AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHNIC

IDENTITY ON BLACK STUDENTS’ SPORT CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Jatong Ahmed Baba, M.A.; M.S. Ed.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University 2003

Dissertation Committee:

Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Advisor Approved by Dr. Donna L. Pastore ______Dr. Pat West Adviser

College of Education

ABSTRACT

Understanding the inclination of groups of individuals to adopt a predictable behavior in sport consumption is the ultimate aim of bringing the sport product to the consumer. Sport management professionals need to understand how different people are attracted to specific sport activities. Previous research has shown that culturally and ethnically-based consumption phenomena hold important clues for marketing strategy.

Additionally, cultural and ethnic phenomena have been used to explain why minority ethnic groups respond to product symbolism in their consumption decisions.

The purpose of the study was to further explore the sport behavior of Black consumers as a culturally based sport consumption community. To do so, this study examined the manner in which personal values and ethnic identity (predictor variables) influenced the sport consumption preferences and sport consumption frequencies

(criterion variables) of Black students (n = 229). The instrument used to capture personal values was Kahle’s (1983) List of Values (LOV) scale (which consisted of two subdimensions of Internal Values and External Values). Ethnic identity was captured using Brown, Condor, Mathews, Wade, and Williams’ (1986) Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale

(which consisted of three subdimensions of Self-Definition, Self-Esteem, and Affect).

The study sample was a convenience sample of participants from a Midwestern university

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aged between 17-53 years made up of graduate (12.2%) and undergraduate (87.8%) students.

Significant correlations were found between ethnic identity and personal values.

Descriptive results revealed that most important personal value was self-respect. The results of a series of multivariate multiple regressions revealed that influence of personal values on the participants sport consumption preferences and frequencies was generally insignificant. In contrast, the dimensions of ethnic identity significantly influenced sport consumption preferences and frequencies. For example: (a) Self-Definition was a positive predictor of the participants’ consumption preference and frequency for the sport of basketball, and (b) Self-Esteem was a negative predictor of the participants’ consumption preferences and frequency for the sport of football.

Significant correlations were also found between consumption preferences and consumption frequencies, suggesting that these variables were good measures of actual consumption behavior. Also, the findings that basketball was the most preferred and frequently consumed sport, provided support for previous research that identified this sport as one of the most preferred among Blacks (Bernstein, 1999; Simmons Market

Research, 1994; Armstrong, 2002). Another important finding of the current research was that gender was not a differentiation factor regarding the influence of personal values and ethnic identity on sport consumption. The results generally support the infusion of aspects of culture into the sport behavior inquiry of ethnic minority consumers (as suggested by Armstrong, 2001; 2002). This study demonstrated the complexity of understanding the psychosocial dynamics of sport consumption.

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DEDICATION

To my wife and son

My mother and Mother-in-law

and

My brothers and sisters

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I owe a lot of gratitude to several people through whose instrumentality this dissertation has been brought to fruition.

My sincere thanks go to Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong for being instrumental in shaping my studies and the key figure whose constructive criticisms and advice contributed immensely toward the completion of this study. Thank you, Dr. Armstrong, for being an inspiration and for allowing me ample freedom to conceptualize what I was trying to do as well as for shinning the beacon to show me the way out of the wilderness. Your encouragement was always helpful.

I most gratefully acknowledge with thanks the contribution of my dissertation committee members, Dr. Donna L. Pastore and Dr. Pat West, for their critical reviews, meticulous analysis of the research process, and continuous encouragement. Dr. Pastore’s reviews were especially helpful as a critical eye to ensure accuracy. Dr. West’s critical reviews and her help in the conceptualization of the study focus is appreciated with thanks.

I acknowledge with thanks the role played by Dr. Packianathan Chelladurai in getting my colleagues to provide further useful reviews. I found their comments to be both informational and interesting. My thanks to Dr. Mensah Kutame of the Chicago

State University for his role as the survey administrator and for taking time off his busy

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schedule to assist in the collection of the questionnaires. Thanks also to Dr. Reginald

Ocansey of SUNY-College at Brockport for his technical support in having the questionnaires printed for me and to Emmanuel Gyimah for supervising the printing of the survey instrument at SUNY-Brockport.

Finally, I want to thank my wife, Mariana, and son, Carlos, for their tremendous support and encouragement through this seemingly never-ending process. Thanks to all my friends in Ghana, especially Sam Arday, Benson Baba, and Kofi Bonney, for calling in during this period to offer encouragement.

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VITA

January 1, 1955.……………………………...... Born - Bolga, Ghana

1977-1977.……Diploma in Philology (Romanian Language), Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

1978-1981.……B. A. (Physical Education & Sport), Institute of Physical Education & Sport (IEFS), Bucharest, Romania.

1981-1982.……M. A. ((Physical Education & Sport), Institute of Physical Education & Sport (IEFS), Bucharest, Romania.

1980- 1982.……Advanced Diploma in Team Handball Coaching, National Council of Physical Education & Sport (CNEFS), Bucharest, Romania.

1982-1983.……Advanced Diploma in Soccer Coaching, National Council of Physical Education & Sport (CNEFS), Bucharest, Romania.

1999-2000.……MS. Ed in Sport Management, SUNY-College at Brockport, New York.

2001-present….Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

PUBLICATIONS

Armstrong, K & Baba, J. A. (In Progress). The psychosocial study of sport in Ghana, Africa: Implications for sport development. International Journal of Sport Marketing. Paper presented at 73rd Annual OAHPERD Convention in December 4-6, 2002 at Cleveland, OH.

Baba, J. A. (2000). An appraisal of the implementation process of sport policy in Ghana. An unpublished dissertation for the award of master of science in education. SUNY-College at Brockport

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Baba, J. A. (1997) Psychosocial study of high performance Ghanaian sportswomen. Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 2(1), 47-55

Baba, J. A., Amui, J. C., Boateng, T. A., & Asiamoah, T. (1994). Physical education for Senior Secondary Schools. Bombay: A. Gangram & Sons.

Baba, J. A. (September, 1988). Decentralization of sports in Ghana. Super Sports 35, 11-17.

Baba, J. A. (June 1988). “Perestroika of Ghana sports. STC Journal, 1(1), 32-45.

Baba, J. (September, 1986). An historical and technical perspective of soccer. Sporting Times, 78, 5-11

Baba, J. A. (1982) Measurement of the psychomotor aptitudes of team handball players. Students’ Scientific Research Communication Journal. IEFS

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Education Physical Activity and Educational Service Studies in Sport Management

Minor Field: Sport Consumer Behavior Study

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract………………………………...... ii

Dedication………………………………...... iv

Acknowledgments………………………………...... v

Vita………………………………...... vii

List of Tables………………………………...... xiv

List of Figures………………………………...... xvi

Chapters:

1. Introduction………………………………...... 1

Consumption Community………………………………...... 3

Culture and Consumption..………………………………...... 4

Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption..……………………….8

Personal Values.……….……………...... 8

Ethnic Identity………………………………...... ……………9

Black Consumers and Sport Consumption………………………………11

Importance of Culture to Black Consumers………..……………13

Importance of Personal Values to Black Consumers...………….15

Importance of Ethnic Identity to Black Consumers.…………….18

Values-Attitude-Preference-Behavior Relationship…….….……………20

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Values and Attitudes.………………………………...... 20

Attitudes and Preferences………………………………...... 20

Preferences and Behavior………………………………...... 21

Statement of the Problem………………………………...... 22

Significance of the Study………………………………...... 23

Definition of Terms………………………………...... 24

Assumptions.………………………………...... 27

Limitations………………………………...... 28

Delimitation………………………………...... 29

2 Literature Review………………………………...... 30

Concept of Culture……………………………………...... 30

Culture………………………………...... 30

Subculture……………….………………...... 32

Culture and Sport Consumption………………………………...... 48

The Sport Consumption Process.………..……………………....49

Consumption Explained Through Social Identity…….…………………51

Consumption Communities..……………………………...... 53

Black Consumers as a Consumption Community………...……..55

Role of Personal Values in Sport Consumption..…….…….……………59

Role of Ethnicity in Sport Consumption………………………………...60

Conclusion of Literature Review…….………………...... 63

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The Culture-Sport Consumption Figure…………………………66

3. Methodology………………………………...... 72

Research Design………………………………...... 72

Population and Sample………………………………...... 73

Target Population………………………………...... 73

Sampling………………………………...... 74

Sample Size………………………………...... 76

Data Collection Procedures………………………………...... 77

Instrumentation………………………………...... 78

Measurement………………………………...... 79

Predictor Variables………………………………...... 79

Criterion Variables………………………………...... 82

Ancillary Sport Consumption Items…………………………….85

Demographic Data………………………………...... 85

Validation of Test Instruments.………………………………...... 85

Face Validity………………………………...... 85

Content Validity………………………………...... 86

Reliability of Test Instrument………………………………...... 86

Data Analysis Procedures………………………………...... 87

4. Results………………………………...... 90

Results of the Pilot Test………………………………...... 91

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Reliability of Predictor Variables………………………...... 91

Validity of Predictor Variables…………….………...... 92

Modifications to Questionnaire………………………………...... 92

Results of Main Study…………………….…………...... 93

Sample Characteristics…………………….…………...... 93

Descriptive Analyses of the Criterion Variable……………………….95

Sport Consumption Preference for Entire Sample………….…95

Sport Consumption Preferences by Gender……………….…..97

Sport Consumption Frequency for Entire Sample……...….….98

Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender………………….…99

Correlations between Criterion (Sport Consumption) Variables....….100

Motivational Influences on Sport Consumption Decisions……....….102

Analysis of the Predictor Variables…………………………...... 103

The LOV Scale………………………………...... 103

Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale………………………...……...... 105

Correlations Between Predictor Variables.……………...………..….106

Regression Analysis of Predictor and Criterion Variables…...…..….108

Tests of Assumptions of Regression Analysis……………..………...115

5 Discussion………………………………...... 117

Discussion of Sample Demographics…………………...………...... 117

Ancillary Motivations for Sport Consumption…………...….119

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Discussion of Predictor Variables………………………………...... 120

Discussions of Criterion Variables………………………………...... 124

Managerial Implications………………………………...... 126

Theoretical………………………………...... 127

Practical………………………………...... 127

Study Limitations………………………………...... 131

Recommendations for Future Research……………………....……...132

Conclusion……………………………..…...... 135

REFERENCES..……………………………...... 138

APPENDIX A - Research Questionnaire……………………….……………...... 151

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Schwartz’s Value Types ………………………………...... 35

3.1 The two dimensions of the LOV scale (Kahle, 1983)………………………..…80

3.2 Item categorization of the Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986)…………..82

3.3 Variables Constituting the Sport Consumption Behavior (Criterion)………..…83

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Study Sample………………………...…….....94

4.2 Mean and Standard Deviations of Sport Consumption Preferences Consumption Frequency of Entire Sample………………………………...... 96

4.3 Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Preference by Gender……...………98

4.4 Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender….……….…100

4.5 Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Scores of the Criterion Variables………………………………...... 101

4.6 Reliability of subscales of LOV Instrument………………………………...... 104

4.7 Reliability of subscales of Ethnic Identity Scale……………………………….106

4.8 Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Subscales of the Predictor Variables………………………………...... 107

4.9 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Sport Activities from Predictor Variables………………………………...... 109

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4.10 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Televised Sport from Predictor Variables……………………………….....110

4.11 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables…..………...... 111

4.12 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Sport Attendance from Predictor Variables………………………………...... 113

4.13 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Consumption of Televised Sport from Predictor Variables………………………………...... 114

4.14 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Reading Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables………………………………...... 115

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Schwartz’s Circumplex of Ten Value Types……………………………….....37

2.2 The Impact of Ethnic Identity on the development of Attitudes……………………………………………………...... 43

2.4 The Role of Personal Values and Ethnicity in the Development of Sport Consumption Behavior Among Black in America…………………..70

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Sport consumption, in the context of this study, refers to the manner in which individuals consume sport as spectators or participants. It refers to a process of interdependent practices that focuses on treating consumption as: (a) a continuous process of self and group articulation and (b) a source of consumer communication.

Accordingly, through the process of consumption, the individual is provided an avenue to communicate the self to society (Belk, 1988; Stevenson, 1998). Based on this contention, it may be surmised that the type of sport products people consume and their consumption pattern would communicate elements of that person’s lifestyle, values, beliefs, personality, interests, and attitudes to the society.

Accordingly, sport consumption is likely to be a symbolic activity which serves as a vehicle of personal and social communication about the self. For example, a vivid illustration of the symbolic importance of sport participation is the role that membership of a national select team (such as an Olympics team) in basketball, soccer, track and field athletics and other sport activities plays as a status enhancement tool for the participating athletes. For individuals who are sport spectators, attendance at certain sporting events can also represent a form of status enhancement depicting not only the consumer’s 1 attitude towards sport but also their financial and personal success in life. Another typical example of the symbolic nature of sport consumption is the acquisition and display of sport merchandise and memorabilia by some consumers as evidence of their affiliation with the sport product, team, or event. This process of social interaction and communication of self and collective to others is one way in which members of the society respond to the environmental stimuli and constitutes the basis of culture.

Therefore, an understanding of the cultural implications of personal and social variates influencing sport consumption behaviors is paramount to successful sport marketing because it would help to satisfactorily facilitate the exchange between sport products and events and sport consumers.

A review of current literature shows an increasing interest in identity-constructive consumption in a global environment because we live in a world in which boundaries across national and geographic cultures are dissolving. Additionally, consumers are increasingly seeking and expressing sub-cultural, ethnic, and personal identity in their consumption patterns. Identity-constructive behavior in sport is manifested in consumption processes typical of certain cultures (Pons et al., 2001) such as identified in the consumption of ice hockey by Canadians, soccer by Brazilians, martial arts by

Chinese, or football by Americans. Since sport has many meanings to different cultures, the values inherent in it carry very different meanings to these different cultures. There is a growing importance of sport and its association with culture and more research is needed to identify the impact of cultural variables on the consumption of sport activities.

Consequently, it is important for sport marketers who are seeking to send their messages to specific ethnic market segments, to identify the cultural elements which can 2 significantly influence their consumption patterns and behaviors. This study seeks to further explore the influence of culture on sport consumption by examining the sport behaviors of Black consumers as a distinct sub-cultural consumer group referred to as a consumption community.

Consumption Community

The concept of consumption communities was introduced by Shoham and Kahle

(1996) to denote a group of people having common consumption interests. Schouten and

McAlexander (1995) used the term “subculture of consumption” to denote a distinctive subgroup that self-selects on the basis of a shared commitment to the consumption of a particular product class or brand. A consumption community is best conceptualized as a characteristic of society rather than the totality of the society, because the culture of a consumption community is not exclusively what the community is made up of but also what members have in common with regard to a particular product/service. In this regard, a consumption community is understood in terms of its expressive and symbolic aspects that guide the consumption behavior of members of the community and also provide a background against which members interpret their consumption experience.

Kozinets (1997) suggested that the intimate relationship between entertainment, spiritual beliefs, mass commodification and consumption, as exists in the economic domain, may be transferable to the exploration of other consumption behaviors and subcultures of consumption such as music and sport. He observed, that the construction of tastes, for example, “is a key activity of consumption subcultures, defining the boundaries of their shared interpretations of social reality” (p. 472). The notion of the

3 sport consumption process having a unifying theme for consumers, providing a forum for ethnic manifestation of cultural values, and contributing to the reinforcement of those symbols, rituals, and values that are important to the sustenance of the group psyche, underscores the support provided for the existence of sport consumption communities.

There is a wealth of literature supporting the notion that sport allows for the manifestation of community spirit, it encourages the formation of distinct communities, and has a direct impact on consumers’ preferences for specific sport activities or teams.

Consumption communities are formed around subcultures, although they may be based on values, race/ethnicity, gender, type of sport consumed (such as extreme sports, certain professional sports, etc.) or any other common or unifying features or characteristics. The consumption phenomenon which emphasizes the exploration of antecedent conditions

(Witkowski, 1998; Kozinets, 1997; Korf & Malan, 2001) and applied in sport consumption behavior has evolved as a result of research seeking to compare the consumption preferences of several consumption communities (Americans, Japanese,

Koreans, Europeans, Chinese, etc.) with national culture as a principal explanatory variable. Nonetheless, research on Black consumers as a culturally/ethnically-based consumption community is lacking.

Culture and Consumption

The growing identification of theoretical phenomena such as consumption differentiation, niche marketing, identity-based consumption symbols, lifestyle clustering, and sub-cultural consumption or consumption communities are evidence of the rising need for enhancing the cultural understanding of sport consumer behavior by

4 sport managers and marketing practitioners. Culture has been defined variously as values, beliefs and symbols shared by members of a group or society. It includes patterns of behavior, learned responses, basic assumptions, habits and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting. McCracken (1986, p. 72) views culture from two perspectives - on one hand, as a “lens” through which the individual views phenomena and, on the other hand, as a “blueprint” of human activity that determines the co-ordinates of social action and productive activity and specifies behavior. In one perspective, culture mediates the way in which a society responds to environmental stimuli and change; another perspective is that culture represents an environmental variable that is accommodated by society. According to Jelinek et al, (1983), culture is both a process and an outcome because it shapes human interactions and is also the outcome of those interactions. A distinguishing aspect of culture is that it evolves over time and is therefore rooted in history, collectively held and sufficiently complex enough to resist attempts at manipulation.

The concept of culture has become increasingly central to the consumer research literature (Holt, 1997; McCracken, 1986; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995), being conceptualized as a dynamic collection of diverse practices and transnational flows reflecting the concept of subcultures (Appadurai, 1990). The core of culture is formed by values and norms derived from feelings that are often unconscious and rarely discussable, and are not observable but are manifested in alternatives of behavior. However, the hybrids of culture (subcultures) assume the role of providing more specific identification and socialization for their members. One of the most important attributes that distinguishes one subculture from another is the relative emphasis on social relationships 5 which produce distinctive patterns of behavior manifested in daily interactions with the environment. An example of such manifestations is identified in the consumption of sport activities within different subcultures.

Cultures at any level have two major components: (a) a set of shared beliefs and values that bind a group of people together and helps them to make sense of their environments and (b) patterns of behavior that reflect those beliefs and values (Trice &

Beyer, 1983). In order to appreciate and understand the cultural significance of sport, we need to consider both. Many aspects of sport spectating function as forms of culture where people express, affirm, and celebrate their cultural beliefs and values. Typically most sport competitions function as cultural rites because they are enacted repeatedly on similar occasions as social dramas acted out like parts of a play with well defined roles for both players and fans to perform. For example, activities such as pre-game rallies, press conferences, supporters meetings, and organization of supporters’ clubs serve as cultural manifestations where different rituals are performed.

The ceremonial entrance of teams to the field of play, the beating of drums or the singing of club anthems, prayers on the field of play, the appearance of mascots, and the routines of the cheerleaders are all accepted forms and procedures through which culture is enacted (Klapp, 1956). Hearing the club's song, for example, can evoke in fans many emotions and values associated with the club or the culture within which it originates and is nurtured and can stir people’s emotions (Beyer & Hannah, 2000). For these reasons,

Hartman (2000) described sport as a contested cultural terrain and a social site where ethnic images, ideologies, and inequalities are constructed, transformed, and constantly struggled over. Kluckhohn (1976) hypothesized that competitive sport involvement, 6 prevalent among African-Americans, was likely to be a culturally determined behavior,

possibly an avenue for social mobility and status or a tradition. This notion has been

confirmed through some research findings (e.g., Armstrong, 2002; 2003; Spreitzer &

Snyder, 1990) that sought to establish the relationships between culture and sport.

Due to the international and multifaceted appeal of sport, the sport consumption

process is a good carrier of cross-cultural interplay and ethnic socialization because: (a) it

is imbued with symbolic psychosocial meaning (as evidenced in the identification and

psychological attachment sport consumers have to sport team logos, mascots, and

rituals), (b) it is rife with a history and tradition full of symbolism (e.g., manifestations at

the opening and closing of Olympic Games and Bowl Games), (c) it offers evidence of

class status (as in the consumption of golf as an elite sport), (d) it relates to personal

expression of identity, belonging, and differentiation, and (e) it has the capacity to

provide a sense of group harmony, spirit, and cooperation (Belk, 1988). While sport

sociologists have long examined the manner in which aspects of a person’s culture may

influence the dynamics of sport participation, a focus on the cultural phenomenon in

sport marketing research is lacking. Therefore, further research on culturally-related sport

consumption behavior is warranted.

Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption

Several studies have been devoted to determine the impact of cultural variables on consumer behavior (Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983). For example, Nelson and Shavitt (1997) explored differences in values and moral obligations between consumers in different cultural environments (Denmark and USA). They found that while the Danes focused on 7 individual autonomy and equality, the Americans emphasized autonomy and uniqueness operating together in the competitive environment. Other studies that examined how ethnicity and values have a unique impact on consumption behavior (e.g., Holland and

Gentry, 1997; Penaloza, 1994; Reilly & Wallendorf, 1987; Shimp & Sharma, 1987;

Stayman & Deshpande, 1989; Stronman and Becker, 1987) found significant differences in consumption patterns and values between different ethnic or racial groups. Therefore, it is important for sport marketers, seeking to send their messages to specific ethnic market segments, to identify the cultural elements which can significantly influence sport consumer behavior. The two aspects of culture that are central to this study are personal values and ethnic identity.

Personal Values

Values represent one of the most critical factors contributing to cultural influences on a global plane. According to Howard and Woodside (1984), values play a key role in shaping attitudes and behavior. They are a function of personality, socioeconomic status, and age (Shoham et al., 1997) and guiding principles that influence attitudes and shape behaviors (Homer & Kahle, 1988). Values are central to human behavior and help people to place special importance on what they hold in high esteem and nurture. They are not imposed but are developed through the accumulation of life experiences and interaction with other members within the society.

Through the process of daily experience each value becomes defined in terms of the kind of general goal it represents and assumes a place on the scale of an individual’s value priorities. As a value moves up the scale of priorities it gets classified according to the interests it serves (Schwartz, 1990). According to Kahle (1983) values can be 8 grouped into internal and external loci of control which is referred to as the degree to which a person feels that he/she has control over the environment around them and those out of their control. Kahle identified six internal-oriented values and three external- oriented ones. The former include sense of accomplishment, self-respect, self-fulfillment, warm relationships with others, fun and enjoyment, and excitement while the latter comprise a sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected.

Ethnic Identity

Ethnicity has been considered by researchers to be a difficult construct to investigate because many individuals in multicultural environments do not always conform to a single method of categorization (Ullah, 1987). More common among children of mixed ethnic parentage is the tendency to consider themselves as members of two or more ethnic groups since one ethnic label does not quite appropriately describe them. Hutnik (1991) identified four groups of ethnic categorization: (a) Dissociative - identification with one’s own ethnic minority group, (b) Assimilative - Identification with majority ethnic group, (c) Acculturative - identification with both the minority and

majority ethnic groups, and (d) Marginal - no association with either the majority or the minority ethnic groups.

