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ROBERT V. KOZINETS*

The author develops “netnography” as an online marketing research technique for providing consumer insight. “Netnography” is ethnography adapted to the study of online communities. As a method, “netnography” is faster, simpler, and less expensive than traditional ethnography, and more naturalistic and unobtrusive than focus groups or interviews. It provides information on the symbolism, meanings, and consumption patterns of online consumer groups. The author provides guidelines that acknowledge the online environment, respect the inherent flexibility and openness of ethnography, and provide rigor and ethics in the conduct of marketing research. As an illustrative example, the author provides a netnography of an online coffee newsgroup and discusses its marketing implications.

The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography For Marketing Research in Online Communities

*Consumers making product and brand consumers who are seen as more objective choices are increasingly turning to computer- information sources. Although they are mediated communication for information on popularly called “virtual communities” which to base their decisions.2 Besides (Rheingold 1993), the term “virtual” might perusing advertising and corporate web-sites, misleadingly imply that these communities consumers are using newsgroups, chat rooms, are less “real” than physical communities e-mail list servers, personal World Wide (Jones 1995). Yet as Kozinets (1998, p. 366) Web-pages and other online formats to share pointed out, “these social groups have a ‘real’ ideals, build communities, and contact fellow existence for their participants, and thus have consequential effects on many aspects of * * Robert V. Kozinets is assistant professor of behavior, including consumer behavior” (see marketing at the Kellogg Graduate School of also Muniz and O’Guinn 2001). To maintain Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL the useful distinction of computer-mediated 60208 (e-mail address [email protected]; social gathering, we therefore use the term web-page http://www.kellogg.nwu.edu/faculty/ kozinets/htm/research). The author thanks the “online communities” to refer to these marketing seminar group at Kellogg, Annama Joy, Jay Internet-based forums. Handelman, and John Sherry for comments on earlier Motion pictures, sports, music, versions of this paper. The two editors and three automobiles, fast food, toys, consumer reviewers also provided kind encouragement and electronics, computers and peripherals, useful remarks that helped improve the article. The members of the alt.coffee newsgroup generously software, cigars, beer, coffee and many other contributed their utterances and insights. products and services are discussed in online communities whose importance is being 2 For example, surveys on adults who use online increasingly recognized by contemporary services indicate that 36% of them access newsgroups marketers (see, e.g., Armstrong and Hagel and 25% visit chat rooms (Visgaitis 1996) and these numbers appear to be growing (Jones 1999). Reid’s 1996, Bulik 2000, Hagel and Armstrong (1995) analysis of Arbitron data provides a much 1997, Kozinets 1999, Muniz and O’Guinn higher figure of 71.6% of all Internet users assessing 2001, White 1999). In the last few years, newsgroups. Kozinets, Robert V. (2002), “The Field Behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities,” Journal of Marketing Research, 39 (February), 61-72. 2 marketing firms such as Cyveillance, eWatch, of researcher resources. Because it involves NetCurrents and GenuOne and consumer in-person researcher participant-observation, services such as Epinions.com, market-oriented ethnography is also an PlanetFeedback, Bizrate.com and intentionally and unavoidably intrusive eComplaints.com have been formed to take method that precludes unobtrusive advantage of opportunities posed by cross- observation of naturally situated consumer consumer electronic communication. behavior. Compared to ethnography, face-to- The reason behind this marketing face focus groups (Calder 1977) and personal interest is twofold. First, marketers recognize interviews (Thompson 1997) are less time- the increasing importance of the Internet and consuming, simpler, and more popular of consumers that are active in online qualitative marketing research techniques. communities. Almquist and Roberts (2000, p. However, their obtrusiveness, artificiality and 18) found that the major factor influencing decontextualization of cultural marketing positive brand equity for one brand over information are considerably greater than that another is consumer advocacy. Online of ethnography. communities are places in which consumers This article extends the strengths of often partake in discussions whose goals market-oriented ethnography by include attempts to inform and influence demonstrating how it can be efficaciously fellow consumers about products and brands conducted online using existing online (Kozinets 1999, Muniz and O’Guinn 2001). communities, often in an unobtrusive context. Secondly, one of the major purposes of The novel, computer-mediated, textual, marketing research is to identify and nonphysical, social-cue-impoverished context understand the tastes, desires, relevant of online community may have hampered its symbol-systems and decision-making rigorous investigation by researchers. Over influences of particular consumers and the past several years, many anthropologists, consumer groups. As the advent of networked sociologists and qualitative marketing computing is opening new opportunities for researchers have written about the need to market-oriented consumer interaction, it is specially adapt existing ethnographic research also opening up opportunities for marketing techniques to the many cultures and researchers to study the tastes, desires and communities that are emerging through online other needs of consumers interacting in online communications (see, e.g., Escobar 1994; communities. Grossnickle and Raskin 2000; Hakken 1999; Marketing researchers use a variety of Jones 1999; Kozinets 1999; Miller and Slater methods to study consumers. Qualitative 2000). Although it does not break entirely methods are particularly useful for revealing new ground methodologically, this paper the rich symbolic world that underlies needs, addresses this important need by providing desires, meanings and choice (see. e.g., Levy researchers with a rigorous methodology 1959). Currently, the most popular qualitative adapted to the unique characteristics of online methods are focus groups, personal communities. interviews, and “market-oriented “Netnography,” or ethnography on the ethnography” (Arnould and Wallendorf Internet, is a new qualitative research 1994). While market-oriented ethnography is methodology that adapts ethnographic an important technique that focuses on the research techniques to the study of cultures behavior of the people who constitute a and communities emerging through market for a product or service, it is a time- computer-mediated communications. As a consuming and elaborate method that requires marketing research technique, “netnography” considerable skill and substantial investments uses the information publicly available in Journal of Marketing Research 2 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 3 online forums to identify and understand the qualitative techniques. The second section needs and decision influences of relevant provides an illustrative example that uses the online consumer groups. Compared to information on a popular coffee newsgroup to traditional and market-oriented ethnography, gather consumer insights that may inform “netnography” is far less-time consuming and marketing practice. elaborate. Another contrast with traditional and market-oriented ethnography is that THE METHOD OF NETNOGRAPHY “netnography” is capable of being conducted in a manner that is entirely unobtrusive Ethnography and Netnography (although it optionally need not be). Ethnography is an anthropological Compared to focus groups and personal method that has gained popularity in interviews, “netnography” is far less sociology, cultural studies, consumer research obtrusive, conducted using observations of and a variety of other social