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The Dravidian

Sanford B. Steever

Old Tamil

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Thomas Lehmann Published online on: 18 Dec 1997

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 This page intentionally left blank left intentionally page This Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 3 Old Tamil Old 3 join’ join’ composed by these bards survive: they contain 2,381 poems ranging in length length in ranging poems 2,381 contain they survive: bards poems heroic these and by love of composed anthologies Two poets. bardic many patronised tains Tamil causation is expressed periphrastically by means of the auxiliary verbs auxiliary the of means by periphrastically expressed is causation Tamil Tamil (400 (400 Tamil dle Tamil stems are productively formed by suffixing suffixing by formed productively are stems causative Tamil dle e c the second century century second the from 3 to 782 lines. Totalling 32,000 lines, this corpus is known as as known is corpus this lines, 32,000 Totalling lines. 782 to 3 from . modem the to old the from grammatical continuity a demonstrating in Old Tamil, anchored are Mid­ of Tamil Modem features and many dle language, of the stage each of individuality grammatical e.g. Tamil, Old in sporadically occur Tamil Modem and Middle e.g. , vaikka Buddhism in South India, a number of Prakrit and borrowings entered entered borrowings Sanskrit and Prakrit of number a India, South in Buddhism cey e.g. lexicon, the in listed be must and bases idiosyncratic isverb stem has Tamil Old causative whose Tamil. Modem in syntactically and Tamil Middle in characteristics. grammatical (300 Old Tamil stages: different three guishes distin­ Tamil history, uninterrupted its two-thousand-year During period. ing that more than two thousand years. The earliest records are cave inscriptions from from inscriptions cave are records earliest The years. thousand two than more History and Background 3.1 Old Tamil and appear in the the in appear and Tamil Old Tolkäppiyam a verb base where the chosen depends on the of the base, e.g. base, the of phonology the on depends chosen suffix the where base verb a Of all the Dravidian languages Tamil has the longest literary tradition, covering covering tradition, literary longest the has Tamil languages Dravidian the all Of (‘academy’) literature. During this period, with the propagation of Jainism and and Jainism of propagation the with period, this During literature. (‘academy’) and Cözä dynasties ruled over much of South India. These kings and other chief­ other and kings These India. South of much over ruled dynasties Cözä and ‘sit’ and ‘sit’and

During the period of Early Old Tamil (100 Tamil Old Early of period the During Causation, for example, is expressed lexically in Old Tamil, morphologically morphologically Tamil, inOld lexically expressed is example, for Causation,

to 1600) and Modem Tamil (1600 (1600 Tamil Modem and 1600) to ‘do’ and ‘do’and (pari

‘place’, ‘place’, Thomas Lehmann iruvu arukk-a vaikka arukk-a

12.74) and and 12.74) e c

cey-vi (100 (100

to 700) comprises the two epics epics two the to comprises 700) ‘make sit’, ‘make ceyya e c b

‘make do’, do’, ‘make

‘do’ and ‘do’and e c b ), ), väz-a.c cey väz-a.c which describes the and poetics of Tamil dur­ Tamil of poetics and grammar the describes which

akal ‘make cut’. The techniques used to form in causatives form to used techniques The cut’. ‘make ; the earliest extant literary text is the grammar grammar the is text literary extant earliest the

panna ‘disappear’ and ‘disappear’ Cankam aru

‘make live’ ‘make ‘cut’ and ‘cut’and

‘make’ following the infinitive of the main main the of infinitive the following ‘make’ 5 7

anthologies. The literature of Late Old Old Late of literature The anthologies. e c

to the present), each with distinct distinct with each present), the to aru-ppi Cilappatikäram e c b e c b akarru (pura

to 700 to 700 to 400 400 to

‘make cut’. And in Modem Modem in And cut’. ‘make

367.10). Thus, despite the the despite Thus, 367.10). ‘make disappear’. In Mid­ disappear’. ‘make e c e c ), ), ), ), (700 Tamil Middle

the Pântiya, Cëra Cëra Pântiya, the and and -vi, -pi -vi, M animé kal M ai, animé cèr-vi

or or Cankam

-ppi ‘make ‘make iru

to

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 poetic texts; conversely, poetic usage characterises the grammar of the the of grammar the characterises usage poetic conversely, texts; poetic OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 6 7 have become symbiotic. As noted later, these texts are not readily accessible accessible readily not are texts these later, noted As symbiotic. become have language. several ethical texts and certain poems conventionally included in the the in included conventionally poems certain and texts ethical several linked grammar grammar linked ods. Although the the Although ods. anthologies. The language of Old Tamil is thus embodied in a fixed corpus of of corpus fixed a in embodied thus is Tamil Old of language The anthologies. only recently rediscovered in the last century through the efforts of such scholars scholars of such efforts the through century last in the rediscovered recently only without the help of commentaries written during the ancient and medieval peri­ medieval and ancient the during written commentaries of help the without Abbreviations of Example Sources Example of Abbreviations Tamil Old of study modem the new. isquite paradoxically, grammar So, Cäminäthaiyar. Ve. U. as ‘that which is characterised’) so closely that the texts and their commentaries commentaries their and texts the that closely so characterised’) is which ‘that The traditional grammar Tamil traditional The /ë/, /o/, /ö/. The seventeen include six stops: /k/, /c/, include /t/, /r/, /t/, five /p/; consonants seventeen The /o/, /ö/. /ë/, the language consists of ten vowels and seventeen consonants (see Table 3.1). Table (see consonants seventeen and vowels ten of of consists inventory language phonemic the The linguistics. modem in done is as aspects three these Orthography and Phonology 3.2 and orthographic aspects of the Old Tamil sound system without distinguishing distinguishing without system sound Tamil Old the of aspects orthographic and presence of distinct dental, alveolar and retroflex series in the proto-language. the in series retroflex and alveolar dental, distinct of presence /η/, /n/> nasals: /θ/> laterals: two /n/, /m/; roflex consonants, leading some scholars (e.g. Meenakshisundaram 1965:55) to Meenakshisundaram (e.g. scholars some leading consonants, roflex in descriptions articulatory The /z/. one complete: they do not, for example, distinguish between retroflex and non-ret- non-ret- and retroflex between distinguish example, for not, do they complete: oe oes n to oe osnns Te w dptog /i ad /au/, and /ai/ two The consonants. more two and vowels more the indicates phonology Dravidian comparative However, of Tamil. stages later speculate that retroflexes were distinguished from alveolars and dentals only at at only dentals and alveolars from distinguished were retroflexes that speculate rm t bgnig in beginnings its From aikalittokai kuru kuri kali aipatirrupattu pati pari narri äcär eiperiyapuränam peri aink pura aka Old Tamil has ten vowels, five short and five long: /a/, /ä/, /i/, /i/, /ä/, /a/, long: five and short five vowels, ten has Tamil Old In addition to these , traditional Tamil grammar recognises two two recognises grammar Tamil traditional phonemes, these to addition In kuruntokai paripätal ainkurunüru narrinai akanänüru äcärakkövai puranänüru kurincippättu (pattupättu) (ilakkanam Cankam corpus is ancient, many texts and commentaries were were commentaries and texts many isancient, corpus Tolkäppiyam ‘that which characterises’) and literature literature and characterises’) which ‘that Tolkäppiyam , traditional study has has study language Tamil traditional , A/, A/, /}/; two glides /y/, /v/; one tap /r/; and and /r/; tap /}/;one /y/, /v/; glides two describes phonetic, phonological phonological phonetic, describes Tolkäppiyam A/, A/, are often in­ often are /u/, /u/, /e/, /e/, /u/, /u/, (ilakkiyam Cankam

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Front Back Table 3.1 The phonemes of Old Tamil Old of phonemes The 3.1 Table Taps ä anam yäm Laterals Central /y/ is the only that does not occur in this context. this in occur not does that consonant only isthe /y/ = ) ( Note: Glides Nasals rate graphemes. With one exception cited below, /yäfmanam/, the velar nasal /ή/ nasal velar the /yäfmanam/, below, cited exception one With graphemes. rate is/i/ treated final */oi/, the */ei/, */ai/, e.g. case combinations, the In vowel /u/. and possible of other /a/ and /i/ and /a/ of combinations are vowels, with grouped tion either when a suffix is added to a stem or when two words are compounded compounded are words two when or stem a to added is suffix a when either tion vowel can be added to an already elongated vowel, as in as vowel, elongated already an to added be can vowel at ecp ή ad k. hr i, oee, n ocrec o a atr /ή/: after /a/ of occurrence one however, is, There /k/. and /ή/ except nants conso­ all after occur diphthongs and All vowels word-initially. occur /au/ thong called /h/, fri­ cative The stop/k/. velar the before only occurs and nasals other of allophone an is Stops Long vowels and /ai/ may be elongated for metrical purposes: this consists in the this consists purposes: for metrical elongated be may /ai/ and vowels Long sepa­ by represented are but consonants other of merely are sonants 2.55), 2.55), word-finally. occur /z/ and /r/ /I/,/v/, /l/, /y/, /n/, /n/, /n/, /m/, consonants ten the Only word-initially. occur /v/ and /y/, /n/, /n/, /p/, /t/, /k/,/m/, /c/, consonants nine 65.8) may be elongated as as elongated be may 65.8) as the glide /y/. Old Tamil thus has only two diphthongs. The two additional con­ additional two The diphthongs. onlytwo has thus Old Tamil /y/. glide the as or stand in a particular syntactic relation. A stem-final /u/ that follows a long long a ‘extra-short follows that called /u/ traditionally syllables, stem-final or two A consonant a vowel, relation. syntactic particular a in stand or addition of a short vowel to a long vowel. For example, example, For vowel. long a to vowel short a of addition el and a stop, e.g. stop, a and el 3.6) becoming becoming 3.6) ed when followed by a vowel-initial suffix, as in as suffix, a vowel-initial by followed when ed hs poee hv te olwn dsrbto. l vwl ad h diph­ the and vowels All distribution. following the have phonemes These Internal and external sandhi processes involve deletion, insertion or assimila­ or insertion deletion, involve processes sandhi external and Internal karpu

‘in which way’ way’ which ‘in

catt’ + ‘chastity’ iär {aka ciräar High v ailDental Labial m Ö 0 Ü u i P hr Long Short ay ay tarn aktu

‘it, that’: it may be regarded as an allophone of /y/ since since of /y/ allophone an as regarded be may it ‘it, that’: and transliterated as as transliterated and in > karpin {aka karpin > in

I 1 r n t {aka 107.17) and further further and 107.17) eläam

27.12). All vowels and /au/ occur word-finally. word-finally. occur /au/ and vowels All 27.12).