In an attempt to bring further distinctiveness to the concept of ethnic identification, Verkuyten and Kwa (1996) distinguished between the cognitive act of classifying and describing oneself or self-labeling (identification of) and a wish to increase similarity and belonging to an ethnic group (identification with). This distinction supports Phinney’s (1990) observation that a person’s sense of belonging may differ from 9 that person’s self-labeling in ethnic terms. For instance, individuals from mixed parentage may use a single ethnic label even though they may consider themselves to be members of more than one ethnic group. Tajfel (1978) opines that since a person’s social identity is part of his/her self-concept, then individuals with strong awareness of their ethnic group membership would often describe themselves in terms of their ethnic origin.

From the social identification perspective, therefore, a strong awareness of ethnic group membership (self-definition) would provoke a high level of in-group preference

(Verkuyten, 1992). It is therefore expected that individuals high in own-group identification would be high in own-group-oriented patterns of preferences (Affect) since such a manifestation represents a confirmation of the level of their self-esteem.

According to Brown et al. (1986), three facets of ethnic identity are: awareness of group membership (which contributes to self-definition), evaluation (which relates to self- esteem) and affect.

As implied previously, culture is a comprehensive construct. Therefore, it is likely that cultural variables such as values and ethnic identity influence and are influenced by each other. For example, a number of studies (e.g., Holland and Gentry,

1997; Penaloza, 1994; Reilly & Wallendorf, 1987; Shimp & Sharma, 1987; Stayman &

Deshpande, 1989; Stronman and Becker, 1987) have examined the interactive manner in which cultural variables of ethnicity and values impact consumption behavior. Such research revealed significant differences in consumption patterns and values between different ethnic or racial groups. Research evidence has linked the concept of group differentiation to social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978) and self-categorization theory

(Turner, 1987). According to Tajfel (1978), social identity is part of an individual’s self- 10 concept which is derived from knowledge about their membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership. This suggests that the collective values that an individual holds as personal and nurtures, such as a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and self-fulfillment, help define self-worth and reinforce group membership. As Tajfel (1978) purports, identification with an ethnic group means an acknowledgment and confirmation of those collective values that have been internalized as personal values reinforcing the self-concept and increasing similarity and belonging to the ethnic group. From this perspective it is likely that, while values and ethnic identity are distinct constructs, they may also be significantly related.

Black Consumers and Sport Consumption

The Black community in the US (which comprises of Africans, African-

Americans, and Blacks from the West Indies/Caribbean and Latin America) constitutes less than 15% of the American population, yet they represent an important and lucrative target segment. Black consumers are an important target for sport marketing because they wield substantial purchasing power in a variety of traditional products and services such as automobiles, financial services, sport and sport products, communication, computers, fashion, and music. The Black subculture, as a major economic and social force (Pitts et al., 1989) is different from Whites in its consumption patterns, media habits and reaction to advertisements (Stronman & Becker, 1987). Research evidence, however, shows that

Blacks are more emotionally and behaviorally involved in sport than Whites (Armstrong,

1998), although their attendance rates at professional and collegiate sport events deceptively indicate a low percentage of active consumption. There has arisen the need,

11 therefore, to identify the consumption pattern of Blacks in the US to provide an opportunity for sport marketers to develop specific and targeted marketing-mix strategies that would satisfy the needs of this cultural entity.

Blacks are members of a “distinct subculture that possesses a complex set of behaviors, traditions, languages, values, and icons that is unique, profound, and distinct from the white subculture" (Pitts et al., 1989; p. 322). In fact, Black culture places high premium or value on their traditions, symbols, accomplishments, struggles, and experiences. An important aspect of the cultural experience, the struggle for fulfillment, social mobility and status, belongingness, accomplishment, and respect in a White dominated hegemonic culture are an important part of Black consciousness and reflects how they would perceive any message targeted at them. For example, Pitts et al. (1989) found a depth of difference in Black and White responses to culturally based messages.

They also found that, although the personal values of both Blacks and Whites were

12 similar, yet Black respondents responded with strong comprehension and perception of the Black culturally rich value information.

The choice of a specific sporting event or an orientation toward a specific sport carries a strong cultural meaning in every culture. From the sport consumption perspective, the cultural import of some sport activities seems to have specific attractiveness to Black people (e.g., basketball, football, soccer, boxing, track and field).

Bernstein (1999) provided evidence of Black consumers’ affinity for professional football, basketball, and tennis while Armstrong (1998) revealed that they are avid consumers of sport offered by historically Black colleges/universities (HBCU). The exhibition of such unique attitudes and behavioral tendencies in the sport consumption process are meant to serve as informational cues and reference points for the self-image of the Black culture. While some ethnic groups in this multiethnic and multicultural environment are becoming increasingly disconnected from a sense of community due to changing lifestyles and technological innovations, Black ethnic groups continue to use sport as a mode of expression of personal and collective values, ethnic identification, and a vehicle for economic and social mobility.

Importance of Culture to Black Consumers

The Black population in America comprise of indigenous African-Americans,

Africans, Black immigrants from the Caribbean/West Indies or Latin America, and Black immigrants from other parts of the world. Some anthropologists and politicians have opined that, due to strong ancestral rights and spiritual connections, Blacks everywhere

13 live and behave in like manner. Nkrumah (1964) and Nobles (1998) observed that even the circumstances of enslavement and years of colonialism have not succeeded to destroy the ancestral rights and spiritual connections of Black people anywhere. Although this conclusion may sound parochial, most keen observers of Black history believe that

Blacks all over the world are African people, and those living in America are simply

African people in the USA.

Many Blacks all over the world have persisted in celebrating their ancestry and maintaining spiritual connections among themselves as part of their racial identity. This spiritual bonding is probably a manifestation of the extended family system, manifested across time, space, and place (Nobles, 1998), that remains a “trademark” of Black culture

(Azibo, 1998) and has contributed immensely to the formation and consolidation of the

Black culture. The growing attention being paid to the Black self-concept is based on the assumption that cultural factors such as ethnic identity, personal/collective values, and beliefs are in most cases dominant factors in the self-concept of youngsters from ethnic minorities (Sellers et al., 1998). The self-concept is a central factor in the global self- esteem of Black people and is powerful enough to influence social behavior and collective identity (Azibo, 1998; Stevenson, 1998; Verkuyten, 1992).

A major concern of the present study, therefore, was to examine the significance of two components of culture (personal values and ethnic identity) to Blacks’ consumption of sport. One of the methodological approaches used in research to identify the persistence of ethnic-oriented behaviors has been to focus on the personal values that

14 are important to the individual’s self-concept or identity. Research evidence has provided

evidence of a strong relationship between self-definition, self-esteem, and affect as

important components of ethnic identity (Brown et al., 1986; Korf & Malan, 2001;

Umana-Taylor, 2003); components that can also be used in the categorization of values

(Driedger, 1976). One assumption this research makes a priori is that both personal

values and ethnic identity are in most cases a dominant factor in the self-concept of

Blacks. These variables, therefore, should be important constructs to consider when

examining Blacks’ sport consumption patterns. Examining the influence of personal

values and ethnic identity to Blacks’ sport consumption is particularly warranted since

these variables often serve to project this social group as a unique entity (Armstrong,

1998; 2002) as well as a consumption community.

Importance of Personal Values to Black Consumers

Schwartz defined personal values as “people’s conceptions of the goals that serve as guiding principles in their lives” (1990: 142). Values, from this perspective, may be considered as internalized normative beliefs that can guide behavior (O’Reilly, Chatman,

& Caldwell, 1991). Values vary in importance and transcend specific situations, while expressing the interests of individuals and the groups they belong to. They are universal motivational concerns (Maslow, 1954) and are cognitive representations of three types of universal human requirements (Schwartz, 1990): (a) biological needs of individuals, (b) requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) survival and welfare needs of groups.

Individuals are born into this reality and have to recognize and withhold, practice, and

15 communicate these requirements to others. The values that individuals cherish are those that would benefit them if acted upon. For example individuals who assert that security is an important principle in their lives would contribute to the attainment of group harmony and stability. Kahle (1983) conducted extensive research to identify the salience of personal values to the consumption process. Consequently, the choice of the sport consumption process for this study assumed that there is something about sport events that promote involvement and make consumers self-segregate or display the propensity to construct a series of symbolic boundaries to identify each other.

Values are fundamentally linked to the psychological process of identity formation in which individuals seek a social identity that provides meaning and belongingness (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). They provide the starting point for group socialization and individuals will identify strongly with group processes if there is congruency between their personal values and those of the social group they are affiliated to. A substantial body of research evidence has shown that when individuals do classify themselves into social categories such as race, ethnicity, gender, and other social affiliations, they do so with intent to use those categories to define themselves. The central role played by personal/collective values is manifested in research on culture which often begins with a set of values and assumptions (O’Reilly, Chatman, &

Caldwell, 1991; Schein, 1985), which typically act as the defining elements around which norms, symbols, rituals, and other cultural activities revolve.

16

Existing research findings provide evidence linking personal and collective values to the consumption process (based on collective conventions which allow for shared responses). Sport manifestations have been identified as evidence for some cultural/ethnic communities to build their own “communitas” (defined as "transcending camaraderie of status equality" and communion with others (see Belk, Wallendorf, &

Sherry, 1999: p. 7), based on their members’ shared values, beliefs, and rituals. As a result, consumers’ devotion to any sport activity would depend on their ability to continually identify value-commonalities to justify the need for the communitas (refer to formation of communitas among Mexican immigrants by Penaloza, 1994). So, when individuals become involved with a product they are influenced by its attributes and situational variables as well as their past experiences with the product and the strength of relevant personal values (Richins & Bloch, 1986).

The high frequency in which Black consumers flock regularly to attend HBCU sport events, suggests that these events provide themes that help promote Black consumers’ sense of belonging. It is likely also that those events provide culturally attractive opportunities salient to Black consumers or foster a distinct sport environment

(resplendent with elements of Black culture and traditions) that are quite different from

“mainstream” sports. The concomitant Afrocentric atmosphere triggers a chain effect of cultural emotions and behavior that increase the excitement of the sport experience of

Black consumers (Armstrong, 2002). The resultant sport experiences at these events do not just become simple recordings of the events in consumers’ mind but complex

17 reconstructions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) that shape their attitudes and influence their repurchase decision making. According to Kahle (1983) values such as a sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected are family-oriented and provide avenues for social integration. The sport consumption environment at HBCU sport events provides opportunities for the manifestation of these values alongside those of fun and enjoyment, and those that reinforce Black social identity.

Research on the influence of personal values and Blacks’ sport consumption is lacking. Nonetheless, it is likely that Black consumers’ preference for and frequency of sport consumption will be influenced by their personal values that are being promoted

(by the sport event or represented by the team/athletes).

Importance of Ethnic Identity to Black Consumers

Ethnicity implies a sense of common descent (Deshpande et al, 1986) or paternal ancestry (Alba & Moore, 1982). The concept of ethnicity is operationally defined in this study as the retention of the culture of a group of people expressed through similar attitudes, values, behaviors, rituals, symbols and taboos, religious manifestations, and food preferences. This concept simply means that one’s culture of origin has been reinforced and has become highly independent to the extent that it is able to withstand the acculturative impact of the social interaction process with dominant culture or other cultures. It means that the several dimensions of the culture of origin are continually being reinforced, rather than isolated and eliminated or traded for the host culture traits, through social interaction. Ethnic identity from this perspective is the manner in which a

18 person is known by himself/herself and by others as belonging to a distinct ethnic group including features that distinguish that person from others (Sellers et al., 1997). It is an identity that defines the person from the perspective of a social group with a distinct culture in terms of similar attitudes, values, behaviors, rituals, symbols, taboos, and preferences. Despite the increase in research on culture, limited research has addressed how ethnic identity affects Blacks’ sport consumption patterns.

The categorization of Africans, African-Americans, and others of African descent from the Caribbean and Latin America into a single ethnic group usually helps to enhance the perception of similarities among members of the Black community and to highlight the group’s distinctiveness to out-group members, although this would tend to create in-group distortions on a few dimensions. Previous categorization (for national census purposes) has also contributed to decrease the psychological distance between several Black ethnic cultures and has facilitated the arousal of in-group empathy. In the sport environment, Blacks have also been identified as a single ethnic entity in terms of sport production and consumption. It can be surmised from this categorization that there exists a unique set of consumption attitudes and behaviors among all people of African descent to warrant the classification. As a result, it would seem to members of the Black community that ethnic identity is an important construct that may define their unique characteristic and the social interaction between in-group members.

Previous research findings have provided evidence showing the preference and consumption pattern of Black consumers. Bernstein’s (1999) evidence of Black

19 consumers attraction to professional football, basketball, and tennis; Armstrong’s (1998) evidence of Black consumers’ affinity for consumption of HBCU sport; or even the

Simmons Market Research report (1994) acknowledging Black consumer’s high consumption of basketball, are evidence of a Black consumption preference and sport consumption behavior. Although the results about the consumption pattern have been mixed, yet it is the evidence provided by Armstrong (2000 & 2002) showing the perception of relevance/importance of sport and the inherent product extensions bothered on Black culture that seem to positively influence the sport consumption behaviors of

Blacks. Research has shown that a stronger identification with an ethnic group may lead to engaging in behaviors that will offer identity affirmation opportunities (Penaloza,

1994; Richins & Bloch, 1986). Armstrong (2003) concludes that “the ethnic representations found at HBCU sport events may have a particular influence on the sport attendance decisions of Black consumers who are highly identified with African ancestry/ethnicity” (p. 271). Therefore, it is likely that the degree to which Black consumers identify with their ethnic group will influence their sport consumption preferences and frequencies.

Values →Attitude→Preference→Behavior Relationship

Values and Attitudes: Rokeach (1973) defined values as “guides and determinants of social attitudes and ideologies on one hand and social behavior on the other” (p.24). From this perspective, the values-behavior relationship involves attitudes,

20 preferences, and behavioral intentions. The construct “attitude” serves as a moderator of the value-behavior relationship (Homer & Kahle, 1988).

Attitudes and Preferences: An attitude may be defined as a relatively enduring evaluative orientation toward some object of experience (Schellenberg, 1993). Attitudes are relatively enduring, have a positive or negative character, and have direction. Objects of attitudes are those features of experience with some recurring importance to the person concerned. Social psychologists commonly distinguish three components of an attitude: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component consists of the set of beliefs that an individual holds about an object. The affective component consists of the feelings an individual has toward the object while the behavioral component consists of the predisposition to behave in a particular way in relation to the object.

Preferences and Behavior: An attitude is primarily an internalized predisposition to act in a particular way manifested either through action or through the expression of an opinion. One cannot know about an attitude except through its behavioral manifestation such as through preferences for attitude objects, expression of opinions, or a consumption behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Blackwell et al., 2001; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;

Reibstein, 1978). However, because of the directional nature of an attitude, it is first manifested in the form of a preference for one attitude object over another leading to an action (behavior). Reibstein (1978) believes that behavior is preceded by a “behavioral intention”, therefore preference is a predictor of the intention to act. According to

Blackwell et al. (2001), the intent to act is not a perfect predictor of actual behavior but it

21 may accurately predict behavior under the right circumstances. In consumer behavior literature, consumers with positive attitudes toward a product are more likely to hold favorable consumption intentions and, under specific situations, purchase and consume the product. Satisfaction with the purchase decision will reinforce attitude toward the product leading to favorable repurchase intentions.

It can be surmised that Black consumers’ attitude toward their African heritage, culture, and traditions has led to an increase preference and vicarious consumption of

HBCU sport. Therefore, the attitude-sport consumption behavior of Blacks may be moderated by their preference for sport with elements that reflect the African heritage, culture, and tradition. Consequently, sport consumption preference may have a strong relationship to consumption behavior manifested through frequent attendance at sport events and/or frequency of consumption of electronic and print media sport.

Statement of the Problem

Black culture in America is diverse, constituting people from many locations in the world, many age and demographic groups, and many ethnic backgrounds (African-

Americans, Africans, and Black immigrants from the Caribbean and Latin America). The current focus of this research is to investigate the sport behaviors of Black consumers as a consumption community in the US, identified not by skin color but by the salience of their personal values and ethnic identity. Notwithstanding the growing sociological and economical importance of Black consumers to the sport industry (Armstrong, 1998;

22 2002), a gap exists, as research on the manner in which culture influences the sport behaviors of Black consumers is lacking.

The study proposes to fill the gap on sport consumer behavior by contributing a cultural perspective to the emerging field of consumption communities. In so doing, this study seeks to help address the challenges of reaching Black consumers as a consumption community in a multicultural and multiethnic environment. Such information could inform the marketing mix strategies sport organizations employ to reach Black consumers. Additionally, understanding culturally-driven behaviors (as manifested or as influenced by personal values and ethnic identity) can also assist researchers in developing culturally-appropriate instruments to better understand the theoretical premise of Blacks’ consumption of sport in the context of contemporary consumer behavior.

There is very little research and few theories or models specifically depicting and/or predicting how aspects of culture such as personal values and ethnic identity may influence Blacks’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies. As such, the research questions explored in this study were as follows:

Research Question 1: Are personal values and ethnic identity significantly

correlated?

Research Question 2a: Do personal values significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption preferences?

Research Question 2b: Do personal values significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption frequencies?

23

Research Question 3a: Does ethnic identity significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption preferences?

Research Question 3b: Does ethnic identity significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption frequencies?

Research Question 4: Are Black consumers’ sport consumption preferences and

their sport consumption frequencies significantly correlated?

Significance of the Study

Previous studies in the area of culture and formation of consumption communities

(e.g., Armstrong, 1998; Fisher, 1998; Rokeach, 1973; Schein 1985; Shoham & Kahle,

1996) have generally identified cultural values as important in determining the consumption behavior of individuals. However, as Cohen and Bailey (1997) and

Armstrong (1998) pointed out, previous research in sport has failed to view sport consumption as being impacted upon by shared cultural beliefs and values, given the salience of sport to Black culture. Although some recent studies have tried to correct the flaws of prior research, the difference in sport consumption behavior in terms of ethnicity has still been under-examined. The current scholarly orthodoxy on ethnic identity indicates that although ethnicity is widely used to identify cultural differences, the relationship between ethnicity, culture, and consumption may be more complex than usually stated. Secondly, although the process of identification with an ethnic group is an enduring and systematic communication of culture with the capacity of making a culture

24 distinct and unique, yet it portrays ethnic identity as a very complex construct to

investigate. Several researchers believe that all aspects of culture should be studied at the

level of social interactions (such as in sport consumption). This study is significant in that

it has made an attempt to investigate the relationships between two aspects of culture

(personal values and ethnic identity) at a certain level of social interaction (sport

consumption) to establish the predictive capacity of the former in sport consumption

behavior.

Definition of Terms

African-American: The term is used in this study to refer to those individuals of

African descent who have received a significant portion of their socialization in the

United States (Sellers et al., 1998). These individuals share a heritage and set of shared

values which are related to their common historical experiences in American society.

Blacks: This term is used in the context of this research from a more Pan-African perspective to define all persons of African descent resident in the United States of

America (Nobles, 1998). The use of “all members of the Black race” could most appropriately characterize this concept to collectively include African-Americans,

Africans, Blacks from the Caribbean/West Indies and Latin America, etc.

Consumer Ethnocentrism: This term represents a strong belief held by a group of

consumers about the need to consume local events and products irrespective of the

fascination and superiority of the quality of competing external products and events.

Ethnocentric sport consumers believe that consuming sport products produced by and

25 within the local community gives them a sense of identity, feelings of belongingness, an

acceptable form of consumption behavior (Han, 1988), and enhances group identity

(Grant, 1992).

Consumption Community: Shoham and Kahle (1996) defined this term as a

society of people with common consumption interests in terms of expressive and

symbolic behavior of the consumption experience.

Culture: This term is defined in this study as a pattern of shared values, beliefs, and symbols that help individuals understand group functioning and provide them with norms for acceptable behavior as well as habitual and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting characteristic of members of the group (Schein, 1985; Sheridan,

1992; Spreitzer & Snyder, 1990).

Ethnicity: In the context of this study, ethnicity refers to the retention of the

culture of a group of people expressed through similar attitudes, values, behaviors,

rituals, symbols, taboos, religious manifestations, and food preferences (Smedley, 1993)

Ethnic Identification: This term refers to the cultural practices that serve to

distinguish members of a social group as having a distinct identity from members of

othersocial groups (Ullah, 1987). Ethnic identification is the degree to which an ethnic

group membership affects an individual’s self-definition, self-esteem, and affect (Brown

et al., 1986). Put another way, ethnic identification refers to a psychological and

behavioral attachment or adaptation to one’s ethnic group.

Ethnic Socialization: This term is defined in this study as a developmental process by which people acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic

26 group and come to see themselves and others as members of such groups (Rotheram &

Phinney, 1987).

Identity: Used in the context of this study, this term is defined as the manner in which a person is known by himself/herself and by others including features that distinguish any person from others (Sellers et al., 1997).

Identity-Constructive Behavior: The term is used in this study as a reference to the actions associated with consumption of symbols, artifacts, rituals, and myths by an individual seeking to express distinctive subcultural, ethnic and personal identity (Schein,

1985; Schouten & McAlexander, 1995).

Situational Ethnicity: This term is defined in this study as the image a person has of himself or herself and of the role he or she is playing in a particular situation (Stayman

& Desphande, 1989).

Sport Consumption: Used in this study, it refers to the personal and social process through which individuals consume sport products/services through attendance at sport events, participation in sport activities, or consume sports through the electronic and print media (e.g., newspapers, sport magazines, internet sport news, television sport)

Social Identity: This term refers to that part of an individual’s self concept which derives from knowledge of their membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978; p. 63).

Values: In the context of this study, a value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct is personally or socially preferable to other modes of conduct (Rokeach,

27 1973) and when adhered to can provide a basis of behavior (Rose, Shoham, Kahle, &

Batra, 1994).

Assumptions

A number of assumptions were made in this research study. First, ethnicity has been assumed to be a one-directional construct. For example, in the context of this study, identity with the Black ethnic group does not specifically accommodate individuals in which one parent is not Black. It has been assumed that all respondents would fall within a single directional racial category although some individuals may fall into a multiracial category. Nonetheless, this categorization was necessary because an individual’s sense of belonging to a particular group and the affect component accompanying that sense of group membership (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) was important to the objectives of the study.

Secondly, it has also been assumed in the context of this study that results of the study could be generalizable to the population frame under study since sport has become interwoven in the lives of Black consumers (Armstrong, 1998). Therefore, the sport consumption behavior of the research sample would be reflective of the research population.

