DOCSLIB.ORG

Structure and Functions of the National Measurement System

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Structure and Functions of the National Measurement System NIST PUBLICATiONSl IMBSIR 75-949 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Raymond C. Sangster Technical Report in connection with the IBS Study of the National Measurement System 1972-1975 Office of the Deputy Directer Institute for Basic Standards National Bureau of Standards Boulder, Colorado 80302 July 1977 -QC — 100 U55 1977 NBSIR 75-949 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Raymond C. Sangster Technical Report in connection with the IBS Study of the National Measurement System 1972-1975 Office of the Deputy Directer Institute for Basic Standards National Bureau of Standards Boulder, Colorado 80302 July 1977 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary Sidney Harman, Under Secretary Jordan J. Baruch, Assistant Secretary for Science and Technology NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS, Ernest Ambler, Acting Director FOREWORD The concept of a National Measurement System has, for many years, provided a useful focus for the considerations important to physical measurements in our technology intensive economy. Dr. R. D. Huntoon, in his October 6, 1967, article in Science , emphasized the basis for a systems viewpoint in interrelated measurements activities and the idea has continued to evolve. Today, we think of the U.S. National Measurement System in terms of all the intellectual, functional and institutional activities which enter into measurements throughout our society. More- over, we seek to understand more completely the structural nature of this system and its architectural needs. There have been a number of approaches to the study of our national system for physical measurements. The present series of studies was initiated in 1972 by Dr. Ernest Ambler, then Director of the Institute for Basic Standards. It was Dr. Ambler's purpose to organize the essen- tial information necessary for the effective management of NBS resources and to promote the direct interaction between IBS staff members and the communities of users they serve. This document reflects the results of the intensive studies carried out during the period from 1972 - 1975. It is one of a series of 27 reports describing various aspects of these studies; most of these are now in print and available from NBS or the National Technical Information Service. It is important to recognize that the National Measurement System is extremely complex having widely distributed elements and impacts. The detailed analysis of this system is well beyond the state-of-the-art of econometric modeling, and therefore, any study, no matter how intensive, is necessarily incomplete. Nevertheless, the information which is now in hand provides an important addition to our capability for planning and implementing the programs of IBS. It also represents a growing foundation upon which we can continue our efforts to build a more effective structure. A. 0. McCoubrey Director, Institute for Basic Standards National Bureau of Standards June 1977 ii PREFACE The 1972-75 Study of the National Measurement System by the NBS Institute for Basic Standards has been a massive effort involving many people in all divisions of the Institute. The Study was organized around a central coordinator and a group of "National Measurement System Study representatives". The initial central coordinator was Dr. James R. Seed, a Presidential Interchange Executive from Dow Chemical Company, on temporary assignment to the National Bureau of Standards. Dr. Seed carried the project through to the generation of a complete set of comprehensive reports on the structure and operation of the various por- tions of the System, in December 1973. In August 1974, I took over the central coordinator position, and worked with the Study representatives from the divisions of the Institute, to round out the pattern of the Study and to develop the final reports for the different areas of measurement interest. During this 1972-75 Study, a substantial amount of insight was developed into the structure and functions of that System. This insight is the subject matter of this report. The report proper describes the technical and institutional infra- structures of the System, the international context in which it operates, and the basic impacts and trends of the System. The balance of this document contains appendices and an extended bibliography, which provide detail regarding specific aspects of the System. No report of this sort could be generated without many hours spent at the typewriter. This one would not exist without the competent and unstinting efforts of my secretaries and everyone else whom they could obtain to support them, and I wish to thank them, one and all: Carol Ciufolo, M'Srty Tyner, Pamela Killian, Angela DiGiallonardo, Sheila Aaker, Sue Randolph, Nancy Mills, Kay Stephenson, Shirley Deeg, and Dorries Schaffner. We trust that the availability of this document will be useful to many readers who need only an overview of the results of our Study of the National Measurement System. For those who want more detailed information about any part of this study, we have provided a "Report Request Card" at the back of this document, which can be used to request the specific reports wanted. Raymond C. Sangster July 1977 iii CONTENTS FOREWORD ii PREFACE iii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1 . INTRODUCTION , 3 1.1 Background 3 1.2 Functions of Measurement ...... 