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The Hachijō Language of Japan: Phonology and Historical Development

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THE HACHIJŌ LANGUAGE OF JAPAN: PHONOLOGY AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LINGUISTICS MAY 2019 By David Joseph Iannucci Dissertation Committee: Lyle Campbell, Chairperson Robert Blust Shōichi Iwasaki Rory Turnbull Masato Ishida Dedicated to my two grandfathers, who valued education. James E. ‘Jack’ Iannucci (1914–1991) Frank A. Ventrola (1910–1979) i Acknowledgments I wish to acknowledge the following important people: Alexander Vovin, who inspired this work with an offhand comment, for teaching me Old Japanese, Classical Japanese, and Old Okinawan, and for recommending (before this work was started) that I buy an electronic handwriting-recognizing multi-dictionary of the kind that the Japanese seem to love. I picked up the Brain, made by Sharp. It was a crucial tool that I might not have realized I needed if not for Sasha’s suggestion, and without which I honestly wonder if I could possibly have completed this research. I feel privileged to have studied with him, and had the chance to join the group of students and hangers-on, of which he was the center, who would gather for lifting a glass after hours while talking about East Asian linguistics. Tim Vance, for teaching a stimulating course on Japanese phonology and morphophonology at ex- actly the time when I needed to review these topics in detail in order to do my own work. Ms. Mari Kikuchi, publisher of the Nankai Times newspaper in Hachijōjima, for interesting but too-brief dis- cussions of island history, and pointers to literature. Mr. Motegi & Mr. Hayashi of Hachijō Town Education Committee, for valuable personal assistance on my island research trips and information on revitalization efforts. Piet Lincoln, for lunch meetings with home-baked rustic bread, telling me about his adventures in Melanesia, his work on Melanesian languages, and how he hob-nobbed back in the day with famous linguists who I wish I had had a chance to meet. He always asked for the “good news” during the dark days. My other friends and colleagues who encouraged me, or pro- vided help, including but not limited to: Mayumi Oiwa-Bungard, Colleen O’Brien, Tom Dougherty, Yang Zhang, Jungts Kelly Lin, Wilson Lau (for microphones!), Masumi Hamada, Chihkai Lin, Tobias Bloyd, Lucien Carroll, Hossam Ibrahim, Nielson Hul, and Brad Rentz for the amazing LATEX styles ii that make this thing look good enough to mask some of the mistakes… All my other friends on Facebook, who encouraged me from afar (to the extent that they even knew about this project), and who helped keep me sane and helped me feel part of the wider world during all the years spent on this remote rock in the middle of the cold North Pacific Ocean. My Hachijōjima language con- sultants, Mr. Okiyama Tōichi of Sueyoshi village, Mrs. Sasamoto Kumiyo of Kashitate village, and especially Mrs. Fukuda Eiko “Eikōba”, whose hospitality I enjoyed on both trips, staying at her inn in Nakanogō village. My two sons, for their understanding during the times when I couldn’t be at home, helping with their homework, or just chilling with them in the evenings, during the final year. The UHM faculty of Linguistics, for supporting me as a student and having patience with me while I procrastinated. Patricia Donegan, Debora Halbert, and William O’Grady, who kindly served as temporary committee members during a period when my committee situation was in sometrou- ble, and my final committee: Masato Ishida, Rory Turnbull, Bob Blust, and Shōichi Iwasaki, all of whom have taught me and helped me toward this goal. But above all my chair, Lyle Campbell, without whose patient and unflagging support and encouragement over the course of more years than I like to think, and two different universities, I certainly would not have been able to achieve this thing. iii Abstract Hachijōjima is a small Pacific island belonging to Japan and governed within the capital district of Tokyo. The language traditionally spoken on Hachijōjima, while clearly a member of the Japonic fam- ily, is significantly different from varieties of Japanese spoken, not only on the main islands ofJapan, but also on the other six nearby Izu Islands with which it is conventionally grouped for geographic purposes. Although spoken in a very small region by a community that has probably never in history exceeded 10,000 speakers, eight dialects