Lastly, it has also been assumed for the purpose of this study that ethnic identity and personal values are in most cases dominant factors in the self-concept of the research participants. Therefore, Brown et al’s. (1986) EID and Kahle’s (1983) LOV scales were deemed adequate measures to capture the dimensions they purport to represent and, therefore, appropriate for an exploratory investigation such as the current study.

28

Limitations

There are a number of limitations of this study that tempered the methodology, results, discussions, and implications. The use of a criterion-based selection procedure in determining the subjects for the study constituted a limiting factor to the external validity of the data to be collected and has, therefore, imposed some limitation to the study.

Additionally, the sample selection procedure compromises the generalizability of the findings to a broader Black population.

A major conceptual limitation of the statistical procedures (e.g., regression techniques) is that one can only ascertain relationships, but never be sure about underlying causal mechanisms. Additionally, the study utilized only two predictor variables of sport consumption behavior; therefore some amount of variance may go unexplained. Other factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic involvement, salience of ethnic identification, etc., were uncontrollable extraneous variables that could limit the generalizability of study results. Lastly, limitations imposed by time and financial constraints on student dissertations can result in lack of pursuit of somunexplained variances which were likely to occur and could pose challenges to the validity of the data obtained. This limitation was minimized by the constant evaluation and supervision of the research process by independent experts and collaboration with the data collection administrator.

29 Delimitations

There were a number of delimitations imposed by the research. First, the study has been delimited to studying the sport consumption phenomenon on a student population rather than on the general Black population. This decision was made primarily because of the pervasiveness of vicarious consumption and high involvement of most college students in sport (Fisher, 1998). Secondly, the study also focused on college and professional sports rather than high school and recreational sports, which may have different levels of consumption. A third delimitation involved the sample selection. The sample for the study was delimited to undergraduate and graduate students from a predominantly urban Midwestern university who agreed to participate and had been assured of their confidentiality. The data did not therefore reflect the whole population of

Black students or the entire Black population in the US. To minimize the impact of the convenient sampling procedures employed, data were collected from a cross section of students of the respective university.

30

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Drawing from social-psychological and cross-cultural literature, the first part of

this chapter discusses constructs relevant to Blacks’ consumption of sport. Included in

the review of literature will be information on culture, ethnicity, consumption

community, sport consumption, and Blacks in America as a culturally unique sport

consumption community (i.e., influenced by heritage, customs and traditions, history,

racial discrimination, and access to resources). The particular focus on ethnic identity in

this chapter is warranted because of the influential role that ethnic identification could

play in the segmentation of the Black community into a unique subculture that

differentiates it from other ethnic groups. The chapter critiques existing literature and

concludes with a figure depicting the expected relationship between the predictor

variables (personal values and ethnic identity) and Blacks’ sport consumption behaviors

(preference and frequency of consumption of sport activities).

The Concept of Culture

Culture:

Culture can be defined as a collection of values, beliefs, and symbols shared by members of a group or society. It includes patterns of behavior, learned responses, basic

31 assumptions, habits and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting characteristic of the way members of a specific group or society meet and solve their problems.

McCracken (1986, p. 72) views culture from two perspectives - on one hand, as a “lens” through which the individual views phenomena and, on the other hand, as a “blueprint” of human activity that determines the co-ordinates of social action and productive activity and specifying behavior. In one perspective, culture mediates the way in which a society responds to environmental stimuli and change. Another perspective is that culture represents an environmental variable that is accommodated by society. According to

Jelinek, Smircich, and Hirsch (1983), culture is both a process and an outcome because it shapes human interactions and is also the outcome of the interactions. Pineda and

Whitehead (1997) review several definitions of culture in socio-anthropological literature and concludes by showing support for Kroeber and Kluckhohn’s (1952: p. 181) definition:

culture consists of patterns , explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values (p. 32)

The definition above identifies “behavior” occurring within “human groups” as the basis for identifying the elements of individual action within a cultural system. The society that people grow up in shapes their values, beliefs, and norms. For example the

American belief of giving to charity is a core belief that has been passed on from one generation to another and is reinforced by several social institutions such as schools, churches, organizations, the government, neighborhoods, and family. A distinguishing

32 aspect of culture is that it evolves over time and is therefore rooted in history, collectively held and sufficiently complex enough to resist attempts at manipulation. At a deeper level it represents the ‘soul’ of a group of people because it is rooted in tradition.

Postmodernist researchers conceptualize culture as “a dynamic constellation of diverse practices and transnational flows” (Appadurai, 1990) reflecting the concept of hybridization (subcultural units) to portray a given cultural form as a localized confluence of cultural elements that have been diffused, spatially and temporally. In other words, every society consists of hybrid cultures or subcultures, that is, various groups with shared values emerging from their special life experiences or circumstances (Kotler,

1991). For example, Generation X youth represent a subculture whose members share common beliefs, preferences, and behaviors that have been sufficiently integrated to represent a unique hybrid of general culture.

Subculture:

The construct of culture and subculture have become increasingly central to the consumer research literature (Holt, 1997; Kotler, 1991; McCracken, 1986; Schouten &

McAlexander, 1995). The Weberian perception of culture as a shared way of life and system of meanings that are indigenous to a specific geographically bounded and nationalized way-of-life, uniquely adapted to a specific set of socio-economic conditions, is a modernist assumption that pervades literature. Although the postmodernist perspective offers a critical rethinking of many classic sociological analysis and assumptions about specific socio-cultural orders, this view presents a different theoretical

33 framework by which to understand culture in other ways other than only in terms of a national or geographic grouping (Thompson & Tambyah, 1998).

The existence of cultural hybrids or subcultures in modern society is a result of cultural dynamics that contributes to the understanding of the flexibility, adaptability to diversity, and tolerance of culture. Based on this concept, Kotler (1991) identified four types of cultures distinguished by: (1) nationality (e.g., Italian, Jamaican, Namibian, etc.) in which people live in large communities and exhibit distinct ethnic tastes and proclivities, (2) Religion (e.g., Catholic, Mormon, Hindu, Muslim, Jew, etc.) through which people are distinguished by specific cultural preferences and taboos, (3) Race (e.g., black, oriental, Caucasian, etc) which distinguishes people by cultural styles and attitudes, and (4) Geographic area (e.g., Deep South, New England, etc) which distinguishes people by their distinct lifestyles.

In pluralistic nations with several subcultures, members of different subcultures bring the values and norms of their respective ethnic groups into the community and try to identify value commonalities to reinforce the formation of new cultural hybrids in which both dominant and minority cultures continue to recognize their own independence (Tajfel, 1982). Language, religion, and race often serve as catalysts for both integration and separation among community group members and, although within the sport consumption environment these variables may appear to be irrelevant, they do have significant impact on the socialization process. For example, despite differences in language and religion, members of different Black cultural groups always seem to have developed a persistent trend toward the maintenance of ethnic identity (Pineda &

34 Whitehead, 1997) in any environment even when members continually experience pressure to assimilate into the social and political life of other dominant cultures. One aspect of this behavior is associated with their development of common interpretations of the environment and events in terms of members’ social knowledge (i.e., they develop idiosyncratic explanations and understandings) or the encouragement of continued reinforcement and development of shared knowledge of the social world through member contact (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983).

The creation of different subcultures is a result of different sets of values which

Schwartz (1990) categorized into three types of universal human requirements: (a) those values that satisfy the needs of the individual as a biological organism, (b) those that provide the requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) those that sustain the survival and welfare needs of groups. Values and norms form the core of culture. They are derived from feelings that are often unconscious and rarely discussable and are not observable but are manifested in alternatives of behavior (Nelson & Quick, 1997). The strength of values and norms depend on the level of people’s identification and commitment to the cultural or subcultural group.

Personal Values: Schwartz (1990) defines values as “people’s conceptions of the goals that serve as guiding principles in their lives” (p. 142). Rokeach (1973) argues that a value refers to only a single belief of a specific kind that guides actions, attitudes, judgments, and comparisons across specific objects or situations. The several values that an individual holds constitutes a value system which Rokeach (1973) defines as “an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end states of

35 existence along a continuum of relative importance” (p. 5). Values vary in importance and express the interests of individuals and collectives. They transcend specific situations and refer to a finite number of universal motivational concerns. Accordingly, Schwartz made the theoretical assumption about the nature and sources of values as cognitive representations of three types of universal human requirements: (a) needs of individuals as biological organisms, (b) requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) survival and welfare needs of groups.

Value Type Definition

Power Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources (e.g., authority, social power, wealth, preserving one's public image) Achievement Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards (e.g., sense of accopmplishment, successful, ambitious, capable) Hedonism Pleasure and sensous gratification for oneself (e.g., comfortable life, pleasure)

Stimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life (e.g., a varied life, exciting life, daring)

Self-direction Independent thought and action - choosing, creating, exploring (e.g., creativity, independent, imaginative, intellectual, logical) Universalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature (e.g., broadminded, world of beauty, wisdom, mature love)

Benevolence Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of the people with whom one is in frequent personal contact (e.g., equality, social justice, forgiving, helpful, loving, honest) Tradition Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion impose (e.g., respect for tradition, accepting my portion in life, devout) Conformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms (e.g., obedient, clean, politeness, self-discipline) Security Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self (e.g., family and national security, social order, sense of belonging)

Table 2.1: Schwartz’s Value Types (Schwartz, 1992)

36

An individual may hold several values, but these values are likely to be complementary to each other (Schwartz, 1992). In support of this observation, Schwartz analyzed relationships among 56 values which yielded 10 clusters of values or value types (Table 2.1) which were found to be arranged in a circular manner (Figure 2.1).

According to Figure 2.1, value types adjacent to each other are highly correlated to or compatible with each other than to those on opposite side of the circle. These 10 clusters of value types form 4 quadrants defining 2 dimensions. The first dimension is concerned with people and things which contrast with a concern for enhancing the self (self- transcendence vs. self-enhancement). The second dimension contrasts the value types of self-direction and stimulation with the value type of conformity, tradition, and security

(Openness to Change vs. Conservation).

A typology of the motivational concerns of values by Schwartz (Table 2.1), which are expressed as types of values, is grounded in one or more types of universal requirements. According to the typology, hedonism, achievement, self-direction, social power, and stimulation values serve the self-interests of the individual but not necessarily the interests of any collectivity. An individual who attains pleasure, success, independence, status, and excitement may not damage any other person’s interest. These values may be promoted by socializing agents as group goals although the focus will be on serving self-interests. The second set of values are prosocial, restrictive conformity, security, and tradition values that focus on promoting the interests of others because the collective benefits from the individual’s concern for the group, self-restraint, security of

37 the group, and respect for shared traditions. The maturity value serves both individual and collective interests because a person’s appreciation, understanding, and acceptance of reality benefit the self as well as the collective of whom the individual is a member (see

Table 2.1 & Figure 2.1).

Mixed Collectivism

Self-transcendence

Universalism Benevolence

Tradition Self-direction Openness to Conformity Conservation Change Stimulation Security

Hedonism

Achieve- Power ment

Self-enhancement

Individualism

Figure 2.1: Schwartz’s Circumplex of Ten Value Types.

38

Although a value is something personal and internal to an individual, values are not totally individualistic. Socializing factors (e.g., family, peers, neighborhood, society) have a very influential role in the transmission of values. North Americans, for example, hold similar values regarding sports (e.g., pursuit of excellence, competition, continual striving, pleasure, equality, recognition, etc.) although allowing for individuals to hold divergent views of these values. As another example, while most people place value on equality, there are divergences in values applied to the distribution of resources to male and female sport programs. Most of these values are internalized and predispose people to be interested in the outcome of competitive situations. An awareness of one’s personal values and value system is important in dealing with any situation (Chelladurai, 1999) because it allows for any marked differences between individuals to be taken into account before any action is contemplated.

Values→Behavior Relationship: Values have been used synonymously with attitudes. However, while an attitude refers to the organization of several beliefs around a specific object or situation, beliefs generate values that an individual holds leading to the formation of attitudes toward persons, objects, or events. While values are relatively fewer, deeply held and more enduring, attitudes are several depending on the number of objects and situations one is exposed to. One single value may however generate several attitudes, although Schwartz (1992) argues that values do not have influence on attitudes and behaviors unless in the presence of value conflicts. He further argues that, while the acquisition of certain values (e.g., wisdom) are important goals to the individual whose

39 pursuit guides behavior in most societies, the attainment of such goals serves in-group interest as well.

Values embody three essential components: (a) cognition about desires, (b) affection and association with emotions, and (c) a behavioral component (Rokeach,

1973). Values may or may not be shared among people within the same society, but those values with the highest preference (socially) may be used as standard norms of the society. Rokeach identified two kinds of socially preferred values: (a) terminal values - which are either social or personal, and (b) instrumental values - which are modes of conduct relating to morality or competence. Accordingly, the immediate function of values is to guide human action and ultimately to give expression to basic human needs in the long-term. In other words, values have a strong motivational component serving the functions of adjustive, ego-defensive, knowledge, and self-actualization (Rokeach,

1973; pp. 15-16). This conclusion was based on evidence generated to support Maslow’s

(1954) theory of motivation. Rokeach generated further support through the use of a value scale (Rokeach Value Scale) which has been employed by several researchers in marketing, consumer behavior, and advertising (e.g., Lascu et al., 1996; Rustogi et al.,

1996).

In support of Rokeach’s (1973) Value Scale (RSV), Schwartz (1992) developed a new value scale proposing ten motivational types of values, arranged in circular structure

(Figure 2.1), that would have influence on attitudes and behavior only under conditions of value conflicts. Accordingly, compatible value types sharing similar motivational orientations are placed adjacent to each other according to the circular structure while

40 those in conflict are placed in opposite positions within the circle. For example tradition, conformity, and security (Conservation) emphasizing submissive self-restriction, preservation of tradition and protection of stability are in direct conflict with self- direction and stimulation (Openness to Change) that favor change, independent thought, and action. The Schwartz Value Scale (SVS) has been used in several studies seeking to link personal values to consumer behavior (e.g., Burgess & Steenkamp, 1999; Grunert &

Juhl, 1995).

Kahle (1983), however, introduced an alternate measurement instrument, the List of Values (LOV) Scale, derived primarily from social adaptation theory. In Kahle’s view, values are a type of social cognition which primary function is social adaptation since individuals develop their personal values through life experiences and social interaction and adjust to social roles through the development and fulfillment of values. Kahle

(1983) identified nine values extracted mainly from Rokeach’s Value Scale (1973) and

Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of values. These values are: sense of belonging, being well- respected, security, self respect, fun and enjoyment, excitement, self-fulfillment, warm relationship with others, and a sense of accomplishment. The values of fun and enjoyment and excitement have often been collapsed together because the former subsumes the latter. Further research using the LOV scale has established its reliability in measuring values (see Homer & Kahle, 1988; Kahle, Beatty, & Homer, 1986), linking values to attitudes (see Homer & Kahle, 1988; Madrigal & Kahle, 1994; Pitts et al.,

1989), and identifying or describing personality (see Kahle et al., 2001; Rose et al.,

1994). Research by Kahle,

41 Rose, and Shoham (1999) acknowledge, however, that values do not partition individuals along geographic lines since people from different geographic locations can endorse the same values although with different intensities.

Ethnic Identity: Ethnicity can be used as an analytic term to refer to a group of people seen by others and themselves as having distinct cultural features and a clearly defined socio-cultural history (Smedley, 1993). The term “identity” used in relation to an ethnic group denotes a type of association with a socially or geographically defined group, such as a national or religious group. The community, social class, kinship, religion, family, sport team, etc., are social structures that an individual encounters and which help define his or her identity. Used in isolation, however, identity is part of the extended self (Stevenson, 1998; see Fig. 2.3) as such one can have a long list of identities limited by the number of structured role relations involved in (Stryker, 1980). Thus, an individual can have several identities within a community (such as engineer, mother, basketball player, volunteer fire fighter, Republican, civil rights leader, Black person,

Hispanic, etc.) which, taken together, comprise the extended self. These identities are, however, structured in a hierarchical order with that more frequently invoked defining identity salience.

The term ethnic identity suggests an emphasis on cultural behavior patterns, beliefs, and customs associated with being a member of a distinct ethnic group. It provides a mechanism by which people can define themselves in the context of other people and also a means by which they can decide who they are within their society

(Sellers et al., 1997; 1998). Used within the context of this study, ethnicity is 42 43 operationally defined as the retention of an individual’s culture of origin even when that person is assumed to have acquired some other traits of the host culture (LeVine &

Campbell, 1972). This concept simply means that one’s culture of origin has been reinforced and has become highly independent enough to withstand the impact of social interaction with members of other cultures. It does not, however, focus on the cognitions and attitudes associated with the individual’s attempt at integrating their national status into their self-concept but rather recognize the behavioral consequences for these cognitions and attitudes (Smith, 1989).

The strength of ethnic identity can be expressed through attitudes, values, behaviors, language, rituals, maintenance of symbols and taboos, religious affiliation, and food preferences. These dimensions of culture are continually being reinforced, rather than isolated and eliminated or traded with traits of other cultures through the social interaction process. Members who have a very strong level of identification with their ethnic group are more likely to resist any attempts to trade off their ethnic traits for traits of other ethnic groups. Instead, they are most likely to maintain both the original traits and those of other ethnic cultures. In other words, the strength of ethnic identification is likely to influence the manner in which individuals seek to maintain a strong association with their ethnic value system. Therefore, ethnicity if often internalized and thus it predisposes individuals to manifest strong affect (feelings and emotions) and attitudes

(perceptions and judgments) towards other people, objects, or situations (Figure 2.2).

Understanding the significance and meaning of ethnic identity in an individual’s self-

44 concept enables one to better predict the way s/he is likely to behave in certain specific situations.

Strength of Ethnic Affect Identity

Strong Attitude

Figure 2.2: The impact of ethnic identity on the development of attitude

Important Dimensions of Ethnic Identity: Why is there a need to investigate ethnic identity? Four reasons can be attributed to current interest in ethnic identity and the desire to provide explanations for significant differences in the manner in which different people differ in their perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. Literature has provided four distinct reasons for the investigation of this construct: (a) importance of culture to an individual, (b) the complexity of multi-cultural society, (c) identification with different cultural contexts (e.g., adolescents being caught between their parents' ethnic beliefs and values, and that of the mainstream society), and (d) implications for adjustment and understanding of the way culture affects perception, attitudes, and behavior. 45 46

A body of research on the influence of ethnicity on consumption emerged in the

1980’s (Hirschman, 1981, 1983; Stayman & Deshpande, 1989) concerning the impact of assimilation (Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983), media usage (O’Guinn & Meyer, 1983) impact of perceived ethnic affiliation (Deshpande, Hoyer, & Donthu, 1986), and situational or felt ethnicity (Stayman & Deshpande, 1989). Currently, there is a growing trend of research geared toward international and intercultural research (Pineda & Whitehead,

1997) due to increased globalization and the challenges of addressing and responding to cultural diversity in multicultural societies, as well as the increase in migration and the rediscovery of more people of their cultural heritage. To meet the challenges posed by ethnic diversity, it has become increasingly important to identify the major characteristics of ethnic identity and to determine the real effects of ethnic group culture on the socialization process.

Ethnic identification is an awareness of self within a specific group, which is followed by a great sense of respect and pride, constituting a base for the development of a healthy self-concept (DeVos & Romanucci-Ross, 1982). Identity is multifaceted and relates to aspects of personality such as self-concept, self-esteem, self-motivation, cultural-self, self-aspirations, physical-self, etc. Ethnic identity is the integration of ethnicity or race into one's self-concept or self-image (Christian et al., 1976). It is related to one’s capacity to empower oneself and represent one’s ethnicity in the most constructive way (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). Ethnic identity can be divided into two categories in terms of observability: internal and external. The external category can be

47 perceived directly by an outsider and include characteristics such as physical appearance, language, folklore, religion, manifestations of customs and traditions, etc. The internal category is difficult to observe directly by an outsider because they are concerned with self-perceptions, attitudes, and ways of thinking, etc., and reside in the irrational domain of a person (Liebkind, 1989).

More comprehensive research is needed to identify the components of ethnic identity including cultural practices and participation in activities specific to an ethnic group. Ethnic identity is therefore a complex construct that cannot be examined in its entirety although several research efforts have been made to measure a range of characteristics of the construct to understand it better. Most researchers agree, however, that self-esteem and self-definition are very salient components of ethnic identity (Brown et al., 1986; Phinney, 1990; Ullah, 1987; Umana-Taylor, 2003).

Self-esteem: Membership of social structures involves a sequence in role performance, such as manifested in team identification, and the concomitant internalization of the role as well as taking on an appropriate subcultural identity

(Donnelly & Young, 1988). Research has concluded that when one has an identity, he/she must be cast in the shape of the social subject by the acknowledgment of their involvement or membership in some social relations or risk being ostracized and/or banished from the community. The greater the commitment to identity, the higher the satisfaction obtained through role performance (Serpe & Stryker, 1987). Accordingly, ethnic self-esteem can motivate the elevation of a social identity as well as its outcomes

48

(Lantz & Loeb, 1998) and, therefore, a threat to the collective goal can increase the salience of social identity.

Ethnic identity remains intact even when some of its dimensions such as language and lifestyle, which have the tendency to change over time, do so as a result of social interaction with other social groups. For example, although ethnic minorities are prone to being assimilated into majority cultures, most people from minority cultures retain a strong sense of their own ethnicity. One reason for this persistence is that, in a multicultural environment, minority ethnic cultures have adopted several options for ethnic redefinition by creating new categories of social identification (Verkuyten & Kwa,

1996). The adoption of redefined ethnicities such as Italian-American, Polish-American,

Irish-American, African-American, or Japanese-American are examples of the strong resistance to complete acculturation or absorption into mainstream or dominant cultures.

The redefinition enhances group self-esteem as well as the desire to express unique differences in perception, attitudes, and behavior. One social-psychological perspective is offered by the social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978) which proposes that a potentially important component of people’s identities derives from their group membership which promotes a cognitive involvement with the group process and enhances the self-concept.

Self-definition: Identity and self-definition are intricately related. This partially explains the strong negative reactions to ethnic and racial groups when they are defined by others through labels they do not acknowledge (Asamoah, Garcia, Hendricks, &

Walker, 1991). In discussing the issue of self versus external definition, each individual

49 stresses the impact and importance of culture/ethnicity in the process. In order to understand what a group of people chooses to call itself, consideration is given to their common unique experiences. According to Asamoah et al (1991), it is for this reason that the preferred terminology for African-Americans has changed over the years from

“colored’ to “Negro” to “Black” to “African-American” as they continued to gain more social, political, and cultural awareness. This may partially be explained to the rise of

Pan-Africanism, Civil Rights movement, and a new appreciation of the interdependence of Black people. The term “African-American” is probably used as an attempt to acknowledge the uniqueness of this ethnic entity under the umbrella term “African“.

