W.&A., and A. tuberculatus Pal&Singh insects such as honey bees [Apis Okra—A Versatile are found in Asia; A. ficulneus (L.) mellifera (L.)] and bumblebees Vegetable Crop W.& A. ex Wight is present in western [Bombus auricomus (L.)] can effect Africa (Duzyaman, 1997). A perennial cross-pollination. In India, Tanda treelike okra grown in west-African (1984) found that intensive bee polli- William James Lamont, Jr. villages is believed to be an intermedi- nation resulted in a 19% increase in ate between A. esculentus and A. yield and improvement in the protein manihot (Rubatzky and Yamaguchi, and carbohydrate content of the okra 1997). seed pods. ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. Abelmoschus The discovery of A. caillei (A. The edible immature seed pods esculentus Chev.) Stev in western Africa (Cheva- must be harvested while they are still lier, 1940) and later evaluations soft and the seeds are only partially kra [Abelmoschus esculentus (Hamon and Yapo, 1986) have re- developed. The color of immature pods (L.) Moench] belongs to ceived much attention in the last de- varies from pale to dark green, red, or O the Malvaceae or mallow cade. It is distinguished from A. purple. Red pigmentation can also family and is a relative of cotton esculentus by plant shape, number of occur in stems, petioles, leaf veins, (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Okra is one epicalyx segments, and fruit shape and pedicel, and petal bases, which gives of the world’s oldest cultivated crops. orientation (Siemonsma, 1982). the plant ornamental value (Martin et The first recorded reference to okra Abelmoschus caillei is prized for its al., 1981; More and Vibhute, 1983). was made by the Egyptians in 1216 potentially prolific yield, vigorous Okra pods may be ridged or smooth. A.D., although the plant explorer growth, and tolerance to some nega- Okra carries unicellular trichomes on Vavilov indicated that there was strong tive environments, serving as a source almost all parts of the plant, providing evidence that the crop flourished even of many desirable characteristics (Ariyo, protection from pests such as leafhop- before that date in the tropical climate 1993). However, it is a short-day plant, pers (Emposca fabae Harris) (Rao, of Ethiopia, while others have identi- and will require selection for photope- 1991). In the 1880s, a spineless mu- fied its origin as India. It eventually riod insensitivity to make it more adapt- tant appeared in a garden in Lancaster spread completely around the Medi- able. County, S.C. This spineless character- terranean and westward to the new Okra is sometimes called gumbo, istic was incorporated into commercial world. Its arrival in the American colo- although that name is more commonly okra varieties in the 1930s. Mature nies during the early 1700s is attrib- associated with soups and other dishes pods dehisce, releasing round, very uted to either slaves brought from containing okra. It is also known as hard, dark-green or brown seed. Seed Africa or early French colonists in Loui- gombo in French, bhendi in Hindu, sizes can vary from 5,670 to 15,120 siana. Thomas Jefferson recorded the bamiah in Arabic, and by other names seeds/lb (12,500 to 33,300 seeds/ presence of okra in his garden log in such as quingumbo, quaio, and lady’s kg). 1748. It continued its march north- finger. ward and was found in Philadelphia in Composition and uses 1781, and from 1800 onward it was Anatomy Okra has been used in a variety of mentioned by many garden writers. The okra plant somewhat re- ways (Table 1) throughout history Genetic studies indicate that the sembles its close relative cotton, al- (Martin, 1982). crop may be composed of multiple though okra has much larger, rougher LEAVES. The tender leaves of okra species, origins of which might have leaves and a thicker stem. It is a are often consumed as a vegetable in been southeastern Asia, India, western semiwoody, fibrous, herbaceous an- areas where a wide variety of leafy Africa, or Ethiopia. The chromosome nual with an indeterminate growth greens are used in the diet (e.g., west- number of okra varies greatly, with the habit; it grows to a height of 3 to 6 ft ern Africa, southeastern Asia). The diploid ranging from 2n = 66 to 144. (0.9 to 1.8 m). The plant