scientific fields. consumers in a context that is not fabricated The term refers both to fieldwork, or the study by the marketing researcher. It also can of the distinctive meanings, practices and provide information in a manner that is less artifacts of particular social groups, and to the costly and more timely than focus groups and representations based on such a study. personal interviews. “Netnography” provides Ethnography is an inherently open-ended marketing researchers with a window into practice. It is based upon participation and naturally occurring behaviors, such as observation in particular cultural arenas as searches for information by, and communal well as acknowledgment and employment of word-of-mouth discussions between, researcher reflexivity. That is, it relies heavily consumers. Because it is both naturalistic and on “the acuity of the researcher-as- unobtrusive —an unprecedentedly unique instrument” (Sherry 1991, p. 572) and is more combination not found in any other marketing visibly affected by researcher interests and research method— “netnography” allows skills that most other types of research. continuing access to informants in a particular Ethnography also uses metaphorical, online social situation. This access may hermeneutic and analytic interpretation of provide important opportunities for data (see, e.g., Arnould and Wallendorf 1994, consumer-researcher and consumer-marketer Spiggle 1994, Thompson 1997). Ethnography relationships. The limitations of is grounded in knowledge of the local, the “netnography” draw from its more narrow particularistic, and the specific. While it is focus on online communities, the need for often used to generalize, it is most often used researcher interpretive skill, and the lack of to gain a type of particularized understanding informant identifiers present in the online that has come to be termed “grounded context that leads to difficulty generalizing knowledge” (Glaser and Strauss 1967). The results to groups outside the online rich qualitative content of ethnography’s community sample. Marketing researchers findings as well as the open-endedness that wishing to generalize the findings of a makes it adaptable to a variety of “netnography” of a particular online group to circumstances has led to its popularity as a other groups must therefore apply careful method. This flexibility has allowed evaluations of similarity and employ multiple ethnography to be used for over a century to methods for triangulation. represent and understand the behaviors of In this article’s first section the people belonging to almost every race, method of “netnography” is explained, with nationality, religion, culture and age group— particular attention paid to its relative and even those of some non-human species strengths and weaknesses vis-à-vis in-person groupings. Even with this impressive body of Journal of Marketing Research 3 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 4 ethnographic work behind it, however, it can and Strauss 1967; Hammersley and Atkinson be said that no two ethnographies have ever 1995; Jorgensen 1989; Lincoln and Guba). been conducted in exactly the same manner. After discussing these “netnographic” This flexibility is one of ethnography’s procedures, we will proceed to illustrate the greatest strengths. Ethnographic methods richness of the technique with a short example have been continually refashioned to suit of marketing research conducted in an online particular fields of scholarship, research group devoted to the discussion of coffee. questions, research sites, times, researcher Entrée. There are two initial steps that preferences and cultural groups. market researchers will find useful as While it is inherently an open-ended preparation for conducting a “netnography.” form of inquiry, ethnographers choose from First, researchers must have specific related field procedures and often confront marketing research questions and then similar methodological issues. Common identify particular online forums appropriate ethnographic procedures that help shape to the types of questions that are of interest to researchers’ participant-observation include: them. Secondly, they must learn as much as (1) making cultural entrée, (2) gathering and possible about the forums, the groups, and the analyzing data, (3) ensuring trustworthy individual participants they seek to interpretation, (5) conducting ethical research, understand. Distinct from traditional and (6) providing opportunities for culture ethnographies, in the identification of relevant member feedback. Thorough accounts of communities online search engines will prove these procedures exist for ethnographies invaluable. conducted in face-to-face situations (see, e.g., Structurally, at least five different Fetterman 1989; Hammersley and Atkinson types of online community can be 1995; Jorgensen 1989; Lincoln and Guba distinguished that may be useful to the 1985). However, networked computing is a conduct of market-oriented “netnography” novel medium for social exchange between (see Kozinets 1999 for more detail). First are consumers that changes the particulars of boards, which function as electronic bulletin each of these research procedures, boards (also called newsgroups, usegroups, or concomitantly allowing an unprecedentedly usenet groups). These are often organized new level of access to the heretofore around particular products, services or unobservable behaviors of interacting lifestyles, each of which may have important consumers. It is important, therefore, to uses and implications for marketing provide a general description of the steps and researchers interested in particular consumer procedures involved in conducting topics (e.g., McDonalds, Sony Playstation, “netnography” as they are adapted to these beer, travel to Europe, skiing). Many unique online contingencies. While consumer-oriented newsgroups have over “netnography,” like ethnography, is 100,000 readers, and some have over one inherently flexible and adaptable to the million (Reid 1995). Currently, google.com interests and skill-set of the individual has an excellent newsgroup search engine marketing researcher, these steps may act as a (acquired from deja.com). guide to researchers interested in rigorously Second are independent web-pages as applying the method to their own research. well as web-rings composed of thematically- This combination of more rigorous online linked World Wide Web pages. Web-pages guidelines combined with an innate flexibility such as epinions (www.epinions.com) provide is novel, yet still faithful to scholarly online community resources for consumer-to- depictions of traditional ethnographic consumer exchanges. Yahoo!’s consumer methodology (e.g., Fetterman 1989; Glaser advocacy listings also provide useful listing Journal of Marketing Research 4 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 5 of independent consumer web-pages. Yahoo! detailed or descriptively rich data, and (5) also has an excellent directory of web-rings more between-member interactions of the (www.dir.webring.yahoo.com). Third are lists type required by the research question. These (also called listservs, after the software evaluations entail an important adaptation of program), which are e-mail mailing lists ethnography to the online context, and their united by common themes (e.g., art, diet, use distinguishes the method of music, professions, toys, educational services, “netnography” from traditional ethnography. hobbies). Some good search engines of lists All of the online forums (groups, rings, lists, are egroups.com and liszt.com. dungeons and rooms) may provide useful Finally, multi-user dungeons and chat access to people self-segmented by a certain rooms tend to be considerably less market- type of lifestyle or market-orientation, which oriented in their focus, containing information researchers may, at their option, translate into that is often fantasy-oriented, social, sexual private (‘one-on-one’) online, real-time and relational in nature. General search interviews (see, e.g., Hamman 1996). Before engines (e.g., Yahoo! or excite) provide good initiating contact or data collection, the directories of these communities. Dungeons characteristics (group membership, market- and chat rooms may still be of interest to oriented