Aframomum Melegueta) in OFF-RESERVE TREE - CROP BASED FARMING SYSTEMS IN
THE POTENTIAL OF DOMESTICATING GRAINS OF PARADISE (Aframomum melegueta) IN OFF-RESERVE TREE - CROP BASED FARMING SYSTEMS IN
ASUNAFO-NORTH MUNICIPALITY OF GHANA
SARPONG AKWASI
DEPARTMENT OF FOREST SCIENCE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES
UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES, SUNYANI
JUNE, 2018
THE POTENTIAL OF DOMESTICATING GRAINS OF PARADISE (Aframomum
melegueta) IN OFF-RESERVE TREE – CROP BASED FARMING SYSTEMS IN
ASUNAFO-NORTH MUNICIPALITY OF GHANA
By
SARPONG, Akwasi, BSc (Forest Resources Technology) KNUST, Kumasi
A Thesis submitted to the Department of Forest Science, School of Natural Resources, University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Social Forestry and Environmental Governance
JUNE, 2018
i
DECLARATION
I Sarpong Akwasi (2016170060), hereby declare that the study was carried out and written by me, and that all sources of information have been acknowledged and that I am wholly responsible for any act that may infringe on research ethics and policies of the
University.
……………………… ……………………..
Candidate’s Signature Date
Supervisor’s Certification
This study was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Simon Abugre in accordance with the guidelines on supervision of Graduate studies.
Supervisor: Dr. Simon Abugre (BSc, MSc, PhD)
Signature:……………………. Date:…………………
Head of Department: Mr. Alexander Baffour Afrifa (Dip., BSc, MSc)
Signature:……………………. Date:…………………
ii
ABSTRACT
Aframomum melegueta is endemic in the Atiwa range in the eastern region of Ghana. With the ravages of deforestation, the plant is gradually going extinct and farmers have started cultivating it for consumption and trade. This new paradigm requires a critical investigation to generate knowledge on the optimum production and ethnobotany of the species. The study addressed this gap by determining the effect of land use (cocoa, oil palm and fallow) on the yield of Aframomum melegueta. The study was conducted using a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Treatments examined were cocoa, oil palm and fallow land uses. Data was collected on number of pods, pod length, pods fresh weight and yield per hectare. Also, the ethnobotanical knowledge was studied by purposively sampling three communities namely Ahamtamo, Nyamebekyere and Mpomase. A total of 30 Aframomum melegueta farmers were purposively sampled. The data were analysed using ANOVA and the means between the treatments were separated at 5% probability level. The results showed no significant (P>0.05) difference for number of pods, fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta per hectare among the different land uses. On the other hand, average pod length significantly differed (P<0.05) between land uses (cocoa, oil palm and fallow). Correlation analysis showed significant positive correlation between number of pods and average fresh weight (r = 0.962), number of pods and yield (r = 0.895) and average fresh weight and yield (r = 0.967). Majority of farmers (21%) use Aframomum melegueta for the treatment of stroke while only 2.8% use it to treat cough. Gender of farmers did not play significant role in sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta (X2 =2.89, P= 0.410). The major challenges confronting the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta were lack of ready market (33.3%), difficulty to cultivate (30%), competition with crops for nutrients (26.7%) and harbor insects pest (10%). Majority of farmers preferred fallow land (73.9%), oil palm (21.7%) and cocoa (4.3%) land use systems for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta. Education level of farmers did not significantly affect land use preference (X2 =5.70, P= 0.460). All age classes of farmers (100%) had knowledge on Aframomum melegueta. Education levels of farmers had no relationship with period of collection of Aframomum melegueta (X2 =1.64, P= 0.650). However, majority of farmers (60.9%) collect Aframomum melegueta from January – May while (39.1%) collect Aframomum melegueta from June – October. Generally, it can be concluded that cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use with light intensity range of 11.8% - 19.9% are all compatible for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta. Management practices such as weeding and thinning should be adhered to get optimum yield. Production of Aframomum melegueta can therefore be extended to off reserve farms which implies an increased in potential cultivable area for the NTFP.
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis to my wife Riss Adomako Sarpong who supported me during the period of the study.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With sincere gratitude and deep appreciation, I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Simon
Abugre my supervisor, for his guidance, valuable criticism and immense contribution to the success of this work. I would also like to express my gratitude to Prof. Mirjam Ros-
Tonen for her immense contribution to this research. I am also very grateful to Mr. I.K.
Abebrese and Mr. A.B. Afrifa for their support and encouragement during the period. I am also grateful to Mr. Asare Austin, Mr. Alex Appiah Mensah, Mr. Dadzie Bismark,
Mr. Yaw Apau, Mr. Akoto Selasi, Mr. Aboagye Alex, Miss Augustina Nyantakyiwaa and
Mr. Opoku Banahene Frederick for assisting in the data collection and analysis.