‘id.’. This process may be repeated: a short short a repeated: be may process This ‘id.’. Mid r e n lelrRtolxPltlVelar Palatal Retroflex Alveolar hr Long Short

6.13), k , occurs only between a short short vow­ a , between only occurs varaku nätu iäa {pura ciräaar n t z ê 1

‘country’+

cmn’ + ‘coming’ cirär eläm Low k n c y a hr Long Short

‘small ones’ ones’ ‘small ‘everything’ ‘everything’ 291.2). Only the the Only 291.2). L AI 77 7 TAMIL OLD in > nätin {pari >in nätin in > varakin > in \ u ä (ή)

isdelet­ {pari {kali

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 vowel-initial suffix, a glide is inserted, e.g. inserted, is glide a suffix, vowel-initial DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 8 7 phabet in one respect: the conjunct consonant symbols have been replaced by replaced been have symbols consonant conjunct the respect: one in phabet as such phonemes Tamil + third century century third (254 script Brahmi a dental-initial suffix, for example, that dental assimilates to a retroflex place of of place a retroflex to assimilates dental that example, for suffix, dental-initial a nemes such as aspirated stops were omitted and graphemes for characteristic characteristic for graphemes and omitted were stops aspirated as such nemes (aka articulation, e.g. articulation, (see Mahadevan 1990); the third and last system was assumed as assumed was system last and third 1990);the Mahadevan (see script Brahmi adapted to in two respects: graphemes for non-occurring pho­ non-occurring for graphemes respects: intwo phonology Tamil to adapted tion, compounding, cliticisation, ‘doubling’, and stem mutation. The most fre­ most The mutation. stem and ‘doubling’, cliticisation, compounding, morphs tion, these meaning grammatical or lexical the to ‘’ and mented Speech of Parts and Morphology 3.3 when Tamil Brahmi script evolved into Modem , in which the the which in script, Tamil Modem into evolved Cankam script Brahmi Tamil when as early ae OdTml tlss i mrhlgcl prtos sfiain incorpora­ suffixation, operations: morphological six utilises Tamil Old have. seg­ be can form word a which into parts the to refers ‘morph’ follows what In 1996). Steever (see symbols consonant of strings the marker marker tense past the a to added be may inflectional four to Up suffixation. is process quent tributive verb, or . For example, in the participial noun noun participial the in example, For adjective. or noun verb, tributive of incorporation the involve inTamil Old incorporation of cases All function. syntac­ tic morphological its independent the retaining as each with , defined is adjacent of this two collocation where incorporation of means by formed köt.tu ing suffix suffix ing noun verbal the in as stem, tion of certain verb forms (e.g. forms verb certain of tion (e.g. personal of the stems oblique as function or case for marked are they when stem oblique an form many suffix inal ön stem verb the to added are suffixes following the where 372.9) nl form inal a pronominal head by its immediately preceding modifier, which may be an at­ an be may which modifier, preceding immediately itsby head pronominal a a genitive attribute. Nouns ending in ending Nouns attribute. genitive a ‘tooth’, form oblique stems by doubling the consonant of the final syllable, as as syllable, final the of consonant the doubling by stems oblique form ‘tooth’, ‘doubling’ and stem mutation. Depending on the phonology of the noun stem, stem, noun the of phonology the on Depending mutation. stem and ‘doubling’ in(aka> moziyin The earliest records of Tamil are written in a southern version of the Asokan Asokan the of version southern a in written are Tamil of records earliest The ‘he who ‘hewho knows’ 9.) We tmfnlvwl xetetasot// i olwdb a by followed is /u/, extra-short except vowel, stem-final a When 194.9). and and txs r cnetoal rne. hs cithsmvdtwr n al­ an toward moved has script This printed. conventionally are texts The principles of this writing system were maintained maintained were system writing this of principles The Tolkäppiyam. -atu eyir.ru. ariyum -ön e c ‘he’ by the predicate of the preceding relative clause, the adnom- adnom- the clause, relative preceding of the predicate by ‘he’the and marker marker case dative and , kän wo nw’ (< knows’ ‘who Stem mutation (vowel shortening) applies in the formation of of formation the in applies shortening) (vowel mutation Stem there appear to have been three different versions of Tamil Tamil of versions different three been have to appear there e c b 13.8). When a stem-final retroflex consonant is followed by followed is consonant retroflex stem-final a 13.8).When (pura + -nt-, ), ), ti> (pari känti an alpha-syllabic form of writing (see Chapter 2). It was Chapter (see of form writing alpha-syllabic an 137.4) the head nominal is incorporated as the pronom­ the as is incorporated nominal 137.4) head the / z / euphonic increment increment euphonic were added. From the second century century second the From added. were atai-nt-ar-ku kän-öm ari- 6.64). tu ‘we do not see’ vs see’ not do ‘we -ku. ‘know’). There are some instances of of instances some are There ‘know’). and rw, such as rw, such and ‘because of what happened’ happened’ what of ‘because A number of words in Old Tamil are are Tamil Old in words of A number pala näm -an- (-ar--an- + ‘we’ > ‘we’ in > palavin (akain> palavin kötu nam-) b adi,nomi at­ in m o n sandhi), by kantu ‘branch’ and and ‘branch’ and in the forma­ in the and ‘seeing’). atai- 7.20), 7.20), e c b ‘happen’: ‘happen’: ari.y-um-

to the the to (narri eyiru mozi

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 pheme pheme morpheme interrogative the instance, For tives. be created. Thus up to five bound morphs can be added to a stem: stem: a to added be can morphs bound five up to Thus created. be morphs, are cliticised to fully inflected words, nouns and verbs, but not adjec­ not but verbs, and nouns words, inflected fully to cliticised are morphs, being formally marked by a suffix. Case is expressed by bound suffixes suffixes bound by expressed is Case suffix. a by marked formally being plural some exhibits also morphology Tamil Old indicates, incorporation pronominal herds’ ôr-kk=ê incorporation and cliticisation co-occur, still longer chains of bound morphs may may morphs of bound chains stilllonger co-occur, cliticisation and incorporation This classification is relevant to the distribution of plural suffixes, noted below. noted suffixes, plural of distribution the to relevant is and classification This humans as such beings rational denoting nouns of consists first The nal’. into nouns divides grammar Tamil two are conveyed by a single morph as in the verb form form verb the in as morph single a by conveyed are which in morphemes two characteristics fusional certain has also morphology The case’. ciative noun : suffixes to form oblique stems and optional euphonic euphonic optional and stems oblique form to suffixes inflection: noun in occur increments, inflectional called morphs, empty of semantically two kinds belong to one of these two classes; some stems have a double categorial status status categorial double a have stems some classes; two these of one to belong word. phonological one as occur phrase noun aof elements syntactic several wherein polysynthesis mild form noun The morph. and morpheme between spondence The euphonic increment increment euphonic The or by postpositions, as in the . Apart from number and case markers, markers, case and number from Apart case. in locative as the or by postpositions, children. denoting those including nouns, other all of consists second the gods, morph single the by expressed are agreement - fixed to the oblique stem, where available; otherwise, directly to the noun stem. noun the to directly otherwise, available; where stem, oblique the to fixed . and - classes minor two to assigned be may and such as as such -ötu increments. 1 a. (1) ‘unite’, past tense marker - marker tense past ‘unite’, ‘he/she/they do’ where the two morphemes of non-past tense and third person person third and tense non-past of morphemes two the where do’ ‘he/she/they ‘word’. A small number of words behave grammatically unlike nouns or verbs, verbs, or nouns unlike grammatically behave words of number small A ‘word’. ör Cliticisation occurs when certain grammatical morphemes, realised by bound bound by realised morphemes, grammatical certain when occurs Cliticisation Nouns inflect for number and case. Singular number is opposed to plural, with with to plural, isopposed number Singular case. and for number inflect Nouns corre­ one-to-one a with agglutinating, whole is on the morphology Tamil Old Where a noun is inflected only for case, the case suffix or postposition is suf­ is postposition or suffix case the case, for only inflected is noun a Where Traditional criteria. formal and semantic to according classified are Nouns Old Tamil has two major parts of speech: noun and verb. Most lexical stems stems lexical Most verb. and noun speech: of parts major two has Tamil Old , dative case case ,dative which correspond to the three morphemes ‘herd’, ‘plural number’ and ‘so- and number’ ‘plural ‘herd’, morphemes three the to correspond which (kali ‘even to those who united’ united’ who to those ‘even col =um 25.8), for example, consists of the three morphs morphs of three consists the for example, 25.8), (DEDR 2855) which can be the verb stem ‘say’ or the noun stem stem noun the or ‘say’ stem verb the be can which 2855) (DEDR latuku (kuru ulla-ttu-kku heart-obl-dat heart-obl-dat ‘for the heart’ heart’ ‘forthe are expressed by postclitic particles. When suffixation, suffixation, When particles. postclitic by expressed are -kk(u) and emphatic emphatic and -in- (-ir- nt -, inflectional increment - increment inflectional -, 6.) b. 60.6) by sandhi) optionally occurs before a case suffix. a case by occurs sandhi) optionally before (aka uyartinai 367.16) consists of the verb stem verb of the 367.16) consists -ë. mother-dat ‘to (the) mother’ ‘to(the) ‘rational’ and and ‘rational’ na-k (aink annai-kku -urn. -ö and the co-ordinating mor­ co-ordinating the and As the earlier example of of example earlier the As icin kilai-kal-ötu kilai -, pronominal suffix pronominal -, akrinai 249.1) 249.1) ‘herd’, ‘herd’, L AI 79 7 TAMIL OLD punar-nt-icin- ‘non-ratio- ‘non-ratio- ‘with the cey.y-um -kal· punar- and and

