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Travel Narratives of the British Governess THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of PhD in the University of Hull by Jennifer Pearce, BA, MA December 2013 Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess i ABSTRACT Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess argues that on entering the profession of governessing, women embarked on a new, more mobile existence of travel and relocation on a local and global scale. At a time when gentlewomen rarely travelled far without a chaperone, governesses left home and travelled unaccompanied across counties, countries and even continents for the purpose of work. Some relocated to wealthy households in Britain, some toured with families on the Continent, and others voyaged out to the colonies to work for expatriates or members of the Eastern aristocracy. Previously, however, scholars have tended to consider the governess in light of her unusual social status between the middle and working class. Studies of this kind do much to highlight the complexity of the governess’s situation, but by developing new theoretical perspectives which focus on the governess’s mobility, this thesis demonstrates how the impact of travel is fundamental to this. Highlighting the interplay between the governess of fact and fiction, Life in Transit defines the ‘governess travel narrative’ as a literary strand present in the canonical novel, and a sub-genre of women’s travel writing. Beginning with a re- reading of the governess novel, it considers Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre (1847) and William Thackeray’s Vanity Fair (1848) to explore the governess’s journey in England. Moving its focus across the Channel, it then examines how the semi- autobiographical governesses of Anna Brownell Jameson’s Diary of and Ennuyée (1826) and Brontë’s Villette (1853) experience life on the Continent. Crossing the border of fact and fiction into the genre of travel writing, the thesis considers the work of the lesser-known Emmeline Lott and Ellen Chennells, and examines governess travel narratives produced at the height of the British Empire. Finally, it analyses the journeys of Sarah Heckford and Anna Leonowens, who travelling in the 1870s and 80s, reached as far as South Africa and Siam, extending the scope of women’s travel and pushing the boundaries of the governess profession. In this way, Life in Transit re-reads the governess’s plight as both a physical and psychological journey in which she attempts to understand her place in the Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess ii world. Incorporating theories of travel, space, translation and ‘things’ into a framework through which to examine her experience, it builds on Marxist and feminist approaches to the governess’s position. Allowing for further analysis of the governess’s unusual status, this approach shows how, from within the liminal space of her displacement, the governess experiences her life through spatial above social relations, and provides a unique voice in nineteenth-century Britain’s conception of self and world. Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The governess-traveller has been the main focus of my research since 2009, when I began my MA at the University of Hull. Since then I have received a great deal of support from the university for which I am exceedingly grateful. First, I must thank the Graduate School for awarding me a scholarship to undertake this research. I am also grateful for the support I have received from the English Department. I would like to thank Dr Elizabeth Boyle, my second supervisor, for the advice and encouragement she has given me over the last two years. My appreciation also goes to Professor Ann Heilmann for her involvement in the early stages of this project and her continued support in recent months. For their more recent involvement in this project, I would like to thank my examiners, Dr Trev Broughton from the University of York, and Dr Catherine Wynne from the University of Hull. The feedback given to me during, and since my viva has been extremely helpful and has inspired me to continue my research on the governess’s journey. Most of all, I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Valerie Sanders, who has encouraged my research on this topic since it was scarcely more than an idea. Her unwavering support and expert feedback have been invaluable. Thank you. I am also very grateful to my friends and colleagues; Nicola Beech, Maura Dunst and Allison Neal, who have supported me throughout this project. Finally, thank you to my wonderful family and Dave, for encouraging me to aim high, work hard, and make my ambition a reality. Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess iv For my family Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess v CONTENTS Abstract ……………………………………………………………….. i Acknowledgements …………………………………………………… iii Table of Contents …………………………………………………….. v List of Illustrations …………………………………………………… vi Introduction ……………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter I – Identifying the Governess-Traveller ……………………. 39 The Build-up ……………………………………………………. 45 Leaving Home ……………………………………………………. 50 The Journey ……………………………………………………… 54 The Employer’s Home …………………………………………… 63 Characterising the Governess-Traveller …………………………. 74 Chapter II – The Governess-Traveller’s Experience Abroad ………. 86 Arriving on the Continent ……………………………………….. 92 Rural Landscape …………………………………………………. 95 Art ………………………………………………………………... 102 Architecture ……………………………………………………… 111 Walking ………………………………………………………….. 122 Chapter III – Writing the Governess Travel Narrative ……………… 136 Movement ………………………………………………………… 144 Reading and Listening ……………………………………………. 149 Language-Learning ……………………………………………….. 156 Looking …………………………………………………………… 170 Chapter IV – The Evolution of the Governess Travel Narrative …….. 189 The Evolution of the Governess-Traveller: Extending Professionalism and Obtaining Property ………………. 205 The Evolution of the Governess Travel Narrative: A Transfer of Interest from Space to Text ………………………… 218 Conclusion .……………………………………...……………………….. 238 Bibliography ……………………………………………………………… 247 Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 1. Jane Eyre 2011. Directed by: Cary Fukunaga. [Film still] Great Britain: Focus Features. Fig. 2. ‘To Governesses’ 1846, in Punch, 04 April, p.154. Fig. 3. ‘A Member of the University of Cambridge’ 1825, in John Bull, 05 June, p. 177. Fig. 4. Redgrave, Richard 1844, The Governess, Oil on Canvas, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fig. 5. Redgrave, Richard 1843, The Poor Teacher, Oil on Canvas, Shipley Art Gallery, Gateshead. Fig. 6. Redgrave, Richard 1844, The Governess, Oil on Canvas, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fig. 7. Redgrave, Richard 1843, The Poor Teacher, Oil on Canvas, Shipley Art Gallery, Gateshead. Fig. 8. ‘Travelling Companion or Governess,’ The Times (Jul 12, 1861) classifieds. Fig. 9. ‘France’ 1802, in The Times, 06 May, classifieds. Fig. 10. Botticelli, Sandro 1486, The Birth of Venus, Oil on Canvas, Uffizi Gallery, Florence. Fig. 11. Holland, James 1841, The Bridge of Sighs, Pencil and Watercolour, Private Collection. Fig. 12. Leitch, W. L. and Turnbull, T 1842, Scala dei Giganti (Giants' Staircase) in Doge's Palace in Venice, Print in The Rhine, Italy and Greece in a Series of Drawings from Nature with Historical and Legendary Descriptions by the Rev. G.N. Wright, Vols I-II, London/Paris: Fisher, Son & Co. Fig. 13. Roma Piazza di Spagna, Post Card, Private Collection of Monir Tayeb and Michel Austin, Scotland Fig. 14. Map of the Arno 1877 in Augustus Hare's Florence, London: George Allen, 1896. Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess vii Fig. 15. Panoramic view of the Pensionnat and the garden 1995, in Eric Ruijssenaars’s Charlotte Brontë’s Promised Land, Leeds: Brontë Society, 2000. Fig. 16. Kara-Kevi Galata Bridge, Constantinople 1890-1900, Photograph, Private Collection. Fig. 17. Markham, Sheila 2010, The ‘Cane-Bottom’d Chair’ of William Thackeray’s Ballad, Colour Photograph, Travellers Club, London. Fig. 18. Lewis, John Frederick 1850, The Harem, Watercolour and Body colour, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fig.19. Anna and the King 1999. Directed by: Andy Tennant. [Film still] U.S.A: Fox Pictures. Fig.20. Anna and the King 1999. Directed by: Andy Tennant. [Film still] U.S.A: Fox Pictures. Fig. 21. Jane Eyre 2011. Directed by: Cary Fukunaga. [Film still] Great Britain: Focus Features. Fig. 22. Jane Eyre 2006. Directed by Susanna White. [Film still] Great Britain: BBC. Life in Transit: Travel Narratives of the British Governess 1 INTRODUCTION Fig.1. Jane Eyre (2011) Film still, Focus Features This screenshot, from Cary Fukunaga’s film adaptation of Jane Eyre (2011) is highly symbolic of the governess’s plight in the nineteenth century. It is a powerful visual reminder of so much we already know about the governess. Hers was often a bleak and dreary existence, for as an unmarried gentlewoman forced to work she was disconnected from society at large, stranded in a social no-man’s land between the middle and working class. Yet in capturing Jane’s escape from Thornfield, after she discovers Rochester’s marriage to Bertha, this image points to a pivotal, recurring, but somehow overlooked part of the governess’s life. What Fukunaga’s dramatic panorama shows us is that wherever she worked, and whether or not her situation was as tumultuous as Jane’s, when a woman became a governess,
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