forms a leaves of some varieties are somewhat Okra actually may be of amphidiploid deeply penetrating taproot with dense, hispid (hairy), an objectionable qual- origin, exhibiting genomic contribu- shallow feeder roots in the upper 18 ity reduced by cooking. Leaves of other tions from hybridization of species of inches (46 cm) of the soil. It has large, varieties are smooth. The tender shoots, different ploidy levels. Cultivated spe- alternate, palmate leaves with small flower buds, and calyxes are often eaten cies of Abelmoschus in addition to A. stipules. Leaf margins vary from slightly along with the leaves (Irvine, 1952). esculentus are semiwild species A. wavy to very deeply lobed. Flower FRUIT. Whether boiled, added to manihot (L.) Medikus and A. moschatus buds appear in the axil of each leaf soups, or sliced and fried, the pods Medic. Wild species A. crinitus Wall., beginning above the six- to eight-leaf have a unique flavor and mucilaginous A. tetraphyllus (Roxb. ex Hornem) R. stage and develop into five large showy, texture, the latter objectionable to Graham, A. angulousus Wall. ex yellow petals with a large dark maroon many people. Edible seeds can be ex- or royal purple colored area at the tracted from pods that are too mature Associate professor and extension specialist, Depart- base. As the okra plant develops, the to be eaten. In Turkey, the young pods ment of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-4200. lowest flower bud on each stem opens are strung together and allowed to dry Use of trade names does not imply endorsement of the soon after sunrise and closes in the for use in winter. In western Africa the products named or exclusion of similar ones not men- middle to late afternoon. The anthers fruit are sliced, sun-dried, ground to a tioned. The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed dehisce between 0730 and 0900 HR powder, and stored until needed. Dried in part by the payment of page charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore must be hereby marked (McGregor, 1976). Although okra is pods or okra powder can easily be advertisement solely to indicate this fact. considered to be a self-pollinated crop, rendered edible by boiling.

● April–June 1999 9(2) 179 CROP REPORTS

Table 1. The nutritional composition material for making paper. Okra stems very tender and unable to tolerate tem- of the edible portion of fresh okra.z contain longer fibers in their woody peratures of <59 ˚F (15 ˚C) for very cores than most other dicotyledonous long. At temperatures >108 ˚F (42 Nutrient Value plants (Nelson et al., 1961). ˚C), flower abortion can occur. The Water (%) 90 FUEL. Thoroughly dried okra plant develops rapidly in areas to which Energy (kcal) 38 stems can be burned as an inexpensive it is adapted and requires only 2 months Protein 2.0 fuel. It burns rapidly, producing con- from planting to harvest of the first Fat (g) 0.1 siderable heat, but it is not long last- pods. If properly maintained, plants Carbohydrate (g) 7.6 ing. continue to bear until frost, especially Fiber (g) 0.9 MUCILAGE. When the pod is if the young pods are harvested Ca (mg) 81 boiled, it becomes highly mucilagi- promptly and not allowed to mature. P (mg) 63 nous. This mucilage has been used as a Soils Fe (mg) 0.8 spreading agent in the manufacture of Na (mg) 8 paper in Malaysia. Okra can be grown on a wide K (mg) 303 In the United States, okra is used range of soil types, although rich, sandy Vitamin A (IU) 660 primarily as a food in the fresh and loam soils are optimum. It is most Thiamine (mg) 0.20 processed state (canned, in prepared important that the soil be well drained Riboflavin (mg) 0.06 soups, frozen, and dehydrated as a and not prone to waterlogging. It is Niacin (mg) 1.00 powder). The young, tender pods of difficult to achieve good stands when Ascorbic acid (mg) 21.1 okra, popular in creole cookery, are directly seeding into heavy clay soils. Vitamin B (mg) 0.22 excellent in soup and stews; they may The soil should be well supplied with 6 be boiled, baked, or fried. Many cooks organic matter. This can be accom- zSource: Haytowitz and Matthews (1984). in the southern United States dip the plished by applying animal manures or sliced pods in cornmeal and fry them. incorporating green manure crops COFFEE