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 (2) the plural marker. plural the noun the to suffixed is marker plural a number, for only inflects noun a Where stem. Where a noun inflects for number and case, the case marker is suffixed to suffixed is marker case the case, and for number inflects noun a Where stem. OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 0 8 plural agreement marker marker agreement plural Old Tamil nouns may also take pronominal suffixes: suffixes: pronominal take also may nouns Tamil Old a. (3) nouns inflect for person as well as number and gender class, this is a matter of of matter a is this class, gender and number as well as person for inflect nouns en’ numbers or by their characteristic suffix. Western grammarians later applied lat- applied later grammarians Western suffix. characteristic or by their numbers nouns, rational and non-rational, unlike Modem Tamil where the choice of loc­ of choice the where Tamil Modem unlike non-rational, all and with occur rational nouns, markers case various inflected The seldom. forms very occur (3b),plural the in insince as cited case, system for are forms case singular Tamil Only Old the paradigm. a presents of 3.2 form Table cases. the to terms inate inflection. than rather incorporation only the choice of plural marker depends on the class of the noun. the of class the on depends marker plural of choice the only Table 3.2 of the noun noun the of Declension 3.2 Table Equative-ablative Equative-ablative Accusative Nominative Tamil Old In noun. the of class the on depends marker case ablative and ative Locative Locative Dative Genitive Genitive nominative is identical with the noun stem. However, since case markers are are markers case since However, stem. noun the with identical is nominative Sociative-instrumental Sociative-instrumental third, or instrumental-, has two case markers, each with two allo- allo- two with each morphs: markers, case two has case, instrumental-sociative or third, The case. nominative convey not need form in itsstem a noun elided, frequently causal and locative meanings. The fifth, or equative-, marked by marked case, equative-ablative or fifth, The meanings. locative and causal whereas whereas ae sae o Tml Is rdmnn fnto i t mr te bet f an of object the mark to is function predominant Its Tamil. of stages into survive later not did marker characteristic its that in Tamil Old to ispeculiar -m, Traditional Tamil grammar recognises eight cases, labelled serially with with serially labelled cases, eight recognises grammar Tamil Traditional The nominative, or first case is formally unmarked; hence a noun in the the in noun a hence unmarked; formally is case first or nominative, The (pura friendship-euph-dat friendship-euph-dat api-u (pura natp-ir-ku ‘forfriendship’ -otul-ötu 246.10) consists of the plural noun noun plural of the consists 246.10) frequently expresses a sociative meaning, meaning, sociative a expresses frequently -otul-ötu eti (aink21\3) pent-ir woman-pl ‘women’ and and -änl-äl. 236.6) 236.6) -êm Both markers convey an instrumental meaning but but meaning instrumental an convey markers Both ‘we’. While it would thus seem that Old Tamil Tamil Old that seem thus would it While ‘we’. b. malar-atu malar-ai malar malar-in malar-il,malar-kän,etc. malar-kku malar-otu,malar-ötu, malar-än,malar-äl malar ‘flower’ pent-ir woman-pl-dat woman-pl-dat ‘for the women’ ‘for the eti-k (aka pent-ir-kku ‘women’ and the first person first person the and ‘women’ pent-ir-êm -änl-äl ‘we (are) wom­ (are) ‘we 98.22) often has has often Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 fifth case are causal, instrumental and locative. Locative is expressed by the the by expressed is Locative locative. and instrumental causal, are case fifth of the functions Other by postpositions. is assumed this function Tamil In Modem (4) noun, the is marked by lengthening the final vowel, deleting the the deleting vowel, final the lengthening by marked is case vocative the noun, case suffix suffix case final consonant or adding the clitic the adding or consonant final equation (‘like, as’). (‘like, equation rmaiaie frs f aiu nus ih lctv maig e.g. meaning, locative a with nouns various of forms grammaticalised meaning of another. For example, in (5) the fifth case marker marker case fifth the (5) in example, For another. of meaning object, a function usually reserved for the second case suffix suffix case second the for reserved usually function a object, may indicate case marker deletion. In (6) the noun noun the (6) In deletion. marker case indicate may pends on noun class. While While class. noun on pends nals the source of motion from which the ablative case marker has been deleted. been has marker case ablative the which from of motion source the nals in (7)it sig­ while deleted been has marker case dative the which from of motion it. Sandhi changes, such as a doubling of the initial stop of the following word, word, following the of stop initial the of doubling a as to such assigned changes, syntactically Sandhi it. been has case though even form occurs oblique noun or the so that stem its in deleted often are alike markers plural and markers Case (5) kankal (6) arivi (7) ‘place’, nal nouns as a double plural suffix, plural double a as nouns nal Old Tamil has four plural suffixes, suffixes, plural four has Tamil Old (pura ‘women ‘women ‘girl’> Traditional Tamil grammar sanctions the use of one case marker with the the with marker case one of use the sanctions grammar Tamil Traditional wmn > ‘woman’ 342.15). In Late Old Tamil Tamil Old Late In 342.15). ‘eyes’ ‘eyes’ u ü. clkm (aink cel-kam ür.c num (kali nizal vit-äa ninn-in u ür.. a-l rv (amk25\3-A) aruvi var-al ... r ü num ecc-b walk-npst-euph-3sf peacock-abl ai-n olku-v-an-af mayil-in o-b laengan shadow leave-neg+adn you-abl o(b)pae go-npst+lpl place you(obl) ‘She walks like a peacock.’ a like walks ‘She o(b)pae oev waterfall come-vn place you(obl) pen-kal ‘the shadow which does not leave you’ leave not does which shadow ‘the ‘we are going to your place’ your to going are ‘we ‘the waterfall which comes from your place’ your from comes which waterfall ‘the kal (aink ‘proximity’, -il 271.3), girls’, 271.3), or by one of more than twenty postpositions. These latter are are latter These postpositions. twenty than more of one by or (kali ‘girls’ arivi.y-ar 2.2,teohrtre cu ny ihrtoa on, e.g. nouns, rational with only occur three other the 29.42), (cila akam ‘women’ 30.50), and together with the plural suffixes of ratio­ of suffixes plural the with together and 30.50), -kal tannai ‘interiority’. Depending on the phonology of the the of phonology the on Depending ‘interiority’. occurs with non-rational nouns, e.g. nouns, non-rational with occurs ...... ‘elder brother’ > brother’ ‘elder -kal -ê. e.g.pent-ir-kal kl -ar -kal, (pati 236.4) also occurs with rational nouns, nouns, rational with occurs also (aka 68.19), 68.19), 158.5) 61.8) - , r -mär, ir, pentu ür ‘women, girls’ ‘women, tannai-mär ‘place’ indicates the goal goal the indicates ‘place’ wmn il > girl’ ‘woman, whose distribution de­ distribution whose -ai. ‘elder brothers’ brothers’ ‘elder -in L AI 81 TAMIL OLD marks direct direct marks (äeär kan ‘eye’ > ‘eye’ e.g. pen pent-ir 99.1). kan

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 not gender. The first person plural, however, distinguishes an inclusive plural, plural, inclusive an distinguishes however, plural, person first The gender. not matantai Table 3.3. Table First pronouns Personal 3.3 Table uhdul lrl wt ainlnusocrgnrlyi ideTml e.g. Tamil, Middle in generally occur nouns rational with double Such Third See not. does which plural, exclusive an from addressee, the includes which There are also two interrogative stems, stems, interrogative two also are There but number, and person mark pronouns Personal pronouns. indefinite and ative, OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 2 8 eodnï Second demonstrative stems: proximal proximal stems: demonstrative Table 3.4 Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns interrogative and Demonstrative 3.4 Table in Table noted as gender, and number distinguish which suffixes son pronominal per­ third stems to these adding by is formed of pronouns A range stems. strative SINGULAR 3.4. PLURAL non-rational forms: the non-rational pronoun non-rational the forms: non-rational and rational distinguish pronouns Indefinite pronouns. person third with varying the relational categories of complementation and nominalisation. They are also also are They nominalisation. and complementation of categories relational the female person’ and and person’ female marked for negative polarity. Old Tamil verb forms are syntactically classified classified syntactically are forms verb Tamil Old polarity. negative for marked with three rational pronouns pronouns rational three with s iie nnfnt ad oiaie, ae o hi snatc ucin n the in function syntactic their on based nominalised, and non-finite finite, as etrit/.-uut/.-uat/.k uyä-tu/yä.v-atu a-tu/a. k- tu u-tu/u.k-tu i.v-ar i-tu/i.k-tu Epicene i.v-al Neuter Feminine etri.v-ai Neuter i.v-an Masculine Old Tamil has three kinds of pronouns: personal, demonstrative and interrog­ and demonstrative personal, of pronouns: kinds three has Tamil Old Old Tamil demonstrative pronouns mark a three-way distinction with three three with distinction three-way a mark pronouns demonstrative Tamil Old Most often demonstrative pronouns function as anaphoric pronouns, freely freely pronouns, anaphoric as function pronouns demonstrative often Most Verbs are marked for illocutionary force, tense, subject-verb agreement, and and agreement, subject-verb tense, force, illocutionary for marked are Verbs ‘woman’ > ‘woman’ rxml eil Distal Medial Proximal yän, nänyän, tän Singular oru.v-ar matantai.y-ar-kal (peri matantai.y-ar-kal ‘one person’ (epicene). person’ ‘one oru.v-an/ottan i- u.v-an u.v-al u.v-ai u.v-ar ‘this’, distal yä- and and 65.4). ‘some male person’, person’, male ‘some a- e onru ‘yon’ and intermediate ‘yon’intermediate and a.v-an a.v-af a.v-ai a.v-ar -, which pattern like the demon­ the like -, pattern which Plural yäm (exclusive) yäm nlr,nlyir näm (inclusive) näm täm ‘one, something’ contrasts contrasts something’ ‘one, yä.v-an yä.v-al yär yä.v-ai/yä Interrogative oru-tti u- ‘some ‘that’. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 nominalised verbs have both positive and negative forms. Table 3.5 shows forms forms 3.5shows forms. Table negative and both positive have verbs nominalised forms indicative three, illocutionary these Of by indicative. and classified optative are imperative, verbs into Finite force construction. verb compound a verb first in the or clause embedded an of predicate the as function they structures: Table 3.5 Imperative and optative forms of the verb verb the of forms optative and Imperative 3.5 Table allomorphs. with optative, and imperative the of and non-finite Finite, subject. of the gender person, third in the and, number son, complex in role important an play verbs nominalised and Non-finite sentence. Negative per­ the marks which agreement, subject-verb and tense for marked overtly are meaieolir,olir-äy Imperative functions as an imperative, in which case an irregular verb like like verb irregular an case which in imperative, an as functions Optative imperative these suffixes are indifferent to number. And, on occasion, second person indic­ person second occasion, on And, to number. indifferent are suffixes these nological level. First, positive indicative verbs may directly mirror this tripartite tripartite this mirror directly may verbs indicative positive First, level. nological pho­ at the possibilities structural four are There realisation. phonological verb’s variation. allomorphic rich displaying ry, a stem alternant (viz. vä), second person suffixes are added to the stem. Some of of Some stem. to the added are suffixes person second (viz.vä), alternant stem a 63.12). The optative occurs in all persons; there are five suffixes for catego­ this for suffixes five are there persons; in all occurs optative The 63.12). Second, positive indicative forms may also include a euphonic particle - an an - particle euphonic a include also may forms indicative positive Second, (8) morphemes. three the for morphs three with structure the in however, reflected, always not is structure tripartite This ending. sonal in as imperative, as interpreted are forms ative hr, es ad ujc-eb gemn my e akd y single a by marked be may agreement subject-verb and tense Third, tense the after or suffix. before - increment inflectional an as serves that morph empty 9 a. (9) Imperatives are correlated with the second person; unless a verb stem itself itself stem verb a unless person; second the with correlated are Imperatives Positive indicative verbs consist of three parts: stem, tense marker and per­ and marker tense stem, parts: three of consist verbs indicative Positive do-pst-3sm e--n (kali cey-t-än ‘(he) did’ ‘(he) do-pst-euph-2s do-pst-euph-2s (aink cey-t-an-ai ‘(you) did’‘(you) lra,oi-l lraiolir-an-min olir-ati olir-ël, olir-al, Singular 51.16) 243 b. 294.3) olir-mati,olir-min,olir-m oiir-i, olir-iya, olir-iyar,oiir-i,olir-iya,olir-ka,olir-mö Singular/Plural do-euph-npst- lpl do-euph-npst- ‘(we) do’ ‘(we) e-uva (amk cey-ku-v-am va-nt-ai olir ‘come-pst-2s’ ‘come-pst-2s’ ‘shine’ varu L AI 83 8 TAMIL OLD 288.2) ‘come’ has has ‘come’ (kali