Members of this population are able to make specific distinctions between their

“Americanness” and “Africanness” by providing a clue to the salience of ethnic identity to Blacks.

In ethnic identification, the cognitive component of group membership has primacy (Verkuyten, 1992). A person’s identity is part of his/her self concept derived from their knowledge of membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978). If the definition of identity is salient, an individual’s needs, beliefs, values, and motives would primarily determine behavior (Turner, 1987). Thus the salience of ethnic identity shapes how a person perceives, evaluates, and responds to situations and to others. Self-definition is, therefore, important only to a person who is satisfied with his identity and needs to belong and share a sense of similarity with others. Perceiving one’s ethnic group in a

50 positive manner satisfies the need for belongingness and distinctiveness although this leads to intergroup bias and to ethnocentrism, at the highest level.

From the self-definition perspective, ethnicity is an identity, an allegiance to a group and its history, rather than a holding on to a unique set of beliefs, attitudes, and behavioral inclinations (Longress, 1991). The unique feature of Black culture defies the above assumption because, to members of this culture, recognition of common history also entails an attachment to those values, believes, traditions, and rituals that bind members together. The term “Black” identity reflects the definition of a proud heritage that provides the basis of self-esteem of persons of African descent with different subcultures under a single umbrella nomenclature Therefore, the self-defining nature of ethnic identity entails the recognition of both personal and collective values defining the uniqueness of the social interaction process.

Culture and Sport Consumption

Competition in sport is seen as a struggle for power, control, and dominance. The paradox of this struggle is that sport offers opportunities and possibilities for the construction or reconstruction of culture and the manifestation of superiority, because its organizational structure, dynamics, and struggles carry with them broad cultural import and significance (Hartman, 2000). Sport consumption is both a personal and a social process because it relates to expressing identity, belonging, and differentiation. There is an increasing interest in identity-constructive consumption in a global environment;

51 however, there are only a few studies on consumption and identity negotiation among sport fans as consumption communities. Phenomena such as consumption differentiation, niche marketing, identity-based consumption symbols, lifestyle clustering, and sub- cultural consumption or consumption communities are beginning to assume center stage.

The significance of these concepts rests largely in their ability to carry and communicate cultural meaning.

Variables of culture such as values and ethnic identity can be linked to consumption behavior (Pons et al., 2001) and consumption can be considered a partially cultural phenomenon (McCracken, 1986). Accordingly, the choice of a specific sport event or an orientation toward a sport event carries a strong cultural meaning for an individual because it allows them to identify with a particular sport culture and to communicate this to others. It is in this context that specific sport activities have been identified as being specifically ethnic-based, such as soccer to the Italian and Brazilian, rugby to the British, gymnastics to the Russian, baseball to the American, team handball to the Swede, Ice Hockey to the Canadian, Horse-riding to the Mongolian, Taekwondo to the Korean, or boxing to the Cuban.

To Blacks in Africa and those in the Caribbean and South American countries, sport activities such as soccer, boxing, basketball, track and field activities, and traditional wrestling are highly preferred and consumed. Therefore, a strong national or ethnic identity induces the consumption of certain sport events by people of certain cultures in certain social environments. According to Campanelli (1991) and Delener and

52 Neelankavil (1990), ethnic target marketing has increased due to the realization that there exist consumption differences among various ethnic groups.

The Sport Consumption Process. Consumers personify brands (Aaker, 1997) demonstrating that they readily assign dispositional characteristics to brands. In another perspective, consumers think of and relate to the organization of people that market the product or services bearing the brand name and consider it as a social group sharing the same goals, motives, and values. Sport consumers infer the goals, motives, and values of the sport organization or team from the discernible and symbolic qualities of the product/service, the athletes and coaches, the public message or actions, etc. In a sense sport creates a culture of human relations. Aaker (1997) suggested that brands frequently take on characteristics of a “personality which serves a symbolic function that reflects how people feel about the team behind the product or brand. Once a sport team’s personality has been defined, consumers know what to expect from it.

A variety of antecedents may affect the magnitude and direction of a consumer’s sport consumption pattern, however, the consumer’s strength of identification with his or her ethnic background is an important factor (Deshpande, Hoyer, & Donthu, 1986;

O’Guinn & Meyer, 1983). Previous research has provided evidence that consumers with strong ethnic identification do notice and respond to the use of ethnic cultural symbols in advertisements (Koslow et al., 1994). Pitts et al. (1989) reported a positive correlation between brand evaluations and affect while Whittler (1989), Schlinger and Plummer

(1992) and Szybillo and Jacoby (1974) measured affect associated with consumption

53 among Blacks. It was concluded from these findings that, in the absence of a strong identification with the ethnic group, it is unlikely that ethnic group membership would be a predictor of consumption behavior.

Some researchers described the phenomenon of sport consumption as a vehicle for promoting social integration, cooperation, and understanding between and within societies, although, beyond the display of national or team colors and role of participants, lie a “dormant volcano” of cultural, racial, and political differences intended to establish a tradition of consumption behavior that distinguishes one group of consumers from another. This explains why some of the macro-level motivations of sport fans behaviors

(such as at the opening ceremonies of Olympic Games, Bowl Games, Intercollegiate

Sports competitions, international sport competitions, etc.) are derived from the manifestations of cultural and ethnic-related activities that herald the competitions.

In sport consumption literature, the pattern of consumption differentiation leads to the formation of sport consumption communities or fandom which are identified in general by a complex, contradictory, and fascinating culture involving a wide range of social behaviors, including consumer behavior. Grossberg (1992) defined sport consumption by these communities of fans simply as groups of people who care about some element of popular culture and use their association to construct an identity. Social sentiment is constructed through such consumption interactions and expressed metaphorically through overt manifestations, with the sport environments being the referent points that frame consumers’ cultural experiences. A consumption community is,

54 therefore, the development of a subculture of sport consumption as "a distinct subgroup of society that self-selects on the basis of shared commitment to a particular sport product, class, brand, or consumption activity" (Schouten & McAlexander, 1995: p. 43).

While the sport consumption process is collective, the meaning of sport is no longer individually defined but is negotiated, enforced communally and presumably intensified - through consumption-related exchanges.

Consumption Explained Through Social Identity: According to Tajfel (1978), the self-concept is comprised of both personal and social identity, with social identity being

“that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his [or her] knowledge of his [or her] membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (p. 63). Tajfel (1982) argues that individuals are unable to form self-images in the absence of social identities derived from group affiliations. These group affiliations affect a variety of consumption choices ranging from, for example, the purchase of merchandise which identify us as fans of a sport, a specific sport team, or an athlete, to the defense of the group concept. Social identity theory (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986) provides a general framework for describing the dynamics of group membership and behavior in the sport context. Because group membership contributes to the self-concept and self-esteem, the individual is motivated to maintain a positive social identity by engaging in social comparison that preserve the favorability and distinctiveness of members of the group relative to individuals outside the group.

55

If negative social identity results from such comparison, as is most often the case

within the sport environment, then according to Tajfel and Turner (1979), individuals

may adopt a number of strategies such as social mobility (move to support teams that

promote their self-esteem), social creativity (engage in comparisons on dimensions that

are favorable to the in-group), and social competition (attempt to elevate the status of the

in-group). The choice of the strategy will depend on an individual’s subjective beliefs

about the nature of the inter-group context (Cameron & Lalonde, 2001). According to

Hogg and Abrams (1988), social identity theory offers a framework for conceptualizing

the “group in the individual” (p. 17) as well as the psychological mechanisms underlying

collective behavior. In social identity literature, there is agreement that group

identification is a multidimensional construct that incorporates both cognitive and

affective elements (Hinkle et al., 1989; Tajfel, 1978).

Consumption Communities

The concept of consumption communities was introduced by Shoham & Kahle

(1996) to denote a group of people having common consumption interests. Schouten and

McAlexander (1995) used the term “subculture of consumption” to denote a distinctive subgroup that self-selects on the basis of a shared commitment to the consumption of a particular product class or brand. A consumption community can best be conceptualized as a characteristic of society rather than the totality of the society. Contrary to the general view that any given society is likely to comprise of multiple consumption communities,

56 however, as a system of meanings and learned ways of product or service consumption, some ethnic communities do manifest distinct common consumption patterns of sport products/services which influence their members’ consumption behaviors.

From this perspective, consumption is seen as an independent variable endogenous to the community consisting of beliefs, values, and commitment to certain sport products/services developed by and within the community. Therefore, the culture of a sport consumption community is not exclusively what the community is made up of but also what members have in common with regard to a particular sport product/service. In this regard, a consumption community is understood in terms of its expressive and symbolic aspects that guide the consumption behavior of members of the community and also provide a background against which members interpret their consumption experience. Ethnic communities in multicultural environments provide their members with a system of value commonalities that influence typical attitudes and behaviors for the development of a unique consumption community and the consumption of typical sport and sport events associated with their culture of origin.

An important argument in consumer behavior revolves around the notion of regional or ethnic differences in consumption patterns. Perhaps the strongest argument supporting this concept is offered by Hawkins et al. (1980), who hypothesized that geographic subcultures can be an important determinant of both consumption and non- consumption behaviors. To the extent that different ethnic sport consumption behaviors exist and to the extent that they are due to some perceived value differences (e.g., self- respect, self-fulfillment, security, fun and enjoyment, relationship formation, sense of

57 accomplishment, sense of belonging, etc.), there would exist differences in consumption experiences and social interactions among consumers.

When consumers realize the advantages and benefits from their consumption experiences, as long as they derive satisfaction, they are more likely to continue to invest trust in their relationship with the product/service and with individuals who either produce or consume the product/service. Although the benefits consumers seek from the consumption of certain products (e.g., sports, fitness, recreation) are nonfunctional in nature, the product/service may serve as a symbolic device for self-image projection.

When certain brands are associated with being consumed by a certain group of people, thus serving to reflect a certain “brand” of values and traits, then consuming such a brand is a means by which an individual can communicate to others the type of person he/she is, would like to be, or would like to be associated with. It is reasonable to assume that such consumer behavior would control the selectivity of attention in perceptual processes. It could also lead to the formation of a particular cognitive structure regarding the product as well as the affect toward the product thereby linking consumption behavior with ethnocentrism (Shimp & Sharma, 1987).

Black Consumers as a Consumption Community

The world is increasingly saddled by multinational corporations, advanced communication networks, and efficient logistic systems with increasing pressure for consumer homogeneity (Levitt, 1983). Consumers in many different locations are being offered the same global brands and marketers are tempted to utilize standardized global marketing mixes as a cost saving measure. However, increasing backlash against certain

58 products, corporations, and media images in different parts of the world has occurred within a larger context of resurgent ethnic identity and ethnocentrism (Costa & Bamossy,

1995). A resurgence of national identities has caused many multinational corporations to replace their promotional strategies with new campaigns emphasizing symbols reflecting those identities (Dunn, 1976). Current marketing mix strategies need to target consumers who have high levels of nationalistic, ethnic, or racial feelings, who live in developed countries, and who feel economically vulnerable. These consumers are more likely to constitute themselves into consumption communities with high levels of consumer ethnocentrism positively associated with age (Shimp & Sharma, 1987) and negatively associated with education and income (Sharma, Shimp & Shin, 1995; Shimp & Sharma,

1987).

Several reasons have been given why Black consumers are a viable market segment. Black culture in America is diverse, constituting people from many locations in the world, many age and demographic groups, and many ethnic backgrounds (indigenous

African-Americans, Africans and other people of African descent - from the Caribbean,

Latin America, and other parts of the world). People who classify themselves as Black or

African-American in the United States constitute about 34.6 million (12.3%) of the national population according to data released after the 2000 census. A distinguishing feature of the spread of the Black population in America is that Blacks are more likely than non-Hispanic Whites to live in metropolitan areas (86% compared to 77%) with majority of the former (55%) living in central cities of metropolitan areas (US Census

Bureau, 1999). Current census data also reveals other bits of information that are

59 particularly important in understanding the growing influence of Blacks in the politics and economics of the US as well as to marketers as they plan their marketing mix strategies and to industries as they plan the expansion and location of their businesses and other services.

Evidence shows that Blacks households, for instance, were the only race or ethnic group to experience an increase in real median income between 1993 and 1996. Their median income rose from $20,032 in 1993 to $23,482 in 1996 while poverty rates dropped gradually beginning with about 2.5% between 1993 and 1994 (US Census

Bureau, 1996). This growth is heightened by a decrease from 51% in the percentage of

Black adults, 25 and over, earning at least a high diploma, to 34% in 1966. Over 16% of

Black men and 22% women aged over 16 worked in managerial and professional specialty jobs (e.g., engineers, dentists, teachers, lawyers, and reporters). According to population projections, the Black population is expected to grow more than twice as fast as the White population by the year 2050 (US Census Bureau, 1998).

With a total personal income estimated at over $205 billion dollars annually,

Blacks in America have a buying power that would rank them 12th in the free world if they were a separate nation (Kotler, 1991). With the growth in affluence and sophistication, with high expenditures on clothing, personal care, home furnishings, fragrances, and transportation, and by being considered more brand loyal than Whites,

Blacks in America constitute a target market for several large companies such as Sears,

McDonald, Proctor & Gamble, and Coca Cola (Kotler, 1991). These indices of growth within the Black population in the US is an indication of growing consciousness, cultural

60 emphasis, and an emphasis to make use of all available opportunities offered through democratic governance. The Black subculture is therefore recognized as a major economic and social force (Pitts et al, 1989) and Blacks are different from Whites in their consumption patterns, media habits and reaction to ads (Stronman & Becker, 1987).

What are the key characteristics of Black consumption practices and how do they extend and inform our knowledge of contemporary consumer behavior? With the exception of a few (e.g., Armstrong, 1998; Spreitzer & Snyder, 1990; Stronman &

Becker, 1987), current research in consumer behavior has failed to demarcate distinctions in sport consumer behavior of persons of African descent as a distinct consumption community in the US. To people of African descent in the US, sport consumption has a unifying theme providing a forum for national and/or ethnic manifestation of cultural values, an arena where several African value systems are reconciled, a place to confront some of the obstacles that confront Black people, and a place where African symbols, rituals, and values are reinforced. To Black people, the sport arena is not only a place for physical activity but also one for social integration and exuberance.

In most Black communities, spiritual beliefs and mythologies are evident. This is carried over to the sport context. Living in a hyper-rational and scientific society, many crave the excitement and energy that unexplained phenomena of sport can inspire. The embodiment of this notion finds rational expression in several artifacts provided in sport such as club rituals (anthems, songs, logos, mascots, colors, and pregame manifestations) which have meanings deeper in culture and history. These rituals intensify the spiritually

61 fulfilling experience of sport, deepening both fans' feelings and devotion to the team and the community.

The categorization of several ethnic Black groups into a single group classified as

Black has helped to enhance the perception of similarities with in-group members emphasizing social differences to out-groups and the group’s distinctiveness. However, such categorization has tended to create in-group distortions on several dimensions. This categorization has also contributed to decrease the psychological distance between several Black ethnic cultures and has facilitated the arousal of in-group empathy. Blacks in America share a common cultural heritage and history, therefore theories and hypothesis that attempt to explain Black consumer behavior must emphasize the important role of values and ethnic identity among members of the Black race. The creation of a dual identity model for Blacks in America (African and American) has helped to create in-group harmony and a much stronger bonding among Blacks/African-

Americans (Nobles, 1998). The bi-level model of identity also defends the idea that an individual can simultaneously acquire and maintain traits of two cultures (McFee, 1968).

Role of Personal Values in Sport Consumption:

Values are guides and determinants of social attitudes (Rokeach, 1973) and social behavior (Homer & Kahle, 1988). Internalized values provide a sense of order and help us to make a sense of our environment and the different social interactions. Research literature indicates that preferences, behavioral intentions, and behaviors are strongly influenced by our personal values. By the nature of its definition, a personal value

62 represents a social or personal preference for a specific mode of conduct over another mode of conduct. According to Stoner and Freeman (1992), values are the answers to the

“why” questions underlying our attitudes and behaviors.

Values are located with a culture’s belief system and are considered major influences of behavior as well as providing standards for the judgment of behavior.

(Rokeach, 1973). They are believed to be formed through social interaction. Current research literature has provided evidence linking values to consumption behavior

(Howard & Woodside, 1984; McCracken, 1986; Pitts et al., 1989). According to Pitts et al. (1989), “values provide the foundation upon which personal and social consequences of product attributes are evaluated by the consumer through marketing communications.”

(p. 314).

One concept that has high validity and can contribute to the consumption behavior of sport fans is the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The theory proposes that one can predict an individual’s intention to perform a specific behavior from the attitudes held toward that behavior and from a measure of subjective norms. Accordingly, sport preference may have high relationship with community identity as well as the community’s value system. Consequently, the manner in which individuals judge the quality and performance of a sport team or quality of a sport event may be directly impacted upon by the individuals’ own value system which would be greatly influenced by their past experiences, their attitude towards sport (Yamaguchi,

1987), and their ethnic identity. Consequently, it can be surmised that sport consumption behavior

63 and the satisfaction derived from the consumption experience would be strongly

influenced by the personal values system of the consumer.

Role of Ethnicity in Sport Consumption:

The role of sport and sport events in the cultural reality of the individual in a multicultural and multiethnic environment is important in helping individuals to identify themselves with a particular culture and to communicate this identity to others. Findings by Pons et al. (2001) support the concept of sport as a means of social classification or a means of affirming self-worth. This brings to fore the reason why a specific sport can be identified as being ethnically or culturally specific such as martial art to the Chinese or basketball to African-Americans. Despite the increase in research on culture and ethnicity, limited research has addressed how ethnicity affects Black consumer information processing (with the exception of Armstrong, 2000, which revealed a latent influence of ethnicity on Black students’ responses to race as a source cue) and how they are constructed and developed, spatially and temporally. Accordingly, it is likely that some sport product preference of Black consumers ( e.g., basketball, football, baseball, soccer, track & field, boxing) may correlate well with high level of identification with their communities and the values that are held dear by members of these communities.

The dual role of sport and sporting events in the cultural reality of a sport consumer facing a multicultural context is an important challenge to sport marketers

(Pons et al., 2001).The choice of a specific sporting event or an orientation toward a specific sport carries a strong cultural meaning among Black consumers. To members of

64 this community, some specific sports are identified as being ethnically specific. Black immigrants continue to consume sport products similar to those of their original cultures

(e.g., soccer and boxing) while a strong acculturation has induced the consumption of products similar to those generally consumed by African-Americans. For example, there is a strong affiliation of Africans with soccer and boxing because of the pageantry and buoyant atmosphere associated with their manifestation reminiscent of traditional African religious manifestations. It appears that the cultural import of certain sport activities seem to have specific attractiveness to Black people irrespective of the influence of the host culture. Consequently, sport consumption activities where athletes and fans are allowed to exhibit continual vociferous celebration or fans are permitted to provide traditional musical interludes and other activities which are deemed product extensions that enhance the consumption experience of fans (such as in basketball, football, soccer, boxing, track and field) seem to be more culturally conducive to Black culture.

Although ethnicity implies a sense of common descent (Deshpande et al., 1986) or paternal ancestry (Alba & Moore, 1982), its definition must be in keeping with anthropologists’ view of this construct extending beyond kinship, politics, common customs, language, religion, values, morality, and etiquette. Despite the increase in research on culture and ethnicity, limited research has addressed how cultural and ethnic differences affect Black consumer information processing. It is the contention of this researcher, guided by the core concept of Afrocentrism (Ladson-Billings, 1994) that the

“whats” and “how’s” of Foucauldian thinking cannot be answered by Black people if their existence is characterized by loss of absolute ethnic frame of reference. Accordingly

65 it is predicted that sport product preference of Blacks would correlate highly with their consumption frequency of sport activities under conditions of a strong ethnic identity. It is also expected that the nature of specific sport activities would be more attractive to

Blacks than others because of the values that they help to enhance in Black consumers.

Consequently, the manner of judgment of sport product quality, sport team performance, the attraction to any type of sport, or judging the consumption behavior of other consumers may be a reflection of the strength of identification of the consumer’s personal values and strength of ethnic identity.

It is assumed that Blacks would exhibit distinct attitudes and behavioral tendencies in the sport consumption process that serve as symbolic cues and reference points for the self-image of the Black culture because ethnic Black consumers differ in their value orientations which are a function of the African/Black personality (Nobles,

1998; Stevenson, 1994). This study sought to demonstrate, through sport events consumption, that consumers of African descent in America do not only use sport as a socializing and cultural phenomenon but also to maintain traits of some cultural traits, in the consumption process. This will not only help marketers to understand the distinctiveness of Black cultures, but also to increase their understanding of market segmentation strategies based on unique culturally-rooted consumption patterns.

Conclusion of Literature Review

Sports products have a significance that goes beyond their commercial value.

Their significance resides largely in their ability to communicate cultural meaning.

66 Several scholars have made the cultural significance of consumer products the focus of renewed academic study (Hirshman, 1980). Some of these scholars have established a sub-field devoted to increasing the clarity of the person-object relationship. This new area of study has identified groups of people segregated by product preferences and consumption patterns which have been referred to as consumption communities. This study proposes to contribute to this emerging sub-field by showing that ethnicity and personal values could be important variables in the formation of sport consumption communities because some individuals attach cultural meaning to the consumption of certain sport products and use such products for purposes of differentiation.

Sport has many meanings to different cultures and the values inherent in it carry very strong meanings to different cultures. There is a growing importance of sport events and their connections with culture, and more research is needed to identify the impact of ethnic adaptation variables on the consumption of sport events. Black consumers are an important target for sport marketing because they wield substantial purchasing power in a variety of traditional products and services such as automobiles, financial services, sport products, communication, computers, fashion, and music. Although the Black community in the US constitutes only 12.3% of the population (US Census Bureau, 2001), it represents an important and lucrative target market segment. Yet, although research evidence shows that Blacks are more emotionally and behaviorally involved in sport than

Whites are (Armstrong, 1998), attendance rates at professional and collegiate sport events indicate a lack of active consumption of these sport events. The lack research explaining the current pattern of Blacks’ sport consumption behaviors infer a need for additional 67 68 explorations of the factors influencing Blacks’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies.

Some individuals identify with sports or sport teams and consume some sport events for what they represent (e.g., a university, a country, a city/town, an organization, an age-group competition). Wann and Branscombe (1990) found significantly higher tendencies to bask in the reflected glory of team success (phenomenon of BIRGing) and lower levels of distancing or cutting off the reflected failure of a team (phenomenon of

CORFing) for persons who were highly identified with the respective teams. Cialdini et al (1976) believed that both these characteristic behaviors are rooted in the self-concept.