3 1.3 Process of Measurement ...... 5 1.4 Concept of a National Measurement System . 5 ' ' 1.5 Structure of This Report . " 6 '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '.'. 2. ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM '.. '. '. '. '. '.[ '. '. '. '. 7 Model of * ' 2.0 the System , 7 2.1 Measurement Quantities, Units and Standards 7 2.2 Technical Infrastructure 9 2.2.1 Documentary Specifications 11 2.2.2 Measurement Instrumentation 13 2.2.3 Reference Data ........ 17 2.2.4 Reference Materials 20 2.2.5 Predictive Methods ....... 22 2.2.6 Fundamental Constants 22 2.2.7 Science and People 23 2.3 Realized Measurement Capabilities 25 2.4 Institutional Infrastructure 25 2.4.1 Standardization Institutions 25 2.4.2 The Instrumentation Industry 29 2.4.3 State and Local Offices of Weights and Measures 29 2.4.4 Standards and Testing Laboratories and Services 33 2.4.5 Regulatory Agencies 35 2.4.6 The National Bureau of Standards 37 2.4.6.1 The Present--Scope of NBS Services 37 2.4.6.2 Alternate Sources for Services Provided by NBS 39 2.4.6.3 NBS Funding and Staffing 41 2.4.6.4 Evaluation Panels and Visiting Committee 43 2.5 The Measurements Market Place: The Direct Measurements Transactions Matrices 43 3. THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT 45 4. IMPACT AND TRENDS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 47 4.1 Impact of Measurements 47 4.1.1 Functional, Technological, and Scientific Applications 47 4.1.2 Economic Considerations 48 4.2 Trends of the National Measurement System 49 4.2.1 Increased Complexity of the National Measurement System 49 4.2.2 Increased Integration of the National Measurement System 52 4.2.3 Improved Quality Control in the National Measurement System 52 4.2.4 Improved Information Resources for the National Measurement System . 53 4.2.5 Automation of Measurements 54 4.2.6 Metrication 55 4.2.7 Science 56 5. SUMMARY 57 APPENDIX A. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM INTERACTION DIAGRAMS 59 APPENDIX B. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS 68 APPENDIX C. NBS NATIONAL MEASUREMENT REFERENCE STANDARD ARTIFACTS, INSTRUMENTS AND FACILITIES 70 APPENDIX D. NATIONAL STANDARD REFERENCE DATA SYSTEM PUBLICATIONS 74 APPENDIX E. U.S. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS REPRESENTED IN NBS REFERENCE COLLECTION OF STANDARDS 79 APPENDIX F. STATE AND LOCAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACTIVITY SUMMARY (EXCERPTS) 1974-75. 83 APPENDIX 6. DIRECTORY OF STANDARDS LABORATORIES AND CAPABILITIES 88 APPENDIX H. NBS CALIBRATION ACTIVITY SUMMARY FOR FISCAL YEAR 1975 95 APPENDIX J. USERS OF NBS OUTPUTS, 1970-75 100 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DOCUMENTS 105 AUTHOR INDEX 132 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Chart of measurement quantities 4 Figure 2. Egyptian Royal Cubit 6 Figure 3. Flow diagram of the National Measurement System 9 Figure 4. The modernized metric system - SI base and supplementary units 10 Figure 5. Standards of physical measurement 12 Figure 6. Krypton-86 lamp in its cryostat 16 Figure 7. Cesium-beam atomic clock 16 Figure 8. Schematic of an atomic beam clock 16 Figure 9. Experimental realization of the candela 16 Figure 10. Josephson Junction standard voltage source . 16 Figure 11. Photoelectric interferometric comparator 18 Figure 12. Automated Y-factor mm-wave noise measurement system 18 Figure 13. Deadweight machine 18 Figure 14. Proving rings 18 Figure 15. Temperature measurement sensors 20 Figure 16. Location of measurement and control instrumentation companies 27 Figure 17. Measuring, analysis & control instrumentation industries expenditures & sales 28 Figure 18. Instruments show variable trends 30 Figure 19. Location of weights & measures governmental jurisdictions & personnel ... 32 Figure 20. Location of members of National Conference of Standards Laboratories ... 33 Figure 21. Air Force measurements standards system 34 Figure 22. Army calibration system traceability chart 34 Figure 23. United States Navy temperature calibration chain 36 Figure 24. Energy Research and Development Administration National Measurement System Subsystem 36 Figure 25. Other agency funding sources 41 Figure 26. Composition of staff 41 Figure 27. Model of the international measurement system 45 Figure 28. International coordination of measurement standards 46 Figure 29. Composition of U.S. labor force, 1860-1980 50 Figure B-1. Metric conversion card 69 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Functions of measurements 5 Table 2. Traverse of the National Measurement System Model 8 Table 3. Measurement instrumentation categories and suppliers 14 Table 4. Calibration chain example: tire inflation pressure 15 Table 5. Primary fixed points on International Practical Temperature Scale IPTS-68 . 20 Table 6. Table of Contents from catalog of NBS standard reference materials .... 21 Table 7. Realized measurement capabilities 26 Table 8. 1974 Profile, instruments for measurement, analysis and control 30 Table 9.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Metric System: America Measures Up. 1979 Edition. INSTITUTION Naval Education and Training Command, Washington, D.C