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 portmanteau morph. portmanteau (10) DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 4 8 filled by a pleonastic element, an expletive suffix, and the person it denotes is is denotes it person marker the and suffix, agreement expletive an subject-verb element, the pleonastic a for by slot filled the instances some in Finally, interpreted according to context, e.g. as first person singular in (11).in singular person first as e.g. context, to according interpreted (11) particular tense suffix. One class of verbs realises the past tense by doubling the the doubling by tense past the realises of verbs class One suffix. tense particular relatively rich allomorphy. Old Tamil has two tenses, past and non-past. There There non-past. and past tenses, two has Tamil a Old have allomorphy. rich endings relatively personal the and tense suffixes, inflectional various the Among tense, -v-,- tense, tense forms emerge and the inherited non-past assumes the function of the future future of the function the assumes non-past inherited the and emerge forms tense e.g. stem, touched’ verb the of syllable final the in consonant tense. There are two suffixes for the innovated present tense, tense, present innovated the for suffixes two are There tense. are five allomorphs for past tense, tense, past for allomorphs five are ‘come-prs-euph-3sf’ ‘she comes’ comes’ ‘she ‘come-prs-euph-3sf’ var-äninr-an-al inTamil, Old appear first they Tamil, Modem and in Middle flourish they While phrastic constructions (see Steever 1989, 1993: 167ff). The suffix suffix 167ff). 1993:The 1989, Steever (see constructions phrastic tribution is conditioned by the preceding tense or euphonic suffix, as noted in Ta­ as noted suffix, or euphonic tense bypreceding the is conditioned tribution verb verb suffix durative non-finite the of consists ically ble 3.6. All personal endings except the third person neuter have two two have neuter person third the except endings personal All 3.6. ble those with long vowels predominate in Late Old Tamil, making this one possible possible one this making Old Tamil, in Late predominate vowels long with those phs which realise both tense and subject-verb agreement in a single morph (Ta­ morph single a in agreement subject-verb and tense both realise which phs Tamil. Old Late and Early into language the while subdividing for criterion Tamil Old Early in predominate vowels short with those notes, (1983) ble 3.7). In such instances, the tense morpheme is always non-past. For example, example, For non-past. is always morpheme tense the 3.7). such In instances, ble Akattiyalinkam As vowel. long a with one and short a with one allomorphs, ment, as in as ment, ‘join-prs-adn’ ‘due to joining’ to ‘duejoining’ ‘join-prs-adn’ logically through verb inflection, lexically by means of negative verb stems or stems verb negative of means by lexically inflection, verb through logically -ku A system of three tenses develops in Middle Tamil when a series of present present of series a when Tamil Middle in develops tenses three of system A Personal endings of verbs have up to four allomorphs in Old Tamil; their dis­ their Tamil; Old in allomorphs four to up have verbs of endings Personal Negation is expressed exclusively by verb forms in Old Tamil, either morpho­ either in forms Old Tamil, by verb exclusively isexpressed Negation Characteristic of Old Tamil is the number of portmanteau, or cumulative, mor­ or cumulative, of is portmanteau, of number Old the Tamil Characteristic iutnosy xrse nnps tne n frt esn iglr agree­ singular person first and tense non-past expresses simultaneously nil do-npst+3s e.-m (aink cey.y-um come-pst-expl an-cn (pati va-nt-icin ‘(it) will do’ ‘(it)will ‘Icame’ ‘stand’ while while ‘stand’ (kali p ëttu-ku -, 55.19). -pp-. ‘(I) praise’ ‘(I)praise’ These are lexically conditioned so that a verb stem selects a selects stem verb a so that conditioned lexically are These -kinr- 244.4) 64.15) is historically the past stem of of stem past the ishistorically (pari (kali 40.9). 22.35). Diachronically, both forms are peri­ are forms both Diachronically, 22.35). t, n- -n, i, -tt -i-, -in-, -nt-, -t-, -ä and the past stem stem past the and (aink totu -, and three for non-past non-past for three and -, 397.3) and and 397.3) tuh > ‘touch’ kil ‘be able’. ‘be -äninr- -äninr- nin-ru tot.t-än and and cêr-kinr-a histor­ of the of -kinr-. ‘he

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Table 3.6 Pronominal suffixes Pronominal 3.6 Table First Third: Masculine -an, -än, -ön-än, -an, Masculine Third: First aaim e.g. paradigm, Third suffixes Cumulative 3.7 Table Second two lexical negative verbs, verbs, negative lexical two tense suffix occurs. Due to this complementarity, negative verbs never mark mark never verbs suffix negative The complementarity, tense. this to Due occurs. suffix tense three negative allomorphs, - allomorphs, negative three know’ know’ = ‘(he) doesn’t know’ doesn’t ‘(he) = didn’t/doesn’t/won’t come’, while the zero morph occurs everywhere else in the in the else everywhere occurs morph zero the while come’, didn’t/doesn’t/won’t cur in finite forms between the verb stem and personal ending, that is, where the the where is, that ending, personal and stem verb the between forms in cur finite syntactically with constructions. For verb inflection there are are there inflection verb For constructions. verb auxiliary with syntactically Second hump’ = ‘(they) didn’t come’ come’ didn’t ‘(they) = hump’ tutos Te myocrbudt h se o h mi eb e.g. verb, main the of stem the to bound occur may They structions. odtoa ad doia frs Te ufxs o te ojntv ad the and conjunctive the for suffixes The forms. adnominal and conditional the verb stem or, rarely, to the tensed stem. Secondary forms are generated by generated are forms Secondary stem. tensed to the tosuffix a rarely, or, adding stem by verb the generated are forms non-finite Primary forms. verb finite formation (Steever 1988). Here the main verb marks tense and the auxiliary ne­ auxiliary the and tense marks verb verb main the serial 1988).a Here in verb (Steever main the formation of form finite a with combine also may become’ verb, in which case past tense is conveyed, e.g. is conveyed, tense past in case which verb, 233.1) and and 233.1) gation, e.g. e.g. gation, and occur only with copular and existential functions. existential and copular with only occur and adding a clitic to a primary non-finite form. Both are illustrated in Table 3.8. in Table illustrated are Both form. non-finite primary a to clitic a adding ‘live-be.not-3sf’ = ‘(she) doesn’t live’ doesn’t ‘(she) = ‘live-be.not-3sf’ Non-finite verbs in Old Tamil are classified as primary and secondary non- non- secondary and primary as classified are Tamil Old in verbs Non-finite Importantly, they also function as negative auxiliaries in compound verb con­ verb in compound auxiliaries negative as function also they Importantly, Old Tamil has four primary non-finite verb forms: the conjunctive, infinitive, infinitive, conjunctive, the forms: verb non-finite primary four has Tamil Old (aka Feminine Epicene Neuter 98.6). varu-v-ai all-ai varu-v-ai r-ta-l all-af ari-nt-an-al vâr-ën -ä- -tu,-ttu, -atu -öl -äl, -al, -ai, -äy, -öy -äy, -ai, Singular -en, -ën, -al, -an -al, -ën, -en, -ku/-kku -ti,-tti -urn Singular cus ny n h tid esn etr e.g. neuter, person third the in only occurs ‘I didn’t/don’t/won’t come’ come’ didn’t/don’t/won’t ‘I (pura ‘come-npst-2s not.be-2s’ = ‘(you) don’t come’ come’ don’t ‘(you) = not.be-2s’ ‘come-npst-2s al 310.6), or freely after a non-finite form of the main main the of form non-finite a after or freely 310.6), ät ‘not be/become’ and and ‘not be/become’ -, (pari ‘know-pst-euph-3sf not.be-3sf’ = ‘(she) didn’t didn’t ‘(she) = not.be-3sf’ ‘know-pst-euph-3sf -ä- and a zero morph. - morph. azero and 9.25). Further, the negative auxiliary auxiliary negative the Further, 9.25). (aka 12.4), pcn -ar,-är,-ör Epicene va-nt-il-ar il unn-il-an (pati ‘not be’. Both are defective defective are ‘not Both be’. ä - and the zero morph oc­ morph zero -the and Plural -am, -äm, -em, -ëm -em, -äm, -am, -tum,-kum,-kam Plural -a -ir,-ïr -tir -pa, -mär-pa, -um 61.11). Old Tamil has has Tamil Old 61.11). ‘come-nfv-be.not-3pl- ‘come-nfv-be.not-3pl- ‘know-be.not-3sm’ ‘know-be.not-3sm’ L AI 85 8 TAMIL OLD vär-ä-tu väz-al-al al (aink ‘not ‘it

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Negative conjunctive Negative Conjunctive verb the of forms nominalised and Non-finite 3.8 Table doia: Past Adnominal: Conditional Infinitive Concessive conditional Concessive Equative Tensed verbal noun:verbal Past Tensed nounverbal Tenseless adnominal Negative DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 6 8 Factive concessive Factive Causal conditional have several allomorphs occurring in free variation. The infinitive infinitive The variation. free in occurring allomorphs several have conditional verbal nounNegative comprises five subtypes with various semantic functions. The adnominal form form adnominal The functions. semantic various with subtypes five comprises combine a primary form with a suffix or clitic: the causal (< conjunctive in conjunctive (< causal the clitic: or suffix a with form primary a combine has two tensed and two negative forms. The four secondary non-finite forms forms + non-finite secondary four The forms. negative two and tensed two has conditional + conditional clause, verbal nouns are inflected for case according to context. Some verbal verbal Some context. to according with those as case such for nouns, nominalised inflected a of are nouns predicate the verbal As clause, variants. five have latter The nouns. verbal ficult’ (DEDR 221), (DEDR ficult’ nominal attributes with an adjectival function. adjectival an with attributes nominal or ad­ subject as only occur as They case. or occur assign arguments neither verbal they subcategorise nor that inobject verbs or nouns like behave not do they includes first The verbs. and nouns from grammatically differ and ities three classes. Words such as such Words classes. three meaning ‘much’, are classified as adverbs. Some word forms are grammatica- grammatica- are forms word Some adverbs. as classified are ‘much’, meaning their scope is an entire phrase or clause, whose head is that noun or verb. The The verb. or noun that is head whose clause, or phrase entire an is scope their other of these properties grammatical the lacks and adjectives, and nouns verbs, mark a clause as an interrogative one; and and one; interrogative an as clause a mark clitic clitic form ttu conjunctive the e.g. meaning, lexical a particular with adverbs as lised but not adjectives. Although they morphologically combine with a noun or verb, verb, or noun a with combine morphologically they Although adjectives. not but ‘big’ (DEDR 4411). Morphologically, these are uninflected words; syntactically, syntactically, words; uninflected are these Morphologically, 4411). ‘big’(DEDR ena Nominalised verb forms or verbal nouns are divided into tensed and tenseless tenseless and intotensed divided are nouns verbal or forms verb Nominalised The second and smaller set of uninflected words occurs only as attributes of of attributes as only occurs words uninflected of set smaller and second The qual­ various encode semantically that words of sets small two has Tamil Old from from Old Tamil has several which may be added to noun and verbal forms, forms, verbal and noun to added be may which clitics several has Tamil Old ), the equative (< conjunctive in (< conjunctive equative ),the =um

azi

‘and’ co-ordinates noun phrases and non-finite clauses; clauses; non-finite and phrases noun co-ordinates ‘and’

‘finish’ idiomatically means ‘again’. means idiomatically ‘finish’ Non-past =um)

Non-past and the factive concessive (< infinitive + infinitive (< concessive factive the and

nal

‘good’ (DEDR 3610 ‘good’ (DEDR -pu, uru never mark case. mark never (DEDR 711), 711), (DEDR -ntu olir-ä,olir-ü,olir-ntu, olir-pu oiir-nt-a olir-iyar,oiir-iya,olir-ä,olir-mär, olir-vän oiir-ä-tu,olir-ä,olir-ä-mai olir-ä-mal, oiir-nt-änku olir-ä,olir-ä-ta oiir-um oiir-in,olir-nt-äl oiir-v-atu oiir-nt-a-mai,olir-nt-atu olir-kai,olir-tal,olir-al,olir-pu, olir-vu olir-a.v-um oiir-in-um,olir-nt-äl-um oiir-nt-ena olir-ä-mai + ê - ),putu änku ‘even’ indicates emphasis. indicates ‘even’ nani ), the concessive conditional (< conditional concessive ), the ‘new’ (DEDR 4275) and 4275) (DEDR ‘new’ and and tava olir (DEDR 3106), all 3106), (DEDR