behaviors, interests, and language) of marketing researchers (see, e.g., White 1999) the online communities should be familiar to because of their ability to provide insight into the marketing researcher. particular themes (e.g., certain industry, Data Collection and Analysis. With demographic or lifestyle segments). However, online communities chosen, the marketing many marketing researchers will find the researcher is ready to begin collecting data for generally more focused and more his/her “netnography.” There are at least two information-laden content provided by the important elements to this data collection: (1) members of boards, rings and lists to be more the data that the researcher directly copies useful to their investigation than the more from the computer-mediated communications social information present in dungeons and of online community members, and (2) the chat rooms. In general, combining search data that the researcher inscribes regarding engines (e.g., a WWW search engine such as his/her observations of the community, its Yahoo! with a newsgroup search engine such members, interactions and meanings. As a as groups.google.com) will often provide the distinct advantage from traditional bests results for locating specific topics of ethnographers, “netnographers” benefit from interest. It is also important to note that a the nearly automatic transcription of broad and thorough computerized search may downloaded documents. With the addition of be required, as the topic of interest may be vastly lower search costs than face-to-face categorized at varying levels of abstraction, ethnography (particularly in purely for example, at the brand, product category, observational forms of “netnography”), data or activity type level. is often plentiful and easy to obtain. In this Once suitable online communities environment, the “netnographer’s” choices of have been identified, the researcher can judge which data to save and which to pursue are among them using criteria specifically important, and should be guided by the suitable to the investigation. Generally, online research question and available resources communities should be preferred that have (e.g., number of online members willing to be either (1) a more focused and research interviewed, ability of online members to question relevant segment, topic or group, (2) express themselves, time, researcher skill). higher “traffic” of postings, (3) larger Dealing judiciously with instantaneous numbers of discrete message posters, (4) more information overload is a much more Journal of Marketing Research 5 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 6 important problem for “netnographers” than Struass 1967), data collection should continue for traditional ethnographers. as long as new insights on important topical Because the online medium is famous areas are still being generated. For purposes (and infamous) for its casual social elements, of precision, some “netnographers” may wish messages may be classified first as primarily to keep close count of the exact number of social or primarily informational, and also as messages and web-pages read (in practice, an primarily on-topic or primarily off-topic extremely difficult measurement), as well as (where the topic is the research question of how many distinct participants were involved. interest). While including all the data in a first The strength of “netnography” is its pass or “grand tour” interpretation, particularistic ties to specific online consumer researchers will generally want to save their groups and the revelatory depth of their most intense analytical efforts for the online communications. Hence, interesting primarily informational and primarily on- and useful conclusions might be drawn from a topic messages. relatively small number of messages, if these The posters of online messages may messages contain sufficient descriptive also be categorized. Some novel categories richness and are interpreted with considerable for classifying them based on their level of analytic depth and insight. A time-tested and involvement with the online community and recommended way to help to develop this the consumption activity have been outlined insight is to write reflective fieldnotes. In by Kozinets (1999). “Tourists” lack strong these fieldnotes, “netnographers” record their social ties and deep interest in the activity own observations regarding subtexts, pretexts, (they often post casual questions). “Minglers” contingencies, conditions and personal have strong social ties but minimal interest in emotions occurring during the research. These the consumption activity. “Devotees” have written reflections often prove invaluable to strong consumption interests, but few contextualizing the data and are a attachments to the online group. Finally, recommended procedure. However, in a sharp “insiders” have strong ties to the online group break from traditional ethnography, a rigorous and to the consumption activity, and tend to “netnography” could be conducted using only be long-standing and frequently referenced observation and downloads, and without members. For marketing research useful for writing a single fieldnote. marketing strategy formulation, the devotees As data analysis commences (often and the insiders represent the most important concomitant with data collection), the data sources. Preliminary research reveals that netnographer must contextualize the online devoted, enthusiastic, actively involved, and data, which often proves to be more sophisticated user segments are represented in challenging in the social-cues-impoverished online communities by insiders and devotees online context of “netnography.” Software (Kozinets 1999). It is also useful to note that solutions such as the QSR NVivo and Atlas.ti online communities themselves tend to qualitative analysis packages can expedite propagate the development of loyalty and coding, content analysis, data linking, data (sometimes) heavy usage by socially display, and theory-building functions reinforcing consumption. Hence, marketing (Paccagnella 1997, Richards and Richards researchers interested in online word-of- 1994). However, classification and coding of mouth and influence may find it useful to data are important concerns that inevitably track how tourists and minglers are socialized involve trading off symbolic richness for and “upgraded” to insiders and devotees in construct clarity (Van Maanen 1988). Perhaps market-oriented online communities (ibid). even more than with ethnography, some of As with grounded theory (Glaser and the most useful interpretations of Journal of Marketing Research 6 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 7

“netnographic” data take advantage of its manner requires a radical shift from contextual richness and come as a result of traditional ethnography that observes people penetrating metaphoric and symbolic to “netnography” which observes and must interpretation (Levy 1959, Sherry 1991, recontextualize conversational acts. This shift Thompson 1997), rather than meticulous is necessary because the characteristics of classification. conversation in “netnography” are very Providing Trustworthy Interpretation. different than they are in traditional For tracking the marketing related behaviors ethnography: they occur through computer- of online communities, “netnography” is a mediation, are publicly available, generated in stand-alone method. It is a way in which to written text form, and the identities of understand the discourse and interactions of conversants are much more difficult to people engaging in computer-mediated discern. communication about market-oriented topics. Generally speaking, links to fixed During the course of netnographic data demographic markers can be useful for some collection and analysis, the market researcher marketing strategy purposes (e.g., targeting), must follow conventional procedures that the and “netnography” is more limited than research is reasonable or “trustworthy” (note: traditional ethnography in this regard. The in most qualitative consumer research, the “netnographer” must determine their concept of “trustworthiness” is used rather importance in relation to the research question than “validity,” see Wallendorf and Belk and to the authority that will be granted to 1989, Lincoln and Guba 