    DOCONENT RESUME ED 191 707 031 '926 AUTHOR Andersonv.Glen: Gallagher, Paul TITLE The Metric System: America Measures Up. 1979 Edition. INSTITUTION Naval Education and Training Command, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO NAVEDTRA,.475-01-00-79 PUB CATE 1 79 NOTE 101p. .AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing .Office, Washington, DC 2040Z (Stock Number 0507-LP-4.75-0010; No prise quoted). E'DES PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Cartoons; Decimal Fractions: Mathematical Concepts; *Mathematic Education: Mathem'atics Instruction,: Mathematics Materials; *Measurement; *Metric System; Postsecondary Education; *Resource Materials; *Science Education; Student Attitudes: *Textbooks; Visual Aids' ABSTRACT This training manual is designed to introduce and assist naval personnel it the conversion from theEnglish system of measurement to the metric system of measurement. The bcokteliswhat the "move to metrics" is all,about, and details why the changeto the metric system is necessary. Individual chaPtersare devoted to how the metric system will affect the average person, how the five basic units of the system work, and additional informationon technical applications of metric measurement. The publication alsocontains conversion tables, a glcssary of metric system terms,andguides proper usage in spelling, punctuation, and pronunciation, of the language of the metric, system. (MP) ************************************.******i**************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best thatcan be made * * from
    [Show full text]
  • Metric System Units of Length
    Math 0300 METRIC SYSTEM UNITS OF LENGTH Þ To convert units of length in the metric system of measurement The basic unit of length in the metric system is the meter. All units of length in the metric system are derived from the meter. The prefix “centi-“means one hundredth. 1 centimeter=1 one-hundredth of a meter kilo- = 1000 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) hecto- = 100 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 m deca- = 10 1 decameter (dam) = 10 m 1 meter (m) = 1 m deci- = 0.1 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m centi- = 0.01 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m milli- = 0.001 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m Conversion between units of length in the metric system involves moving the decimal point to the right or to the left. Listing the units in order from largest to smallest will indicate how many places to move the decimal point and in which direction. Example 1: To convert 4200 cm to meters, write the units in order from largest to smallest. km hm dam m dm cm mm Converting cm to m requires moving 4 2 . 0 0 2 positions to the left. Move the decimal point the same number of places and in the same direction (to the left). So 4200 cm = 42.00 m A metric measurement involving two units is customarily written in terms of one unit. Convert the smaller unit to the larger unit and then add. Example 2: To convert 8 km 32 m to kilometers First convert 32 m to kilometers. km hm dam m dm cm mm Converting m to km requires moving 0 .
    [Show full text]
  • Discovering the History of Measurement Through Words
    CONTENT BASED TEACHING + PLURILINGUAL/CULTURAL AWARENESS CONBAT UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Gayane Hovhannisyan and Áine Furlong DISCOVERING THE HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT THROUGH WORDS WORKSHEET 4 Timing: 2 hours Material required: worksheet 3 Grouping: History of measurement From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1.a. Find synonyms (similar words) or explanations for each word in bold print: Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed measures for constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or exchanging food or raw materials. Earliest: Dwellings: Appropriate: Fashioning: Raw materials: 1.b. Something’s wrong! The spaces between the words have disappeared! Can you put a line between each word and re-write the sentences correctly? Theearliestsystemsofweightsandmeasuresseemtohavebeencreatedsometime betweenthe4thand3rdmillenniaBCbytheancientpeopleslivingbetweenEgyptand theIndusValley.Theeasternpeoplesachievedgreataccuracyinmeasuringlength,mass,andti me. 1.c. The weight units have been mixed up. Can you put them in the correct order? Check http://www.etymonline.com to discover the origin of the word ounce and why it is abbreviated as oz. The smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age was approximately 1.704mm. Weights were based on units of 100, 0.2, 500 , 20 , 2, 5, 10, 50 , 0.5 , 0.05, CONTENT BASED TEACHING + PLURILINGUAL/CULTURAL AWARENESS CONBAT UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Gayane Hovhannisyan and Áine Furlong 200, 1 and 0.1, with each unit weighing
    [Show full text]
  • (GHG) Verification Guideline Series, Natural Gas-Fired Microturbine