=um). ‘shine’ =ö and and aru ‘dif­ peru =kol -ntu azi-

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 preceding it. Auxiliaries follow a main verb in a compound construction which which construction compound a in verb main a follow Auxiliaries it. preceding Syntax 3.4 head-final languages. As head of a clause, a verbal predicate generally occurs occurs generally predicate verbal a clause, a of head As languages. head-final (15) verbal NP arguments and the clause-final verbal predicate. Similarly, the nom­ the Similarly, predicate. verbal clause-final the and arguments NP verbal adjoined clause and must therefore be the final element in a clause. Old Tamil Tamil Old clause. a in element final the be therefore must and clause or adjoined embedded an of end the mark instance, for verbs, of Non-finite position. in final properties general the displays languages, Dravidian other like Tamil, Old is derived from a structure in which the main verb is a complement of the auxil­ the of complement a is verb main the in which structure a from isderived types of modifier is morphologically marked in any way; they function as adjec­ as function they way; any in marked ismorphologically modifier of types In noun phrases the nominal head element may be modified at the word level by level word at the modified be may element head nominal the phrases In noun Compound and Phrase clauses. main precede clauses dependent and Subordinate 1983). (Steever iary modifiers and attributes adnominal all with finally occurs NPs of head inal pre­ the between relation semantic the express these since postpositions has also tival attributes simply by juxtaposition, as the following examples show. examples following the as by juxtaposition, simply attributes tival The attributive noun phrase is either marked for , marked with the the with marked case, genitive for marked either is phrase noun attributive The a verb in root form, a noun in stem form and an adjective. None of these three three these of None adjective. an and form stem in noun a form, root in verb a Whereas an attributive noun phrase marked for genitive case always has a pos- a has always case genitive for marked phrase noun attributive an Whereas [Adj (14) [NN] (13) [VN] (12) Such uninflected modifiers may occur in any order. any in occur may modifiers uninflected Such inflectional increment increment inflectional At the phrase level, a noun phrase may function as an adnominal attribute. attribute. adnominal an as function may phrase noun a level, phrase the At peru Adj big aa ä (aka näy vaya (aka garland be.wide tär malar a m (mk22\3) (am mä nal good mango mango good dog strength 'big, ‘good mango’ ‘good ‘strong dog’ ‘strong garland’ ‘wide N] np cheerful, matar V be.cheerful np np cool -in ma'?ai.k N N coolness 82.18) r cus nakd n t olqe r tm form. stem or oblique its in unmarked occurs or eyes' 182.5)

kal) eye (kuri 248) L AI 87 8 TAMIL OLD Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 crement crement sessive or partitive function, one that is either unmarked or marked with the in­ the with marked or unmarked either is that one function, partitive or sessive DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 8 8 1) a. (16) namely incorporation. In such a case two adjacent syntactic elements, the mod­ the elements, syntactic adjacent two case a such In incorporation. namely retaining their separate syntactic functions. Thus in the relative construction N construction relative the in Thus functions. syntactic separate their retaining noun. Recall from the earlier example example participial a earlier as the from known Recall noun. commonly form word a in resulting PRO, head nominal while collocated morphologically are NP, the of head pronominal the and ifier that the head pronominal element element pronominal head the that ari.y-um. pro­ the incorporates S' clause relative the of predicate verbal the PRO, =>[S'] ticipial noun may realise the same syntactic structure. First, an adnominal verb verb adnominal an First, structure. syntactic same the realise may noun ticipial par­ of the variants distinct four morphologically verb, adnominal of the form the nistne rngtv tmicroae rnmnlsfi, e.g. suffix, pronominal a incorporates verb a stem Second, negative or example. tensed its in preceding the in as suffix, pronominal a incorporates putu.v-ör pronominal head, yielding a word form called an appellative or personal noun, noun, personal or appellative an called form word a yielding head, pronominal know’ as suffix, pronominal a rates with the non-past suffix non-past the with rcs srcrie in recursive; is process shoulders’ (broad) with (narri 46. ial, n detv my noprt a rnmnl ed rslig in e.g. resulting noun, head, adjectival an pronominal called a been incorporate has what may adjective an Finally, 64.6). rmt dmntaie rnu, as pronoun, demonstrative remote a the adjective adjective the e.g. know’ not do who Ί, ‘know-neg-ls’, good’ head head verbs discussed in section 3.5. These constructions consist of a lexical verb V] verb lexical a of consist constructions These 3.5. section in discussed verbs Vq => constructions, verb ones’. If the head of a NP is pronominal, a special kind of compounding occurs, occurs, compounding of kind special a pronominal, is NP a of head the If nte tutr P= [P PO a atiuie onprs icroae a incorporates phrase noun attributive an PRO, [NP]=> NP structure the In Verbs combine with each other to form several types of syntactic compound compound syntactic of types several form to other each with combine Verbs ‘bow-3sm’, ‘he with the bow’ the with ‘he ‘bow-3sm’, vill-an -ttu 309.7). And fourth, a verb in its tensed or negative stem form incorporates incorporates form stem or negative in its tensed a verb fourth, And 309.7). (kali (kali c. -in Depending both on the form and person of the pronominal head and on and head pronominal of the person and form onthe both Depending ‘3sn’, giving rise to rise giving ‘3sn’, ‘new ones’. This intermediate form in turn incorporates the pronominal pronominal the form in turn incorporates intermediate This ones’. ‘new 39.30) and 39.30) oic krl (aink kural koticci function. appositive or equative locative, a have additionally can äaa. kn (kali kan tämarai.k 125.3). girl voice girl lotus eye eye lotus ‘the girl’s voice’ voice’ girl’s ‘the ‘eye like a lotus’ a like ‘eye putu ‘new’ incorporates the pronominal head head pronominal the incorporates ‘new’ peri.y-an (aka putu.v-ör-ttu -(u)n \ Y 82.18), + V2, which are distinct from the lexical compound compound lexical the from distinct + are V2, which putu.v-ör-ttu wihocr ol i hs osrcin incorpo­ construction, this in only occurs which , ari.y-un-ar ‘great-3sm’, ‘he who is great’ great’ is who ‘he ‘great-3sm’, 291 b. 289.1) 3.) d. 39.2) -ön küntal-äy ‘the one with the new ones’ ones’ new the with one ‘the (kali ari.y-um-ön s noprtdb te doia form adnominal the by incorporated is ari-p-avar 37.19). Third, a verb in its stem form stem its in verb a Third, 37.19). ‘new-3pl-3sn’, ‘the one with the new new the with one ‘the ‘new-3pl-3sn’, ko-pt3o’ ‘e h knows’ who ‘he ‘know-npst-3hon’, (aka ‘hair-2s’, ‘you, with the hair’ hair’ ‘you,the with ‘hair-2s’, äa aci kur A) ^A ru u (k mancai käna oe food honey peacock forest ë pl (aink pali tëm ‘the peacock in the forest’ forest’ the in peacock ‘the ‘the food which is honey’ is which food ‘the 48.12), 48.12), nall-äy ‘know-npst-they’, ‘they who who ‘they ‘know-npst-they’, ‘he who knows’ ‘he who knows’ ‘good-2s’ ‘you who are are who ‘you ‘good-2s’ tôl-ën -ör sole-s, ‘I, ‘shoulder-Is’, ‘3pl’, resulting in ‘3pl’,resulting (aka 259.4) 259.4) (kuru (pura 100.2). The 100.2).The ari.y-ât-ën 385.7), 137.4)

(kali

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 patu verbs which function non-lexically in this context. The passive auxiliary verb verb auxiliary passive The context. this in non-lexically function which verbs lexical V2- are verb auxiliaries auxiliary These to context. according an inflected by form - a bound followed often form, infinitive or conjunctive stem, its in verb verb be.able-npst-ls’, ‘I am able to hide’ tohide’ ‘Iable am be.able-npst-ls’, function of Old Tamil auxiliary verbs is not well understood today. Subrahman- Subrahman- today. understood well isnot verbs auxiliary Tamil Old of function tered’ tered’ sense. verbs special the are any without Examples used are they that claims even 152) (1934: Sastri ya e.g. verb, main the of form stem the it governs auxiliary; al e.g. The subject of a clause is a NP in the . While there are dative- dative- are there While case. nominative the in NP a is clause a of subject The phrase in the nominative case. Only a few examples may be cited which are are which cited be may examples few a Only case. nominative the in phrase tm om fte anvr, e.g. verb, main the of form stem probable instances of a dative-subject construction, as in (17).in as construction, dative-subject a of instances probable a noun always isalmost a clause of subject the that of reveals inspection corpus Old Tamil the proto-language, the to projected be might construction a such that Simple Sentence Simple e.g. subject constructions in many Dravidian languages, including Modem Tamil, so Tamil, Modem including languages, Dravidian in many constructions subject The predicate may be verbal or nominal. A nominal predicate may occur alone occur may predicate nominal A nominal. or verbal be may predicate The (17) (18) or with the copular verb verb copular the with or (18) in predicate position so that they incorporate a pronominal head coreferential coreferential head pronominal a incorporate they that so position predicate in but first pronominalised must be as predicates, function baldly cannot Adjectives (18) (19) with the subject. the with ‘experience, suffer’, for example, governs the infinitive of the main verb, verb, main the of infinitive the governs example, for suffer’, ‘experience, va-nt-ï-m en-a.p patu-tal en-a.p kil ö.. nùu ku (kali äk-um anaùku töl... (amk piti. turukal i-k- aiyu-f (narri ari.y-un-af nin-akk-ö (kali ‘be able’ is the only verb that functions with its literal meaning as amod­ as meaning its with literal functions that is only verb the able’ ‘be o-a-n know-npst-3sf you-dat-int stone female, elephant female, stone hudr ites be-npst+3sn distress shoulder ‘Do you know her (lit.: is she one known to you)?’ to known one she is(lit.: her know ‘Doyou ‘The stone (is) a female elephant.’ female a (is) stone ‘The ‘(Your) shoulder ... is a distress (to me).’ (to distress a is ... shoulder ‘(Your) 40.32), while while 40.32), ‘come-cnj-bestow-imp’, ‘come’ ‘come-cnj-bestow-imp’, syifeprec-o’ ‘en said’ ‘being ‘say-inf-experience-nom’, taru I 239.2) 239.2) occurs after the conjunctive form of the main verb, verb, main the of form conjunctive the after occurs ‘give’, äku ‘eoe (19). ‘become’ puku-ta-nt-än itu (kali ‘put’ and ‘put’and 44.5) 44.5) 56.50-52) 56.50-52) 39.40). In most instances, however, the the however, instances, In 39.40). most (aka etrgv-s-s’ ‘h) en­ ‘(he) ‘enter-give-pst-3sm’, I ‘bestow’, ‘bestow’, 218.22). taru kara-kir-p-en (kuru occurs after the the after occurs L AI 89 8 TAMIL OLD 263.5). The The 263.5). ‘hide- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 jectives, as in (22); otherwise agreement is restricted to the category of number. number. of category to the is restricted agreement otherwise (22);in as jectives, OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 0 9 Predicates agree with their subjects in person, number and gender. In the case case the In gender. and number person, in subjects their with agree Predicates of verbal predicates, only finite verbs are marked for subject-predicate subject-predicate for marked are verbs finite only predicates, verbal of (20) Predicate nominals show full agreement only for pronominalised nouns and ad­ and nouns for pronominalised only agreement full show nominals Predicate (21) agreement. number, as in (23).in as number, for plural is NP not marked subject the since unmarked goes this often However, ject but the verbal predicate of a clause as well. Thanks to subject-predicate subject-predicate to Thanks well. as clause a of predicate verbal the but ject (22) nominal predicate. The complex sentence in (24) illustrates both possibilities: possibilities: both illustrates (24) in sentence complex The predicate. nominal (23) both the subject subject the both or ob­ subject not the just deleted, be can element sentence any constraints, other of the main clause are deleted, leaving tell-tale agreement features on their their on features agreement tell-tale leaving predicates. deleted, respective are clause main the of The direct object of a transitive construction may also be deleted. be also may construction transitive a of object direct The a or verbal a with clause a in omitted be readily can NP subject the agreement, (24) (25) Due to the poetical nature of of the nature poetical the to Due annai äm.. ui-m (aka uyir-am. r ...ö m yä na tnm mlin-n (aink malai-nt-än. tänum0 ennai \ nall-al \0 0 passion great-3sn great-3sn passion 18.5) (kuru per.i-tu kämam mother know-pst-euph-3sf know-pst-euph-3sf mother ‘Passion (is) a great thing.’ great a (is) ‘Passion pleasure rare-3pln rare-3pln pleasure we one breath-1 breath-1 pi one we inpam (it).’ knew ... ‘Mother ‘We (are) of one breath.’ one of (are) ‘We ylr eic wear-pst-3sm he-incl lord my ‘Pleasures (are) rare (things).’ rare (are) ‘Pleasures ‘(They) say that (she) (is) (a) good woman.’ good (a) (is) (she) that say ‘(They) ‘My lord himself also wore (it = a garment of leaves).’ of garment a (it = wore also himself ‘Mylord ...... good-3sf say-npst+3pl-hum say-npst+3pl-hum good-3sf r-ta-! {aink ari-nt-an-a! aval r.-. (aka2A0) ari.y-a. ‘she’ of the embedded clause and the subject subject the and clause embedded the of ‘she’ ...] ...] np. (aink en-pa. 12.4-5) 12.4-5) 236.1 ) Cankam