My appreciation also goes to ARF WOTRO, for funding this research through the Tree farm project. I am grateful to Mrs. Valerie Fumey Nassah, ARF WOTRO Project Officer
- RMSC and Dr. (Mrs.) Mercy Derkyi, the Coordinator of ARF WOTRO – UENR, whose timely release of the funds as and when it was needed helped in the execution of the research.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii
ABSTRACT iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xii
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS xiii
CHAPTER ONE 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Justification of the study 4
1.4 The study objective 5
1.5 Research hypotheses 5
CHAPTER TWO 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 The Concept of Modified Taungya System in Ghana 6
2.2 An overview of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs) 7
2.2.2 Cultivation of rare and valuable non-timber forest products 7
2.2.3 The purpose for non-timber forest products cultivation 8
2.3 The Concept of Land Use Systems 9
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2.3.1 Tree -based Crop Farming Systems 9
2.3.2 Categorization of Farming Systems 10
2.3.3 Tree Crop Based System 10
2.3.4 Cocoa Farming System 12
2.3.5 Oil Palm Farming System 14
2.3.6 Mixed Cropping System 15
2.4 Biogeography of Aframomum melegueta in tropical Africa 16
2.4.1 Ecology of Aframomum melegueta in Ghana 17
2.4.2. Botany of Aframomum melegueta 18
2.4.3 Common uses of Aframomum melegueta 18
2.5 Influence of temperature and light levels on fruits formation 19
2.5.1 Effect of natural shade on photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration 20
2.5.2 Effect of natural shade on growth and yield of plants. 21
2.6 Emergence of ethnobotany as a science 22
2.6.1 Significance of ethnobotanical studies 22
2.6.2 Traditional Medical Knowledge 24
2.6.3 Types of traditional medical knowledge 24
2.6.4 Traditional Medicinal Plants 25
2.6.5 Use and knowledge base on traditional medicinal plant species 26
2.6.6 Uses of medicinal plants other than their medicinal uses 27
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CHAPTER THREE 29
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 29
3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 29
3.1.1 Location and size 29
3.1.2 Relief and drainage 30
3.1.3 Climate 30
3.2.4 Vegetation 30
3.2 METHODS 31
3.2.1 Experimental Design 31
3.2.2 Light Intensity Determination 32
3.2.3 Planting and management 32
3.3 Data Collection 33
3.3.1 Yield data collection (Objective 1: Determine the effect of land use (cocoa, oil
palm and fallow) on the yield of Aframomum melegueta in off reserve tree
farms.) 33
3.3.3 Ethnobotany data collection (Objective 2: Ascertain farmers ethnobotanical
knowledge of Aframomum melegueta) 33
3.4 Data Analysis 34
3.4.1 Yield data 34
3.4.2 Ethnobotanical data 34
3.5 The study limitations 34
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CHAPTER FOUR 34
4.0 RESULTS 34
4.1 Effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of Aframomum melegueta. 34
4.2 Effect of land use and light intensity on average fresh weight and yield of
Aframomum melegueta. 35
4.3 Correlation among the measured parameters. 36
4.4 Ethno-medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta by farmers in Asunafo north municipality. 37
4.5 Influence of sex variables on the sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 38
4.6 Challenges confronting the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 39
4.7 Preferred land use for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta and educational levels of farmers in Asunafo north municipality. 40
4.8 Influence of farmers age on knowledge of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 40
4.9 Period of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 41
CHAPTER FIVE 42
5.0 DISCUSSION 42
5.1 Effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of Aframomum melegueta. 42
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5.2 Effect of land use and light intensity on average fresh weight and yield of
Aframomum melegueta. 44
5.3 Correlation analysis of number of pods, average pod length, average fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta. 45
5.4 Ethno- medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta by farmers in Asunafo north municipality. 45
5.5 Relationship between sex variables and sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 47
5. 6 Challenges confronting the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 48
5.7 Relationship between education levels and preferred land use of Aframomum melegueta farmers in Asunafo north municipality. 49
5.8 Relationship between farmer age and knowledge on Aframomum melegueta in
Asunafo north municipality. 50
5.9 Period of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality. 51
CHAPTER SIX 54
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 54
6.1 Conclusion 54
6.2 Recommendations 54
REFERENCES 56
APPENDICES 70
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. 2.1 AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA PLANTS 19
FIG. 2.2 AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA PODS 19
FIG. 3.1 MAP OF ASUNAFO NORTH MUNICIPALITY. 31
FIG 3.2 AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA GROWN IN EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS. 32
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 4.1 EFFECT OF LAND USE AND LIGHT INTENSITY ON NUMBER OF PODS AND
AVERAGE POD LENGTH OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA ACROSS DIFFERENT LAND USE.35
TABLE 4.2 EFFECT OF LAND USE AND LIGHT INTENSITY ON AVERAGE FRESH WEIGHT
AND YIELD OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USE. 36
TABLE 4.3 PEARSON’S CORRELATION MATRIX OF THE MEASURED PARAMETERS. 36
TABLE 4.4 ETHNO-MEDICINAL USES OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA IN ASUNAFO NORTH
MUNICIPALITY. 37
TABLE 4.5 SOURCES OF COLLECTION OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA AND SEX VARIABLES
IN ASUNAFO NORTH MUNICIPALITY. 38
TABLE 4.6 MAJOR CHALLENGES CONFRONTING AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA
CULTIVATION IN ASUNAFO NORTH MUNICIPALITY. 39
TABLE 4.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EDUCATION LEVELS AND PREFERRED LAND USE OF
AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA FARMERS IN ASUNAFO NORTH MUNICIPALITY. 40
TABLE 4.8 AGE OF FARMERS AND KNOWLEDGE OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA. IN
ASUNAFO NORTH MUNICIPALITY. 41
TABLE 4.9 PERIOD OF AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA COLLECTION. 41
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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AM Aframomum melegueta ANOVA Analysis of variance CAM Complementary and alternative medicine FC Forestry Commission GoP Grains of paradise IK Indigenous knowledge LAI Leaf area index MTS Modified taungya system NTFPs Non – timber forest products RCBD Randomized complete block design SSA Sub – Saharan Africa TH Traditional healer TM Traditional medicine WHO World health organization WW1 World war 1
xiii
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
According to World Bank (2002), over 1 billion people depend on forests products for their livelihoods. IUCN (2007), reported that there are more than 60 million highly forest-dependent indigenous people in Central Asia, Latin America and West Africa and between 400 million to 500 million people directly or indirectly depended on forest products. It is also estimated that 350 million indigenous people are virtually dependent on forests resources for survival (Farris, 2010).