    SRI/USEPA-GHG-GD-03 March 2002 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Verification Guideline Series Natural Gas-Fired Microturbine Electrical Generators Prepared by: Greenhouse Gas Technology Center Southern Research Institute Under a Cooperative Agreement With U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA REVIEW NOTICE This report has been peer and administratively reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. SRI/USEPA-GHG-GD-03 March 2002 Greenhouse Gas Technology Center A U.S. EPA Sponsored Environmental Technology Verification ( ) Organization Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Verification Guideline Series Natural Gas-Fired Microturbine Electrical Generators Prepared by: Greenhouse Gas Technology Center Southern Research Institute PO Box 13825 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 USA Telephone: 919/806-3456 FOREWORD The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has created the Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) program to facilitate the deployment of promising environmental technologies. Under this program, third-party performance testing of environmental technology is conducted by independent verification organizations under strict EPA quality assurance guidelines. Southern Research Institute (SRI) is one of six independent verification organizations operating under ETV, and operates the Greenhouse Gas Technology Center (GHG Center). With full participation from technology providers, purchasers, and other stakeholders, the GHG Center develops testing protocols and conducts technology performance evaluation in field and laboratory settings. The testing protocols are developed and peer­ reviewed with input from a broad group of industry, research, government, and other stakeholders. After their development, the protocols are field-tested, often improved, and then made available to interested users via Verification Guidelines such as this.
    [Show full text]
  • 24 Standards and Standards Organizations
    #24 Standards and Standards Organizations What are standards? Standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or other precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to ensure that materials, products, processes and services are fit for their purpose. Therefore, International standards contribute to the reliability and effectiveness of the goods and services we use. ISO, International Organization for Standardization (The most widely recognized standards organization) ISO is a non-governmental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world with a view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing cooperation in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity. ISO is comprised of three types of membership. 1. Member Body A specific national body most representative of standardization in its country. 2. Correspondent Member An organization in a country which does not yet have a fully developed national standards activity. 3. Subscriber Member In particular, countries with very small economies. The “Member Body” of ISO is comprised of over 95 countries that have established standard organizations. The Member Bodies along with the Correspondent Members and Subscriber Members all contribute to the work and development of a standard. Thus, ISO’s work results in international agreements, which are published as International Standards. Examples of Member Bodies are; from the United States the American National Standards Institute ANSI, from Canada the Standards Counsel of Canada SCC, from Italy the Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione UNI, from the United Kingdom the British Standards Institution BSI and from Germany the Deutsches Institut fur Normung DIN.
    [Show full text]
  • Apta Rt-Vim-S-017-03
    APTA STANDARDS DEVEL OPMENT PROGRAM APTA RT-VIM-S-017-03 Rev 2 STANDARD First Published September 28, 2003 American Public Transportation Association First Revision November 2, 2006 (Reaffirmed) 1300 I Street NW, Suite 1200 Second Revision January 6, 2015 (Reaffirmed) Washington, DC, 20005 Rail Transit Standards Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance Working Group Calibration of Inspection and Maintenance Precision Measuring Devices and Tools Abstract: This Standard covers basic procedures for calibration of inspection and maintenance precision measuring devices and tools. Keywords: calibration, precision measuring device, tools Summary: This document establishes a standard for the calibration of precision measuring devices and tools used by vehicle maintenance departments within a rail transit system. Rail transit systems shall tailor this standard to accommodate their specific equipment and mode of operation. Scope and purpose: This standard, in combination with the ISO standard referenced, includes all essential periodic inspection and maintenance requirements for the calibration of precision measuring devices and tools used to inspect and maintain rail vehicles. This procedure covers all types of electronic test equipment, mechanical tools and measuring devices used to generate quantitative measurements and/or data. Calibration and certification is based on standards set by the National Institute of Science and Technology, original equipment manufacturers’ recommended calibration cycles, and a transit agency’s specifications. This standard is intended for use by the vehicle maintenance department within a rail transit system. It establishes procedures for the periodic calibration of inspection and maintenance of precision measuring devices and tools to ensure the accuracy of measurements obtained by these devices. This document represents a common viewpoint of those parties concerned with its provisions, namely operating/ planning agencies, manufacturers, consultants, engineers and general interest groups.
