Statuette of Send kneeling with vases, bronze, probably made during Dyn. XXVI, formerly in G. Posno colln. and in Paris, Hôtel Drouot, in 1883, now in Berlin, Ägyptisches Museum, 8433. Abubakr, Abd el Monem J. Untersuchungen über die ägyptischen Kronen (1937), 27 Taf. 7; Roeder, Äg. Bronzefiguren 292 [355, e] Abb. 373 Taf. 44 [f]; Wildung, Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewußtsein ihrer Nachwelt i, 51 [Dok. xiii. 60] Abb. iv [1]. Name, Gauthier, Livre des Rois i, 22 [vi]. See Antiquités égyptiennes ... Collection de M. Gustave Posno (1874), No. 53; Hôtel Drouot Sale Cat. May 22-6, 1883, No. 53; Stern in Zeitschrift für die gebildete Welt 3 (1883), 287; Ausf. Verz. 303; von Bissing in 2 Mitteilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung xxxviii (1913), 259 n. 2 (suggests from Memphis). Not identified by texts 800-195-000 Head of royal statue, perhaps early Dyn. I, in London, Petrie Museum, 15989. Petrie in Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland xxxvi (1906), 200 pl. xix; id. Arts and Crafts 31 figs. 19, 20; id. The Revolutions of Civilisation 15 fig. 7; id. in Anc. Eg. (1915), 168 view 4; id. in Hammerton, J. A.
  • Specular Reflection from the Great Pyramid at Giza

    Specular Reflection from the Great Pyramid at Giza

    Specular Reflection from the Great Pyramid at Giza Donald E. Jennings Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, USA (retired) email: [email protected] Posted to arXiv: physics.hist-ph April 6, 2021 Abstract The pyramids of ancient Egypt are said to have shone brilliantly in the sun. Surfaces of polished limestone would not only have reflected diffusely in all directions, but would also likely have produced specular reflections in particular directions. Reflections toward points on the horizon would have been visible from large distances. On a particular day and time when the sun was properly situated, an observer stationed at a distant site would have seen a momentary flash as the sun’s reflection moved across the face of the pyramid. The positions of the sun that are reflected to the horizon are confined to narrow arcs in the sky, one arc for each side of the pyramid. We model specular reflections from the pyramid of Khufu and derive the annual dates and times when they would have been visible at important ancient sites. Certain of these events might have coincided with significant dates on the Egyptian calendar, as well as with solar equinoxes, solstices and cross-quarter days. The celebration of Wepet-Renpet, which at the time of the pyramid’s construction occurred near the spring cross-quarter day, would have been marked by a specular sweep of sites on the southern horizon. On the autumn and winter cross-quarter days reflections would have been directed to Heliopolis. We suggest that on those days the pyramidion of Khafre might have been visible in specular reflection over the truncated top of Khufu’s pyramid.
  • Title 'Expanding the History of the Just

    Title 'Expanding the History of the Just

    Title ‘Expanding the History of the Just War: The Ethics of War in Ancient Egypt.’ Abstract This article expands our understanding of the historical development of just war thought by offering the first detailed analysis of the ethics of war in ancient Egypt. It revises the standard history of the just war tradition by demonstrating that just war thought developed beyond the boundaries of Europe and existed many centuries earlier than the advent of Christianity or even the emergence of Greco-Roman thought on the relationship between war and justice. It also suggests that the creation of a prepotent ius ad bellum doctrine in ancient Egypt, based on universal and absolutist claims to justice, hindered the development of ius in bello norms in Egyptian warfare. It is posited that this development prefigures similar developments in certain later Western and Near Eastern doctrines of just war and holy war. Acknowledgements My thanks to Anthony Lang, Jr. and Cian O’Driscoll for their insightful and instructive comments on an early draft of this article. My thanks also to the three anonymous reviewers and the editorial team at ISQ for their detailed feedback in preparing the article for publication. A version of this article was presented at the Stockholm Centre for the Ethics of War and Peace (June 2016), and I express my gratitude to all the participants for their feedback. James Turner Johnson (1981; 1984; 1999; 2011) has long stressed the importance of a historical understanding of the just war tradition. An increasing body of work draws our attention to the pre-Christian origins of just war thought.1 Nonetheless, scholars and politicians continue to overdraw the association between Christian political theology and the advent of just war thought (O’Driscoll 2015, 1).
  • Extraction and Use of Greywacke in Ancient Egypt Ahmed Ibrahim Othman