The harvesting and trading in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) as a means of improving rural income and livelihoods in tropical regions have increased significantly over decades. Non-timber forest products accounted for a substantial amount of income while creating millions of jobs globally (Ndoye et al., 1997). The estimated value in global trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is USD 11 billion yearly (Ahenkan and Boon, 2010). Globally, non-timber forest products have become an indispensable product for supplementary income generation or overall sustenance (FAO, 1997). An estimated 80 percent of developing countries population heavily depend on non-timber forest products for their survival (FAO, 1997).
FAO (1992) defined non-timber forest products to encompasses all goods and services obtained from the forest or any land under simulation use which exclude wood but include plant. For example, spices, pestles, medicines, snails, cottage, fruits and wrapping materials among others. Non- timber forest products encompass the extraction of plant parts including flowers, ripped fruits, leaves, dyes, seedlings and fodder (Ayeni et al.,
2003).
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Non- timber forest products contribute to the economies of indigenous people in Ghana.
Falconer (1994) explained the different contributions NTFPs provide to the livelihood of forest fringe communities. It was observed that it offered a form of security to rural dwellers in times of economic difficulties and support agricultural activities. However, many scholars have argued on the capability of non-timber forest products to alleviate poverty (Boot, 1997; Ros-Tonen and Wiersum, 2003), the contribution of NTFPs to the livelihood of forest fringe communities, especially in developing countries cannot be overemphasized (Parren and de Graaf, 1995).
In recent times attention has been directed by the forestry sector towards the potential of non-timber forest products to reduce rural poverty and enhance food security (Marshall et al., 2006). This has been stimulated by the ravages of deforestation which have led to the decline in the supply of non- timber forest products to rural dwellers. The concept of
Modified Taungya System (MTS) was introduced to solve the problem of deforestation and also to improve the livelihood of farmers through the incorporation of NTFPs. It was a collaborative plantation development between the Forestry Commission and farmer groups. The system allowed a 40 percent share of timber revenue for farmers for their labour in tree planting and maintenance. Again, the system permitted the intercropping of
Non-timber forest products until canopy closure (Agyeman et al., 2003). Non-timber forest products such as vegetables, cocoyam, yam, cowpea, plantain and other annuals were mostly cultivated for three years after which overcast shade from the trees prevent further cultivation of such crops (Agyeman et al., 2003).
Farmers discontinued the cultivation of crops on the plot but were allowed to harvest from the previously cultivated crops for about two years since crop yield is only significant after five years due to shade and canopy cover (Agyeman et al., 2003).
2
This led to a decline in the income from the Modified Taungya System between canopy closure and timber harvesting. This problem is characteristic in reforestation schemes and has also been reported by Mayers and Vermeulen (2002). The incorporation of shade- tolerant NTFP species such as Thaumatoccocus daniellii, Piper nigrum and Aframomum melegueta can potentially contribute to farmers’ income and stimulate farmers to continue working on the MTS plots after canopy closure.
Grains of paradise (Aframomum melegueta) has been identified as shade tolerant, with high marketing potential which could potentially improve farmers’ income and livelihoods under MTS. Initial results indicate that the species is doing well under MTS which could improve its viability. With numerous restrictions in forest reserves, coupled with constraints associated with land acquisition, exploring the potential of this species off-reserve therefore becomes paramount. Many farming activities are carried out off- reserves where the potential of involving more farmers is high. Similarly, the off- reserve land area which is mosaic in nature equally has the potential to support the cultivation of shade tolerant NTFPs such as Aframomum melegueta which could promote and enhance food security of farmers all year round. The prioritization of Aframomum melegueta, a shade loving plant in off-reserve tree farms is on the basis of its nutritious, medicinal values and export potential which could contribute immensely to income-generation and rural community health care.
1.2 Problem Statement
Most forests in Ghana are burnt for land clearing thereby damaging a wide variety of forest products. As a result, most non-timber forest products are becoming scarce and will go extinct if alternatives for propagating these are not explored. Similarly, the production of non-timber forest products is evolving worldwide as a significant tool for
3 supporting rural livelihoods and economies especially in most tropical countries (FAO
1995; Arnold and Townson 1998; Cavendish 2000; Ahenkan and Boon 2008).
The incorporation of economic shade tolerant NTFPs into farming systems in off- reserves has attracted the attention of some farmers in southern Ghana. Farmers have now started incorporating Aframomum melegueta, a shade tolerant NTFP into their farming systems because of its medicinal and economic potentials. Despite the importance of the plant to rural dwellers, information on the appropriate land use and light intensity for its optimum production is limited. Also, ethnobotanical knowledge of this species would enhance our understanding and the potential of incorporating the species into our farming systems.
1.3 Justification of the study
With ecological challenges such as over-exploitation and climate change, NTFPs cultivation will help forest fringe communities to improve their incomes and reduce the effect of the existing challenges confronting sustainable forest management (Boon and
Ahenkan 2008; Kalame et al. 2008; Kunwar et al. 2009). Non- timber forest products support the economies and food security of many forest dependent communities in Ghana
(Ahenkan and Boon 2008). The production of NTFPs resources in off-reserve tree farms is essential for diverse reasons. Firstly, forest management that focuses on NTFPs production may be ecologically and economically sustainable which also implies the potential for achieving the benefits of maintaining biological diversity. Secondly, NTFPs are associated with a wide range of products and returns are frequent and comparatively continuous; which can also contribute to off-farm rural employment opportunities (FAO,
2005). In order to domesticate Aframomum melegueta, a non-timber forest product in off- reserve areas, knowledge on compatible land use system and ethnobotany should be a
4 pivotal consideration and this research seeks to address this gap. For the country to start planting Aframomum melegueta in off-reserve tree farms, information on land use and ethnobotanical studies would be vital to sustain its production. The species can contribute immensely to local livelihoods therefore there is a real need for field research to generate knowledge for its optimum production.