    [Show full text]
  • Forestry Commission Booklet: Forest Mensuration Handbook
    Forestry Commission ARCHIVE Forest Mensuration Handbook Forestry Commission Booklet 39 KEY TO PROCEDURES (weight) (weight) page 36 page 36 STANDING TIMBER STANDS SINGLE TREES Procedure 7 page 44 SALE INVENTORY PIECE-WORK THINNING Procedure 8 VALUATION PAYMENT CONTROL page 65 Procedure 9 Procedure 10 Procedure 11 page 81 page 108 page 114 N.B. See page 14 for further details Forestry Commission Booklet No. 39 FOREST MENSURATION HANDBOOK by G. J. Hamilton, m sc FORESTRY COMMISSION London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office © Crown copyright 1975 First published 1975 Third impression 1988 ISBN 0 11 710023 4 ODC 5:(021) K eyw ords: Forestry, Mensuration ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The production of the various tables and charts contained in this publication has been very much a team effort by members of the Mensuration Section of the Forestry Commission’s Research & Development Division. J. M. Christie has been largely responsible for initiating and co-ordinating the development and production of the tables and charts. A. C. Miller undertook most of the computer programming required to produce the tables and was responsible for establishing some formheight/top height and tariff number/top height relationships, and for development work in connection with assortment tables and the measurement of stacked timber. R. O. Hendrie prepared the single tree tariff charts and analysed various data concerning timber density, stacked timber, and bark. M. D. Witts established most of the form height/top height and tariff number/top height relationships and investigated bark thickness in the major conifers. Assistance in checking data was given by Miss D. Porchet, Mrs N.
    [Show full text]
  • Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI)
    Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) m kg s cd SI mol K A NIST Special Publication 811 2008 Edition Ambler Thompson and Barry N. Taylor NIST Special Publication 811 2008 Edition Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) Ambler Thompson Technology Services and Barry N. Taylor Physics Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (Supersedes NIST Special Publication 811, 1995 Edition, April 1995) March 2008 U.S. Department of Commerce Carlos M. Gutierrez, Secretary National Institute of Standards and Technology James M. Turner, Acting Director National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 811, 2008 Edition (Supersedes NIST Special Publication 811, April 1995 Edition) Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 811, 2008 Ed., 85 pages (March 2008; 2nd printing November 2008) CODEN: NSPUE3 Note on 2nd printing: This 2nd printing dated November 2008 of NIST SP811 corrects a number of minor typographical errors present in the 1st printing dated March 2008. Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) Preface The International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI (from the French Le Système International d’Unités), is the modern metric system of measurement. Long the dominant measurement system used in science, the SI is becoming the dominant measurement system used in international commerce. The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of August 1988 [Public Law (PL) 100-418] changed the name of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and gave to NIST the added task of helping U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Table of Contents
    Division of Measurement Standards Department of Food and Agriculture FIELD REFERENCE MANUAL 2014 California Code of Regulation Title 4, Division 9 Chapter 1 National Uniformity, Exceptions and Additions Part 7: NIST Handbook 44 Appendices A through D CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF MEASUREMENT STANDARDS DISCLAIMER DISCLAIMER This document represents the Division of Measurement Standards’ field manual for enforcing regulations pertaining to weights and measures in California. This field manual is not to be considered as the official Code of Regulations, as published by Barclays Law Publishers. NOTE: Language in Handbook 44 that is not adopted is annotated “[NOT ADOPTED]” in this document. NOTE: Requirements are different than, or in addition to, the requirements of Handbook 44 are included in the appropriate section this document. They are shaded, bordered, and numbered in the 4002 series to differentiate them from the Handbook 44 requirements. To find the latest online version of the California Code of Regulations (CCR) Title 4, Division 9, visit the California Office of Administration Law at: http://ccr.oal.ca.gov/linkedslice/default.asp?SP=CCR-1000&Action=Welcome The CCR may also be accessed at http://oal.ca.gov/ by selecting the link Titled “California Code of Regulations” under the list of “Sponsored Links” in the left column on the OAL Home page. For information concerning the contents of this document, please contact the Division of Measurement Standards by e-mail at [email protected]. Links to NIST Handbook 44 (2014 Edition) - Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices as adopted by the 98th National Conference on Weights and Measures 2013 are available for viewing and downloading by simultaneously holding the “Ctrl” key and clicking the mouse on the desired format.