1985). findings. It is worth noting that direct “Netnography” is based primarily misrepresentation is discouraged in most upon the observation of textual discourse, an online forums. Codes of etiquette (see Gunn important difference from the balancing of 2000) and other social pressures are often in discourse and observed behavior that occurs effect. Misrepresenting oneself as a member during in-person ethnography (cf. Arnould of a restricted group (e.g., women only, or and Wallendorf 1994). Informants therefore under-18) is an offense punished by flaming, may be presumed to be presenting a more ostracism and banishment. However, carefully cultivated and controlled self-image. triangulation of “netnographic” data with data The uniquely mutable, dynamic, and multiple collected using other methods, such as in online landscape mediates social interviews, focus groups, surveys, or representation and renders problematic the traditional in-person ethnographies may be issue of informant identity (Turkle 1995). useful if the researcher seeks to generalize to However, “netnography” seems perfectly groups other than the populations studied. suited to the approach of G. H. Mead (1938) Generalizing the study beyond particular in which the ultimate unit of analysis is not online groups may not be necessary. Yet the person, but the behavior or the act. We careful triangulation and long-term immersion might also draw insight from the work of in the community can be very useful to help founder of ‘the linguistic turn’ in philosophy, marketing researchers distinguish hardcore, Ludwig Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein (1953) marginal extremists from a more typical might suggest that the posting of computer group of consumers. It should be noted that, text is a social action (a communicative act or just as during in-person exchanges, extremists “language game”). If so, then every aspect of are derided. In the larger communities (with the “game” (the act, type and content of the hundreds of active members) moderate views posting, the medium, and so on) is relevant seem to prevail. Online communities do observational data in itself, capable of being present fairly explosive environments and, trustworthy. Utilizing online data in this freed of many of the usual social restraints Journal of Marketing Research 7 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 8 employed during in-person gatherings, the source of much of its attractiveness and its hardcore extremists are often soundly contentiousness. If marketing researchers condemned. undertaking “netnography” act in a manner In summary, throughout found to be irresponsible and disrespectful by “netnographic” data collection and analysis, consumers, they may well damage the the marketing researcher must be conscious medium (by either suppressing outright or that they are analyzing the content of an driving into secrecy previously open social online community’s communicative acts interactions), and thereby “poisoning the rather than the complete set of observed acts research well” (Reid 1996). This is a real risk. of consumers in a particular community. This White (1999) reports how music promoters is a crucial difference between “netnography” avoided identifying themselves when they and traditional ethnography. Stories of online acted both as online marketers and as misrepresentation are legion and important. marketing researchers “trying to get a quick Generalizations to markets or communities gauge on something, where you don’t want other than the one studied, online or off, must anyone’s guard to be up” (p. B1). have corroborating evidence. To be There is genuine debate about the trustworthy, the conclusions of a public versus private issue. Speaking “netnography” must reflect the limitations of particularly about the electronic the online medium and the technique. eavesdropping of observational ethnography, Research Ethics. One of the most Rafaeli (quoted in Sudweeks ands Rafaeli important differences between traditional 1995) summarized the consensus of a certain ethnography and “netnography” may be in group of scholars debating the private versus issues of research ethics. Marketing public issue by stating that informed consent researchers desiring to use “netnography” as a was implicit in the act of posting a message to method are obliged to consider and follow a public area. Given that certain precautions ethical guidelines. These guidelines for were taken to provide anonymity to ethical social science research in cyberspace informants, this group of scholars approved have been the topic of recent debate. Ethical an ethical policy in which the informed concerns over “netnography” turn on two consent of Internet posters was not required. nontrivial, contestable and interrelated King (1996), however, based his analysis on concerns: (1) are online forums to be the notion that online forums dissolve considered a private or a public site?, and, (2) traditional distinctions between public and what constitutes “informed consent” in private places, making conventional cyberspace? A clear consensus on these guidelines of anonymity, confidentiality and issues, and therefore on ethically appropriate informed consent unclear. King (1996) procedures for “netnography,” has not therefore concluded that, because consumers emerged. might be deluded about the quasi-public In a major departure from traditional nature of their ostensibly private face-to-face methods liked ethnography, focus communications, gaining additional informed groups, or personal interviews, “netnography” consent from them was the responsibility of uses information that is not given specifically, researchers. Sharf (1999) echoed this and in confidence, to the marketing heightened sensitivity to the ethics of even researcher. The consumers who originally observational “netnography.” created the data do not necessarily intend or The potential for “netnography” to do welcome its use in research representations. harm is a real risk. For instance, if a Netnographers are professional “lurkers”: the marketing researcher were to publish uniquely unobtrusive nature of the method is sensitive information overheard in a chat Journal of Marketing Research 8 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 9 room, this might lead to embarrassment or requires the researcher to contact community ostracism if an associated person’s identity members and obtain their permission was discerned (see Hamman 1996). A number (informed consent) to use any specific of informants have requested that I not postings that are to be directly quoted in the publish statements they have posted on public research. Permission must also be obtained bulletin boards, even though I always for using idiosyncratic stories as well (see guarantee their anonymity. I have always Sharf 1999, p. 253-255). Obviously, before honored these requests. This evidence using any online artifacts such as newsletters, supports the contention that “there is a poetry, stories or photographs, permission potential for psychological harm to the from the copyright holder must be granted. members of these [online community] groups, Following these specially adapted research depending on the way results are reported” techniques will help ensure that ethical (King 1996, p. 119). “netnography” is conducted that avoids Researchers who have published poisoning the well for future researchers. cultural secrets, portrayed people and Member Checks. Member checks practices inaccurately or treated customs, (Arnould and Wallendorf 1994, p. 485; individuals and beliefs disdainfully have Hirschman 1986, p. 244; Lincoln and Guba tainted the history of ethnography. The same 1985) are a procedure whereby some or all of potential for harm exists for “netnography.” a final research report’s findings are presented In a time of increasing public scrutiny of to the people who have been studied in order corporate actions and computer privacy to solicit their comments. Member checks issues, as well as institutional review board prove particularly valuable for three reasons scrutiny in academia, “netnographers” would relating to the dissimilarity of “netnography” be wise to consider the chief ethical concerns from traditional ethnography. First, because apparent in “netnography”: privacy, they allow researchers