1.4 The study objective
The broad objective of the study was to explore the potential of introducing Aframomum melegueta in off- reserve tree farms.
The specific objectives of the study were to:
1. determine the effect of land use systems (cocoa farm, oil palm farm and fallow)
and associated light intensities on the yield of Aframomum melegueta in off
reserve tree farms.
2. ascertain farmers’ ethnobotanical knowledge of Aframomum melegueta in off-
reserve tree farms.
1.5 Research hypotheses
The hypotheses of the study are: 1. Land use will not affect the yield of Aframomum melegueta.
2. Farmers’ ethnobotanical knowledge does affect the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The Concept of Modified Taungya System in Ghana
According to Agyeman et al., (2003), the Modified Taungya System (MTS) is a farm forestry, which integrates food crops with tree crops at the initial stages of establishment and in which the activities are carried out by forestry commission and farmers. The farmers are permitted to benefit from the forest harvests and are considered co-owners of the forest plantations. Farmers are allowed to intercropped food crops pending canopy closure where they are forced to discontinue crop production.
Modified Taungya System (MTS) is a shift in forest management concept and is a perfect example of Collaborative Forest Management (CFM). The MTS brought improvement in tenure security and benefit arrangements. Farmers are therefore joint- owners of forest plantation, with the Forestry Commission, landowners and fringe communities acting as shareholders. The ownership right of the plantation has been changed from a sole entity
(the government) to multiple owners. Collaborators in the modified taungya system receive a share of the accruals from the plantation (Agyeman et al., 2003). Farmers receive 40% of the benefit accruing from the MTS (Kalame et al., 2011). Forestry commission offer technical expertise and equipment for the farmers to carry out their roles efficiently and will be responsible for stock inventory and marketing of products and take 40% of the products. Landowners contribute land and take 15%, and the forest adjacent-communities will provide services (such as prevention of bush fires) and receive
5% of the final product (Agyeman et al., 2003).
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2.2 An overview of Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
Forestry sector contributes significantly to meeting the socioeconomic and ecological needs and also improving the incomes of rural dwellers. The important contributions of non-timber forest products to the incomes of indigenous communities cannot be overemphasis because most of indigenous people in the tropical regions depend on non- timber forest products to support domestic needs and trade. A large number of people also generate some of their income from forest products e.g. sales of Irvingia seeds in
Ibadan (Adekunle et al., 2012). Forest products include wood and wood – based products as well as non-wood products. Non- timber forest products can also be considered as flora and fauna species excluding timber trees derived from the forest for the benefit of mankind (Adekunle et al., 2012). Examples of these products are wildlife, medicines, fuelwood, firewood, fruits, dyes, mushroom and fishes.
Non- timber forest products encompass all forest product excluding timber. NTFPs extraction provide rural employment thereby improving rural economies (Negi et al.,
2011).
2.2.2 Cultivation of rare and valuable non-timber forest products
NTFPs traditionally have been collected or harvested from the forest. The concept of cultivating NTFPs on farms brings to fore a number of questions. The common questions about non-timber forest products production are:
1. What farmers think about the production of economic non- timber forest products
to improve their livelihoods?
2. Are farmers into the cultivation of these products?
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3. What are the factors which necessitate cultivation?
4. What benefits can farmers derive from the cultivation of NTFPs?
5. Can NTFPs be integrated with agricultural / food crops?
According to Pandit et al., (2010), the integration of some non-timber forest products with agricultural crops is an old practice in the Hills of Nepal. Different non-timber forest products cultivated in agricultural lands have contributed to rural economies, they serve food and cash earning products in accessible market centres.
2.2.3 The purpose for non-timber forest products cultivation
Globally, indigenous people are confronted with accessing economic plants and animals due to deforestation and restrictions associated with forest reserves and national parks.
Attaining perpetual flow of non- timbers forest products, the is the need for balance trade-off between utilization and production (Ahenkan and Boon, 2011).
Higher demand has increases pressure on the forest products resource leading to a shortage in supply of these resources. Measures outlined to bridge the gap in supply are:
1. Moving to remote areas to obtain the products.
2. Exploiting the potentials of lesser used spcies
3. Through domestication of the product (Cunningham 2000; Ahenkan and Boon
2010).
The acceptance that the collection of non-timber forest products from the wild has little possibility to improve the economies of rural communities, many scientists investigated into the objectives of improving community livelihood activities through non-timber forest products and reported that they could not be achieved by increasing non-timber forest products farming (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). Ros - Tonen (1999) and Ahenkan
8 and Boon (2008) reported that it was inappropriate to propose that non- timber forest products could be extracted forever even without suitable management regimes and cultivation to ensure sustainable and optimum yield and recommended for an argent need for the cultivation of these wild products. For example, mushroom, medicines, fruits, and food. The contribution of non-timber forest products to enhancing rural livelihoods can be achieved by integration of non-timber forest products into farming systems. Rajesh
(2006) observed that improved management regimes cultivation of non-timber forest products may be an efficient means of enhancing rural livelihood through optimum yields.
2.3 The Concept of Land Use Systems
2.3.1 Tree -based Crop Farming Systems
Farming systems are group of individual farms with similarities in resources in which similar management practices and interventions could be applied (Dixon et al., 2001).
The term also refers to a particular arrangement of farming that are managed in response to physical, biological and socio-economic environment and in accordance with farmer’s goals, preferences and resources.
The term “Farming system is a multifaceted and inter-related in terms of resources such as animals, soil, plant, biophysical environment, social and economic environment managed by individuals and groups (Behera and Sharma, 2007). All the individual farms have their unique features as a result of differences in resource availability and other family conditions (Dixon et al., 2001).