204.4) corpus, which imposes metrical and and metrical imposes which corpus, 201.1-2) 201.1-2) avar ‘they’ Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 declarative sentence. declarative interrogative clitics clitics interrogative (26) may occupy any position to the left of the predicate. As a rule, the predicate gen­ predicate the a rule, As of predicate. the left to the position any occupy may (27) question word in a question. a in word question may for stylistic reasons be moved to the right of sentence-final finite verb. In verb. finite sentence-final of right the to moved be reasons stylistic for may stems interrogative two the of one with marked logically (29) a with co-occur may marks clitics interrogative three the of one Optionally, 2) a. (28) nite clause; moreover, the subject NP NP subject the moreover, clause; fi­ the over nite ispostposed clause non-finite the (31) In Tamil. Old of in the usage poetic relaxed isoften boundary, clause right a it marks a of right because the verb, to non-finite postposed being adjuncts and arguments against constraint The erally stands at the end of the sentence. However, any NP or adverbial adjunct adjunct adverbial or NP any However, sentence. the of end the at stands erally (30) verb. finite the over ispostposed NP locative the (30) also postposed over its non-finite predicate. itsnon-finite over postposed also Any sentence element, nominal or verbal, can be marked with any of the three of three the any with marked be can or verbal, nominal element, sentence Any Question words are formed by means of an interrogative pro-form, morpho­ pro-form, interrogative an of means by formed are words Question Old Tamil word order is relatively free: argument NPs and adverbial adjuncts adjuncts adverbial and NPs argument free: isrelatively order word Tamil Old ö-k vzn-n aa mr-n (kali märp-in] [avan vïz-nt-ên pöy-äka (aka cey-k=ö en yän t-= nn eml (aka cemmal nin itu-v=ö ret redhp know-npst-3spl=int friendship priest vêlan vêlan hsit or greatness your this=int I what do-npst+ls=int do-npst+ls=int what I b. deceit-adv fall-pst-ls he-obl breast-loc breast-loc he-obl fall-pst-ls deceit-adv ‘Is this your greatness?’ your ‘Isthis friendship?’ know priest the ‘Does ‘What shall I do?’ I shall ‘What ‘I fell on his breast in a deceitful manner.’ deceitful a in breast his on ‘Ifell ku ta evn eä (kali perän e-van ottan iktu vr yä-r ivar these.people who-nom who-nom these.people get-neg-3sm what someone this ‘What did this person not get?’ not person this did ‘What ‘Who are these people?’ these are ‘Who ...... kênmai =ö , ...... -kol ari.y-um=ö ...... or or 50.14) o om ysn qeto fo a from question yes-no a form to =kol.l=ö ( pur a 306.9) ...... tinai 201.1 ) mle’ fte o-iie lue is clause non-finite the of ‘millet’ (aink 61.1) 241.2-4) 241.2-4) 37.12) e- (28a) or or (28a) L AI 91 9 TAMIL OLD yä- (28b). wh-

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 2 9 (31) head NP from its normally adjacent modifier. Although the NP NP the Although modifier. adjacent a its normally from NP separate head even can movements word stylistic Tamil, Old of usage poetic the In verb form it combines with and moved from its conventional position to the the to position conventional its from moved and with combines it form verb (32) is the head of a relative clause, it has been separated from the adnominal adnominal the from separated been has it clause, relative a of head the is (32) The formation of complex sentences in Old Tamil always involves embedding embedding involves always Tamil Old in sentences complex of formation The sentence. the of end lmn lue sa doia opeeto sanmnlsdcas. Oth­ clause. nominalised a as or complement adnominal an as clause, plement Complex Sentence Complex (32) or adjoining. A clause may be embedded in a sentence as an adverbial or com­ or adverbial an as sentence a in embedded be may clause A adjoining. or clauses; only two or more non-finite clauses may be conjoined. be may clauses finite non-finite two of more or two only co-ordination no clauses; however, is, There sentence. that of complement The basic strategy is to use non-finite and nominalised verb forms to mark the the mark to forms verb nominalised and non-finite use to is strategy basic The erwise a clause is adjoined to another sentence as an adverbial or conjunctive conjunctive or adverbial an as sentence another to adjoined is clause a erwise concept such as conditionality or cause. or conditionality as such concept end of an embedded or adjoined clause. Some non-finite verbs that function function that verbs non-finite Some clause. adjoined or embedded an of end adverbially, such as the conditional or causative form, express one particular particular one express form, causative or conditional the as such adverbially, The infinitive, by contrast, expresses many semantic functions such as purpose, purpose, as such functions semantic many expresses contrast, by infinitive, The (33) time, cause, circumstance or result, as in (35).in as result, or circumstance cause, time, (34) naaa (90 sos ht l tee eatc ucin prit n Modem in persist functions semantic these all that shows (1980) Annamalai (35) Old Tamil has several strategies to mark an embedded or adjoined clause. clause. adjoined or embedded an mark to strategies several has Tamil Old OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH käntal när-um t\ när-um käntal öpp-al-ar kili m mzivzn-n] rv iapu (kuru iyamp-um aruvi vïz-nt-ena] mazai [mä pkl var-in [pakal millet ripen-cnj-caus chase-be.not-3pl parrot mini [m away.’ lwr ml-ptan ons-hn country-obl=emp go-npst-3hon smell-npst+adn flower ‘Because the millet has ripened, they will no longer chase the parrots parrots the chase longer no will they ripened, has millet the ‘Because ‘He goes to his country, where the flowers smell.’ flowers the where country, his to goes ‘He a cm-n uor fear-npst+lpl rumour come-cnd day great rain fall-cnj-cause waterfall roar-npst+adn roar-npst+adn waterfall fall-cnj-cause rain great oy euy oeif ites do-pst-3sm distress lose-inf beauty body ‘If (you) come during the day, we will be afraid of the rumours.’ the of afraid be will we day, the during come ‘If (you) ‘Because a great rain fell, the waterfall is roaring.’ is waterfall the fell, rain great a ‘Because ‘(He) gave (her) distress so that her body lost its beauty.’ its lost body her sothat distress (her) gave ‘(He) ...... aa tolai.y-a] nalam ] ...... avi nutm (aka ancu-tum kavvai cel-v-ar tinai]^ [vifai-nt-ena ...... uau cytö (aka cey-t-ön tuyarum ...... ä.= (aink nät.t=e 118.6) p (aink 254.2-4) 260.4) 42.2) 42.2) 278.13-14) 278.13-14) nätu ‘country’ in ‘country’ t1 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 (37) (36) ai s ta h ifntv in infinitive the that so Tamil Tamil eschews co-ordinate structures of two or more finite clauses. Instead, one one Instead, clauses. finite or more two of structures co-ordinate eschews Tamil language. modem Where the subjects are identical, the finite verb form governs the preceding preceding the agreement. governs form subject-verb and mood verb tense, to clause. finite respect with finite the forms a conjunctive identical, to are adjoined subjects are the conjunctive the Where in clauses non-finite more or that functions in a non-finite a non-finite in functions that marantanan concord marks thus and on it which verb depends or negative positive of form the Called form. conjunctive finite so the far, form not mentioned a particular has Old Tamil with the governing verb. In the following example, despite its finite form, form, finite its despite example, following the In verb. governing the with The The A (38) bed a clause as the complement of a noun or noun phrase. Adnominal clauses clauses Adnominal phrase. noun or noun a of complement the as clause a bed (39) include relative (40) and appositive clauses (41). clauses appositive and (40) relative include (40) it. with freely varies and ‘forgetting’, 1988) in the Dravidian languages, not a peculiarity of Tamil. Old of peculiarity a not languages, Dravidian the 1988)in To conjoin two or more propositions with temporal or non-temporal ‘and’, Old Old ‘and’, or non-temporal with temporal propositions or more two conjoin To murreccam The adnominal form, traditionally called a relative participle, is used to em­ to used is participle, relative a called traditionally form, adnominal The murreccam a!)!)ai mother '(Her) country-3sm niif-a!J ä-n mara-nt-an-an nät-an r-k vrê. (pati vâr-ên. ira-kku 'The beg-npst+ls come-neg-ls beg-npst+ls leave-pst-3sm I-obl forget-pst-euph-3sm country-3sm murreccam rat ireptan arrow pierce-pst-adn breast ‘The man of the country forgot (me) and left me.’ left and (me) forgot country the of man ‘The nrmpyn-] kanai päy-nt-a] [niram beg.’ to coming not am Ί ‘the arrow which pierced (his) breast’ (his) pierced which arrow ‘the functions as a non-finite verb, the conjunctive form form conjunctive the verb, non-finite a as functions man ... occasionally functions as a purposive infinitive. purposive a as functions occasionally mother . . . is an instance of the widespread serial verb formation (Steever (Steever formation verb serial widespread the of instance an is e!J my of in traditional grammar, it is a formally finite verb verb finite formally a is it grammar, traditional in the noy mukam face suffering looked country nokk-i look.at-cnj laugh-cnj look.at-cnj (eccam) at ta-ntu bring-cnj my -a brings evidences the continuity from the old to the the to old the from continuity the evidences 61.11) face, ...... capacity. The The capacity...... suffering nak-uu na/am beauty laughed n ït-n (aink nï-tt-ôn. en (kali 57.14) ... km:i-f-a!)-a!J take-pst-euph-3sm and and peyar-nt-o! depart-pst-3sf murreccam takes went beauty away.' ... (aink always takes the the takes always (aka 265.3-4) OLD TAMIL OLD away.' 248.14-16) 278.4-5) marantu (murru) 3 9