    [Show full text]
  • Measuring in Metric Units BEFORE Now WHY? You Used Metric Units
    Measuring in Metric Units BEFORE Now WHY? You used metric units. You’ll measure and estimate So you can estimate the mass using metric units. of a bike, as in Ex. 20. Themetric system is a decimal system of measurement. The metric Word Watch system has units for length, mass, and capacity. metric system, p. 80 Length Themeter (m) is the basic unit of length in the metric system. length: meter, millimeter, centimeter, kilometer, Three other metric units of length are themillimeter (mm) , p. 80 centimeter (cm) , andkilometer (km) . mass: gram, milligram, kilogram, p. 81 You can use the following benchmarks to estimate length. capacity: liter, milliliter, kiloliter, p. 82 1 millimeter 1 centimeter 1 meter thickness of width of a large height of the a dime paper clip back of a chair 1 kilometer combined length of 9 football fields EXAMPLE 1 Using Metric Units of Length Estimate the length of the bandage by imagining paper clips laid next to it. Then measure the bandage with a metric ruler to check your estimate. 1 Estimate using paper clips. About 5 large paper clips fit next to the bandage, so it is about 5 centimeters long. ch O at ut! W 2 Measure using a ruler. A typical metric ruler allows you to measure Each centimeter is divided only to the nearest tenth of into tenths, so the bandage cm 12345 a centimeter. is 4.8 centimeters long. 80 Chapter 2 Decimal Operations Mass Mass is the amount of matter that an object has. The gram (g) is the basic metric unit of mass.
    [Show full text]
  • Intellectual Property and Ict Standards in India
    INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ICT STANDARDS IN INDIA Authors: Dr. T. Ramakrishna (Professor of Law, National Law School of India University (NLSIU), Bangalore, India) Dr. S. K. Murthy (Research Scholar at NLSIU, Bangalore, India), and Saurabh Malhotra (LLM (Warwick, UK), B.A, LLB (Hons.) (NLSIU, Bangalore, India)) Reviewed by Brad Biddle (Adjunct Professor at ASU Law and Standards Counsel at Intel Corporation, USA) Commissioned by the US National Academies of Science, Board of Science, Technology, and Economic Policy (STEP), Project on Intellectual Property Management in standard setting processes 17 September 2012 Disclaimer: The opinion(s) expressed by the authors in this research paper is in their personal capacity as an individual and does not represent the opinion of the employers of the authors. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ICT STANDARDS IN INDIA Abstract The 2010 “Policy on Open Standards for e-Governance” launched India into the global debate over the definition of open standards. However, the story of standards in India is richer and broader than only the e-Governance policy. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is a standards development organization (SDO), which came into existence through an Act of the Indian parliament. Another important government SDO functioning, in the telecommunications domain, is the telecommunication engineering center (TEC), which was formed under the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) in India. In addition, there has been an increased effort tin setting up public-private partnership organizations for formulating standards focused on information and communications (ICT) standardization. Further, the Indian government has made important contributions on the topic of technical standards in connection with the World Trade Organization’s Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT).
    [Show full text]
  • The History of Measurements
    Helicobacter pylori Some Historical Units of Measurement History of Measurement • Objects were initially measured for convenience, to aid commerce and prevent fraud. • The Egyptians among other civilizations were the first to begin recording measurements around 3200 BC. • Early measurement units were based on body parts or common objects. Historical Units of Length and their equivalence chart ➢ Digit: the breadth of a finger (Egyptian) ➢ Barleycorn: the length of a barleycorn seed ➢ Inch: the width of a man’s thumb or 3 barleycorns ➢ Foot: the length of a man’s foot ➢ Cubit: elbow to fingertip length (Egyptian) ➢ Yard: nose to fingertip length ➢ Mile: 5000 pedes (feet, Roman) ➢ League: 7500 pedes Historical Units of Mass/Volume and their equivalence chart ➢ Grain: the weight of a grain of wheat or barleycorn ➢ Pound (libra): ~5000 grains (Roman) or ~7000 grains (English) ➢ Talent: 100 libra ➢ Stone: 14 pounds (English/British) ➢ Troy Ounce: 1/12 of a pound ➢ Carat: weight of a carob seed The Cubit The cubit is the measure from your elbow to the tip of your middle finger when your arm is extended. The cubit was the measurement used by the Egyptians to build the pyramids. The Palm The palm is the width of your four fingers when they are placed together. The Fathom The fathom is the measure from fingertip to fingertip when your arms are stretched sideways as far as they will go. The fathom was used by sailors to measure the depth of water so that boats would not run aground. The Hand-span The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your pinky to the tip of your thumb when your hand is stretched out.
    [Show full text]