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Universidad Complutense De Madrid UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID FACULTAD DE POLÍTICAS Y SOCIOLOGÍA TESIS DOCTORAL Living at the margins of the State: Ecuadorian irregular migrants in Amsterdam and Madrid Viviendo al margen del Estado : migrantes irregulares ecuatorianos en Amsterdam y Madrid MEMORIA PARA OPTAR AL GRADO DE DOCTOR PRESENTADA POR Gabriel Esteban Echeverría Cubello Directores Joaquín Arango Vila-Delda Giuseppe Sciortino Madrid, 2016 © Gabriel Esteban Echeverría Cubello, 2016 UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID INSTITUTO UNIVERSITARIO DE INVESTIGACIÓN ORTEGA Y GASSET Programa de Doctorado MIGRACIONES INTERNACIONALES E INTREGRACIÓN SOCIAL Título de la Tesis Doctoral LIVING AT THE MARGINS OF THE STATE ECUADORIAN IRREGULAR MIGRANTS IN AMSTERDAM AND MADRID VIVIENDO AL MARGEN DEL ESTADO MIGRANTES IRREGULARES ECUATORIANOS EN AMSTERDAM Y MADRID Doctorando GABRIEL ESTEBAN ECHEVERRÍA CUBELLO Directores de la Tesis PROF. JOAQUÍN ARANGO VILA-BELDA UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID y PROF. GIUSEPPE SCIORTINO UNIVERSITÁ DEGLI STUDI DI TRENTO Madrid, 2015 AGRADECIMIENTOS 9 SUMMARY 11 RESUMEN 17 INTRODUCTION 23 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND DESIGN 25 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY 29 PART I - THEORETICAL STUDY. TOWARDS A SYSTEMIC THEORY OF IRREGULAR MIGRATION 1. THE STUDY OF IRREGULAR MIGRATION 33 1.1. DEFINITIONS AND TAXONOMIES 34 1.2. IRREGULAR MIGRATION FROM AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 38 1.3. NUMBERS 43 1.4. STATE POLICIES AND IRREGULAR MIGRATION 45 1.5. IRREGULAR MIGRANTS LIVED EXPERIENCE 53 1.6. THE CONSEQUENCES OF IRREGULAR MIGRATION 59 1.7. CONCLUSION 62 2. THEORIZING IRREGULAR MIGRATION 63 2.1. THE GAP HYPOTHESIS DEBATE 66 2.2. IRREGULAR MIGRATION AS STATES’ FAILURE 72 2.3. IRREGULAR MIGRATION AS CHOICE OF STATES 92 2.4. CRITICAL DISCUSSION OF THE MAIN THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS OF IRREGULAR MIGRATION 109 3. TOWARDS A SYSTEMIC THEORY OF IRREGULAR MIGRATION 125 3.1. THE SEMANTICS OF THE MODERN STATE AND SOCIETY 126 3.2. ELEMENTS OF NIKLAS LUHMANN’S SOCIAL SYSTEMS THEORY 130 3.3. IRREGULAR MIGRATION AS A STRUCTURAL PHENOMENON OF WORLD SOCIETY 144 3.4. CONCLUSION. A SYSTEMIC ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR IRREGULAR MIGRATION 155 PART II - EMPIRICAL STUDY. ECUADORIAN IRREGULAR MIGRANTS IN AMSTERDAM AND MADRID 4. METHODOLOGICAL NOTE 163 4.1. RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 163 4.2. SELECTION OF THE CASES 167 4.3. FIELDWORK METHODOLOGY, STRATEGIES AND LIMITATIONS 170 5. ECUADORIAN IRREGULAR MIGRATION TO AMSTERDAM AND MADRID: THE STRUCTURAL CONTEXTS 175 5.1. ECUADORIAN EMIGRATION 177 5.2. THE NETHERLANDS AS IRREGULAR MIGRATION CONTEXT 179 5.3. SPAIN AS AN IRREGULAR MIGRATION CONTEXT 192 5.4. CONCLUSION: ASSESSING CONTEXTUAL DIFFERENCES 208 3 6. ECUADORIAN IRREGULAR MIGRANTS IN AMSTERDAM AND MADRID 221 6.1. LEGAL TRAJECTORIES AND REGULARIZATION CHANNELS 222 6.2. REGULARIZATION STRATEGIES 228 6.3. WORK 235 6.4. INTERNAL CONTROLS 252 6.5. HOUSING AND HEALTHCARE 259 6.6. IRREGULAR MIGRATION REALITIES IN AMSTERDAM AND MADRID 265 7. ASSESING THE RELATION BETWEEN CONTEXTS AND “IRREGULAR MIGRATION REALITIES” 271 7.1. ABSTRACTION 273 280 7.2. ASSESSING SYSTEMIC RELATIONS CONCLUSIONS 283 MAIN RESULTS 286 302 TOWARDS AN ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK FOR IRREGULAR MIGRATION BIBLIOGRAPHY 305 4 Per Dafne 5 6 “Palomar s’è distratto, non strappa più le erbacce, non pensa più al prato: pensa all’universo. Sta provando ad applicare all’universo tutto quello che ha pensato del prato. L’universo come cosmo regolare e ordinato o come proliferazione caotica. L’universo forse finito ma innumerabile, instabile nei suoi confini, che apre entro di sé altri universi. L’universo, insieme di corpi celesti, nebulose, pulviscolo, campi di forze, intersezioni di campi, insiemi di insiemi.”1 Italo Calvino “Temprano, ya en la época de la “invención de América”, […] una vieja sospecha volvía a levantarse, - ahora sobre datos cada vez más confiables -: que la escasez non constituye la “maldición sine qua non” de la realidad humana; que el modelo bélico que ha inspirado todo proyecto de existencia histórica del Hombre, convirtiéndolo en una estrategia que condiciona la supervivencia propia a la aniquilación de lo Otro (de la Naturaleza, humana o extrahumana), no es lo único posible; que es imaginable, sin ser ilusión, un modelo diferente, donde el desafió dirigido a lo Otro siga más bien el modelo del eros.”2 Bolívar Echeverría 1 “Mr. Palomar’s mind has wandered, he has stopped pulling up weeds. He no longer thinks of the lawn: he thinks of the universe. He is trying to apply to the universe everything he has though about the lawn. The universe as regular and ordered cosmos or as chaotic proliferation. The universe perhaps finite but countless, unstable within its borders, which discloses other universes within itself. The universe, collection of celestial bodies, nebulas, fine dust, force fields, intersections of fields, collections of collections…”. 2 As early as during the “invention of America”, […] raised the age-old suspicion again, no won the strength of much more trustworthy data: if scarcity was not, in fact, the “curse sine qua non” of human reality. The Pólemos model, which has inspired every Project of the historical existence of man, by making it a war strategy that conditions survival in terms of the annihilation or exploitation of the Other (of the human other, of Nature), is not the only possibility; one might, without it being an illusion, imagine a different one, in which the Other is called following the model of Éros” 7 AGRADECIMIENTOS El trabajo que aquí se presenta ha sido el resultado de un viaje de cinco años. Como en todo viaje, en este también se han alternado momentos distintos. Ha habido tiempo para el encanto y el desencanto, la inspiración y la frustración, la curiosidad y el tedio, la exaltación y el desanimo. Han sido cinco años privilegiados, en los que he podido desarrollar con total libertad un proyecto de investigación original y significativo para mi propia persona. La realización de este trabajo pudo contar con el generoso aporte de la Beca FPU del Ministerio de Educación del Reino de España. La ayuda, el soporte y las palabras de muchas personas han sido fundamentales para la realización de este trabajo. Ante todo quiero agradecer a todos los migrantes y las migrantes que participaron en esta investigación en Ámsterdam y Madrid. La amabilidad y generosidad con la que decidieron ayudarme ha sido para mi un regalo y un ejemplo. En particular quiero agradecer a Sylvana Cabezas a Ramiro Palacios y su familia. Ellos me abrieron la puerta al mundo de los ecuatorianos en Ámsterdam y me acogieron como a un hijo. Sin su ayuda esta investigación no