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 the relative clause, triggering its deletion. Old Tamil relative clauses with such with clauses relative Tamil Old deletion. its triggering clause, relative the 4 9 (41) simple verb root may occur in place of the adnominal form (42) or, occasionally, or,occasionally, (42) form adnominal of the in occur place A may root verb simple predicate. embedded inthe variations morphological certain allow gap NP an (42) in form verb nominalised a (43) the correlative strategy is used where a variety of constraints prohibit use of the of use prohibit constraints of variety a where used is strategy correlative the Old Tamil has another strategy for forming relative clauses, correlative clauses clauses correlative clauses, relative forming for strategy another has Tamil Old tial NP, marked by the interrogative stem stem interrogative the by marked NP, tial stem deictic distal the by marked NP, head demonstrative a clauses tion. Note that the correlative strategy must be used here because the subordi­ the because here used predicate be nate must strategy correlative the that Note tion. shows, (1981) Ramasamy As languages. Indo-Aryan in used widely are which e-vazi correlative In syntax. Tamil of part integral an thus is It strategy. adnominal subordinates a relative clause that contains a finite predicate and a co-referen- co-referen- a and predicate finite a contains that clause relative a subordinates In this correlative construction a finite clause is directly embedded under a head head a under embedded is directly clause a finite construction correlative In this is nominalised, taking the form of a verbal noun. verbal a of form the taking nominalised, is (44) strategy. adnominal the in used form, verb a must be embedded with a clitic such as as such clause clitic a with correlative a embedded be Tamil, must Modem in later device; embedding any without NP (45) In relative clause formation the head NP governs a co-referential NP within within NP co-referential a governs NP head the formation clause relative In When a clause functions as a noun phrase within a higher clause, as in (45), it (45), in as clause, higher a within phrase noun a as functions clause a When OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH ‘which place’ and and ‘which place’ evz nl-vr tvr avz nl-i. (pura nall-ai... a-vazi ätavar] nall-avar [e-vazi [kuvalai pnu r-ta ayä a eri-nt-a] [pantu nri cel-al] [nirai al ho-s-d fatigue throw-pst-adn ball ecc rc bedv egg breed-vs rock peacock o wne-n cloud wander-vn row ‘the fatigue from throwing a ball’ a throwing from fatigue ‘the mna aa I] muttai In] arai [mancai ‘the egg which the peacock lays on the rock’ the on lays peacock the which egg ‘the Lit.: ‘At which place men are the good ones, at that place you are good.’ are you place that at ones, good the are men ‘Atplace which Lit.: which.place good-3plm men-3plm that.place good-2s that.place men-3plm good-3plm which.place ‘the clouds which wander in rows’ in wander which clouds ‘the lwr lso-o rare-3sn blossom-nom flower ‘You (are) good in a place where the men are good/ are men the where place a in good (are) ‘You ‘It is rare for the the for ‘Itrare is ätavar ...... malar-tal] ...... ‘men’, as a predicate nominal, lacks the adnominal form, form, adnominal the lacks nominal, predicate a as ‘men’, a-vazi kuvalai konmü -al may take its place (43). itsplace take may ‘that place’ in (44) mark the correlative construc­ correlative the in (44) mark ‘that place’ flower to blossom.’ to flower ...... r-u (aink ari-tu. (kuri (kali ...... -ö e- 50) or or 40.22) or or (kuru3SA) -è. yä- 299.2-4) ‘which’. The correlated NPs correlated The ‘which’. a- 183.3-4) ‘that’, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Nominalised clauses may be inflected with various case markers; the dative in dative the markers; case various with inflected be may clauses Nominalised cause, as a noun form, it lacks verbal morphology, finite or non-finite. Nor can can Nor non-finite. or finite morphology, verbal lacks it form, noun a be­ as embedded socause, be can nominal predicate a with clause No limitations. certain (46) purpose. expresses (46) marking complements. In this capacity these verbs can embed a finite clause. As clause. afinite embed can verbs these In this capacity complements. marking uses Tamil Old discourse. direct of purposes the for embedded be clauses finite en Not only does does only Not oiaie om, hr te atr s nlce o h altv, t mes a embeds it ablative, the for inflected is latter the where forms, nominalised and, to a lesser extent, extent, lesser a to and, verbs The forms. verb complementising clauses, such embed to strategy another The verb verb The finite clause as an adverbial clause. adverbial an as clause finite (47) complementiser, a (48) to embed a nominalised clause of the the of clause nominalised a embed to Less frequently, frequently, Less (49) (50) Finally, Old Tamil has the conjunctive verb verb conjunctive the has Tamil Old Finally, ‘say’ (DEDR 868), (DEDR ‘say’ The use of non-finite and nominalised verbs to form complex sentences has has sentences complex form to verbs nominalised and non-finite of use The ayna êt--m ö-]. pätu-v-äm pöl-a]... êttu-v-âm tavaz-um pukai [aiyan-ai am ä-tal-in] äram [kolli vrin-na n en-a nï [varai-nt-an-ai os mk.ed-ndt hurry-npst+2s make.ready-vn-dat horse ar-s-uh2 yu a-n ha-n I-nom hear-cnj say-inf you marry-pst-euph-2s pann-ar-ku [puravi firewood sandalwood become-vn-abl beauty smoke spread-npst+3spl smoke beauty become-vn-abl sandalwood firewood ready.’ horses the make to hurrying are ‘(You) Murugan-acc praise-npst-lpl resemble-inf sing-npst-lpl resemble-inf praise-npst-lpl Murugan-acc ‘I heard that you are marrying her.’ marrying are you that ‘Iheard country-3sm come-npst-nom know time know come-npst-nom country-3sm ‘Because the firewood was sandalwood, a beautiful smoke spread.’ smoke beautiful a sandalwood, was firewood the ‘Because ‘(We) are singing as if praising Murugan.’ if praising as singing are ‘(We) ‘The time at which the man of the country comes.’ country the of man the which at time ‘The [nät-an pöl marks an embedded finite clause as a hypothetical comparison. hypothetical a as clause finite embedded an marks äku ...... ör embed complements of cognitive verbs, in its conditional and and itsconditional in verbs, cognitive of complements embed ‘know’ appears in root form in relative or appositive clauses clauses appositive or in relative form in root appears ‘know’ en auvau r kälai. (kuru ör] varu-v-atu embeds the complement of cognitive verbs. cognitive of complement the embeds aku ör ‘know’ (DEDR 1059) have the non-lèxical function of of function non-lèxical the 1059)have (DEDR ‘know’ ‘become’ (DEDR 333), (DEDR ‘become’ ] ia-i {pura virai-ti. ] -atu ê-u ä (aink yän kêt-tu type under a head noun. head a under type cettu ‘thinking’, unattested in other in unattested ‘thinking’, pöl 304.3-4) ‘resemble’ (DEDR 4517) 4517) (DEDR ‘resemble’ 252.2-3) 280.4) ...... OLD TAMIL OLD (pura (kali 108.2-3) ... 43.5-7) 5 9 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 OT DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 6 9 om, hc ebd a iie lue s in as clause finite a embeds which forms, function. form Kannada Old the (turukal) the adnominal form of the embedded verb, lacks a strict lexical function, having having function, strict a lexical lacks verb, embedded of form the adnominal the with combines which noun, head the instances such In clause. a embed can that oia ebfr ocet acniinlrte hnatmoa lue Simi­ clause. temporal a than rather conditional a create to form verb nominal noun may have a semantic function, temporal or conditional, echoing its original its original echoing or conditional, function, temporal semantic a have may noun complementising a Such complementiser. a of function grammatical the instead circumstantial adverbial function. adverbial circumstantial noun the larly, noun The meaning. lexical (51) (52) of the same category with ‘and’, is restricted to noun phrases and to non-finite non-finite to and phrases noun to restricted is ‘and’, with category same the of clauses in (54).in clauses full noun phras­ represent they co-ordinated, are nouns Where clauses. finite can illustrated by the conjoined object NPs in (53) and the conjoined infinitival infinitival conjoined the and (53) in NPs object conjoined the by illustrated neither conjoined, be cannot adverbs and Adjectives clauses. nominalised and parataxis. In the relative construction in (55), for example, the co-ordinate NPs co-ordinate the example, for (55), in construction relative the In parataxis. co-ordinator The (53) clitic The es. (54) are conjoined without benefit of of benefit without conjoined are Apart from complementising verbs, Old Tamil has complementising nouns nouns complementising has Tamil Old verbs, complementising from Apart Co-ordination in Old Tamil, in the sense of conjoining two or more elements elements more or two conjoining of sense inthe Old Tamil, in Co-ordination â-m uru ouk ï.y-um orunku kunr=um nât-um i mn ö nkzavu tr nutal tiru nekiz-a.v=um töl men nin ä-n anväk kâl=ê mann-v-ä.k nät-an epa v-ta mâr=ê va-nt-a verp-an paca.pp-a.v=um onr-s mryngan time=emp marry-neg-adn country-3sm mountain-3sm come-pst-adn manner=emp manner=emp come-pst-adn mountain-3sm your body shoulder grow.thin-inf=co beauty forehead forehead beauty grow.thin-inf=co shoulder body your bestow-npst-+3spl also hill=co country=co ‘if the man of the country does not marry (her)’ marry not does country of the man ‘if the get.pale-inf=co ‘because the man of the mountains came’ mountains the of man the ‘because ‘He also bestows countries and hills.’ and countries bestows also ‘He ‘so that your soft shoulders grow thin and your beautiful forehead pale’ forehead beautiful your and thin grow shoulders soft your ‘sothat was a female elephant elephant female a was =um ‘manner’ in (52) marks a clause with a causal rather than a than rather causal awith clause a in(52) marks ‘manner’ märu -um is used in Old Tamil after each element of the , as conjunction, of the element each after in Old is Tamil used is frequently deleted in Old Tamil, resulting in asyndetic asyndetic in resulting Old Tamil, in deleted frequently is gettu ...... käl ‘thinking’ (Steever 1988: 27), which has a similar similar a has which 1988:27), (Steever ‘thinking’ (aink ‘time’ in (51), for example, combines with an ad­ an with combines in‘time’(51), example, for =um. pt) (aink (piti)' 230.3) ...... turukal piti cettu piti turukal ...... 239.2). This form is cognate with cognate is form This 239.2). (aka (pura (aka 292.15) 42.13) 109.18)