    Extraction and Use of Greywacke in Ancient Egypt Ahmed Ibrahim Othman

    JFTH, Vol. 14, Issue 1 (2017) ISSN: 2314-7024 Extraction and Use of Greywacke in Ancient Egypt Ahmed Ibrahim Othman 1 Lecturer – Tourism Guidance Department Hotel Management and Restoration Institute, Abu Qir. [ Introduction The Quseir – Qift road was the only practical route in the Central Easter Desert as it was the shortest and easiest road from the Nile Valley to the Red Sea, in addition to the richness of the Bekhen stone quarries and the gold mines. Therefore, it was the preferred road by the merchants, quarrymen and miners. The Bekhen stone quarries of Wadi Hammamat forms an archaeological cluster of inscriptions, unfinished manufactures, settlements, workshops and remaining tools. It seems clear that the state was responsible for the Bekhen stone exploitation, given the vast amount of resources that had to be invested in the organization of a quarrying expedition. Unlike the other marginal areas, the officials leading the missions to Wadi Hammamat show different affiliations in terms of administrative branches. This is probably because Bekhen stone procurement was not the responsibility of the treasury, but these expeditions were entrusted to separate competent officials, graded in a specific hierarchy, forming well – organized missions with different workers for different duties and established wages and functionaries in charge of the administrative tasks. The greywacke quarries were not constantly or intensively exploited. The fact that the stone was used in private or royal statuary and not as a building stone could have caused its demand to be less than that of other materials such as granite, limestone or sandstone. Inscriptions indicated the time lapse between expeditions suggesting that this stone was only quarried when it was needed, which was not on a regular basis.
  • Pharaohs in Egypt Fathi Habashi

    Pharaohs in Egypt Fathi Habashi

    Laval University From the SelectedWorks of Fathi Habashi July, 2019 Pharaohs in Egypt Fathi Habashi Available at: https://works.bepress.com/fathi_habashi/416/ Pharaohs of Egypt Introduction Pharaohs were the mighty political and religious leaders who reigned over ancient Egypt for more than 3,000 years. Also known as the god-kings of ancient Egypt, made the laws, and owned all the land. Warfare was an important part of their rule. In accordance to their status as gods on earth, the Pharaohs built monuments and temples in honor of themselves and the gods of the land. Egypt was conquered by the Kingdom of Kush in 656 BC, whose rulers adopted the pharaonic titles. Following the Kushite conquest, Egypt would first see another period of independent native rule before being conquered by the Persian Empire, whose rulers also adopted the title of Pharaoh. Persian rule over Egypt came to an end through the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which it was ruled by the Hellenic Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. They also built temples such as the one at Edfu and Dendara. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. The Pharaohs who ruled Egypt are large in number - - here is a selection. Narmer King Narmer is believed to be the same person as Menes around 3100 BC. He unified Upper and Lower Egypt and combined the crown of Lower Egypt with that of Upper Egypt. Narmer or Mena with the crown of Lower Egypt The crown of Lower Egypt Narmer combined crown of Upper and Lower Egypt Djeser Djeser of the third dynasty around 2670 BC commissioned the first Step Pyramid in Saqqara created by chief architect and scribe Imhotep.
  • Downloaded from Brill.Com10/02/2021 08:31:03PM Via Free Access 514 Appendix B

    Downloaded from Brill.Com10/02/2021 08:31:03PM Via Free Access 514 Appendix B

    Appendix B Catalogue of Royal Statuary Dated/Attributed to Amenemhet III This catalogue includes a total of 93 statues or statue fragments that I have attributed to the reign of Amenemhet III. I have divided them into five groups based primarily on their preserved inscriptions and provenance. Group 1 includes those objects that pre- serve an inscription that confirms a date during the reign of Amenemhet III; they also have a known/excavated provenance, which serves to establish their general location of origin. Statues in Group 2 also have a textually confirmed date, but without a known provenance. Group 3 contains uninscribed pieces with a known primary provenance, and Group 4 contains examples that are attributed based on style alone. Group 5 in- cludes objects with a questionable attribution that scholars have dated variously, but most likely date to the reign of Amenemhet III. Following these five main groups is a short account of objects previously dated to Amenemhet III that I have chosen not to include. Group 1 – Inscribed, Provenance Known Abgig/Begig – No. 1 Cairo, RT 22/9/25/41 Fragment from a Sphinx of Amenemhet III Material: Limestone Measurements: L/Depth = 107 cm2 Provenance: Fayum, Ezbet el-Sufi, near Abgig/Begig Comments: 1 Alternative numbers include: SR 8V/13. 2 Cairo Museum Scholar Search Database. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2020 | doi:10.1163/9789004422155_011 Lisa Saladino Haney - 9789004422155 Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 08:31:03PM via free access 514 Appendix B Unfortunately, there is no published information related to the discovery of this object and there are no photographs.
  • The Allure of Ancient Egyptian Jewelry