A farm is characterized by goals and decisions, their boundaries, their activities and their relations, the internal and external relations as well as their structure which is a function of internal and external relations (Izamuhaye, 2008). Diversity is the norm in African
9 farming systems and even at the level of the individual farm unit, farmers typically cultivate ten or more crops in diverse mixtures that vary across soil type, topographical position and distance from the household compound.
In Africa, most farming systems take into consideration the cultivation of crops such as cocoyam, yam, cassava and other root crops paying little attention to most cereals. The nature of management practices may improve production with time or deplete the natural resources (Spencer et al., 2004). The functioning and structure of farming system involves, the land use systems, cultivation, land acquisition and distribution, irrigation, harvesting techniques and marketing as well as transportation.
Farmers in tropical countries put together factors of production such as land, labour and capital to achieve their set goals in terms of yield maximization (Behera and Sharma,
2007).
2.3.2 Categorization of Farming Systems
Description of farming systems offers a suitable framework in which suitable agricultural management regimes can be determined. The choice to opt for different farming systems result in various degrees of heterogenous within any system (Dixon et al., 2001). The classification of the farming systems of developing regions can be based on the following criteria proposed by Dixon et al., (2001) and Izamuhaye (2008):
• Existing natural resources, such as land, weather, vegetation and land tenure.
• Main farming patterns and rural livelihoods, such as crop production, animal production, apiculture, processing and marketing.
2.3.3 Tree Crop Based System
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‘Tree crops’ are woody perennials, which periodically produce a harvestable product that is of nutritional, monetary/commercial, environmental and/or accommodational value
(Topper and Caligari, 1999). This type of farming system is practiced in Sub- Saharan
African countries with small patches specifically within the humid zones.
This farming system is about 73 million hactares (3%) of the counties total land areas but contribute to 10 million hectares (6%) of cultivated total area and supports farming population of about 25 million (7%) of regional total. The system produces perennial crops which are important components of smallholder farming systems across the humid tropics of both West and Central Africa. Cocoa, coffee, cashew and oil palm cropping systems have provided sustainable pathways for broad-based rural development
(Gockowski, 1999).
The cultivation of tree crops was mostly done by governmental and non-governmental organizations, this has become the source of livelihood for many people in developing countries. This system is practiced in small hectares and the source of labour is mostly the family. This is why most cash tree crops are mostly owned by smallholders (Facheux et al., 2007). Producers of tree crops in Africa vary greatly in terms of their intensity of production and their degree of diversification.
The three types of farming systems with tree crops range from a subsistence household with no marketed surplus to a fully specialized household that grows only one cash crop and relies on the market for its food purchases. The majority of smallholder producers of tree crops in West and Central Africa, however, belong to the “mixed” farming group and are not solely dependent on tree crops for their rural livelihood. Land availability is also a factor in the intensification process. Farmers in areas where population pressures are low and land is abundant tend to have larger holdings that are managed more extensively.
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For the typical “mixed” tree crop producer in West Africa, the most relevant prices are those of the tree crop and the alternative commercial food crops. For more specialized and intensified producers, the most relevant prices are those of the tree crop and purchased inputs (Gockowski, 1999).
In the mixed farming system, agricultural crops are integrated with tree crops for subsistence purposes. Food crops mostly planted are cassava, yam, cocoyam and plantain since they offer cash to farmers. Because agricultural and tree crops always thrive best, farmers have no choice than to sell products at low cost to traders and consumers.
Benefits in some areas is that the planting of trees crops can help in securing title deeds/ownership of land, which is critical for increased sustainable crop production in general. Smallholder systems are very variable even within a specific agro-ecological system, but they usually plant a number of tree species within their mixed or intercropping systems, along with a number of annual crops (Topper and Caligari, 1999).
Tree crops serve a lot of economic purpose (improving income of smallholder farmers) and ecological functions such as biodiversity conservation, control of soil erosion and soil and water conservation (Facheux et al., 2007).
2.3.4 Cocoa Farming System
In West Africa, most cocoa farmers own farms which are less than between two – three hectares (Gockowski et al., 2004).
To affirm this, Baumann (2000), stated that cocoa has large economy of scale and as such has different holders ranging from small to large, however, smallholders are the dominant in tropical countries. There is difficulty in determining the required labour but in most cases, labour is gotten from the family (Gockowski et al., 2004).
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In 1960s, cocoa yield in Ghana was reported to be 212kg per hectare (Amoah et al.,
1995). The average national annual yield (350 kg/ha) in Ghana is very small compared to
800 kg/ha in Côte d’Ivoire, and 1700 kg/ha in Malaysia (Bosompem et al., 2006).
The yield of cocoa in Ghana continued to decline in the global markets with just
400kg/ha in farmers with peak production (Vigneri, 2007). This has been attributed to low technology adoption and inappropriate application of innovations by cocoa farmers.
A greater number of farmers are still using primitive technologies even though new technology to improve yield and productivity are available (Bosompem et al., 2006).
According to Olaiya et al., (2006), the peak cocoa yields production is achieved between
12- 25 yrs and may be productive until 50 yrs, but yield is always on a decline after 26 years. Cocoa can continue to bear pods after the peak years with application of farm inputs such as fertilizers etc to improve the yield (Gockowski et al., 2004). Cocoa farms can be said to be unproductive if there is a continuous decline in the yield up to less than a quarter of the yield obtained in the peak season (Olaiya et al., 2006). Most cocoa trees in Ghana are over 35 years and also by virtue of the fact that farm inputs are expensive, most farmers are reluctant to take steps to improve cocoa yield (Anim-Kwapong and
Frimpong, 2005).
Food crops which provide shade such as plantain are most suitable with cocoa cultivation and so most farmers have adopted this system (Gockowski et al., 2004).