to obtain and elicit confidentiality, appropriation of others’ additional, more specific insights into personal stories, and informed consent (Sharf consumer meanings, they are particularly 1999). valuable when conducting an unobtrusive, Therefore, there are four ethical observational “netnography” (i.e., member research procedures that I recommend for checks add the opportunities for added marketing researchers using “netnography.” development and error checking). Secondly, Although they parallel practices in they help ameliorate some of the contentious conventional ethnography, these first three ethical concerns described in the previous procedures are not at all obvious to those used section, while still preserving the value of to conducting web-searches and Internet unobtrusive observation (because member research. They are: (1) the researcher should checks are usually conducted after data fully disclose his/her presence, affiliations collection and analysis has concluded). and intentions to online community members Finally, and perhaps most importantly, during any research, (2) the researchers member checks can help to establish an should ensure confidentiality and anonymity ongoing information exchange between to informants, and (3) the researcher should marketing researchers and consumer groups seek and incorporate feedback from members that is unprecedented in traditional qualitative of the online community being researched. research. Indeed, using the conduct of There is an additional final procedure that is “netnography” as a forum for ongoing, specific to the online medium. It involves widespread, bidirectional communication taking a cautious position on the private- between organizations and their communities versus-public medium issue. This procedure of customers could help realize some of the Journal of Marketing Research 9 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 10 hidden potential in the paradigm of meaning and symbol systems is of relationship marketing. considerable practical importance. As many As distinct from face-to-face marketers are aware, there have been tectonic ethnography, where member checks are shifts in the coffee market in the last decade. burdensome and onerous (and therefore are Major consumer packaged goods companies sometimes omitted), and focus groups and such as General Foods and Proctor and interviews (where member checks are not Gamble were apparently caught unaware by usually employed), “netnographic” member the Seattle coffeehouse trend that came to be checks are a generally simple and convenient personified by the “Starbucks invasion” that matter. The low costs of computer-mediated overtook boutique coffee shops and communication enable the marketing subsequently encroached upon supermarket researcher to easily provide any interested aisles (see Pendergrast 1999, Schultz and reader with some or all of the research text, Yang 1999). Starbucks simultaneously raised either through posting it on a web-page, or the consciousness of coffee connoisseurship, sending it as an e-mail attachment. The the demand for coffee shops, the sales of elicitation and collection of informant coffee-flavored ice cream and cold drinks, comments is also greatly simplified and and the market price of a cup of coffee. expedited through e-mail. Because member An understanding of coffee meanings checks, as well as the other elements of can be gleaned from a “netnography” of a “netnography,” can generally be completed in dedicated coffee group. As with the a more timely manner than face-to-face membership of many online market-oriented market-oriented ethnography, they provide communities, the members of this coffee the opportunity for marketers to detect and group can be characterized as devoted, respond more quickly to the changing enthusiastic, knowledgeable and innovative. consumer tastes, meanings and desires that In their enthusiasm, knowledge, and underlie important marketing trends. Given experimentation with new forms of coffee these methodological considerations, we can consumption, they can provide information now proceed to a brief illustrative example of similar to that from “lead users,” the inventive market research using “netnography.” consumers who are at the leading edge of significant new marketing trends (von Hippel 1986, 1988). While some may be marginal or ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: ANALYSIS OF THE MEANINGS OF CONTEMPORARY hard core users, their creative ideas and COFFEE CONSUMPTION IN AN ONLINE insights should not be discounted as without COFFEE COMMUNITY value. By carefully evaluating their innovative ideas and by cross-validating the Applying Netnographic Methodology quality of information they provide about current consumption trends with other In the short illustrative section that information sources, we can reach follows, “netnography” will be illustrated as a conclusions that can potentially inform marketing research method. “Netnography” decisions by those in the coffee market such will be used to explore and analyze some of as consumer packaged goods companies, the meanings and symbol-systems that coffee house retailers, coffee mail order surround contemporary coffee consumption companies (both online and off), and (in particular those surrounding espresso and advertisers working on coffee-related Starbucks) for the posters to an online accounts. By carefully corroborating, community dedicated to coffee-related interpreting and critically evaluating this discussion. Understanding and tracking these information, insights might be gained to Journal of Marketing Research 10 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 11 inform new product concepts, new were read over the 33 months of positioning strategies, new advertising “netnographic” research. In addition, the campaigns, new distribution tactics and other research was informed by searches of coffee- marketing strategies and practices. related web-pages, web-rings, mailing lists, Understanding this online community’s reading of books about coffee, coffee messages and their medium can also provide consumption experimentation and in-person insight into the use of newsgroups and other product-related discussions with coffee online media for coffee-related marketing. consumers and connoisseurs. To keep the This “netnography” into online coffee amount of data limited to a manageable level, culture began with an overview of the the investigation was limited to 179 postings newsgroups that contained the term “coffee” that were downloaded and printed. The and were available from my local server. majority of the messages that were These revealed three potential newsgroups: downloaded were posted between July and , , and November 2000. , as well as several The 179 postings were pre-classified others. was chosen because it (before downloading) into topics either had by far the highest amount of traffic relevant or not relevant to the research topic (approximately 75 messages per day) and of interest (contemporary coffee meanings). therefore contained the most data. According So, for example, threads (a thread is a set of to 1995 Arbitron data, is ranked interrelated bulletin board postings) like 1042 out of all newsgroups, is carried by 40% “Coffee Poem,” and “How to make a great of all service providers, and is read by 55,939 cappuccino at home,” were pursued. Threads people worldwide (Reid 1995).3 It contains a such as “NY Chocolate Show” were not, core of “insiders” who are frequently quoted because they were judged not to be relevant. and referenced by other community members, In order to discover not only what constituted deferred to by existing and new members, and good coffee, but to understand its antithesis, mentioned by members as important arbiters several message threads related to Postum, of coffee taste. Thus, employing an informal such as “Anyone tried or heard of this?,” were type of network analysis, these insiders seem explored and downloaded. As the to be usefully conceptualized as opinion investigation narrowed onto discussion of leaders in the local context of this particular Starbucks, the “Weird Starbucks Experience,” online community. It also contains many “Peets So Good,” and “Americans-your “minglers” who stay on for periods of six thoughts on Starbucks wanted” threads were months to a year, and a large number of downloaded. The importance of espresso to “tourists” who come and go with specific the community was also evident as the queries. Past newsgroup surveys indicated investigation narrowed. This topic was that posters were mostly male and well- explored in “Woohoo, just got my educated, with an average age of forty-eight. Silvia/Rocky.” These threads were chosen for As part of ongoing research, and their rich content, descriptiveness, relevant related newsgroups were followed, with topic matter and conversational participation noteworthy messages downloaded, since by a range of different community members. February 1998. Several hundred messages The range of conversational participation was important to avoid the research being misled 3 Given the growth of the Internet between 1995 and or unduly influenced by a minority of 2000 and the doubling of message postings on unrepresentative and vocal extremists. during that period, it is likely that as of Utilizing carefully-chosen message 2000 the newsgroup had over 100,000 readers worldwide. threads in “netnography” is akin to Journal of Marketing Research 11 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 12