tikn h rock the ‘thinking Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 to the right of the sentence-final verb for emphasis: one is Scrambling, illustrated illustrated isone Scrambling, for emphasis: verb to right of the sentence-final the verb and nominalises that verb. that nominalises and verb sentence-final the over a sentence moves which simultaneously isClefting other element sentence a move that rules syntactic two least at possesses Tamil Old (55) The transformation of Raising to Object Position, postulated for Tamil by Steev­ by for Tamil Position, postulated to Object of Raising transformation The earlier in (31) and (32), which moves a sentence element over a finite verb; the the verb; finite a over element sentence a moves which (32), and (31) in earlier phalika (56) permitted the borrowing of Prakrit and Sanskrit words. Even words. Even Sanskrit and of borrowing Prakrit the permitted toaccusative. from nominative its case changing clause, into a higher clause ded . Lexicon 3.5 those words: they had to conform to Tamil phonology and undergo assimilation assimilation undergo and phonology to Tamil conform to had they words: those for borrowing stipulated were rules specific Moreover, vocabulary. as part of Old Tamil words’ ‘northern recognises language, of the stage earliest the describes which set, open an were nouns composed, was literature Old Tamil time the At (57) embed­ an of NP subject the It inraises Old Tamil. attested isalready (1981), er Pkt Pkt where necessary. Examples of Prakrit borrowings in Old Tamil include include inOld Tamil borrowings of Prakrit Examples necessary. where be’ > be’ include ings hr esnsfie, e.g. suffixes, person third > compounds, may also consist only of lexical stems. Nominal compounds are de­ are compounds Nominal stems. of lexical only consist also may compounds, -mai fined in this context as the formation of lexemes whose meaning is not just the the isjust not meaning whose lexemes of formation the as context this in fined ‘gift’Pkt < u o te enn o ter osiuns Zeei 16: 0 13. verb, A 103). 40, 1967: (Zvelebil constituents their of meaning the of sum ‘male lover’ and with feminine feminine with and lover’ ‘male än-mai Old Tamil has at least two productive processes of noun derivation. The suffix The of noun derivation. processes two productive least at has Old Tamil Nominal compounds in Old Tamil are distinct from noun phrases which, like which, phrases noun from distinct are Tamil Old in compounds Nominal kacchä cetsasrc on rmvrs detvsadohrnus e.g. nouns, other and adjectives verbs, from nouns abstract creates in-mai ä oup-t nmra. (kali numar-ai. oru-pp-atu yän êkiya au n unar-ntu ena atu vênkai.y-ai (narri cilamp-il... amai vazai=0] önk-i.y-a [väzai=0 aaate rs-s-d te hv-s hill-loc have-vs tree rise-pst-adn banana.tree I punish-npst-nom relation-acc punish-npst-nom I reac hssyif think-cnj thissay-inf tree-acc ‘on the hill which has banana trees and high vazai trees’ vazai high and trees banana has which hill ‘onthe ‘id.’ and ‘It is the relations whom I punish.’ whom relations ‘It the is ‘thinking this to be a venkai tree’ venkai a be to ‘thinkingthis ‘manliness’. Rational nouns are derived from non-rational by means of of by means from non-rational derived are nouns Rational ‘manliness’. ‘girdle, loin cloth’,‘girdle, pähuda ‘non-existence’, ‘non-existence’, nakar natta ‘town’ < Skt ‘town’< ‘id.’, ‘dance’ from Pkt from Pkt ‘dance’ kavanai kätal aru töni ‘love’ suffixes masculine masculine suffixes ‘love’ nagara -i ‘sling’ < Pkt ‘difficult’> to form toform ‘boat’ < Pkt <‘boat’ Pkt and natta ...... kätal-i pütam ‘id.’. Examples of Sanskrit borrow­ of Sanskrit ‘id.’. Examples aru-mai 58.20) khavana (kali döni ‘female lover’. ‘female ‘demon’ < Skt bhüta < ‘demon’ 49.5-6) ‘id.’, ‘difficulty’ and and ‘difficulty’ ‘eject’, ‘eject’, palinku -än Tolkäppiyam, to form to kaccai L AI 97 9 TAMIL OLD ‘crystal’ < Pkt < Pkt ‘crystal’ ‘girdle’ < ‘girdle’ ‘male’ än päkutam ‘id.’. kätal-än which which 222.7) il ‘not

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 pound: pound: Tamil admitted borrowed verb stems but the set is once again closed in Modem in Modem closed again isonce set but the stems verb borrowed admitted Tamil Tamil. As noted earlier, the causative of some verbs is idiosyncratic and must be must and is idiosyncratic verbs of some causative the earlier, As noted Tamil. DRAVIDIAN SOUTH 8 9 verb stem. Certain verb stems, such as asuch stems, plus verb verb or Certain noun stem. a verb of consist verbs compound Lexical lexicon. the in listed dered’. There are also some verb-verb compounds where the second stem stem second the where compounds verb-verb some also are There dered’. adjective or noun stem may combine with a noun stem to form a nominal com­ nominal a form to stem noun a with combine may stem noun or adjective rae opud eb, e.g. verbs, compound create 3.6 Special Features Special 3.6 e.g. stem, root may occasionally stand in place of any inflected verb form, be it finite, non- it non- finite, be form, verb inflected any of in stand place occasionally may root ordinators, attributive markers, etc. This often gives rise to strings of uninflected tostrings of uninflected rise gives often etc.This markers, attributive ordinators, morphological of omission frequent the is Tamil Old of feature prominent One that subcategorises a nominalised subject clause while the verb root root verb the while clause subject nominalised a subcategorises that clauses relative in form adnominal the of inplace use Its nominalised. or finite appears to have no function, adding nothing tangible to the meaning of the first the of meaning the to tangible nothing adding function, no have to appears ‘fish’> or syntactic material which marks semantic relations, such as case markers, co­ markers, case as such relations, semantic marks which material syntactic or is illustrated in (42). The verb root root verb The (42). in illustrated is functions as a verbal noun in (59), specifically as the object of the conditional conditional the of object the as specifically (59), in noun verbal a as functions words, mainly noun and verb stems, as discussed earlier. For example, the verb verb the example, For earlier. discussed as stems, verb and noun mainly words, verb verb Because of this, in many instances the syntactic and semantic relations between between relations semantic and syntactic the instances of inthis, many Because Akattiyalmkam, Ca. (1983) (1983) Ca.Akattiyalmkam, Agesthialingom, S. (1977) (1977) S. Agesthialingom, Bibliography paraphrases. inflected fully contain which texts the of to commentaries by referring only determined can be and clauses words, phrases (58) (59) Verb stems, consisting of native stems, form a closed set in Old Tamil. Middle Middle in set Old Tamil. aclosed form stems, of consisting stems, native Verb scribed inthisscribedwork.] [Bothandthephonology Kazakam. verb Moziyiyar aremorphologyOldde­ of Tamil tu , Annamalainagar: Annamalai University. ,Annamalainagar:Annamalai nït-in. vnua nti.. (aink nït-in... avan urai väzkkai uyar htpae ty prolong-cnd stay that.place not be be-nom easy-3sn living ‘it is not (the case) that living iseasy’ living that case) ‘it(the is not ‘if he prolongs (his) staying in that place’ inthat staying (his) ‘ifprolongs he katumin tuyal ‘be high’+ ...... ‘swing’+ 'shark’, and and 'shark’, f-u ka i.. (aka il... äk-al efi-tu nilai A Grammar of Grammar Aof Old Tamil with Special Reference to Patirrupat- Cankat Tamiz I, II, III vara ‘state’ >‘state’ än pëtu ‘come’ > ‘come’ ‘male’ + ‘male’ 269.3) bwlemn’ + ‘bewilderment’ il uyarnilai ‘not be’ in (58) functions as a finite verb verb finite a as functions (58) in be’ ‘not uru 269.3) tuyal-vara talai ‘experience’, are added to nouns to nouns to added are ‘experience’, ,Annamalainagar:Anaittintiyat Tamiz ‘head’ > ‘head’ ‘world of gods’, 208.8-9) ‘swing’. r >pêturu uru äntalai ‘cock’. katu ‘wild’ + b bewil­ ‘be urai ‘stay’ min

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 17:26 01 Oct 2021; For: 9780203424353, chapter3, 10.4324/9780203424353.ch3 Andronov, M. (1969) (1969) M. Andronov, Lehmann, Thomas (1994) (1994) Thomas Lehmann, Israel, M. (1973) (1973) Israel,M. naaa,E (90 ‘StructuralS.V. In diachronicdifferentiation’, its and (1980) homonymy E. Annamalai, aaea, . 19) rhgahc ytm i ery ai writing’, Tamil early in systems Orthographic (1990) I. Mahadevan, ------(1965) T.P.Meenakshisundaram, Ramasamy, K. (1981) ‘Correlative relative clauses in Tamil’, in S. Agesthialingom and Agesthialingom S.in inTamil’, clauses ‘Correlative relative (1981) K. Ramasamy, (1992) Rajam, V.S. Natarajan, T.(1977) Steever, Sanford (1981) ‘The pragmatic exploitation of raising to object position’, in S. in position’, object to raising of pragmaticexploitation ‘The Sanford(1981) Steever, Zvelebil, Kamil (1967) ‘The language of Perunkunrurof ‘Thelanguage J.J. Glazov (1967) Kilar’,Zvelebil, in KamilK. Zvelebil, Subrahmanya Sastri, P.S. (1934) (1934) P.S. Sastri, Subrahmanya a Uiest. Ti i a ie ecito fte opooy fOdTml rm the from Tamil Old of morphologythe of description fine a is [This University. raj mar description of the linguistic structure of Old Tamil, the first to analyse syntax; an en­ ansyntax;structurelinguistic the firstdescriptionof the Oldanalyse toTamil, of on fve o rdtoa Tml rma ae on grammarbased traditional Tamil of view of point Madras: Century[This of bothNew House.Book text old andincludesexamples mod­ Studies inpreparation.]inis English version larged Subramaniamand K.M Iruppalan (eds), butahistoricalnotTamil, is grammar language.] em the of Tamil.] evaluation.] ee [hs s h frt tp n rsnig hsoia gamr p o al Middle early to up grammar historical a presenting in step first the is [This lege. durai Publishing House. [This is more a list of word forms exemplifying variouscate­ durai [Thiswordalist of moreisformsPublishing exemplifying House. Dravidian Languages (eds), RajasekharanNair N. gories.] nmrhlg. tcnan a elh feape o h vros aeois n in­ and categories introduction various adetailed the toprosody.] Tamil cludes of examples of wealth a contains It morphology. on concentrating Tamil,grammar Old of detailed a [Thisis Society. Philosophical ican Oriental Society 109(2): 237-54. 109(2): OrientalSociety narsidas. go. PhDTamil’, dissertation,of Chicago: DepartmentChica­ of Universityof Linguistics, Annamalai University. Annamalai and RajasekharanN. Agesthialingom Nair (eds), guage Journal Orientalof Research. sity. few selected poems of OldTamil.]of poems selected few Writing Systems and M. Andronov (eds), (eds), Andronov M. and (1983) ‘A study ‘Ain auxiliation:system auxiliarythegrammarverb indicative (1983) the of (1993) (1993) American Journal theTamil’,in of tense present the of etymology the On (1989) (1988) (1996) ‘Tamil writing’, in Peter T. Daniels and William Bright (eds), Bright(eds), andWilliam Daniels T.writing’,Peterin ‘Tamil (1996) ,Madras: International Institute Studies. Tamilof , Moscow: Nauka Publishing House. [This contains a tagmemic description of a description[ThisPublishingNauka , of acontainsMoscow:House.tagmemic 8(1): 35^7. 8(1): Analysis to Synthesis: the Development of Complex Verb Morphology in thein VerbtoComplex Morphology theof Synthesis: Development Analysis The Serial Verb Formation intheVerbDravidian Languages Formation Serial The The Treatment of The Treatment of inMorphology Tolkäppiyam , New York: Oxford426-30. ,Press,New University A Reference Grammar of Classical Tamil Poetry, The Language ofSangam The Literature Language ofSangam and Tolkäppiyam A Standard Reference Grammar of Modern and Classical Tamil Classical and Modern of Grammar Reference Standard A , New Yorkand Oxford:,New Oxford UniversityPress. Grammatik desAlttamil Grammatik Introduction to the Historical Grammar of the Tamil Lan­ Tamil the of Grammar Historical the to Introduction Dravidian Syntax A History of theof HistoryTamilA Language itr o rmaia Tere i Tamil in Theories Grammatical of History Heritage of Heritage of the Tamilsand Language Gram­ - , Annamalainagar: Annamalai Univer­ , Annamalainagar:Annamalai Sutat SenrVra. Ti i a is [This Stuttgart: ,Verlag. Steiner Dravidian Syntax Tolkäppiyam ,Madurai: Madurai Kam- , Poona: Deccan Col­ Deccan ,Poona: Philadelphia:Amer­ , Delhi: Motilal Ba- Motilal Delhi:, ,Annamalainagar: L AI 99 9 TAMIL OLD Journal of Asian of Journal wt a modem a with , , Madurai:Ma­ The World’s The Madras:, ,