There are no proper laid down strategies for farmers to integrate food crops with cocoa cultivation. This is because the provision of shade for the cocoa trees at the initial stages does not encourage the cultivation of some food crops under this system. Again, cocoa farmers are of the view that cocoa offer huge returns than food crops and as such commit more resources into cocoa production than food crops.
13
This situation has led to food insecurity in cocoa production areas (Oluyole et al., 2009).
Cocoa plays a very important economic role for small farmers. As a cash crop it can provide necessary income for the purchasing of food and is especially important in areas where food security has been a problem. Most farmers are cultivating cocoa because it support the integration of other food crops such as yam, cocoyam, plantain, banana, etc.
Again, it improves the income of many farmers especially in the rural areas (Franzen and
Mulder, 2007).
2.3.5 Oil Palm Farming System
Elaeis guineensis (Oil palm), is an important oil producing crop throughout the world.
The best rainfall for the cultivation of oil palm is 2,000mm and above per annum
(Bergert, 2000). Rainfall is an essential element for oil palm production (Raemaekers,
2001).
Ghana over the years had large areas planted with oil palm, however, with population increase, there is the need for crop production to feed the ever-increasing population therefore, food crops cultivation has taking over these land (Bergert, 2000). The bunches and weight of oil palm per hectare is referred to as the yield (Amoah et al., 1995).
Average yields from industrial plantations range from 12 to 18 tonnes of bunches/ha/yr for plant material with a yield potential of 18 to 20 tonnes (Raemaekers, 2001).
Plantation farming is a new phenomenon to West African culture and in most of Africa, the farm culture is basically subsistence and small-scale oil palm farm may cover 7.5 hectares (Ekine and Onu, 2008). Oil palm plantations have become one of the fastest growing mono cropping plantations in the tropics not only of Africa, but also in Asia-
Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean (Tauli-Corpuz and Tamang, 2007).
14
Proper management regimes in oil palm plantations in monoculture result in high yield
(Watson, 1982). Plantations of selected oil palm begin producing fruit in their fourth year and their productivity increases steadily from then on to reach a production peak at around the age of 8 or 9 years. After a stable period of 10-15 years the volume of harvests gradually declines, due to the difficulties of harvesting fruit from tall trees (Raemaekers,
2001). In Africa oil palm has been a subsistence crop for generations. As such it tends to be a crop that is interplanted with other cash and subsistence crops and in most cases does not have a large impact on biodiversity (Stockbridge, 2006).
It is possible to integrate food crops with oil palm especially on fertile soils. Crops such as cocoyam, pepper, egg plant, yam, tomatoes, okra etc since they offer quick income to farmers before harvesting the oil palm (Amoah et al., 1995). An experiment, integrated food crops such as cocoyam, cassava, yam, plantain and cowpea and obtained a high yield for both the oil palm and the crops (Watson, 1982).
Oil palm and cocoa are grown in association in most farms in Ghana because each of the crops has a different season of harvesting and as such farmers get income all year round.
With the fibrous nature of the oil palm roots and the deep-rooted nature of cocoa, there seem to be no effect between the two crops when planted in association. In this system, oil palm is planted at a spacing of 10m for optimum cocoa production (Amoah et al.,
1995).
2.3.6 Mixed Cropping System
A majority of the world’s farmers, particularly those located in tropical regions, still depend on multispecies agricultural systems for their food and income, i.e. the cultivation of a variety of crops on a single piece of land (Malézieux et al., 2008).
15
In Africa, crops are grown randomly in mixed cropping, the aim is to utilize the available land area hence, crops are widely planted to reduce competition for above and below ground resources (Agboola, 1982).
The practice of growing several crops on the same piece of land is an ancient strategy for crop production among farmers in the tropics. Traditionally, it is used by subsistence farmers primarily to increase the diversity of their products.
2.4 Biogeography of Aframomum melegueta in tropical Africa
Grains of paradise are the seeds of Aframomum melegueta and originated in tropical regions. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. The seeds have been used in the absence of Piper nigrum over the decades and has dominated trade and market in most Asian countries. It is called grains of paradise because of the high cost at the time and the important medicinal value of the seeds may have contributed to the name grains of paradise.
Grains of paradise have been cultivated in Ghana for over decades (Lock et al., 1977) and in some countries in Asia. Until wold war one (WW 1) affected the trade in grains of paradise, exportation of the plant to Europe was mostly done by Cameroon.
The plant remains an essential product in local markets, again, the trade in grains of paradise in the global market has declined drastically. The specie has been considered as a spice for most food products. Recently, the plant has lost its consumer taste as there is a limited use in food products. Currently, Ghana still remains the source of grains of paradise for international trade. Grains of paradise seeds black turning grey when in a powdered form. It has a spicy, strong, hot and warm taste and not as aromatic (Weiss,
2002).
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2.4.1 Ecology of Aframomum melegueta in Ghana
Aframomum melegueta which belongs to the family Zingiberaceae is widespread in sub-
Saharan Africa, where it found in the forest zones of countries such as Cameroon,
Nigeria, Ghana and Senegal (Lock et al. 1977; Weiss 2002). The specie is endemic in the
Atiwa range in the eastern region of Ghana, but with the ravages of deforestation, farmers have started cultivating it in the Brong Ahafo, Central and Ashanti regions for consumption and trade (Lock et al. 1977; Lock, 1980).
Different morphological traits of the specie have emerged resulting from evolution with it environment. The seeds per pod differ from one another, while the pod colour may also be yellow or red but become brown when dried.