If self-esteem is derived from specific consumption behavior, then threats to self-identity may also lead to certain behaviors. Therefore, since ethnicity is a component of an individual’s sense of self, it is likely that consumption derived from one’s ethnic identity may also influence sport behaviors.

An interesting aspect of Black consciousness is the ability of members to accept and celebrate their “Americanness” without sacrificing their “Africanness” (Jackson,

1976). The advantage of this situation to Blacks in America is that they are presented with several options from which to satisfy their group affiliation needs. Although religion, socio-economic status, political affiliation, etc., constitute some aspect of the self, Black ethnic identity helps members frame their value system, aesthetics, social interactions, or personal conduct and to maintain and celebrate core values that are resilient to change.

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The phenomenon of identity can be used to explain why people respond to product symbolism in their purchasing decisions (Sirgy, Johar, Samili, & Claiborne,

1991). Sport consumers seek some congruity between a sport, sport team, or sport product’s symbolic image and their own self image just as much as they seek congruity between functional attributes of these products and their own needs. These two forms of congruity can have direct influence on their pre- and post-purchase behavior. There has arisen the need to document the differences in consumption pattern of Blacks because this would provide opportunity for sport marketers to develop specific, targeted, marketing-mix strategies to satisfy the needs of this population. While some ethnic groups in developed societies are becoming increasingly disconnected from a sense of community due to changing lifestyles and technological innovations, this does not seem to hold true for Black ethnic groups who hold sport as a key expression of community and racial or ethnic identity and an avenue to defend those values that are dear to the Black culture.

Like culture, the term ethnicity refers to a group and a social physical context based upon common experiences that in time help distinguish one group from another.

Smedley (1993) suggested defining ethnicity as a group of people seen by others and themselves as having distinct cultural features and a clearly defined socio-cultural history. From this perspective, ethnicity can be used to make socio-cultural inferences about a person’s ascribed membership in a designated group. Carter and Boyd-Johnson

(1998) observed that ethnicity can denote national origin, religious affiliation, or other types of

70 socially or geographically defined groups. Accordingly, ethnicity is concerned with similarity in a combination of some or all of the following: (a) physical similarities, (b) history, (c) culture, (d) social experiences, and (e) social conditions experienced.

According to Kahle (1983) individuals internalize their shared values, which constitute the very core of who a person is both publicly and privately. Accordingly, people manifest internalized attitudes because the behaviors reflect their most deeply rooted beliefs (Homer & Kahle, 1988). The internalization of values can be a strong, long-lasting motivating force in sport consumption (Kahle, Kambara, & Rose, 1996), therefore consumers who differ in their value orientations may also differ in their consumption patterns (Shoham, Rose, Kropp, & Kahle, 1997).

The Culture-Sport Consumption Figure

Sellers et al. (1998) indicated their preference for using the term racial identity for

Blacks rather than ethnic identity for three reasons. One reason is that the concept race has and continues to be the defining construct in distinguishing African-Americans from other members of the American society. This is so because the classification as a member of the Black race in American society caries implications for an individual’s educational opportunities, health outcomes, and employment opportunities. A second reason is that

African-Americans have unique historical and cultural influences which impact upon the qualitative aspect of their racial identity. This is so because the form of slavery that

Africans experienced in the US did not provide them many opportunities for demonstration or expression of traditional African culture. A third reason Sellers et al.

71 (1998) prefer the term racial identity over ethnic identity are based on the important differences in the implications of the two terms. While ethnicity suggests an emphasis on cultural behavior patterns, beliefs, and customs, racial identity focuses more on cognitions and attitudes.

Growing awareness in society of differences associated with ethnic group membership (e.g., in occupational attainment) may have led to increased ethnic consciousness and pride (Laosa, 1984). Phinney (1990) concludes that attitude towards one’s ethnicity are central to the psychological functioning of those who live in societies where their group and its culture are poorly represented (politically, economically, and in the media) and discriminated against. Breakwell (1986) observes that the concept of ethnic identity provides a way of understanding the need to assert oneself in the face of threats to identity.

The present study identifies literature supporting two observations: (a) the terms ethnicity, ethnic identity, or ethnic identification are necessary for understanding behavioral consequences for cognitions and attitudes, and (b) contrary to Sellers et al.’s

(1998) assertion, a clear distinction has to be made between being African-American and being Black. The Black reference group they refer to is not made up of African-

Americans only. The Black population is homogeneous because of a common heritage and a common set of shared values related to members’ common historical experiences.

This classification, however, ignores the presence of some in-group distortions brought about by the different socialization processes in the US. Phinney (1990) suggests that the

72 use of ethnic identity or Black nomenclature would place African-American identity within a larger theoretical framework which allows for the examination of universal processes associated with group identity.

Levy’s (1981) study of the correspondence between food types and cultural categories of sex and age is an example of the way in which demographic information can be carried in goods. For example, clothing communicates culture, gender, age and other demographic variables, just as football communicates aggression, masculinity, and passion. The same way, it is expected that other sport products and services should communicate some of these variables too, although the gender or masculinity boundaries for most sport is currently blurred. Accordingly, consumers with different value orientations would differ in their consumption pattern (Shoham et al., 1997).

Consequently, consumers’ personal values and beliefs which are the foundation of their ethnicity and culture would play a central role in shaping their attitudes and behavior.

Delineating the role of the consumption process in the cultural reality of Black consumers in America shows the importance that this study attaches to the adaptation process and the cultural meaning that sport events carry in this context. The following figure (Figure 2.3) depicts the thesis of this study regarding personal values, ethnic identity, and sport consumption of Black consumers, as a consumption community.

In the sport consumption environment, sport events allow individuals to identify themselves with a particular culture and to communicate the group concept through the consumption process to others. Since certain sports have been identified to be culturally

73 specific, a strong ethnic identity is capable of inducing a specific consumption pattern that distinguishes one group of consumers from others. Figure 2.3 is based on the notion that, at a high level of identification with one‘s ethnic group, people can have preconceived notions about sport teams and sport events based on stereotypes derived from their ethnic and personal value systems. This level of ethnic identity would affect their opinion about sport activities and people associated with them stemming from congruence or incongruence between product environment and their own self-esteem and affect.

African-Americans, Africans & Other Black BLACK CONSUMPTION Immigrantsfrom Latin COMMUNITY America, Caribbean, etc.

Values Ethnic Identity Kahle's (1983) LOV scale Brown et al's (1986) EID scale CULTURE

Sport Consumption Frequency

Sport Consumption Preferences SPORT CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

Figure 2.3: Personal Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption Behavior among

Blacks.

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The strength of ethnicity or group identity has the tendency to result in ethnic- or culturally-based consumption patterns, prompting specific preferences and consumption frequency of sport activities. The attitudes and interests of social group members in the consumption of many products such as music, theater, fashion, and sport (for instance) would be mediated by the similarity of consumers’ personal values and ethnic identity and the values that these activities seek to promote in the consumption process.

Promotional activities that ignore the need for perceived similarity of values between fans and their favorite sport teams may be sending ineffective messages even if the team produces quality performances.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This research is an exploratory study to examine the manner in which Black participants’ responses to the two dimensions (personal/internal and collective/ external) of Kahle’s List of Values scale and the three dimensions of Brown et al.’s Ethnic Identity scale (self-definition, self-esteem, and affect) influenced their sport consumption preferences and frequencies. The purpose of this chapter was to specify the methodological procedures employed to test the hypotheses presented in Chapter 1. The section describes the research instrument and the sample characteristics. It also provides a description of the statistical procedures that were employed to analyze the data.

Research Design

The main objectives of the current study were to examine the cultural phenomena associated with sport consumption behavior, and to gain new insights into the sport behavior of Black consumers as a culturally/ethnically based consumption community.

Since the research focus was exploratory, the descriptive approach was used to understand the relationship between values, ethnic identity, and sport consumption behavior among Black students. This approach was used in combination with the

76 predictive correlational approach, since another objective of the study was to examine the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables. According to Fraenkel and

Wallen (2003), the major purpose of correlational research is to clarify the understanding of important phenomena by identifying relationships among variables.

The study design allowed for the collection of data through the survey procedure from a sample rather than from the entire population of Blacks. The intangible constructs measured in this study were not directly observable but inferred from the responses participants made to a self-reported questionnaire. According to Ary, Jacobs, and

Razavieh (1996) the most challenging about surveys is when one seeks to measure intangibles such as attitudes, opinions, values, or other psychological and sociological constructs. Since the variation needed for studying relationships comes from differences between the same participants at a single point in time, the between-subjects approach recommended by Cook and Campbell (1979) was adopted. The design includes multiple dependent variables. The multivariate design, therefore, was appropriate for this study

(Bordens & Abbott, 1996) since this correlational research simultaneously measured 6 criterion variables.

Population and Sample

Target Population

A research population comprises all the cases (units or elements) that conform to some designated set of specifications. If one is to generalize the sample findings to the population, it is essential that the sample selected be representative of that population. In

77 the current research the nonprobability sampling technique was employed involving the use of a nonrandom procedure for selecting the members of the sample. The sampling frame was determined based on convenience and accessibility. The convenience sampling procedure was used to select the participants for the study. The target population for the study was the Black population at a Midwestern university in Chicago while the accessible population were Black students enrolled for undergraduate and graduate courses in that university. Fisher (1998) recommends the use of students in sport-related survey research because of their high involvement in sport and their vicarious consumption patterns.

Sampling

A sample is a list of elements from the population to be observed and/or measured. A convenience sampling procedure was utilized in this study. Questionnaires were administered in-class to a convenience sample of only Black graduate and undergraduate students of African descent (African-Americans, Africans, Blacks from the West Indies/Caribbean Islands, and Black Hispanic-Americans) of the same university. The sampling frame was selected based on secondary data obtained from US

Census Bureau. Analysis of the secondary data showed that about 6 in 10 people reporting as Black or African-American reside in 10 states with Chicago being one of two cities with the largest Black populations. Chicago was deemed ideal for this study because it is one of the ten places reporting the largest population of Blacks in the US with a 38% Black population density. It was also considered an ideal sample frame because it has the largest

78 concentration of Blacks (1.06 million out of a total of 1.2 million) in one county alone

(Cook County), second only to New York City.

A strong reason for selecting the respective university was because it had an undergraduate and graduate student population made up of 74% women and 26% men most of whom were Black (constituting about 90%) coming from 12 American states and territories, and 8 other countries. The university’s multiracial student body reflected the demographics of the Chicago metropolitan because two-thirds of the student population are drawn from the Chicago metropolitan area. A substantial population of the students of this university was from low income backgrounds with many of them older than the traditional college age. Most of the foreign students were Blacks coming from 5 countries in Africa. It was expected that this composition would provide a variety of sub-ethnic groups among members of the Black community. Students were also deemed appropriate for the study since it had been assumed that they constitute highly experienced consumers of the electronic and print media programs and products.

Respondents’ relative homogeneity on characteristics such as age, race, and education were deemed important to the conduct of the present study. The homogeneity of these demographic indicators served as a control in this exploratory study. Elements of the study sample were expected to include both male and female students between the ages of 18 and 26 years with most of them being physical education students (selected merely for convenience). This part of the sample frame was chosen because of the acceptance of an assistant professor of the Department of Health, Physical Education, &

Recreation of the selected university) to be the questionnaire administrator. The

79 participants considered in this study were not expected to differ from the general population demographics of Black students in terms of race, ethnicity, and gender, but were not entirely representative of the Black population in America in terms of SES variables, geographic region, and preference for sport.

Data for the pilot study were collected from 44 participants from the accessible population comprising students from the College of Education and College of Continuing

Education registered for the second semester courses (2003) at the Department of Health,

Physical Education, and Recreation of the selected university. Data for the main study were collected from 230 participants enrolled for the second semester (2003) at the

Departments of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Mathematics and Computer

Science, and Educational Leadership, Curriculum and Foundations.

Sample Size

Estimating the size of a study sample is of critical importance to the data collection process. Hair et al. (1998) recommend that, analyses such as used in this study be based on samples large enough to allow for 15-20 observations per independent/predictor variable or a sample size of 200 as a rule of thumb. The minimum acceptable sample size for a correlational study is considered by most researchers to be no less than 30 (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003: p. 345). To be accurate, multiple correlations need to be based on large sample sizes (200 or more) especially if three or more predictor variables are involved (Hopkins & Glass, 1978). It has been suggested that for multiple regression tests the sample size must be at least 50 times greater than the number of predictors (Hopkins & Glass, 1978). This study had two predictor variables, one with two

80 dimensions (personal values) and the other (ethnic identity) with three dimensions. As

such, a sample of 230 was appropriate for the analyses because it satisfied the parameters

recommended by Hair et al. (1998) and Hopkins and Glass (1978).

Data Collection Procedures

Human subjects’ approval was secured for use of the sample under consideration from the Human Subjects Review Committee before the data collection process.

Questionnaires were administered with the help of an Assistant Professor at the selected university who was personally contacted and agreed to give students credit to complete them. The questionnaires were expected to be administered in-class to only students of

African descent enrolled for the second semester (2003) courses at the university.

Participants were expected to complete the entire instrument within a 15-20 minutes period or requested to complete them out of class and return them within a week to the questionnaire administrator. They were requested to read a short cover sheet

(Appendix 1) which outlined the objectives of the study as well as provided assurance of participant confidentiality. Participants answered the questions in the survey instrument in relation to their ethnic identity, personal value system, preferred sport events and frequency of attendance at sport activities (from a list of choices) as well as sport media preferences and consumption frequency. They were also requested to provide some demographic data.

For those classes where the questionnaire was administered out-of-class, participants were requested to return them within a week to the test administrator. It had

81 been anticipated that any participant who lost their questionnaires would be provided a second set of the instrument and encouraged to complete them in-class under supervision of the test administrator. Approximately 76% of the questionnaires administered were duly returned. The physical activity classes of the Department of Health, Physical

Education, and Recreation of the accessible population were primarily targeted because enrollment for these courses comprises a diverse sample of students from the five colleges of the university.

Instrumentation

The self-reported questionnaire administered included the LOV instrument employed by Kahle (1983), the Ethnic Identity scale of Brown et al. (1986), representing the attribute or predictor variables. These two instruments were established measures used and validated in previous studies. Bordens and Abbott (1996) advised the use of previously validated instruments to avoid spending precious time in the validation process, especially when one is new to a research area. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) conclude that knowledge of what variable is actually being measured in a prediction study is not essential if it works as a predictor. It was therefore expected that the two predictor variables would be able to predict the criterion variables individually or together. The dependent variables consisted of 6 behaviors representing preferences for sport consumption and frequency of sport consumption. The questionnaire was designed to provide data representing the measures of ethnic identity, values, and sport consumption behaviors and the demographic profiles of sample participants. Instructions on how

82 participants were required to answer each of the six sections of the questionnaire were provided in order to minimize measurement error.

Measurement

Values influence one’s attitude to an entity and are personal to the individual although various individuals are mostly influenced by family, peers, community, and society (Stevenson, 1998). Consumers are, however, aware of their own personal value systems before action of any sort is contemplated (Chelladurai, 1999) because “values occupy a more central position than attitudes within one’s personality make-up and cognitive system and are therefore determinants of attitudes as well as behavior”

(Rokeach, 1973; p. 18). Ethnic identity was the other predictor variable in the study that is believed to provide an individual a sense of distinctiveness (Rodriguez & Gurin, 1990) and an association with a social group. Following is a discussion of how these two variables were measured in the context of this study.

Predictor Variables

Two sets of attribute or predictor variables were measured. The two variates of culture selected as the main focus of this study were: (a) values (consisting of two levels - internal and external values) and (b) ethnicity (consisting of 3 levels - self-definition, self-esteem, and affect). Values were measured through a 9-item LOV scale (Kahle,

1983) using a 9-point Likert scale. Ethnic identity, on the other hand was captured through a 10-item ethnic identity scale (Brown et al., 1986) using a 5-point Likert scale.

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The LOV scale: This scale was used to measure participants’ personal values.

The first section of the questionnaire involved an initial value profile of respondents and the evaluation of personal values to be measured using the list of values (LOV) proposed by Kahle (1983) which have been demonstrated to be an efficient and reliable measure of values (Shao, 2002). Reliability alphas of .77 and .79 were obtained by Shao (2002) for two independent samples using the same scale. Kahle (1983) categorized the 9 items comprising the scale into internal (personal) and external (collective) loci of control, as shown in Table 3.1.

Locus of Control

Internal External

Excitement Being well-respected by others

Fun and enjoyment Security

Self-fulfillment Sense of belonging

Self-respect

Sense of accomplishment

Warm relationships with others

Table 3.1: The two dimensions of the LOV scale (Kahle, 1983)

The nine items comprising the LOV scale are self-respect, excitement, fun and enjoyment in life, self-fulfillment, sense of accomplishment, and warm relationships with

84 others, sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected by others. The LOV instrument had been found to be more reliable (Shao, 2002) in a cross-cultural setting than other value scales attributed to Rokeach (1973) and Schwartz (1990 & 1992).

Participants were requested to indicate the importance of each value to them. The questionnaire included a list of these values that may have been stressed to respondents when they were young and are probably still important to them. Participants were requested to indicate the extent to which each item was important in their daily lives, using a scale ranging from 1 (Least Important to me) to 9 (Most Important to me). They were also required to choose only one item deemed the most important of the 9 values to them.

Ethnic Identification Scale: Items that measure the identification variable have as their basis the level of identification with one’s ethnicity reflecting the extent to which the individual defines himself or herself with the three constructs constituting the Ethnic

Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986) - self-definition, self-esteem, and affect. These identity dimensions are considered powerful referents with the capacity to induce strong attachment, boost self-esteem, generate affect and promote very strong situational identity formations (Breakwell, 1986). The ethnic identity scale developed by Brown et al. (1986), based on an original scale of ethnic identity devised by Driedger (1976), is a

10-item inventory which consists of five items affirming group identification and five denying it.

The items also attempt to measure the three aspects of identity they identified from the definition of the social identity theory. The scores of the negative items were reversed for analysis to give a possible range of 10-50 individual scores for the entire 85 86 scale. Accordingly, self-definition/awareness was tapped by 2 items, self- esteem/evaluation by 4 items, and affect by 4 items (Table 3.2). Brown et al.’s (1986) analysis of the scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .71 indicating a fair measure of inter- item correlation. Factor analysis also yielded an oblique solution with three intercorrelated factors.

Categorization of Items

Self-definition (SDEF) SDEF 1: I am a person who identifies with the Black group

SDEF 2: I an a person who sees myself as belonging to the Black group

Self-esteem (SEST) SEST 1: I am a person who considers the Black group important

SEST 2: I am a person who criticizes the Black group

SEST 3: I am a person who makes excuses for belonging to the Black group

SEST 4: I am a person who tries to hide belonging to the Black group

Affect (AFFT) AFFT 1: I am a person who is glad to belong to the Black group

AFFT 2: I am a person who feels strong ties with the Black group

AFFT 3: I am a person who is annoyed to say I’m a member of the Black group

AFFT 4: I am a person who feels held back by the Black group

Table 3.2: Item categorization of the Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986)

87 Criterion Variables

Various sport consumption preferences and behaviors were the criterion variables in this study. They focused on participants’ preferences for selected sport activities and consumption opportunities and frequency of sport attendance, viewing of televised sport, and reading about sport from the print media (magazines and newspapers). The study adopted a design of the same nature as that employed by of Shao (2002) for these three dichotomous sections. For example, while her design employed many varied sport activities (baseball, basketball, boxing, football, ice hockey, golf, badminton, etc.), the current design for the dependent variables employs only four collective professional

(basketball, baseball, football, soccer) and two college sport activities (basketball and football).

Preference for Attendance Frequency of Consumption Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Football Professional Soccer Professional Soccer Professional Baseball College Football College Basketball College Basketball College Football

Preference for Watching Televised Sport Freq. of Watching Televised Sport Professional Baseball Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Football Professional Basketball Professional Soccer Professional Soccer College Football College Basketball College Basketball College Football

88 Preference for Reading Print Media Sport Freq. of Reading Print Media Sport Baseball Baseball Basketball Basketball Football Football Soccer Soccer

Table 3.3: Variables Constituting the Sport Consumption Behavior (Criterion)

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Items measuring the criterion were covered by three sections of the questionnaire.

Section 3 contained items to measure preference for and frequency of attendance at six sport events. Section 4 measured the preference for and frequency for viewing sport programs on television while Section 5 measured the preference for and frequency of reading sport from the print media. Table 3.3 summarizes the different sport activities and consumption opportunities selected for the study. Some items included in the fifth section required respondents to identify their preferences from a list of sport magazines and newspapers those that respondents preferred and to indicate their frequency of consumption. Section 6 of the questionnaire was designed to gather demographic information about the respondents requiring the following characteristics: age, gender, marital status, educational level, annual income, and sub-ethnic category.

Sport consumption “preferences” were measured by using a 9-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not Preferable At All) to 9 (Very Preferable). Participants were required to respond by indicating their preference for a specific sport and their preferences for televised sport and print media sport from newspapers and magazines. Sport consumption

“frequency” was measured with a 9-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 9 (Very

Frequently). Participants were required to respond to the frequency in which they watched televised sport programs using the 9-point Likert scale. Choice of specific sport activities frequently attended by participants was limited to professional sport events

(soccer, baseball, basketball, and football) that have professional team franchises in

Chicago (e.g., Chicago Fire, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Chicago Bulls, Chicago

Bears) and two

90 popular college sport events (basketball and football) represented by the “Cougars” of the

Chicago State University. The Cougars was specifically chosen because all participants for this study were either undergraduate or graduate students and are therefore familiar with college sport programs.

Ancillary Sport Consumption Items

Two ancillary items were included in the questionnaire. One ancillary item requested participants to provide additional motives for their sport consumption. A second (and related) ancillary item requested the participants to identify the major factors that influenced their sport consumption behavior.

Demographic Data:

A set of demographic data (consisting of age, gender, income level, educational level, marital status, and sub-ethnic group) was collected from the respondents. Only gender was used in the MANOVA analyses to identify whether demographic differences significantly influenced the participants’ responses to the predictor and criterion variables.

Validation of Test Instrument

Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of specific inferences made from test scores (Messick, 1989). There are various procedures used to gather evidence about test validity. Although the current instruments had been validated in previous studies (Brown et al., 1986; Kahle, 1983; Robbins, 1992; Shao, 2002) they

91 had not been applied to the Black population specifically. Two forms of validity for the research instrument were examined to address specific aspects of the scales.

Face Validity: Face validity was the simplest kind of validity used to determine the appropriateness of the instrument used in this study. It shows how well a test appears to measure what it was designed to measure. Since instruments can sometimes elicit biased or incorrect responses because of lack of face validity, members of the researcher‘s dissertation committee and a group of independent persons (doctoral students of the Ohio State University, Department of Sport Management) examined the appeal and appearance of the instrument to determine if it measured what it was supposed to measure and whether it appeared valid to the targeted respondents who would complete it.