of this language have been identified. There are many ele- ments of its grammar that resemble no other variety of Japanese, and its lexis is sufficiently different to have caused some scholars to declare it to be of “unknown origin”. Despite the lexical mystery, it is best known for grammatical similarities to the ancient dialects of Eastern Japan, as found recorded in eighth century CE poetry, and is generally agreed to be descended, at least in part, from those di- alects. Like many rural, minority languages, it has no written tradition, and is usually written down in katakana or roman letters. While its differences have attracted a certain amount of attentionto the Hachijō language since before the modernization of Japan in 1868, the amount of linguistic work done on it to date is modest (and virtually none published in any language other than Japanese). And though there is still much to be learned about it, the reality is that it is severely endangered, with few remaining fluent speakers, all of advanced age; children no longer grow up speaking itathome. Furthermore, there is little indication of interest on the part of younger islanders in their ancestral speech, and so its extinction is all but assured. In this dissertation, I attempt to advance the state of Hachijō scholarship in the areas of phonology and historical development by offering a phonemic analysis, a dialectological comparison of some basic Hachijō vocabulary with that of other regions iv around Japan, and an attempt at historical subgrouping of six of its own local dialects. I alsooffera consideration of its status with respect to the national language, arguing based on facts of grammar and lexis that it is best considered a distinct, closely related language rather than a dialect of Japanese. v Contents Acknowledgments ........................................ ii Abstract .............................................. iv List of Abbreviations ...................................... x 1 Introduction .......................................... 1 1.1 About this dissertation . 1 1.1.1 My approach to the language/dialect problem . 2 1.2 Geography and History . 3 1.3 The Language . 5 1.3.1 The status of Hachijō . 7 1.4 The history of Hachijō language scholarship . 10 1.4.1 Prior to the Meiji Restoration of 1868 . 11 1.4.2 After the Meiji Restoration of 1868 . 12 1.5 My research trips to the island . 13 2 Phonology ........................................... 17 2.1 Introduction . 17 2.1.1 Theoretical considerations regarding phonological contrast . 19 vi 2.1.2 Notation . 20 2.2 Short vowels . 21 2.3 Long vowels and diphthongs . 23 2.3.1 Long monophthongs . 23 2.3.2 Diphthongs . 24 2.3.2.1 [ou] and [oa] . 25 2.3.2.2 [ei] . 27 2.3.2.3 [ai], [ui], and [oi] . 28 2.3.2.4 [au] . 30 2.4 Semivowels . 30 2.5 Consonants . 31 2.5.1 /p/ . 31 2.5.2 /t/ . 33 2.5.3 /k/ . 33 2.5.4 /h/ . 34 2.5.5 /b/ . 35 2.5.6 /g/ . 36 2.5.7 /s, z/ and /š/ . 37 2.5.7.1 /s/ vs /z/ . 37 2.5.7.2 /s/ vs /š/ . 39 2.5.8 /d, r, z/ and /j/ . 42 2.5.8.1 /d/ vs /r/ . 42 2.5.8.2 /d/ vs /z/ vs /j/ . 43 2.5.9 /t, c/ and /č/ . 49 vii 2.5.10 /m/ . 52 2.5.11 /n/ . 54 2.5.12 /N, Q/ . 54 2.5.13 Palatalized consonants . 55 2.6 Phonotactics and syllable structure . 57 2.7 Pitch Accent . 60 2.8 Summary . 62 3 Hachijō in the Japonic family ............................... 65 3.1 Lexical comparisons . 66 3.2 Summary . 83 4 Subgrouping the dialects of Hachijō ........................... 85 4.1 Introduction . 85 4.2 Method and Data . 86 4.3 Correspondences . 87 4.3.1 Pre-voiced-obstruent medial codas . 87 4.3.2 Long front vowels . 89 4.3.3 Long back vowels . 92 4.3.4 Consonants and Miscellaneous . 94 4.3.5 Lexical evidence, or lack of it . 95 4.4 Features of Pre-Hachijō . 96 4.5 Summary . 98 5 Hachijō: Dialect or language? ............................... 100 viii 5.1 Measuring distance and intelligibility . 103 5.1.1 Intelligibility . 103 5.1.2 Quantitative distance measures . .104 5.2 Assessing affinity . 105 5.2.1 Ratio of cognate basic vocabulary . 107 5.2.2 Morphological compatibility . 109 5.2.2.1 Nonpast declarative in -owa/-u . 110 5.2.2.2 Past declarative in -(t)ara(ra) . 111 5.2.2.3 Subordinating gerund in -te . 112 5.2.2.4 Suppositional in -no:wa . 114 5.2.2.5 Nonpast negative declarative in -(N)naka . 115 5.2.2.6 Attributives in -o (verbs) and -ke (adjectives) . 117 5.2.3 The effect of regular sound changes . .118 6 Conclusions and future work .................................
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