SUBSTITUTE. Mature Okra combines well with other veg- (Colditz and Barber, 1975). dried seeds of okra can be roasted and etables, especially tomatoes. Pods that Okra is slightly sensitive to excess ground as a coffee substitute or added are boiled and then chilled are used in soil acidity; thus, proper liming is es- to coffee as an adulterant. Using ground combination salads. Regardless of the sential. The optimum soil pH range okra seeds to make a coffee is wide- method used, rapid cooking is pre- for okra is 6.0 to 7.0. If lime is needed, spread in El Salvador and other parts of ferred, as it preserves flavor and pre- the use dolomitic lime is recommended Central America, Africa, and Malaysia vents the mucilaginous consistency to supply calcium and magnesium. (Burkill, 1935). Coffee brewed from from developing. Okra is very susceptible to damage by okra has a good aroma, but it lacks the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.) stimulating effect of caffeine. Production and sting nematode (Belonolaimus sp.). OIL AND PROTEIN SOURCE. The There are ≈15,000 acres (6,000 Using a rotation with corn, grasses, content of unsaturated fatty acids, es- ha) of okra grown annually in the and small grains helps prevent a buildup pecially linoleic and oleic acids, is high United States. Most commercial okra of nematode populations. Okra should (70%) in okra seeds. The keeping qual- production is in Georgia, South Caro- not follow crops such as squash ity of the oil is poor, but it is readily lina, Tennessee, Alabama, Texas, Cali- (Cucurbita pepo L.), cucumber hydrogenated into a solid shortening fornia, and Florida. It is difficult to (Cucumis sativus L.), muskmelon and can be used as margarine. Okra has obtain exact figures on production (Cucumis melo L.), watermelon a high protein content that ranges acreage, because much of it is pro- [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf], from 18% to 27%. duced and marketed locally and there- or sweet potatoes [Ipomoea batatas CURD. Curds made from okra fore is not reported. Most southern (L.) Poir.], which tend to increase seeds have a creamy or light yellow states grow enough okra to provide for nematode populations. It is important color, a background flavor similar to local demand. Mexico is the leading before planting, preferably in the late that of tofu (vegetable curd made from exporter of okra to the United States. summer of the previous season, to take soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], Okra can be grown anywhere in a soil sample and check for the pres- and a musky, distinctive flavor. Okra the United States where other veg- ence of nematodes. If nematodes are vegetable curd has one possible draw- etables are grown, except in the coolest found, the use of a soil fumigant is back: seeds reportedly contain the toxic northernmost parts or at high alti- recommended. pigment gossypol (or a gossypol-like tudes. Okra varieties are short-day re- Fertilization should be based on a compound), which is soluble in oil sponsive, although some are day-neu- soil test to prevent excessive plant vigor and, thus, is included in the curd at tral. Temperature and photoperiod and poor yields. If a soil test is not concentrations several times higher interact to influence flowering. Flower available, a general recommendation is than that of the original seed. To avoid initiation and flowering are delayed at to apply N at 30 lb/acre (34 kg·ha–1), P possible long-term toxicity, it would high temperatures, and high night tem- at 26 to 34 lb/acre (29 to 38 kg·ha–1), be desirable to remove the gossypol, as peratures can increase plant height in and K at 49 to 66 lb/acre (55 to 74 is the practice in producing cottonseed most currently grown varieties (Tenga kg·ha–1). All of this can be incorpo- oil (Canella and Sodini, 1977). and Ormrod, 1985). Temperatures rated under the row or applied in a PAPER PULP. The fiber of the okra >68 ˚F (20 ˚C) are needed for normal band to the side. Nitrogen should be plant, like that found in other plants of development. It is considered a south- sidedressed at 25 lb/acre (28 kg·ha–1) the Malvaceae family, is a suitable ern crop plant that is categorized as when the plants are 6 to 8 inches (15

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