Content Validity: The second type of validity check was content validity.

Content validity was determined subjectively by a thorough examination of the instrument by a panel of expert judges (members of the dissertation committee). Content validity examines whether test items are a representative sample of the total domain of content to be measured. The panel of experts examined whether the items logically fit the domain to which it belonged. The feedback from the panel of experts produced a juried instrument which was later pilot tested with a small population similar to the proposed population.

The instrument was pilot tested in-class to a small sample of 44 students. The participants of the pilot test were drawn from the same research population, with similar demographic and psychographic characteristics, but were excluded from being part of the final research sample. The results of the pilot test were use to refine, reword, and re- 92 93 arrange items included in the instrument and to make them more appropriate and understandable to increase validity.

Reliability of Test Instrument

The degree to which random error occurs in measurements indicates the relative reliability of the measuring instrument and data produced. This study sought to examine the manner in which predictor variables would influence criterion variables. Therefore, central to this study was the reliability of the predictor variables. Reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha because almost all test items had multiple response categories. Reliability alpha provides a measure of the extent to which items are positively intercorrelated and working together to measure a trait or characteristic (Ary,

Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996). Nunnally (1967) stated that where results of a test are to be used as a basis for making decisions only instruments with a reliability of .80 or more is required while for making decisions about a group or for research purposes, a lower reliability coefficient in the range of .50 to .60 is acceptable. An overall reliability coefficient of .70 for the LOV and Ethnic Identity scales was considered relatively high enough to draw accurate conclusions about the population being studied (Nunnally,

1978) and may even be lowered to .60 in exploratory research (Robinson, Shaver, &

Wrightsman, 1991).

Data Analysis Procedures

After receiving the final questionnaires from the sample participants, the data were checked for completeness of responses and unusable questionnaires were discarded.

94 The questionnaire information was then coded numerically and converted to a data file using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 11.5 computer software.

Descriptive and correlational analyses were performed on the criterion variables. A descriptive analysis of the ancillary sport consumption items was also performed. Prior to performing the primary analysis, reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) were computed for the predictor variables. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies, means, and standard deviations) of the data were also calculated for the predictor variables and frequency polygons were plotted to examine their normality and skewness. To examine whether the participants’ responses to the predictor variables differed based on their gender, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed.

As stated previously, the primary focus of this investigation was to examine the manner in which the predictor variables of personal values and ethnic identification influenced the sport consumption preferences and behavior frequency (i.e. preferences for sport, televised sport and print media sport; and frequency of sport attendance, televised sport viewing, and print media sport consumption). To accomplish this purpose, six simultaneous multivariate multiple regressions were performed: two for sport attendance preference and frequency, two for electronic sport media consumption preference and frequency, and two for print media consumption preference and frequency. Multiple regression enabled the determination of correlations between the criterion/dependent variables and the best combination of the two predictor variables

(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Since a sequence of multivariate multiple regressions was performed, it was necessary to adjust the alpha level by the Bonferroni inequality to decrease the probability 95 96 of any Type I error (Hair et al., 1998). For this study, the alpha level of .05 was adjusted to .01 because a total of six regressions (three for preferences and three for behavioral frequency) were performed. The assumptions for regression analysis (such as normality, linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables, homoscedasticity, etc.) were also examined to determine the appropriateness of the regression procedure for this investigation. Lastly, to examine the extent to which the respondents’ sport consumption preferences were related to their sport consumption behavior frequency, correlational analyses were performed. Each of the hypotheses presented in this study were also tested statistically by comparing critical and calculated values.

97 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

The results of the study are presented in six sub-sections in this chapter. The first section reports data analyses of the pilot test administered to establish the reliability of the measuring instruments. The second section contains the analysis of demographic characteristics of the sample participants. The third section presents descriptive analysis of the criterion variables of sport consumption preferences and frequencies. Gender differences in the criterion variables will also be discussed. Correlation analyses between the criterion variables of sport consumption preferences and frequencies are also presented in this section. The fourth section of this chapter presents an analysis of the predictor variables. It reports on the reliability of the LOV and EID scales, and the

Multiple Analysis of Variances (MANOVA) procedures used to test for gender differences for the overall scales and their components. This section also reports the correlations between the predictor variables (personal values and ethnic identity). The fifth section of this chapter presents results of the six multiple regression analyses testing the independent, interactive, and linear effects of the two predictor variables on sport consumption behavior.

98

Results of the Pilot Test

A pilot test was conducted with Black university students from the same sample population selected for the study who were not participants in the final study. This approach was employed as an attempt to determine the reliability and validity of the research instrument. To obtain a sample of participants to pilot the data collection instrument, questionnaires were distributed to 70 students from the university that served as the sample frame. However, only 44 of the participants (34% male and 66% female) returned the questionnaires yielding a 62.9% return rate. Three graduate (7%) and 41 undergraduate (93%) students completed the questionnaire and returned them. Time constraints did not permit additional sampling to increase the number of participants included in the pilot sample.

The participants ranged in age between 19-33 years with 73% of them under 30 years of age. Only 16% reported annual incomes greater than $30,000 while 41% reported incomes under $10,000. Others reported incomes of between $10,000 - $20,000

(25%) and $20,000 - $30,000 (13%). Two participants failed to report their annual income. Thirty-one of the participants were single (70.5%), 6 were married (13.6%) wile the rest were living with significant others (15.9%).

Reliability of Predictor Variables

LOV Scale: Analysis of the data yielded by the LOV scale produced a Cronbach’s alpha of .89. This coefficient was higher than in previous studies which yielded .71

(Kahle, 1983) and .79 (Shao, 2002).

99

EID Scale: Reliability analysis was performed on the Ethnic Identity (EID) scale yielding a Cronbach’s alphas of .91. This was considered highly satisfactory since previous research by Brown et al., (1986), Robbins (1992), and Korf & Malan (2001) yielded .71, .80, and .86 alpha coefficients, respectively.

Validity of Predictor Variables

Based on the feedback obtained from the panel of experts, the predictor variables included in the data collection instrument were deemed to have an acceptable face and content validity. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) suggest that, since validity refers to the degree of evidence needed to support the making of inferences based on data, validation should be based on “the inferences about the specific uses of an instrument … not the instrument itself” (p. 158). From this analysis, validity depends on the amount and type of evidence needed to support the interpretations made concerning data gathered.

Content-related evidence of validity was provided by the panel of experts and doctoral students of the Department of Sport Management (Ohio State University) by examining the content and format of the research questionnaire.

Modifications to Questionnaire

The results yielded in the pilot test led to a slight modification of the layout of the

items constituting the entire questionnaire. It was realized, especially with the EID scale

that the layout of the test items had not been arranged in random order and, therefore,

allowed for participants to circle items in groups rather than separately on each individual

item. This could lead to participants not reading the items carefully before giving honest

100 answers. Therefore, the items for the main study were rearranged in a random order,

rather than being grouped according to its subscale. A second modification to the

questionnaire subsequent to the pilot test concerned an ancillary item regarding the most

important value (among the values listed in the LOV scale) to the participants. Some of

the participants selected more than one most important value, making it difficult to

analyze the data provided on that item. Therefore, the directions in the main study were

revised to indicate that the participants should select only one item (emphasized) as the

most important personal value to them.

Results of Main Study

Sample Characteristics

Of the 300 questionnaires distributed, 229 completed ones were received from 71 male and 158 female respondents representing a 76.3% return rate. The sample was relatively middle age with respondents’ ages ranging from 17-53, majority (54.4%) of whom were above the pre-study expected age range (18-26 years). The administrator of the questionnaires reported difficulty in administering the instrument in-class since respondents were in their final week of classes and therefore requested to complete them out of class and to return them within one week. While some of the undergraduate participants were given extra credit for completing the survey, graduate participants volunteered to participate.

Table 4.1 presents a summary of the demographic profile of participants comprising the study sample. The gender composition of the sample (69% female and

101

31% male) reflects the demographic profile of the population of Black students in the university (70% female and 30% male). The mean age of the participants was 28.41 years

(SD = 7.73). With regard to the annual income, 53.3% of the participants reported an annual income above $15,000 with 20.5% within this category reporting incomes greater than $30,000. The majority of the respondents (87.8%) were undergraduate students while the remaining (12.2%) were graduate students. Over sixty-five percent of respondents were not married, 18% were married, 7.9% divorced, 7.9% living with significant others and only two respondents were widowed.

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Demographic Characteristics N % Gender Male 71 31.0 Female 158 69.0 Age 17-20 23 10.1 21-25 81 35.5 26-30 46 20.2 31-35 35 15.3 36-40 24 10.6 > 40 19 8.3 Educational Level Undergraduate 201 87.8 Graduate 28 12.2 Annual Income Less than $5,000 42 18.3 $5,000-10,000 36 15.7 $10,001-15,000 28 12.2 $15,001-20,000 26 11.4 $20,001-25,000 29 12.7 $25,001-30,000 20 8.7 More than $30,000 47 20.5 Marital Status Single 150 65.5 Married 42 18.3 Divorced 18 7.9 Living with Significant Other 17 7.4 Widowed 2 .9

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Sample

The ethnicity of respondents was highly skewed toward the African-American population constituting about 86.9% from an institution whose population is 90% Black.

Jamaican-Americans constituted 5.6% of the percentage of respondents. The sub-ethnic sample also contained two Trinidadians, nine Africans and four others who chose to describe themselves simply as “American”. The total of the sub-ethnic sample of

103 participants, other than African-Americans, made up 13.1% of the entire sample of

participants.

Descriptive Analyses of the Criterion Variables

The criterion variables in this study were three behavioral outcomes of actual

sport involvement: (a) preference for the selected sport activities and actual frequency of

attendance, (b) preference for watching sport on television and frequency of watching

sport programs on television, (c) preference for reading about sport from the print media

and frequency of reading about sport in the print media. The purpose of these measures

was to identify the level of involvement as manifested in actual consumption behavior.

Sport Consumption Preference for Entire Sample

Participants were asked to rate their sport consumption preferences on a scale ranging from 1 (not preferable at all) to 9 (most preferable). The results (see the

“Preferences” in Table 4.2) indicated that Professional Basketball was the most preferred by respondents in terms of mean scores (M = 6.45, SD = 2.79) followed by College

Football (M = 5.81, SD = 2.77). Regarding preferences for televised sport activities, the

104

results showed a higher mean score for participants’ preference for Professional

Basketball (M = 6.32, SD = 2.83) followed by College Basketball (M = 5.38, SD = 2.98).

Preferences Frequency

Sport Consumption Activities Mean σ Mean σ Sport Attendance Professional Baseball 4.03 2.84 2.95 2.34 Professional Basketball 6.45 2.79 3.61 2.79 Professional Football 5.61 2.88 2.93 2.52 Professional Soccer 2.96 2.55 1.67 1.64 College Basketball 5.05 2.79 3.96 2.78 College Football 5.81 2.77 3.35 2.59 Electronic Media Sport Consumption Professional Baseball 3.61 2.78 3.39 2.69 Professional Basketball 6.32 2.83 5.83 2.81 Professional Football 5.51 3.02 5.10 2.99 Professional Soccer 2.35 2.09 1.99 1.84 College Basketball 5.38 2.98 4.84 2.94 College Football 3.61 2.52 4.31 2.94 Print Media Sport Consumption Baseball 2.86 2.63 2.73 2.52 Basketball 4.94 3.28 4.65 3.19 Football 4.25 3.24 3.98 3.15 Soccer 1.93 1.80 1.82 1.71

Table 4.2: Mean and Standard Deviations of Sport Consumption Preferences and Consumption Frequency of Entire Sample

Analysis of print media consumption preferences showed that the majority of

participants preferred to read about basketball (M = 4.94, SD = 3.28) and football (M =

4.25, SD = 3.24). Professional Soccer was by far the least preferred sport activity in

105 terms of the mean scores reported for the sport itself (M = 2.96, SD = 2.55), its

televised programs (M = 2.35, SD = 2.09), and print media information (M = 1.93,

SD = 1.80). Overall, the preference for the consumption of college basketball on

television was higher (M = 5.38) than actual preference for that activity (M = 5.05).

In other sport activities, the mean preferences for actual activity were higher than mean

preferences for electronic media consumption.

Sport Consumption Preferences By Gender

Table 4.3 presents the mean differences in sport consumption preferences (and frequencies) based on the gender of the participants. The table shows that there were significant differences in the consumption preferences as reported by the significant F- values. Significant differences were reported between males and females in terms of the preferences for all the sport activities at p < .01 level except in soccer. Interestingly, while there was not a significant gender difference in the participants’ preference for attending professional soccer, F(1, 227) = .98, p >.05 or watching professional soccer on television, F(1, 227) = 2.78, p >.05. There was a significant gender difference for the participants preference for print media consumption of soccer, F (1, 227) = 6.14, p < .05.

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Preferences Sport Consumption Men Women Activities Mean σ Mean σ F-value

Sport Attendance Professional Baseball 5.08 2.92 3.65 2.75 14.89*** Professional Basketball 7.49 2.24 5.99 2.89 15.10*** Professional Football 7.27 2.28 4.87 2.82 39.55*** Professional Soccer 3.20 2.79 2.84 2.43 .98 College Basketball 6.94 2.42 5.30 2.77 18.45*** College Football 6.38 2.44 4.46 2.74 25.78*** Electronic Media Sport Professional Baseball 4.61 3.01 3.16 2.55 13.91*** Professional Basketball 7.42 2.14 5.83 2.97 16.49*** Professional Football 7.20 2.48 4.75 2.94 37.15*** Professional Soccer 2.69 2.37 2.20 1.94 2.78 College Basketball 6.72 2.50 4.78 2.99 22.70*** College Football 5.96 2.80 3.78 2.84 28.95*** Print Media Sport Baseball 4.15 3.08 2.27 2.17 27.99*** Basketball 6.76 2.70 4.12 3.19 36.64*** Football 6.18 3.04 3.38 2.94 43.35*** Soccer 2.37 2.28 1.73 1.50 6.14*

F (1, 227) ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.3: Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Preference by Gender

Sport Consumption Frequency for Entire Sample

The sport activities most frequently consumed, in terms of the mean values reported on the frequency of attendance for the entire sample (see “Frequency” in Table

4.2), were College Basketball (M = 3.96, SD = 2.78), Professional Basketball (M = 3.61,

SD = 2.71), and College Football (M = 3.35, SD = 2.59). The sport activities actually watched most frequently on television were Professional Basketball (M = 5.83, SD =

2.81), Professional Football (M = 5.10, SD = 2.99), and College Basketball (M = 4.84,

107 2.94). Very low frequencies were reported in terms of the mean values reported for frequency of attendance and consumption of both electronic and print media sport.

Despite the generally low frequencies of attendance reported at most sport events, the frequency of consumption of televised Professional Basketball (M = 5.83, SD = 2.81) and

Professional Football (M = 5.10, SD = 2.99) was high compared to the other sport activities. Professional Soccer events (M = I.67, SD = 1.64) and its televised programs

(M = 1.99, SD = 1.84) were the least frequented or consumed by the participants.

Generally, the consumption frequencies of electronic media sport were higher than the actual game attendance frequencies for all sport activities.

Sport Consumption Frequency By Gender

The results of the preferences for sport consumption based on the participants’ gender are presented in Table 4.4. The results revealed that males were generally more frequent sport consumers (regarding attendance, sport media consumption, and print media consumption). Moreover, the results also revealed that the participants generally consumed a sport via electronic media more frequently than they attended that actual sport event or read about the respective sport in print media. The only sport in which there were not significant gender differences was soccer. No significant differences were found between the males and females on their soccer attendance (F (1, 227) = .33, p >

.05), electronic media consumption of soccer, F(1, 227) = .85, p > .05, or their print media consumption of soccer, F(1, 227) = .57, p > .05.

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Frequency Sport Consumption Men Women Activities Mean σ Mean σ F-value

Sport Attendance Professional Baseball 3.65 2.75 2.64 2.07 9.38** Professional Basketball 4.37 3.09 3.27 2.58 7.84** Professional Football 4.03 3.00 2.43 2.10 21.43*** Professional Soccer 1.76 1.76 1.63 1.59 .33 College Basketball 4.99 2.96 3.49 2.58 14.88*** College Football 4.14 2.80 3.00 2.42 9.83** Electronic Media Sport Professional Baseball 4.27 2.98 3.00 2.45 11.37** Professional Basketball 7.01 2.54 5.29 2.77 19.89*** Professional Football 6.63 2.79 4.41 2.81 30.75*** Professional Soccer 2.15 2.07 1.91 1.73 .85 College Basketball 6.14 2.79 4.26 2.83 21.78*** College Football 5.72 2.99 3.68 2.70 25.86*** Print Media Sport Baseball 3.79 3.02 2.25 2.10 19.60*** Basketball 6.37 2.91 3.87 3.01 34.11*** Football 5.83 3.15 3.15 2.78 41.82*** Soccer 1.94 1.94 1.76 1.59 .57

F (1, 227) ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.4: Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender

Correlations Between Criterion (Sport Consumption) Variables

Patterns of correlations between the 6 sets of criterion measures were examined.

Table 4.5 present the correlation coefficients between the criterion measures. Results showed moderate to very strong correlations between the variables suggesting that all the variables measure a similar construct (sport consumption behavior). Examination of the coefficients indicated that all consumption frequencies of sport consumption frequencies correlated significantly with the consumption preferences.

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Criterion Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Preference for Sport Attendance ------

2. Frequency of Sport Attendance .774** ------

3. Preference for Televised Sport .774** 1.00** ------

4. Frequency of Viewing Televised Sport .687** .864** .864** ------

5. Preference for Reading about Sport .626** .767** .767** .741** ------

6. Frequency of Reading about Sport .584** .717** .717** .805** .808** ------

Mean 4.99 4.60 4.60 4.24 3.49 3.29

SD 2.08 2.13 2.13 2.12 2.21 2.13

**p < .01

Table 4.5: Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Scores of the Criterion Variables

Closer inspection of the pattern of coefficients suggested identical patterns of linear relationships between most of variables. For example: (a) the frequency of sport attendance and frequency of viewing televised sport programs (r = .86) and (b) preference for televised sport and frequency of viewing televised sport programs (r = .86) were identical. The same pattern was revealed also between (a) frequency of sport attendance, and preference for reading about sport from the print media (r = .77) and (b) preference for televised sport and preference for reading about sport from the print media

(r = .77). The relationships between (a) frequency of sport attendance and frequency of reading about sport from the print media (r = .72) and (b) preference for televised sport and frequency of reading about sport from the print media (r = .72) were also identical.

This 110 111 pattern revealed the frequency of sport attendance and preference for televised sport playing the same pivotal role in the relationships between variables. This pattern can be explained from the identical mean and standard deviation scores (M = 4.60, SD = 2.13) of these two indicators. The results also revealed a perfect positive relationship between the frequency of sport attendance and preference for viewing televised sport activities (r

= 1.0).

Motivational Influences on Sport Consumption Decisions

Participants were asked what factors generally influenced their frequency of consumption of the selected sport activities. The majority of them (26.03%) claimed friends or significant others were the most influential in their decision for attending sporting events in Chicago. Approximately 19% claimed time availability played the most significant influence in their attendance frequency while almost 16% reported money availability as exerting the greatest influence on their decision to attend sport events. Regarding the participants’ decision to watch televised programs of the selected sport activities, friends or significant others (27.4%), time availability (19.7%), and significance of the event (17.4%) were the most influential in the participants’ decision.

When asked about the factors that most influenced their decision to read news about the selected sport from magazines and newspapers, 22.3% of participants reported time availability, 20.1% reported the significance of the news, and almost 20% reported friends/significant others. Participants’ reading habits and interest, with regard to their preference for the selected newsprint in the city in which data collection took place, could not be adequately measured. Several participants (75%) failed to report their preferences 112 113 for the selected newspapers and magazines even when they were required to identify any other print media sources that had not been included in the questionnaire.

Analysis of the Predictor Variables

The LOV Scale

Reliability Measures: The first step in the analysis of the predictor variables was to calculate Cronbach’s alpha for the Likert scales to assess the quality of the measures.

To establish the reliability of the entire scale a Cronbach’s alpha was calculated reporting a reliability coefficient of .87.

A subscale reliability analysis (Table 4.6) was also undertaken to find out the internal consistency of the two dimensions of the LOV and their contribution in explaining the overall scale. The two dimensions of the LOV instrument comprised an

Internal Values subscale with the following items: sense of accomplishment, self- fulfillment, self-respect, fun and enjoyment in life, warm relationships with others, and excitement; while the External Values subscale comprised 3 items: security, sense of belonging, and being well-respected. Reliability alphas for the 2 subscales of the LOV yielded .83 (for internal values) and .67 (for External values). Although the reliability of the External Values dimension was moderate (.67), moderate Cronbach’s alphas of .60 are deemed acceptable in exploratory research (Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightman, 1991) and should not constitute grounds for rejecting an instrument. The moderate to high reliability coefficients obtained was probably due to the cultural heterogeneity of the study sample.

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Dimensions M σ Cronbach’s α

Internal/Personal 7.46 1.46 .83

External/Collective 7.97 1.02 .67

Table 4.6: Reliability of subscales of LOV Instrument

Most Important Value Items: In the LOV instrument, participants were requested to rate the level of importance of 9 personal values to them on a Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Least important to me) to 9 (most important to me) and to indicate, from the list of values, the single most important value to them. The most frequently denoted items from the list of values (i.e., items with the highest percentage of frequencies) were: security (10.5%), self-fulfillment (19.7%), a sense of accomplishment (21%), and self- respect (27.5%). The least important values to majority of participants were excitement

(2.2%) and being well-respected (1.7%). A study of the distribution of the data regarding participants’ choices of the most important values to them indicates a normal distribution with the value of skewness lower than 2.0 degrees (Bollen & Long, 1993).

Gender Differences for LOV: A MANOVA test was performed to examine

whether the responses to the LOV differed based on the participants’ gender. Results of

the MANOVA test examining gender effects on participants’ responses to the list of

values showed the Multivariate F value to be marginally significant at the p = .051 level

with the entire LOV scale (F (9, 219) = 1.92, p = .051). Multivariate F value for the

115 Internal Values subscale comprising excitement, warm relationships with others, self-

fulfillment, fun and enjoyment in life, self-respect, and a sense of accomplishment,

reported a less significant value (F (6, 222) = 1.13, p = .35). Univariate F analysis,

however, yielded significant main effect for excitement only (F (1, 227) = 5.15, p = .02).

Significant Multivariate F value on gender effects were reported on the External Values

subscale comprising sense of belonging, being well-respected, and security (F (3, 225) =

2.87, p =.04) without any significant univariate F values on the individual subscale items.

Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale

The Ethnic Identity scale by Brown et al., (1986) was used to determine the influence of ethnicity on sport consumption behavior. Data was analyzed, as usual, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Reliability Measures: Reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha because

all test items were answered based on a 5-point Likert scale starting from 1 (Never) to 5

(Very Often). The scale has five items denying ethnic group identity and five items

acknowledging ethnic group identity. Previous reliability analyses of the EID instrument

yielded reliability coefficients of .71 (Brown et al., 1986), .80 (Robbins, 1992), and .86

(Korf & Malan, 2001). A moderate reliability coefficient of .78 was reported from the

data obtained from the current research sample.

Table 4.7 presents the mean and standard deviation scores and results of subscale

reliability analysis. High mean scores (approximate average of 4.5 out of a maximum of

5) were recorded for all the three subscales. Cronbach’s alphas of .78 (Self-definition),

.64 (Self-esteem) and .70 (Affect) were reported for the subscale items. These moderate

116 coefficient alpha values were deemed acceptable in an exploratory setting (Robinson,

Shaver, & Wrightman, 1991).

Dimensions M σ Cronbach’s α

Self-definition 4.54 .78 .78

Self-esteem 4.48 .55 .64

Affect 4.53 .62 .70

Table 4.7: Reliability of subscales of Ethnic Identity Scale

Gender Differences for EID: A MANOVA was performed to examine whether the responses to the EID differed based on the participants’ gender. The results of the

MANOVA test on the entire scale showed no significant effect of gender on ethnic identity (F (10, 218) = 1.09, p = .37). Subsequent univariate analyses of the effect of gender on the three dimensions of this predictor variable showed a significant univariate

F value for the items constituting the Affect subscale (F (4, 224) = 2.56, p = .04). There were no other significant univariate F values for the individual items comprising the three subscales.

Correlations Between Predictor Variables

Table 4.8 shows the bivariate correlations between the subscales of the predictor variables (Personal Values and Ethnic Identity) for the study, as well as the means and

117 standard deviation scores for each subscale. Patterns of correlations between the subscales of the two predictor variables were examined. An examination of the correlation matrix indicated significant correlations between the Self-definition subscale of the EID and all other subscales of the predictor variables, although the correlation coefficients established with the subscales of personal values were below .35 indicating very slight relationships (Fink, 1995).

Subscales of Predictor Variables 1 2 3 4 5

1. Self-definition ------

2. Self-esteem .319** ------

3. Affect .449** .470** ------

4. Internal Values .173** .079 .123* ------

5. External Values .172** .103 .060 .755** ------

Mean 4.54 4.48 4.53 7.46 7.97 SD .78 .55 .62 1.46 1.02

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level

Table 4.8: Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Subscales of the Predictor Variables

The Self-esteem subscale of the EID also reported a similarly very slight relationship with the Self-definition subscale (r = .32), although its relationship with the

118 Affect subscale was moderate (r = .47). Self-esteem did not correlate significantly with the two subscales of personal values. The Affect and Internal Values subscales were significantly correlated (r = .12). There was no significant relationship between Affect and the External Values subscales. While some of the correlations coefficients between the subscales of the predictor variables may be considered significant at p < .01, their moderate level suggest the manifestation of only slight relationships (Fink, 1995;

Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003) thereby confirming that the two variables measure different constructs.

Regression Analysis of Predictor and Criterion Variables

A series of stepwise multivariate multiple regression analyses were performed with the various dimensions of preference for sport, frequency of sport attendance, preference for televised sport programs, frequency of viewing televised sport programs, preference for reading about sport from the print media, and frequency of reading about sport from the print media, as dimensions of the criterion variables. The predictor variables entered in the analyses were the 2 components of personal values and the 3 components of ethnic identity. Results of the multivariate regression and univariate analyses of predictor variables on consumption preferences (Tables 4.9 – 4.11) and consumption frequencies of sport activities (Tables 4.12 – 4.14 ) are reported. The regression approach was used to reveal if personal values and ethnic identity influenced sport consumption behavior preference and frequency. Since a sequence of 6 multivariate multiple regression analyses were involved, the Bonferroni conversion was used to reduce

119 the chances of committing a Type I error (Hair et al., 1998). For the current analyses, the alpha level of .05 was adjusted to .01 for all the regression analyses performed.

120

Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Preference for Pro Baseball .004 1.20 Self-definition .015 -.204 Self-esteem -.115 -1.512 Affect .026 .326 Internal Values .172 1.697 External Values -.083 .812 Preference for Pro Basketball .015 1.68 Self-definition .165 2.192* Self-esteem -.106 -1.408 Affect -.017 -.206 Internal Values .127 1.256 External Values -.151 -1.496 Preference for Pro Football .035 2.63* Self-definition .020 .267 Self-esteem -.217 -2.907** Affect .102 1.286 Internal Values .189 1.886 External Values -.096 -.959 Preference for Pro Soccer .003 1.12 Self-definition .035 .469 Self-esteem -.051 -.666 Affect .026 .323 Internal Values .179 1.754 External Values -.057 -.556 Preference for College Basketball .012 1.54 Self-definition .106 1.410 Self-esteem -.073 -.959 Affect -.054 -.671 Internal Values .189 1.866 External Values -.219 -2.163* Preference for College Football .000 1.02 Self-definition .050 .665 Self-esteem -.095 -1.249 Affect -.019 -.241 Internal Values .155 1.523 External Values -.069 -.678

**p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.9: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Sport Activities from Predictor Variables 121

Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Baseball .006 .72 Self-definition .087 1.151 Self-esteem -.066 -.860 Affect -.056 -.693 Internal Values .112 1.098 External Values -.094 -.916 Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Basketball .021 1.99 Self-definition .198 2.649** Self-esteem -.065 -.861 Affect -.064 -.803 Internal Values .147 1.457 External Values -.164 -.164 Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Football .009 1.42 Self-definition .063 .839 Self-esteem -.164 -2.166* Affect .068 .842 Internal Values .124 1.222 External Values -.100 -.981 Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Soccer .015 1.68 Self-definition .146 1.943 Self-esteem -.023 -.309 Affect -.057 -.712 Internal Values .189 1.867 External Values -.099 -.981 Pref. for TV Viewing of College Basketball .007 1.30 Self-definition .160 2.115* Self-esteem -.051 -.672 Affect -.058 -.716 Internal Values .119 1.175 External Values -.145 -1.424 Pref. for TV Viewing of College Football 000 .99 Self-definition .115 1.517 Self-esteem -.097 -1.271 Affect -.053 -.654 Internal Values .096 .940 External Values -.070 -.682

**p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.10: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Televised Sport from Predictor Variables

122

Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Preference for Reading about Baseball .015 .35 Self-definition .065 .849 Self-esteem -.074 -.960 Affect -.016 -.193 Internal Values .018 .173 External Values .007 .071 Preference for Reading about Basketball .014 .39 Self-definition .062 .817 Self-esteem -.077 -1.001 Affect .024 .293 Internal Values .034 .327 External Values .000 .005 Preference for Reading about Football .001 1.06 Self-definition .058 .768 Self-esteem -.151 -1.986* Affect -.004 -.045 Internal Values .041 .406 External Values .012 .116 Preference for Reading about Soccer .004 1.20 Self-definition .094 1.240 Self-esteem -.012 -.158 Affect -.018 -.221 Internal Values .025 .245 External Values .104 1.023

*p < .05

Table 4.11: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables

The purpose of these analyses was to determine whether any of the subscales of the two predictor variables significantly influenced specific sport consumption preferences or frequencies. Reports indicated that only with the Preference for

Professional Football games was the Multivariate F value significant (F (5, 223) = 2.63, p

123 < .05). Univariate analyses showed that Self-definition (a component of ethnic identity) significantly influenced the Preference for Professional Basketball games (β = .165),

Televised Professional Basketball games (β = .198), and Televised College Basketball games (β = .160). Another component of ethnic identity, Self-esteem, significantly influenced the Preference for Professional Football games (β = -.217), Preference for

Televised Professional Football games (β = -.164), and Preference for Reading about

Football from the Print Media (β = -.151). Only one component of Personal Values

(External Values) made any significant impact on the Preference for College Basketball games (β = -.219). The most significant influence was the contribution of the predictor variables in explaining 3.5% of the variance accounted for by participants’ Preference for

Professional Football Games.

The multivariate F values obtained from the regression analyses showed that the subscales of the LOV were weak predictors of all the criterion variables, with the exception of the External Values subscale contributing to the consumption preference for college basketball. The EID scale performed slightly better in explaining some amount of variance in the 6 dimensions of the criterion variables.

Tables 4.10 – 4.12 present the results of multiple regression analyses to determine the effect of the 2 predictor variables on consumption frequency. None of the multiple correlation values were significant at p = .01. The univariate analyses, however, indicated significant beta values with Frequency for TV Viewing of College Basketball (β = .172) and Pro Football (β = -.167). Only 2 subscales of the EID scale contributed to explain

124 variance in consumption of 2 sport activities. The subscales of the LOV scale did not significantly influence any of the components constituting frequency of consumption.

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Freq. of Attendance for Pro Baseball .006 .73 Self-definition .047 .620 Self-esteem -.091 -1.198 Affect .093 1.152 Internal Values -.059 -.581 External Values .097 .946 Freq. of Attendance for Pro Basketball .012 .48 Self-definition -.002 -.020 Self-esteem .009 .123 Affect .069 .848 Internal Values -.020 -.191 External Values -.063 -.619 Freq. of Attendance for Pro Football .019 .13 Self-definition .025 .322 Self-esteem -.054 -.702 Affect .023 .285 Internal Values -.028 -.276 External Values .006 .059 Freq. of Attendance for Pro Soccer .003 .86 Self-definition .089 1.176 Self-esteem .018 .235 Affect -.080 -.987 Internal Values .003 .034 External Values .090 .884 Freq. of Attendance for College Basketball .015 .32 Self-definition .005 .064 Self-esteem -.023 -.303 Affect -.025 -.312 Internal Values .056 .547 External Values -.106 -1.029 Freq. of Attendance for College Football .008 .63 Self-definition -.024 -.317 Self-esteem -.029 -.377 Affect -.068 -.835 Internal Values -.061 -.598 External Values .013 .130

Table 4.12: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Sport Attendance from Predictor Variables

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Baseball .006 .72 Self-definition .087 1.151 Self-esteem -.066 -.860 Affect -.056 -.693 Internal Values .112 1.098 External Values -.094 -.916 Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Basketball .004 1.19 Self-definition .126 1.670 Self-esteem -.056 -.742 Affect .009 .107 Internal Values .146 1.438 External Values -.118 -1.157 Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Football .011 1.49 Self-definition .045 .595 Self-esteem -.167 -2.205* Affect .100 1.243 Internal Values .113 1.112 External Values -.045 -.441 Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Soccer .011 .52 Self-definition .101 1.333 Self-esteem .013 .168 Affect -.009 -.105 Internal Values .029 .278 External Values -.011 -.109 Freq. of TV Viewing of Coll. Basketball .009 1.40 Self-definition .172 2.279* Self-esteem -.036 -.473 Affect -.096 -1.189 Internal Values .119 1.172 External Values -.126 -1.243 Freq. of TV Viewing of Coll. Football .006 1.29 Self-definition .130 1.727 Self-esteem -.086 -1.139 Affect -.061 -.754 Internal Values .091 .893 External Values -.002 -.020

*p < .05

Table 4.13: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Consumption of Televised Sport from Predictor Variables 127

Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Frequency of Reading about Baseball .013 .44 Self-definition .000 -.002 Self-esteem -.096 -1.249 Affect .074 .905 Internal Values -.059 -.579 External Values .080 .782 Frequency of Reading about Basketball .014 .36 Self-definition -.005 -.071 Self-esteem -.042 -.545 Affect .101 1.240 Internal Values .004 .044 External Values .011 .106 Frequency of Reading about Football .015 .32 Self-definition -.011 -.142 Self-esteem -.086 -1.129 Affect .070 .863 Internal Values .012 .113 External Values .010 .096 Frequency of Reading about Soccer .009 1.40 Self-definition .132 1.753 Self-esteem .026 .337 Affect -.099 -1.235 Internal Values .130 1.284 External Values -.028 -.273

Table 4.14: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Reading Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables

Tests of Assumptions of Regression Analysis

The use of regression analyses assumed that the variables would be normally distributed. Non-normally distributed variables (highly skewed) could distort relationships and significance tests. Most researchers advise simple procedures to test the

128 assumption of normal distribution of variables. A visual inspection of data plots, skewness, and P-P plots were performed to provide information about normality. An examination of skewness statistics, for example, indicated that almost all values were below 2.0 providing evidence of normal distribution of data. Effort was made to identify outliers through visual inspection of histograms, Normal Q-Q plots, and frequency distributions tables. Multicollinearity was checked through screening of the VIF and

Tolerance values in regression. These gave a quick summary of the degree of independence of each predictor variable from the others. All the Tolerance values were less than 1. The VIF values were less than 4 which was the level assumed for significance thereby providing evidence of lack of collinearity. The tests revealed no significant violation of the assumptions for regression analysis.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

The current study focused on several activities as components of the sport consumption experience of Black students. In the context of this study, consumption included the direct sport experience obtained through attendance at sport events as well as the consumption of sport via electronic and print media sources. The general focus of this study was to determine whether predictor variables of personal values and ethnic identity could significantly predict Black students’ sport consumption behaviors. This chapter will discuss the results of the findings. Although causal relationships are beyond the focus of this study, attempts are made to provide occasional explanations and draw theoretical linkages for the purpose of understanding the results of the phenomena under examination.

Discussion of Sample Demographics

Data was obtained from a sample of 229 participants from a Mid-western university comprising an unequal sample of 158 female (69%) and 71 male (31%) participants who were administered a questionnaire designed by slightly modifying 2

130 previously validated instruments - a 9-item List of Values scale (Kahle, 1983) and a 10- item Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986). This proportion of male and female participants in the sample closely reflected the gender composition of the college which was 24% and 76%, respectively. Another close observation of the demographic characteristics of sample participants showed that the sample was highly representative of the population under study in terms of age ranging between 17 to 53 years. The majority of participants (86.9%) were African-American students, while the rest (13.1%) belonged to the other ethnic members of the Black population. Most of the participants were undergraduate students (87.8%), unmarried (65.5%), and earning average annual incomes above $30,000 (20.5%). The high income range indicated that the majority of them could be part time workers as well.

The current sample’s demographic and consumption characteristics were both different from and similar to those of previous research in some areas. For example, from the perspective of sample differences in comparison to related research of values and sport consumption, the sample of participants used by Shao (2002) comprised 200 participants, 89 of whom constituted an American sample of which 75% were White and only 10.9% Black. Also, the gender representation of the Shao’s American sample was about 54% female and 46% male with the average age of 21 years. From the perspective of similarities to Shao’s (2002) study: (a), the mean value for consumers’ preference for basketball in the Shao’s (2002) American sample (M = 6.43, SD = 2.45) was practically the same as found in this current study on the same characteristic (M = 6.45, SD = 2.79);

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and (b) the frequency of media consumption of basketball was a mean of 5.88 in Shao

(2002) and 5.83 in this present study. Therefore, the similarities and differences between

this study and previous research further offer insight into the manner in which sport

consumption may differ based on consumers’ demographic profiles

Ancillary Motivations for Sport Consumption

Regarding ancillary motivations for sport consumption, the findings revealed the important role played by family, friends, and significant others as being the most influential in participants’ decision for attending sport events (26.03%) and watching televised sport programs (27.43%). This provided support for the “social networks/ support” motive influencing sport consumption (Schurr et al., 1988). It also lends support to the compliance theory (Kahle et al., 1996) that consumers might attend sporting events in order to conform publicly to a reference group’s norms.

Time availability was also an important factor that either hindered or motivated participants to watch televised sport programs (19.7%) or read sport publications

(22.3%). This factor did not affect their reading frequency for basketball and football.

Since many of the participants (34%) reported annual incomes below $10, 000.00, it may

be surmised that lack of sufficient financial resources by some participants might have

influenced the low frequency of attendance without significant influence on their

consumption preferences. Therefore, it is likely that (in addition to the participants’

personal values and ethnic identity) a myriad of other social and or demographic

constraints may have also influenced the students’ consumption of sport.

132 Discussion of Predictor Variables The most noteworthy finding revealed in the correlations between the predictor variables of values and ethnic identity was that the self-definition dimension of ethnic identity was significantly correlated with both the internal and external dimensions of the

LOV (value scale). Therefore, in response to Research Question 1, the results suggested that a significant relationship existed between the two constructs.

The LOV Scale

A significant relationship was reported between the internal and external components of personal values (r = .76). The higher mean score (7.97 out of a maximum of 9) on the external values subscale (which included the items a sense of belonging, being well-respected, and security) meant that participants placed high premium on these values. This also means that the presence or absence of these values within the sport consumption environment may induce high or low consumption frequencies. However, the high mean scores for sport consumption preferences and the corresponding low mean scores for sport consumption frequencies leads one to surmise that the sport consumption environment may not have provided the participants opportunities for the external values that these participants consider important in their lives to be manifested and nurtured.

MANOVA analyses to determine gender effects on the two dimensions of personal values revealed a significant difference based on gender for the External Values

(sense of belonging, being well-respected, and security). No significant gender differences were revealed for the Internal Values. Additionally, the MANOVA revealed that the only one LOV item that differed based on the participants’ gender was the

133 Excitement value. Generally, the results revealed that, for Black consumers, gender was not a differentiating factor regarding the influence of personal values on sport consumption. Since the study also revealed significant differences between Black male and female sport consumption preferences and frequencies, it is likely that such behaviors were probably influenced by factors other than the participants’ personal values.

Although Internal Values were important (M = 7.46) and participants were motivated to attend by friends, family, and significant others, the low attendance frequencies posted by these participants suggests that the consumption atmosphere in

Chicago may not be providing adequate opportunities for reinforcing and promoting the personal values of Black sport consumers. The importance attached to External Values by this population showed a marked difference in saliency with the American sample of mostly White participants by Shao (2002) which placed more importance on internal- oriented values. However, as in previous studies, self-respect, self-fulfillment, a sense of belonging, and self-accomplishment were the most important personal values (Kahle,

1983; Verkuyten, 1992). The high mean score on External Values and the choice of self- respect by majority of participants as one of the most important values to them, showed the importance of group self-definition to Blacks. This may be due to the importance that

Black ethnic group members place on collective self-preservation emphasizing cohesion, group harmony and ethnic sensitization (Kahle, 1983). In other words, some of the sport activities selected for this study may not have been ethnically defining activities

(Armstrong, 2003) for these participants.

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Multivariate regression analyses yielded an insignificant Multivariate F value for this predictor variable on sport consumption behavior. Further univariate analyses yielded only one significant univariate F value for External Values (β = -.219) having effect on Preference for College Basketball games. One of the reasons why External

Values may impact on the Preference for College Basketball can be explained through the obligation theory (McPherson, 1976) which postulates that a strong sense of belonging may induce people to college sport events so that they may be socialized into the sport consumer role through peers and family. In the current study, the significant negative relationship between External Values and preference for college basketball may be due to the poor performance of the basketball program which may weigh heavily against participants’ feeling of any obligation to attend game activities. According to

Kahle et al, (1996) obligation may be used to explain sport consumption but not necessarily attendance.

In response to Research Questions 2a and 2b, the results of the study revealed that personal values did not significantly influence the participants’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies.

The EID Scale

Results of the intercorrelations among the subscales of the EID indicated that the

Self-Esteem and Affect subscales were moderately correlated with one another (r = .47).

The Self-Definition subscale, with the highest mean score (M = 4.54) reported only relatively moderate correlation coefficients with the Self-Esteem (r = .32) and the Affect

(r = .45) subscales. Thus, individuals who reported moderate levels of self-definition

135 regarding their ethnicity tended to report much lower levels of self-esteem and affect.

This finding provides support for some previous premise that individuals' awareness of who they are may be accompanied by either positive or negative affect and/or higher or lower self-esteem (Verkuyten, 1990)

Due to the correlational nature of the analyses, it was not possible to determine whether self-esteem influenced participants’ affect or whether individuals’ strength of ethnicity was more influenced by self-definition than by self-esteem and affect factors. It is quite possible that the relationship is bi-directional. Theoretically, one would expect that individuals who score high on self-perceptions (i.e., those who have a strong view of their ethnicity) should also score high on personal self-esteem (Shoham et al., 1997).

Consequently, one would expect a high correlation between the Self-Definition and Self-

Esteem dimensions of ethnic identity. This expected relationship was not strongly manifested in the current study as participants scored higher in self-definition than in self-esteem. This observation supports the theoretical view by Verkuyten (1990) that not all the components of the self-concept are equally important to a person. Therefore, the salience of the components of ethnic identity to a person would determine whether that component would have a predominant influence on his or her consumption behavior.

Generally, Self-Definition was associated with the consumption of basketball while Self-Esteem was associated with the consumption of football. The analyses revealed that only the Self-Definition subscale played significant predictive capacity for the consumption preference of basketball (i.e., pro basketball, televised college

136 basketball, and televised pro basketball games). In contrast, Self-Esteem negatively and significantly influenced all aspects of consumption preferences for football (i.e., preference for professional and college football, preference for televised college and professional football games, and preference for print media reports on football). Similar findings were revealed for actual consumption frequencies. For example, Self-Definition was a positive and viable predictor of attendance frequency at college basketball games

(β = .172), while Self-Esteem was a negative and viable predictor of attendance frequency at pro football games (β = -.167).

The mean ethnic identification score (4.52 out of a maximum of 5) indicated very high identification to participants’ ethnic group. Nevertheless, all sport consumption frequencies were not significantly influenced by the degree to which the participants identified with their ethnic group. In summary, the results revealed that two (Self-

Definition and Self-Esteem) of the three dimensions of ethnic identity significantly influenced the participants’ sport consumption behaviors. Moreover, only two sport consumption behaviors (preferences and frequencies of attending basketball and football games) were significantly influenced by ethnic identity. Additionally, ethnic identification exerted both a positive effect (for basketball consumption) and a negative effect (for football consumption). Therefore, regarding Research Questions 3a and 3b, ethnic identity did significantly influence the participants’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies. However, based on the nature of the influence of ethnic identity on sport consumption, additional research is warranted.

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Discussions of Criterion Variables

Moderate to very high correlations were obtained between the dimensions of the criterion variables suggesting that consumption preferences and frequencies were good measures of the sport consumption behaviors of the participants. The results revealed a perfect positive correlation between frequency of sport attendance and frequency of viewing televised sport. It can be surmised from this observation that individuals who scored high in sport attendance frequency also scored high on their preference for televised sport activities. Except for the preference and frequency of reading sport magazines and newspapers, other consumption preferences and frequencies (for attendance and watching televised sport) were equally scored high among the participants. For example, the mean score for sport attendance preferences (4.99 out of 5) meant that sport was a highly preferred activity for Black consumers. The findings also revealed that Basketball was a preferred and frequently consumed sport among the Black participants, whereas soccer was not. These findings were in accord with previous research on sport consumption such as Simmons Market Research (1994).