“purposive sampling” in market-oriented my credentials. Permission was sought and ethnography (Wallendorf and Belk 1989, granted to use direct quotes. To ensure a Lincoln and Guba 1985). Because findings “trustworthy” interpretation (Lincoln and are to be interpreted in terms of a particular Guba 1985), member checks with nine online sample it is not necessary that the sample be informants were conducted. Member check representative of other populations. However, informants said they were “impressed” by the there is the potential for anonymous self- “netnography,” thought it was “perceptive” promotion by manufacturers and retailers. and even “fantastic.” They also had several Therefore, messages that were suspect in this suggestions. Member checks resulted in manner (i.e., overly engaging in promotion, or revisions to the depiction of basic coffee containing an email address related to the (including presspot and vacpot preferences), company they were commenting upon) were commodification and religious devotion, and excluded from the dataset. In addition, and the provision of some additional group where possible to do so, apparently off-topic characteristics. useless talk was coded and excluded from A Brief Netnography of Online Coffee Culture analysis because it did not pertain to the on the Usenet Newsgroup central topic of coffee consumption. The coding of the postings involved both data analysis and data interpretation As Sherry (1995, p. 356) has noted, (Spiggle 1994, p. 492). “Netnographic” data “Coffee is among the preeminent vessels of in each categorized interaction was compared meaning in consumer culture” (see also to the data with other events coded as Pendergrast 1999). This richness of meaning belonging to the same category, inquiring into is clearly evident in the vital and virtuosic their similarities and differences (Glaser and exchanges transpiring through . Strauss 1967, Spiggle 1994). Each category Like any thoroughgoing culture, the denizens later formed a theme, abstract or grounded of the newsgroup carry their own theory, or “metaobservation” (Arnould and language. Their posted conversations are Wallendorf 1994, McCracken 1988, Lincoln peppered with terms unfamiliar to the and Guba 1985). For this research, the uninitiated: baristas and JavaJocks, cremas volume of text was 198 double-spaced 12 and roastmasters, tampers and point font pages, representing 117 postings superautomatics, livias and tiger flecks. It is containing 65 distinct e-mail addresses and the specialized language of the coffee lover, user names (likely related to the number of conveying many of the subtleties of coffee distinct individuals posting messages). taste and preparation. Disconfirming evidence was sought, both Understanding the language of within the dataset and in later searches of consumer segments and its specific web-pages and the newsgroup, underlying social motivations is a key aspect and resulted in several early themes being to achieving the market orientation (Kohli and rejected. Concomitantly with analysis, the Jaworski 1990) that can successfully data was subject to interpretation, which, as conceptualize new products, employ existing Spiggle (1994, p. 497, 500) describes it, is and new channels and write potent advertising “playful, creative, intuitive, subjective, that meaningfully communicates to markets. particularistic, transformative, imaginative, While a full translation of this newsgroup’s and representative.” language is impossible in this article, we can To ensure research ethics, I identified examine some important cultural themes myself in postings to the community, told contained within it. In this short members about the observation, and provided “netnography,” we examine themes of Journal of Marketing Research 12 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 13 distinction, consumption webs, 1999) and authoritative guides such as the site commodification concerns and religious of “Schomer.” As Levy (1981) convincingly devotion. Marketing research implications demonstrates, there are strong links between will be specified throughout, and extended in discernment, social class and the acculturated the conclusion. sense of taste. This acculturation of the Distinction: Decoding the Language complexities of taste and flavor appears to of Motivation. On , we are transpire online. For example, the flavor of repeatedly taught the specifics of coffee good espresso is much discussed and connoisseurship. One of the first things we described online (it is not too watery and not learn is that “basic coffee,” the type that most too burnt tasting but has a slight agreeable of us enjoy in our offices and homes, is bitterness and a slight astringency). usually beneath contempt because it is Also, the group’s discursive actions “normally very badly prepared and stale.” enact a deep desire to go behind the scenes, to Proper coffee, flavorful coffee, must be understand what it is that makes a particular prepared correctly. This means avoiding type of coffee superior, and then to capture, paper filters and drip coffee (and percolators) reproduce, and by reproducing, become a part and instead using gold filters, cafetiere, press of the productive-consumption of the pots, or vacuum pots (in order of preference). experience. This productive-consumption is Yet while it may not be the most frequently also a status marker. Home espresso brewing consumed form, the most discussed form of is a fairly expensive hobby (but not coffee on the newsgroup is espresso. Real prohibitively so for the American middle- coffee, precious coffee, essential coffee (both class), which is partially why it can serve as a literally and figuratively), is espresso, distinctive marker. This need to not only consumed without “cow juice” or sugar. consume, but to actively produce, is a Making good espresso, we learn, is a hallmark of deep devotion to a particular complicated affair. It involves attending consumption orientation, such as is found in a carefully to the water, the grind, timing the range of subcultural, sport, music and media shot, knowing your machine, keeping its fan experiences (see, e.g., Fiske 1989). portafilter (portable filter) and screen clean, Consumption Webs: Mapping the the tamper, the blend, the ambient Paths of Desire. The key to these descriptions temperature, the age of the coffee, the degree is not merely their specifics (although these of the roast, the air humidity, incoming water are of course equally important to consumers temperature, internal boiler temperature, and and the marketers who seek to serve them) even such mystical elements as the mood of but the amazing rarity that is conveyed within the barista [coffee server] and “good old- them, the scarcity evident in all the stressing fashioned luck.” over when to pull, when to tamp, how to time, These are not merely functional which machine, which coffee bean. One considerations, but online incantations of member cautioned that only out of every five status, upward social movement and pulls are worth drinking, which makes hedonism intended to manifest and educating one’s palate about good