    The Allure of Ancient Egyptian Jewelry

    Aegyptiaca. Journal of the History of Reception of Ancient Egypt The Allure of Ancient Egyptian Jewelry Yvonne J. Markowitz Rita J. Kaplan and Susan B. Kaplan Curator Emerita of Jewelry, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston For centuries, the West has been attracted to the exotic lands of the East and the cultures of the ancient world. One of the most intriguing is ancient Egypt, an African civilization that flourished during the third through the first millennium BC. In its prime, it was respected, revered, and sometimes feared. Neighboring lands were in awe of its powerful leadership, majestic architectural wonders, imposing statuary, and sophisticated decorative arts with its curious iconography and even stranger hieroglyphics. For many, Egypt held the key to understanding the world’s deepest mysteries. It was the Phoenicians (ca. 1500-300 BC), a seafaring people who lived along the Mediterranean coast in city-states now part of Lebanon, Syria, and northern Israel, who first capitalized on the fascination with all things Egyptian, especially those small objects that were easily shipped and traded. Early entrepreneurs, they served as middlemen stopping at ports in North Africa, Cyprus, Crete, the Cyclades, mainland Greece, and parts of Mesopotamia. Among the goods they bartered were raw materials, Phoenician-made glass, and an array of Egyptian adornments composed of beads and amulets fabricated from metal, stone, faience, and glass. Amuletic forms that especially resonated with Phoenician trading partners were representations of household gods, the healing (sacred) eye of Horus, and the scarab. The latter was a potent symbol of rebirth and rejuvenation based on the life-cycle of the dung beetle (scarabaeus sacer) whose activities the Egyptians associated with the life-giving sun.
  • Portrait Versus Ideal Image فن تصوير الوجه (البورتريه)

    Portrait Versus Ideal Image فن تصوير الوجه (البورتريه)

    PORTRAIT VERSUS IDEAL IMAGE فن تصوير الوجه (البورتريه) Dimitri Laboury EDITORS WILLEKE WENDRICH Editor-in-Chief Area Editor Material Culture University of California, Los Angeles JACCO DIELEMAN Editor University of California, Los Angeles ELIZABETH FROOD Editor University of Oxford JOHN BAINES Senior Editorial Consultant University of Oxford Short Citation: Laboury, 2010, Portrait versus Ideal Image. UEE. Full Citation: Laboury, Dimitri, 2010, Portrait versus Ideal Image. In Willeke Wendrich (ed.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles. http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0025jjv0 1141 Version 1, October 2010 http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz0025jjv0 PORTRAIT VERSUS IDEAL IMAGE فن تصوير الوجه (البورتريه) Dimitri Laboury Porträt versus Idealbildnis Portrait ou image idéal(isé)e Ancient Egyptian art’s concern with individualized human representation has generated much debate among Egyptologists about the very existence of portraiture in Pharaonic society. The issue has often—if not always—been thought of in terms of opposition between portrait and ideal image, being a major topic in the broader question of realism and formal relation to reality in ancient Egyptian art. After a brief analysis of the problem from a theoretical point of view, the article deals with the Egyptological reception of the subject and considers the concepts involved in the notion of portrait within the context of ancient Egyptian thought. A few significant cases selected from the corpus of royal statuary are then investigated in order to elucidate the motives and modalities of the interaction between portrait and ideal image in ancient Egyptian individualized representations. إن إھتمام الفن المصري القديم بتصوير اﻹنسان بطريقة فردية مصدر لكثير من الجدل ما بين علماء المصريات حول وجود فن تصوير الوجه (البورتريه) بالمجتمع الفرعوني.