The findings also revealed that gender differences existed in the consumption patterns

(with the exception of soccer). These results contrasted the results of Armstrong (2002;

2003) which did not reveal any pronounced gender differences among sport consumption patterns of Black consumers. Moreover, the gender differences in this study were similar regarding the participants’ sport consumption preferences and sport consumption frequencies. For example, men scored higher in consumption preferences and frequencies

138 than women with the exception of soccer where there were no significant differences.

The relatively low consumption of pro soccer by this group of participants was interesting, from a marketing perspective, especially when the US Soccer Federation is housed in Chicago, home of one of the best soccer franchises in the country - Chicago

Fire.

The findings in this study also revealed that electronic media consumption was higher than actual sport attendance and print media consumption. Such findings were also revealed by Armstrong (2002; 2003). Although the consumption frequency of televised sport was not as high as the preference for televised sport, the choice of time availability constraints as one of the most important influences for consumption may account for the differences in mean score as well as in the low preference and frequency of print media consumption. Most notably, time constraint influenced the consumption frequencies of electronic and print media sources.

The significant relationships between the criterion variables provided sufficient response to Research Question 4, suggesting that the participants’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies were significantly correlated. The findings provide support for the attitude→preference→behavior relationship (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980); however, it may not be concluded that there is a guarantee that behavior (consumption frequency) always follows one’s attitudinal inclinations (consumption preference).

Managerial Implications

Exploring the effects of ethnic identity and personal values on the sport consumption behavior of Blacks in America is critical, in a world that is moving toward

139 140 greater ethnic diversity and behavioral tolerance associated with the consumption of

sport. Minority ethnic groups are important market segments whose consumption pattern

is oftentimes culturally based. This current study has important theoretical and practical

implications that will benefit sport marketers and managers.

Theoretical Implications

From a theoretical perspective, this study offers insights regarding the (cultural) validity of some commonly used assessment instruments of personal values and ethnic identity to Black students. The findings of several insignificant relationships between the predictor and criterion variables in the study suggest that, perhaps the scales may have different meanings for Black consumers. Therefore, difficulties with the interpretation of some of the findings within the cultural context may arise. For example, the low scores on self-esteem may be interpreted as indicating low self-esteem, but it may also indicate that participants view their personal self-esteem as a less important factor regarding their sport consumption. As such, further exploration of the underlying factor structures of the constructs representing personal values and ethnic identity is warranted.

It was beyond the scope of this study to determine how consciously personal values and ethnic identity perceptions factor into Blacks’ self-concept. Nonetheless, it is important for marketing managers and researchers to increase their understanding of the latent and manifested meanings of culture, regarding its influence on consumer behavior.

The presence of a strong association between ethnic identity and personal values, as aspects of culture, suggests that the effects of ethnic group culture are complex and yet may also be subtle.

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Practical Implications

From a practical perspective, the study demonstrated the importance of the external value, a sense of belonging, which significantly influenced these Black participants’ sport consumption patterns. The findings, therefore, suggest that sport managers and marketers may seek to create sport environments that accommodate Black consumers’ desire for a psychosocial involvement in the sport consumption process

(Armstrong, 2002). Based on the results of this study a sport environment that helps to promote the sense of belonging may induce increased consumption preferences and intentions, thereby leading to higher consumption frequencies among Black consumers.

Kahle et al, (1996) suggested that for consumers who are motivated to attend sport events primarily for camaraderie, “flexible pricing for group purchases or improved logistics for group consumption, such as seating, parking, transit, and multiple-unit pricing” (p. 58) would be beneficial. Therefore (based on the findings of this study regarding the salience of sense of belonging to the participants’ sport behaviors) sport marketers could adopt promotional schedules emphasizing family seating and/or ticket pricing in combination with give-a-ways and other promotions emphasizing fun and enjoyment with significant others at the games to influence Blacks’ sport consumption patterns.

The high preference for sport and yet concomitant low consumption frequency among this group of participants also have implications for marketing strategies. One way of activating the consumers’ decision making process is to establish a need or want for the respective activity. Therefore, sport marketers seeking to attract Black consumers

142 may need to design a strategy to first appeal to their preferences and then design marketing mix strategies targeted at increasing their frequency of actual attendance at their preferred sport activities. For example, the results revealed that the participant’s sport consumption behaviors were greatly influenced by friends and significant others.

From a managerial perspective, promotional campaigns that stress the popularity of going to sport events with significant others or communications and sales promotions emphasizing family and peer group consumption may influence Black consumers’ sport consumption preferences. Also, based on the results of this study, print and electronic slice of-life advertisements (featuring Black spokespeople and “actors”) and in-arena activities for basketball events should make a concerted appeal to the self-definition opportunities afforded the participants by the basketball consumption experience. In contrast, print and electronic advertisements and in-arena activities for football events should not seek to make a concerted appeal to the self-esteem properties offered by the football consumption experience (based on the negative Beta values revealed). Such strategies will enable sport marketers to appeal to the aspect of ethnic identification that is likely to exert a positive influence on the consumers’ sport consumption behaviors.

As discussed previously, the high consumption of HBCU sport events by Blacks may be a result of inherent cultural attractions (Armstrong, 1998, 2003) that comprise the sport experience. Therefore, marketing strategies seeking to influence the sport preferences and frequencies of Black consumers may also use promotions and in-arena

143 activities to emphasize the nuances of Black culture and traditions. Although, the results of this study revealed that preference and frequencies were significantly related, there are a number of factors that may prevent actual consumption despite consumer preferences.

Based on the financial status of the sample participants, it is likely that limited financial resources influenced their sport consumption frequency. Therefore, as mentioned previously, one strategy to promote attendance frequency (i.e., translating preferences into frequencies) would be for sport marketers to provide family or multi-game ticket discounts.

The findings for the participants’ low preference and infrequency of soccer consumption were noteworthy. The low consumption preferences and frequencies of professional soccer were somewhat expected since the sport is fairly new in the country.

However, although soccer is a relatively new sport in Chicago (the city in which the data were collected), it has made a big impact in the city. Not only does Chicago host one of

10 pro soccer franchises in the country, it is also home to US Soccer House (headquarters of the US Soccer Federation). Chicago Fire became a Middle League Soccer (MLS) franchise in 1998 and blazed through its first season winning both the MLS Cup and the

Lamar Hunt US Open Cup Championship. This unique performance is expected to have created an avenue for increased promotions to bring more fans to the stands. The moderate consumption preference and low consumption frequency for soccer among the students in this sample presents a significant segment for increased consumption of soccer. In an environment with several sport offerings, as in the city of Chicago, increased 144 145 television coverage from the media to increase soccer’s popularity, coupled with the

marketing of star athletes (Williamson, 1988), and attempts at increasing the perceptions

of the relative merits of attending the game as an “event” rather than mere attendance

(Kahle et al., 1996) may increase the consumption pattern of students because of their

vicarious sport consumption patterns (Fisher, 1998). As previously discussed, these

strategies can be complemented with special promotions targeting students such as

student ticket discounts, multi-group ticket purchases, give-a-ways, and special (self-

defining) product extensions for Black consumers.

Study Limitations

The results of this study must be interpreted with a few caveats in mind. The use of personal values and ethnic identity has multiple advantages, although this study was not designed to identify the salience of these variables to the participants. Because the study sample included only college students, the findings may not be generalizable to a non-college population. As Fisher (1998) contends, college students tend to be more highly involved in sports than the general populace. In addition, since participants were undergraduate and graduate students at a large predominantly Black institution in the

Midwest, results of this study may not be generalizable to Black students in predominantly White institutions. Moreover, most of the participants were students enrolled in physical education classes and participated in a group administration of the study. Thus, participation with classmates and acquaintances may have had an unknown impact on the results of the study. Another sample-related issue is that the results of the

146 study may have been influenced negatively or positively by the small number of African,

Caribbean/West Indian, and Black Hispanic students in the sample.

The characteristic of the test administration was a source of measurement error since some participants were administered the instrument in-class while others took it home. Some questionnaires were administered a week prior to the end-of-semester examinations while others were administered during the period of the examinations and this could impact the performance of some or all test takers.

The study proceeded from available literature’s assumption that group identity was an important variable for Black ethnic groups because of their similar life and sociocultural experiences, and historical perspectives. None of the instruments used in the study verified the strength and salience of ethnicity to participants. Therefore, because the current study also involved non-U.S. Blacks, there is the need for caution regarding the instrumentation. Additional research is needed to determine the cross- cultural relevance of the instrument used in this study with regard to their predictive capacity of sport consumption behavior.

Only two predictor variables were examined in the study, leaving some amount of variance to go unexplained. Other factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic involvement, salience of ethnic identification, etc., might have influenced the sport consumption behavior of the research participants. Lastly, because the criterion variables were limited to only a few specific collective sport events, the consumption behavior of participants in individual sport activities (e.g., tennis, golf, track and field, boxing,

147 swimming, gymnastics) could not be accounted for. It is possible that different sports would produce different patterns of motivation. Likewise, since the study did not specifically focus on women sports, another limitation of the study is that the frame of reference used by the participants for sport consumption most likely was male sports.

Recommendations for Future Research

It is possible that the factor structure of ethnic identity and personal values may vary from one culture to another due to varied experiences and meanings associated with these constructs. Some ethnic groups may portray ethnic-specific values that are strong enough to influence consumption behavior but which may not have been captured by the

LOV scale. Future studies should include large and diverse enough sub-samples of Black ethnic groups to find out whether the factor structure is valid across the Black culture.

The findings of this study support the need for cross-cultural investigation of differences among ethnically diverse consumers, since the current results might have been influenced by the ethnicity of this sample. It is, therefore, suggested that exploratory factor analysis be used with minority ethnic group samples to further explore and validate the current factor structures of the LOV and EID scales. Additionally, confirmatory factor analysis should be used to refine or confirm the constructs as adequate scales for measuring personal values and ethnic identity of different ethnic populations. The investigation of gender differences was entirely exploratory and should also be replicated in future studies, with a much larger sample.

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The positively significant beta value of self-definition associated with preference for pro basketball (β = .165) revealed support for previous research (Bernstein, 1999;

Simmons Market Research, 1994) which identified Black consumers with the consumption of basketball and football. However, the negatively significant beta values of self-esteem associated with the consumption of football meant that an increase in self- esteem led to an equal decrease in consumption frequency of football (β = -.167). Such inconsistencies in expected consumption patterns with previous findings suggest that the relationship between ethnic identity, personal values, and sport consumption behavior may be more complex than past research evidence has revealed. Therefore, there is a need for further research into specific consumption communities by examining ethnic- related attitudes and behaviors among Black consumers and other ethnic minority populations.

It is strongly suggested that future studies include both qualitative and longitudinal methods (Phinney, 2000; Umana-Taylor, 2003) in order to better understand the nature of current dimensions of the ethnic identity and values scales. For example, qualitative work would better inform us of the substantive issues associated with each classification as they relate to the salience of group membership, ethnic identity, and personal values of sport consumers. This may help for a better understanding of the relationship between the predictor variables (ethnic identity and personal values) and the variables constituting the criterion (sport consumption preference and frequency) in this study. The inclusion of a longitudinal method would provide evidence of how elements

149 of socialization influence the changes or affirmation of personal values and ethnic affiliation.

Another issue relevant for future research is the effect of ethnic identity and personal values on the evaluation of sport product extensions. Based on Black consumers’ reported affinity to the product packaging of HBCU sports, it would be interesting to see how dimensions of ethnic identity and personal values affect consumers’ evaluations of product extensions and promotional activities. It would also be important to examine such influences on the branding process.

As discussed previously, this study examined only two of the myriad of predictor variables that may influence sport consumption. Future research could also include examinations of contextual factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic involvement, salience of ethnic identification, level of acculturation, etc. that are capable of influencing the sport consumption behavior sport consumers. Also, because the criterion variables were limited to specific collective sport events, the consumption behavior in individual sport activities (e.g., tennis, golf, track and field, boxing, swimming, and gymnastics) can not be accounted for. It is recommended that future questionnaire designs incorporate individual sport activities to cater for a wide range of sport interests. Similarly, future research should also specifically address the consumption of women’s sports.

Conclusion

Armstrong (2001; 2002) revealed the need for sport marketers to increase their understanding of the factors that may influence sport consumption behaviors of ethnic

150 minority sport consumers and how they differ from majority cultures. To address this concern, this study proceeded from the notion that personal values and perceived ethnic identity would lead to the formation of culturally directed sport consumption behaviors.

The infusion of culture into sport consumer behavior inquiry may provide sport researchers with another avenue for unraveling the lack of congruency between the attitude→behavior relationships in sport consumption. Research evidence shows that a number of factors have a systematic impact on attitude→behavior relationships, but problems have arisen when researchers have tried to understand and predict the frequency of repeated behaviors (see Reibstein, 1978; Shao, 2002) such as regular consumption of the sport product. It is likely that a latent effect of culture is influencing the attitude→behavior relationship.

Previous studies have linked values to the consumption of some products such as food (Homer & Kahle, 1988), fashion (Rose et al., 1994), and netnography (Kozinets,

1997). Personal values are very important to every individual in the consumption process. Research evidence has led to the conclusion that people consume according to the salience of their personal values. For instance individuals who endorse the value of self-fulfillment would be prone to be brand loyal in their purchase behavior; while those who place value on fun and enjoyment are likely to be brand conscious (Kahle et al.,

2001). Previous studies have also linked the personal value of self-respect with the desire of individuals to cultivate personal relationships based on respect for traditional values.

Kahle (1983) described self-respect as the all-American value. Therefore, the choice of

151 self-respect by the majority of the participants in this study as the most important value to them is consistent with results of previous studies. Surprisingly, personal values (as captured in this study) were not as influential as expected. This does not mean that personal values did not influence the sport behaviors of the participants in this study.

Instead, since personal values and ethnic identity were highly correlated, it is likely that there was latent influence of personal values in the construct of ethnic identification (i.e., as revealed in the significant and high correlations between the Self-Definition dimension of ethnic identification and the Internal and External value dimensions).

Previous research (such as Armstrong 2002) has revealed a need for increased examinations on the psychosocial influence of ethnic identification on Black consumers’ sport behaviors. The results of this study affirm the need for examining how ethnicity may influence sport consumption. Moreover, this study is significant in that it suggests a need to explore the multidimensionality of ethnicity, as different dimensions of a person’s ethnic self, may exert differing influences on their behaviors. As such, this study highlighted the need for further research into ethnic consumers as culturally based sport consumption communities.

The primary focus of this study was on Black consumers because previous research has not adequately addressed the consumption pattern of this group from a socio-cultural perspective. Previous research has also not related their sport consumption behavior to the salience of the dimensions of personal values and ethnic identification as used in this study. The findings of this study are not specific to Black consumers, as they

152 offer insight into sport consumer behavior in general. The present study suggests that understanding the relationships between personal values, ethnic identity, and sport consumption preferences and frequencies is a complicated task. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the limitations noted, the findings of this study offer plausible responses to the research questions posed. This study offered valuable insight into the complexity of the cultural dynamics that may undergird the sport behaviors of consumers in general, and Black consumers in particular. Herein lies the significance of this study.

153

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166

APPENDIX A

Research Questionnaire

167 COVER LETTER

April 15, 2003

Dear Student,

I am undertaking a study examining the role of culture in determining the sport consumption behavior of individuals of African descent in America. Students represent an important subcultural group of the Black population who will continue to define the behavior parameters and characteristics of people of African descent in American society. I will appreciate your contribution in identifying plausible theory on Black ethnic identity so that marketers can adopt better strategies in reaching out to Black consumers. As a Black student myself, I am inviting you to participate in the research to examine this important topic. Your input is critical in assisting with this valuable research project.

This dissertation is being supervised by Dr. Ketra Armstrong (The Ohio State

University, Department of Sport Management), Dr. Donna Pastore (The Ohio State

University, Department of Sport Management), and Dr. Pat West (The Ohio State

University, Fisher College of Business). Participation in this study is voluntary but restricted only to Black students of African descent. You may withdraw from the study at any point without penalty or you may refuse to answer any questions that make you feel uncomfortable. Agreement to participate is implied if you complete and return the questionnaire. You will not receive any reward for participation but your responses will

168 contribute in expanding the sport management knowledge base. It is anticipated that the questionnaire will take not more than 20 minutes to complete.

Each questionnaire will be kept entirely confidential by use of a numbering system and will be securely maintained with limited access. Individual information obtained will be treated as privileged and confidential, and questionnaires will be destroyed through shredding after the completion of the project. Your answers will be used in combination with those of other respondents in the sample to develop a composite view of the phenomenon under study. If you have any questions regarding your rights at any time, please contact Dr. Mensah Kutame (Chicago State University in the Department of Physical Education & Recreation at telephone #: 773-821-2826) or contact me directly by phone or email.

Please complete and return the questionnaire within a week to Dr. Kutame who has graciously accepted to collect and post all returned questionnaires back to me by May

10, 2003. Your participation is deeply appreciated. Thank you.

Sincerely,

Jatong A. Baba Doctoral Candidate in Sport Management The Ohio State University Tel. #: 614-291-1744 E-mail: [email protected]

169

Section 1: The following is a list of personal values. Some may be more important than others. Please, study the list carefully and then rate each value on how important it is in your daily life, using the scale ranging from 1 (Least important to me) to 9 (Most important to me).

Least Most Please circle the appropriate number Important Important to me to me

1. Sense of belonging 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be accepted and needed by our family, friends, and community)

2. Excitement 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to experience stimulation and thrills)

3. Warm relationships with others 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to have close companionships and intimate friendships)

4. Self-fulfillment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to find peace of mind and to make the best use of your talents)

5. Being well-respected 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be admired by others and to receive recognition)

6. Fun and enjoyment in life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to lead a pleasurable, happy life)

7. Security 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be safe and protected from misfortune and attack)

8. Self-respect 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to be proud of yourself and confident with who you are)

9. A sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (to succeed at what you want to do)

10. Please write down the most important personal value from the above 9 items. Select only ONE item. ______

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Section 2: Indicate the degree to which you agree with the statements below using the following rating system: 1 = Never (N) 2 = Seldom (S) 3 = Sometimes (ST) 4 = Often (O) 5 = Very Often (VO)

Please circle the appropriate number N S ST O VO 11. I am a person who identifies with the Black 1 2 3 4 5 group

12. I am a person who considers the Black group 1 2 3 4 5 important

13. I am a person who tries to hide belonging to the 1 2 3 4 5 Black group

14. I am a person who sees myself as belonging to 1 2 3 4 5 the Black group

15. I am a person who criticizes the Black group 1 2 3 4 5

16. I am a person who feels held back by the Black 1 2 3 4 5 group

17. I am a person who makes excuses for belonging 1 2 3 4 5 to the Black group

18. I am a person who feels strong ties with the 1 2 3 4 5 Black group

19. I am a person who is annoyed to say I’m a 1 2 3 4 5 member of the Black group

20. I am a person who is glad to belong to the Black 1 2 3 4 5 group

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Section 3: This section pertains to your preference for and frequency of attending sporting events

21-A. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for attending the following sporting events as a spectator by circling the appropriate numbers.

Not Preferable Most At all Preferable a. Professional Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Professional Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Professional Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Professional Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. College Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. College Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

21-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of attending the following sporting events as a spectator by circling the appropriate numbers.

Very Never Frequently a. Professional Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Professional Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Professional Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Professional Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. College Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. College Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

21-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for attending sporting events in Chicago? Please circle the corresponding number(s) that apply to you. a. Friends/Significant others b. Money availability c. Time availability d. Quality of sport facility or its location e. Majority of athletes participating are Black f. I am a sport fan g. Significance of game (e.g., rivalry, play-off) h. Presence of Black spectators i. Other ______

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Section 4: The following section pertains to your preference for and frequency of watching sport programs on TV.

22-A. Please indicate your PREFERENCE for watching the following sports on TV by cycling the appropriate numbers that apply to you.

Not Preferable Most At all Preferable a. Professional Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Professional Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Professional Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Professional Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. College Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. College Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

22-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate numbers that apply to you.

Very Never Frequently a. Professional Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Professional Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Professional Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Professional Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. College Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. College Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

22-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for watching sport programs on TV? Please circle the appropriate number(s) that apply to you. a. Friends/Significant others b. The quality of sport performances c. Time availability d. Significance of game (e.g., rivalry, play-off) e. Majority of athletes competing are Black f. I am a sport fan g. Other ______

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Section 5: This section pertains to your preference for and frequency of reading sport from magazines and newspapers.

23-A. Please indicate your PREFERENCE for reading sports from the following magazines and newspapers by circling all the appropriate numbers that pertain to you.

Not Preferable Most At all Preferable a. Sport Illustrated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. ESPN The Magazine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. USA Today 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Chicago Tribune 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 e. Sporting News 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 f. Inside Sports 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 g. USA Today Baseball Weekly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 h. Internet 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i. Other ______1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-B. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for reading about the following sports from magazines and newspapers by circling the appropriate numbers that pertain to you.

Not Preferable Most At all Preferable a. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-C. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of reading about the following sports from magazines and newspapers by circling the appropriate numbers.

Very Never Frequently a. Baseball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 b. Football 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 c. Basketball 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 d. Soccer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-D. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for reading sport from the magazines and newspapers? Please circle the corresponding numbers of your choice. a. Friend/Significant others b. The quality of the news reporting c. Time availability d. News about Black athletes e. Significance of the news f. Other ______174

Section 6: This section is designed to gather information about you

24. What is your age? ______

25. What is your educational level? Please circle the corresponding number.

1. Undergraduate 2. Graduate

26. What is your sex? Please circle the corresponding number.

1. Male 2. Female

27. What is your marital status? Please circle the corresponding number.

1. Single 2. Married 3. Living with partner or significant other 4. Divorced 5. Widowed

28. What is your ethnicity? Please circle the corresponding number.

1. African-American 2. Jamaican-American 3. African Immigrant 4. African 5. Black Hispanic-American 6. Other (Please specify) ______

29. What is your annual income including support from scholarship and parents? Please circle the corresponding number.

1. Less than $5,000 2. $5,001 - $10.000 3. $10,001 - $15,000 4. $15,001 - $20,000 5. $20,001 - $25,000 6. $25,001 - $30,000 7. Above $30,000

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In the space provided below, please list any other factors that influence your sport consumption behavior and attitudes

Thank you for your assistance!

The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service Sport & Exercise Management 337 West 17th Avenue Columbus, OH 43201-1284

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