espresso a demonstrate the “distinction” or “cultural difficult task. As with wine production and capital” of upper class tastes and abilities tasting, production and discernment of (Bourdieu 1984, see also Holt 1998). There is espresso takes time and practice. Some an elitist or classist “snob appeal” to coffee coffeephiles opine that their tastebud training knowledge that motivates discerning tasting, took months. One active poster as well as the reading of coffee-related books stated that it gestated for nine months. This such as “Uncommon Grounds” (Pendergrast coffeephile noted that the down side to Journal of Marketing Research 13 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 14 educating his palate was that he became a through, for example, cappuccino, macchiato slave to coffee, and eventually spent huge and con pannas to espresso. amounts of money to keep himself from being In total, this set of united products subjected to more ordinary coffee (which had could be interpreted as a “product become unbearable to him). He also noted constellation” (Solomon and Assael 1987) that there was no end to his involvement. linked to the real or desired social class of Once acculturated, he kept finding new pieces these coffee drinkers. For marketing of coffee equipment that he could not live researchers, this product map might be without, a state of affairs he jokingly-yet- thought of as a particular consumption web pointedly blamed on his fellow alt.coffee that increasingly draws a group of consumers coffeephiles. into deeper and more profound levels of The marketing research implications (sub)cultural involvement and enthusiasm, of these postings lay in the way in which consumption and investment. Understanding some coffeephiles describe their motivation to the configuration of these particular develop taste leading to the expenditure of consumption webs would provide coffee- large amounts of money on coffee equipment. related manufacturers and retailers with ideas Once acculturated into the proper taste of for new product and service offerings and espresso and its rarity, these consumers reject bundling (for example, bundling together conventional coffee offerings (often giving brands of products that are seen as associated them terrible, excretory names) and popular with other brands; bundling together kitchen cafés (often emphasizing their robotic venting systems with roasters; bundling qualities) and are drawn into multiple features on espresso machines to produce investments for which there seem no end. The consumer-related forms of coffee). comments above, in which a coffeephile Commodified Brands: Brand Image ascribes his increasing investment to the and Community Concerns. Another important influence of a fellow newsgroup member cultural code links good coffee to passion, suggest the power of the newsgroup to artistry, and authenticity as a fully realized acculturate consumption practices. This human being. The discussions that reveal this acculturating force, which drives increasing centered upon the nature of the “barista,” or investments in a new cultural interest, has coffee server. The online coffeephiles been termed the “Diderot effect” (McCracken proclaim that “the product (be it food or 1990). In the newsgroup, there is coffee)” is always “an expression of the evidence for an acculturated transition from maker’s personality” because it is “an art after regular home-brewed coffee, to basic press all” [“Vincent4,” posted on pots (such as the Bodum) to better press pots 08/06/2000], that a “barista” infers “an to vacuum pots. Another is from home-brews artisan…like a seasoned sommelier or to café-bought coffee, to café-bought vintner” [“Angelo,” posted on “fancier” drinks like latté and cappuccino, to 08/09/2000]. Several posters claim that they store-bought espresso, to home-made would not visit a café whose baristas were not espresso, which requires a starter machine, coffee lovers (and several others disagreed). then a better machine, a coffee bean grinder, An existential dimension is added by one of then a coffee bean roaster, then a kitchen vent the original posters, in which he rejects the for your roaster, then better beans, and so on. term “artisan,” but says that being an This subtle inculcation of coffee tastes (on a authentic barista “has to do with the way you trajectory culminating in a taste for espresso) is often mapped out in coffeephile 4 Pseudonyms are used throughout to protect informant communications, tracing a gustatory route confidentiality. Journal of Marketing Research 14 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 15 live your life.” Coffee becomes, to this culture coffee.” Presenting important cultural clues to member, a metaphor for life, in which either the positioning of any new coffee marketer life is mere rule following “or you really that seeks to compete with the Starbucks experience what life is all about” [“Vincent,” brand, the discussion of Starbucks turned into posted on 08/09/2000]. The mark a more general discussion of the perils of of authenticity is baristas who “drink/live commercialization and cultural coffee” just as do the denizens of commodification. The resentment over the . It is passion that matters: commodification of coffee connoisseurship “Coffee is the passion of a barista and a leads to dialectics of authenticity and lifelong profession” [“Peter,” posted on genuineness: 08/13/2000]. This emphasis is What I am coming to in my own life also present in an online debate between and consumer behavior is that I want Starbucks employees. The more passionate to support and savor the true specialty coffee drinker (ex-employee) accused the items while I can. I’d rather eat other (current employee): Barry’s fudge…than Godiva ‘faux “Coffee is just another product for you specialty’ chocolates. And I’d rather too. You could just as well be selling drink the local café’s coffee rather those turnip twaddlers of flame than Starbucks’s because, well, those retardant condoms, but as long as you tiny, passionate companies are more are having fun and paying your bills, precious than Starbucks….Any that is all that matters to you, right? I corporation with food chemists can am afraid that it is not quite that make Starbucks’ product, IMO [in my simple for many of us. We take our opinion]. Only a passionate, driven coffee very seriously, and to have it romantic would keep making top- demeaned in such a manner is a slap notch specialty coffee day in and day in the face. Coffee is much more than out. Lose Starbucks and another clone a tool. It is passion, it is intrigue, clicks into that economic eco-niche. mystery, seduction, fear, betrayal, Lose a lover or a hero and you might love, hate, and any other core human wait a long time until another comes emotion that you can think of, all along. —“Fred,” posted on wrapped into one little bean.” —Peter, 11/19/2000 posted on 08/14/2000 Fred’s dialectic transcends functional Because Peter’s rich and revealing characteristics such as coffee flavor. Its comments were applauded and referenced by overriding theme is that vendors or many different members of the online manufacturers should demonstrate a genuine community, they seem to cut to the core of passion for the product equal to, or close to, some important (and shared) impressions of that of its connoisseur consumers. This Starbucks among members. sentiment resists, in some sense, the Coffee is emotional, human, deeply and commodification of labor in which people can personally relevant —and not to be be mechanistically trained to produce items “commodified” (Kopytoff 1988) or treated as without enjoying them as consumers. It is a “just another product.” This concern is postmodern longing to return to productive- reflected in two negative newsgroup consumption (Firat and Dhalokia 1998). nicknames for Starbucks: as an expensive and Fred’s dialectic of commodification reflects a faceless corporate entity, it is “*$”; as a killer search for authenticity, ties to the local, caring of mom-and-pop local stores it is “corporate by producers, craftsmanship and artistry. In Journal of Marketing Research 15 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 16 the same posting, Fred explains that to [un]to him,” as if he were a Biblical prophet. support Starbucks is not to support local The drama