According to Weiss (2002), the pod of the plant has between 60 – 100 seeds while
Simon et al. (2007) observed 1200–2000 per pod. The differences are as a result of the differences in the genotype of the plant. The seeds of the species are rich in nutrients such as iron and calcium and also have medicinal properties which potentiate the efficacy of many herbs for the treatment of human ailments such as stroke, boil, cough etc. Again, the aromatic nature of the seeds makes it useful as a spice in most foods (Amponsah et al., 2013). Allas et al. (1995) reported that the seeds of the plant are used in most rural communities in the tropical regions for the treatment of stroke, snake bite, cough, headache, stomach pains etc.
Although the specie is of great importance in the food and beverages as well as the herbal industries, the plant is still conserved in the wild and their germplasm is now under severe pressure due to human and natural factors.
17
The survival of the plant in the wild is under serious threat due to the ravages of deforestation and climate change. Again, the inadequate knowledge in cultivation of the plant also posse treat the existence of the plant.
2.4.2. Botany of Aframomum melegueta
Aframomum melegueta is rhizome and the roots run through the surface of the soil. The plant is a permanent crop which grows for a period of between 15- 20 years. The stem of the plant grows to a height of 1 – 2m. The plant has narrow leaves with alternate arrangements. The average length of the mature pod is about 4- 8 cm long. The mature fruits are red in color, ovoid, about 5–7 cm long. AM seeds are black when mature, shinny, and has peppery taste and resembles that of cardamom seeds (Iwu et al., 1999).
2.4.3 Common uses of Aframomum melegueta
The seeds of A. melegueta are mostly used in Africa, Europe and Asia as a spice for food seasoning. The plant has bioactive substances which is mostly used for the treatment of stomach disorders (Ukeh et al. 2009). Because of the bioactive substances present in the seeds of the plant, it is closely related to ginger.
The seeds of AM contain secondary metabolites which make it effective in treating some human ailments. The seeds also contain aphrodisia which enhance the potency of male rats as well as humans (Van Andel et al. 2012). Many other uses have been identified with the seeds of the plant but the medical evidence to that effect require more thorough investigation.
18
Fig. 2.1 Aframomum melegueta plants Fig. 2.2 Aframomum melegueta pods
2.5 Influence of temperature and light levels on fruits formation
According to Monteith 1981; Hadley and Smith, 1986; Ellis et al. 1990 and Pearson et al.
(1994), the reduction of crop yields is attributed to high light intensities and temperatures.
The reason been that high temperature reduces the period for growth more than it does for increasing the rate of growth. Again, the reduction in harvest index of plants are usually caused by extremely high temperatures (Richards, 1991).
Lower vegetative growth conditions always lead to high fruit yield since greater proportion of assimilate is made available to fruits (Uzun, 2007). Photosynthetic rate modelling has been studied and emphasized by several scholars. These scholars reported an important basic principle for understanding the militating against photosynthesis, which lead to the differences in crop yields. The main purpose of modelling in crops is to mathematically explain the increase in crop yield parameters (fresh weight and dry weight) and in relation to fruit and flower development (Liebig and Krug, 1989).
19
Models by several scholars have predicted the production of assimilate in fruits with some reasonable precision fruit crops (Uzun, 2007). For some decades, many scholars have investigated into the relationship between environmental factors and the growth parameters as well as the yield of most food crops. Models on the growth parameters and yield of crops may play a significant role in experiments since it could help management in decision making (Pearson and Cassola, 1992). Farmers invariably need the outcome of these researches to be able to adopt the best management practices for optimum yield
(Uzun, 2007).
2.5.1 Effect of natural shade on photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration
Several studies have shown that photosynthetic processes in coffee trees can be reduced markedly by high temperatures and irradiance. In Kenya, Kumar and Tieszen (1980) observed that photosynthetic rates were substantially decreased at air temperatures of more than 26 °C. Other studies have also shown that coffee plants exposed to air temperatures above 25°C may suffer high temperature stress, which is the rise in temperature above a critical threshold for a period of time, enough to cause irreparable damage to plant growth and development (Aim, 2016). High temperatures can decrease the net carbon gain by increasing photorespiration (Ramalho et al., 2013).
Plant growth and development consist of many biochemical reactions, all of which are sensitive to temperature (Moura et al., 2010). As a result, un-shaded coffee trees that are exposed to such temperatures suffer significant yield losses. On the other hand, excessive
20 shading reduces the quality of the transmitted radiation which similarly affects photosynthesis and growth (Aim, 2016).
In Central America, studies have shown that, where there was severe drought, the stress alleviating effect of shade trees was more beneficial (Muschler, 2008). Aim (2016) found that trees in full sun tended to transpire more than those under shade trees, implying they faced a higher level of environmental stress.
2.5.2 Effect of natural shade on growth and yield of plants.
Shade trees create a microclimate that promotes coffee growth and production especially under less than optimum situations. Shade, therefore, is important in sustaining coffee productivity; it conserves soil, water and biodiversity (Siles et al., 2010). Shade trees do buffer wide temperature fluctuations. Cronin et al. (2003) observed that during the hot period temperatures were 5°C lower and 2°C higher than the minimum ambient temperature. In Costa Rica, shade trees reduced the global radiation by 40% to 50% of the highest coffee leaf temperature and increased the leaf temperature by 0.5°C during the night (Siles et al., 2010). Aim (2016) observed that coffee inter-planted under grevillea shade was not affected by the severe frost that damaged most coffee plants in Brazil in
1994. Soto-Pinto et al., (2000) also observed that shade of between 23% and 38% had positive effect on coffee yield.
The major adverse effect shade has on coffee yield appears to be lower flower induction hence a lower number of productive nodes on a branch (Franck et al., 2006). Shade also promotes growth of larger individual leaf size, plant longevity and reduction in leaf specific mass and hence lower carbon demand for a similar leaf area index (LAI) compared to sun grown plants (Franck et al., 2006). In addition, shade-grown coffee
21 plants experience less overbearing dieback due to enhanced vegetative growth and carbon reserves in branches and roots (Aim, 2016).