hubiera sido posible. Quiero agradecer también a Lulu Cabezas a Malki, Ñusta y Ñaupac por haberme hospedado en su casa que, en medio del trajín, fue un hogar. Un gracias particular a mis directores de tesis, el Prof. Joaquín Arango y el Prof. Giuseppe Sciortino. Su apoyo incondicional, orientación y sugerencias han sido la piedra angular sobre la que se construyó este trabajo. Deseo agradecer al Prof. Godfried Engbersen por haberme acogido como uno más del grupo en el Departamento de Sociología de la Erasmus University de Rotterdam durante mi estancia de investigación en los Países Bajos. Sus sugerencias, criticas y alientos han sido fundamentales. Gracias también a Willem Schinkel, Arjen Leerkes, Dennis Broeders y a todos los miembros del Departamento por su ayuda y sugerencias. Un gracias especial a Masja Van Meeteren. Toda mi gratitud a los dos reviewers que con grande competencia y amabilidad se tomaron el tiempo de leer mi trabajo y de sugerirme ideas y apuntes para mejorarlo. He tenido el privilegio de poder discutir partes de este trabajo con muchos investigadores e investigadoras. Un gracias especial a Claudia Finotelli, Paolo 9 Boccagni, Sandro Mezzadra, Sébastien Chauvin, Nicholas De Genova, MariaCaterina La Barbera, Sarah Spencer, Refugio Chávez, Rosa Aparicio. Gran parte de los penas y de las alegrías vividas a lo largo de este viaje han sido compartidas con mis compañeros y compañeras de doctorado. Gracias a Adriana, Aurelis, Carolina, Elisabeth, Inara, Damián y Joaquín. Un gracias especial a Elena con la que más de cerca compartimos el día a día de la ideación y escritura de nuestros trabajos. Este trabajo no hubiera sido posible sin la ayuda experta y generosa de Irene Diamond. Su revisión atenta y escrupulosa de cada una de las palabras de esta tesis han hecho posible que la misma se escriba en ingles. A ella la mayor gratitud. Gracias a los muchos amigos y amigas que estuvieron a mi lado en estos años. Un gracias especial a Andrea Betti por haber leído muchas de las paginas de este trabajo, por las infinitas horas de discusión y por su soporte indefectible. Durante la realización de esta investigación fallecieron tres personas que tuvieron una influencia fundamental en mi vida y en las ideas que aquí se discuten. Un recuerdo emocionado a mi abuelo Bolívar Echeverría Paredes, a mi tío Bolívar Echeverría Andrade y a Gabriele Viliani. No es necesario más que por el gusto de hacerlo mencionar la gratitud hacia mis queridas familias en Ecuador e Italia, por su cariño y apoyo incondicional. Un gracias especial a mis padres. Si es cierto que para tener una vida grata los más importante es elegir bien a los viejos, me reconozco el merito de haberlo echo de la mejor manera. A mis hermanos y hermanas, Maria Chiara, Francisca y Tomás, el más grande cariño, con ellos a lado voy de bajada. Gracias infinitas a Adriano y Natalia. Este trabajo, culminación de una etapa y semilla de las que vendrán, esta dedicado a Dafne. “La tua voce come il coro delle sirene di Ulisse m' incatena, ed è bellissimo perdersi in quest' incantesimo”. 10 SUMMARY Topic, research questions and structure of the study Two driving forces have sustained and fostered this research work: the curiosity about the phenomenon of irregular migration, that is emblematic of the contradictions and complexities of the age of globalization and then, the dissatisfaction with most of the available explanations.
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