and religion may be parodic, but merchants like “Tom” a coffee “maven” who are repeatedly present and meaningful as a is obsessed with “the Zen of the cup” (a local cultural code, indicating that this is not spiritual-religious metaphor connoting merely the meandering of extremists. For devotion and authenticity). To support local example, other postings replicate the dramatic cafes is not only a statement about coffee, but and religious metaphor, calling the lack of about human values and the world. As Fred passion by a “Starbucks Jock” “Sacrilege!” states, it helps to maintain “a world of beauty and the placing of sugar in espresso the mark and passion.” of one who “has no soul.” Religious Devotion: Uncovering The interpretive coup de grâce may be Meaningful Metaphors. This utopian “world in the term that this community of of beauty and passion” is evident in the coffeephiles uses for the elusive, religious wonderfully detailed accounts of coffee experience, the exhaustive apotheosis of preparation and consumption provided in the espresso moments, the holy grail of the coffee newsgroups, which serve as sources of dream quest. It is called a “god shot.” It espresso education, expressionism and represents the sublime moment of coffee exhibitionism. Members draw one another in productive-consumption, an absolutely with dramatic flair and literary devices that perfect, indefinable moment of glory, one that playfully hint at the joyful mindset of the cannot be captured, reproduced or summoned coffee connoisseur and, tongue-in-cheek, at will. A god-shot is a supernatural event. It employ sacred metaphors. Describing himself is a moment when human being and nature in the third person, “Jerry” lovingly details (in are reunited in a perfect convergence of several pages of text) his exact experiences elements (water, fire, air, earth/grounds), with his new coffeemaker: resulting in a perfectly pleasurable He hit the brew switch [on his new occurrence. This interpretation does not Livia 90 cappuccino/espresso suggest that coffee consumption is actually a maker]...at first, nothing. religion for these coffeephiles. But for them it Then….beautiful reddish-brown has religious aspects of search, passion, and crema…the “tiger flecks” he had transcendence (see Belk, Wallendorf and heard so much about but rarely had Sherry 1989), and deeply meaningful ties to seen flowed forth and fell just short of identity (Fiske 1989). As comments to Jerry’s two ounces in 25 seconds. He stood postings indicate, these metaphors are highly just admiring the crema when motivational and persuasive, and thus of suddenly a voice called to him, “The interest to marketing researchers. milk! The Milk!” —Jerry, posted on 11/02/2000 IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION Deriving from naturally-occurring, As with Fred’s “passion,” his David communal, cross-consumer interaction that is and Goliath-story “hero,” and ‘world of not found in focus groups or personal beauty,’ the language Jerry uses here is interviews, “netnography” reveals interesting romantic, idealistic and Biblical. The crema consumer insights, impressions, linguistic (oil from the coffee beans) is “beautiful,” and conventions, motivations, consumption web it “flowed forth” much like a river of milk and linkages and symbols. It provides feedback on honey might do for Old Testament Israelites. brands and products that has not been elicited Jerry did not simply remember to steam the in any way by marketers —eliminating the milk, but portrayed it as “a voice” that “called Journal of Marketing Research 16 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 17 researcher-induced demand effects of these upscale level. Yet, if the market intelligence methods and of traditional ethnographic of the group is correct, coffee inquiry and interview. The method achieves marketers have barely even begun to plumb all of this in a manner that is far more the depths of taste, status and snob appeal unobtrusive, convenient and accessible than waiting to be explored by discriminating, in- traditional ethnography. It is also far more need-of-market-education coffee consumers. economical. Experimental and innovative online As the consumer verbatims and coffee consumers offer a range of discoveries descriptions provided above may attest, that, like a lead user analysis, inform our online consumers tend to be knowledgeable, understanding of coffee marketing trends. For educated, and to provide interesting not only does offer the enticing consumption insights. Because message consumption webs and socialization pressures posters are in some respect self-selected for that can turn decaffeinated drinkers into their eloquence, the data they provide can be home-roasting, home-brewing, espresso extraordinarily rich. Online posters appear to savorers, willing to throw out four shots of spend large amounts of time and money on expensive brew in search of the all-elusive their focal consumption activity. By carefully but sublimely satisfying “god shot,” but it evaluating their innovative ideas, their also suggests that there is far more to coffee knowledge base and their consumer insights, consumption than the in-person “social,” marketing researchers can obtain useful “communal,” and socially responsible aspects information similar to that obtained from that has been so successfully exploited by “lead users” (von Hippel 1986, 1988). Ideas Starbucks. New brands and blends of beans, for innovative trends in particular realms of new means of delivering the freshest of fresh consumption such as novel product concepts beans (online and off), new means of roasting, may thus be initiated by investigations that new bean roasting services, new espresso and begin with “netnography.” However, careful cappuccino machines, new forms of education consideration and cross-validation of the and instruction, new coffee tasting clubs, and online data will be critical to avoiding being new types of cafés are super-premium misled by overly zealous or vocal community opportunities that await further evaluation and members. Similarly, cross-validation and a exploration by opportunistic new product careful categorical analysis will be required to developers and market educators. understand the relationship of different types From the practical standpoint of online community member to typical online professional marketing researchers, and offline consumers. identifying appropriate online communities Implications of for particular marketing research clients is Netnography. Given the familiar diffusion of more art than science. As this innovations model, it can easily be argued “netnography” demonstrates, the information that today’s devoted or extreme consumer present in a particular newsgroup is likely to perspective can yield important insights into be of more value to certain types of industry the more mainstream consumer behavior of players. In , the information is tomorrow (von Hippel 1988). The particularly valuable to online and offline implications of this marketing research for marketers of high-end espresso makers, wise coffee marketers are thus considerable. It roasters, grinders, cafés, roasted and may have appeared, in the wake of Starbucks, unroasted coffee beans, and those selling that marketers had been one-upped by the coffee connoisseurship-related goods. Seattle coffeehouse craze, and had missed the However, the information provided in opportunity to raise the market to its new the “netnography” about coffee’s cultural Journal of Marketing Research 17 Vol. XXXIX (February 2002), 61-72 18 cachet (relating it to social distinction, example demonstrates, “netnography” can be artisanship, craftsmanship, personal a useful, flexible, ethically-sensitive and involvement, passion, authenticity, humanity unobtrusive method adapted to the purpose of and religious devotion) might be useful in studying the language, motivations, articulating a range of positioning and consumption linkages and symbols of branding strategies with wider appeal. For consumption-oriented online communities. example, newsgroup participants’ critique of Starbucks brand meaning (seen as REFERENCES mechanistic, dispassionate, oppressive, overly large and lacking humanity or a human touch) Almquist, Eric and Kenneth J. 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