2.6 Emergence of ethnobotany as a science
Ethnobotany is a fast growing, interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary science, which focuses on documenting, analyzing of indigenous knowledge on plants and the interaction between humans and plants as well. The multidisciplinary nature of ethnobotany allows a wide array of approaches and applications for many scientists to study the uses of plants in different ways (Alexiades, 1996).
Throughout human history, people used various materials from nature to cure their illnesses and improved their health (Ghorbani et al., 2006). Christopher Columbus discovered tobacco that was being used by local people, during his voyage to Cuba in
1492 which was the landmark and there has been an ever-increasing interest of anthropologists, botanists and explorers of the world to document the potential uses of plants used by indigenous society (Cotton, 1996). The British explorer, Richard Spruce around 1858, noted the phychoactive properties of the South American Vine,
Banisteriopsis caapi (Malpighiaceae) for the first time (Cotton, 1996). As the number of expeditions and scholarly communication widened, there has been an intensified and continuous search by researchers of different fields to make known the traditional use of plants in different parts of the world by indigenous society (Balick, 1996; Cotton, 1996).
2.6.1 Significance of ethnobotanical studies
People depend on plants for various needs such as food, construction, fire wood, charcoal, medicines, shade, fodder, forage, living and non-living fence, tooth brush and others including cloth and provide information for priority of conservation. Plant species
22 provide valuable uses (Dangol, 2008). Ethnobotanical studies are important strategy to the conservation of biodiversity, the discovery of new medicines and increasing of the quality of life of poor rural communities (Almeida et al., 2006). Many drugs that are being used today have originated from indigenous knowledge (Subramoniam et al.,
1997). Ethnobotanical studies have taken a great role on use of plants having significant medicinal properties which were unknown to the scientific world (Subramoniam et al.,
1999). The exploration of the cultural values of plant species plays a considerable role in discovering new medicine, farming, pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industrial sectors
(Pei, 1995). Ethnobotanical studies also play a great role to find nutraceutical and dietary potential of plant species (Shad et al., 2013). Traditional healers can provide a lead to scientific breakthrough in modern medicine (Garodia et al. 2007).
Ethnobotany is a vital key to learn the diverse approaches to the use of plants by different human cultures in the past and present to preserve the diversity of plants species, to understand and interpret the ethnobotanical knowledge and sustainable use of the plant species. The search for new medicines by the pharmaceutical industry has turned to plant natural products and to ethnobotanical studies as a first step in bioprospecting, making a valuable contribution to the cataloguing of biological diversity and hence to the conservation of threatened ecosystems (Cotton, 1996).
A severe challenge, especially in the developing countries, is the ever-growing gap between human population and food supply. Ethnobotanical studies on wild, semi-wild and lesser known edible plants could assist in narrowing the gap between population growth and food deficiency (Getachew et al., 2013). Applied Ethnobotany is oriented toward sustainable use and conservation of plant species through ethnobotanical investigation.
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Generally, the use of traditional medicine (TM) has been widely accepted by most religions in the developing countries. The use of traditional medicine for primary healthcare is affordable and has little or no side effects and will continue to be the number one choice of the people in most rural communities in the tropical regions
(WHO, 1998). Recently, ethnobotanical studies have attracted the attention of most disciplines since it complements most experimental researches on traditional plants
(Hamilton, 2003).
2.6.2 Traditional Medical Knowledge
According to Alexandrou et al. (2015), traditional medical knowledge is defined as practices and knowledge obtained by indigenous people, which is passed on from generation to generation and is conducive towards the development of medicinal research. They also indicated that it is a multidimensional and closely associated with the cultural practices and national identity of many indigenous people.
2.6.3 Types of traditional medical knowledge
According to Payyappallimana (2009), forms of traditional medical knowledge are grouped in to four as follows: i. Codified medical systems/ great traditions. Codification is defined as the creation of codes, which are collections of written statutes, rules, and regulations that inform the public of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. It includes Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Acupuncture medical systems in India and China and has evolved over three to four millennia (since it is easier to distribute, store and retrieve) (Cowan, 2001).
24 ii. Ethnomedicine. Ethnomedicine, as it is also sometimes called folk medicine or indigenous medicine or bush medicine, is knowledge that is generated over centuries by communities using plants, animals, mineral derivatives and is mostly orally transmitted for treatment purposes. It is the mixture of traditional healing practices (WHO, 2008). iii. Allied health knowledge. They are knowledge systems which play a significant role or contribute to community primary healthcare. For example, methods of sending messages. iv. Novel forms of alternative health knowledge. This is relatively new knowledge acquired to supplement traditional healthcare. This is a combination of traditional and scientific knowledge to provide healthcare. It is wrong to consider homeopathy under traditional medical system because it was originated in Europe after the emergence of contemporary medicines (WHO, 2002).
2.6.4 Traditional Medicinal Plants
WHO (1991) defined traditional medicines or herbal drugs as remedial practices that have existed for hundreds of years, before the development and spread of modern medicine and are still in use today. It is the sum total of all knowledge and practices, prevention and elimination of ailments relying on practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation, whether verbally or in writing (WHO,
2002). According to WHO (2003), TM also refers to health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat or to diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain wellbeing.
25
The cultural healthcare seeking and healing procedures are referred to as ethnomedicine
(Pieroni et al., 2005). A person in a community who uses herbs, seeds, plant parts such as bark, roots, latex, flowers and animal parts to provide primary healthcare to the inhabitance of the community is known as traditional healer (TH) (WHO, 1978). TM provides some of the primary healthcare needs of indigenous people (Ampitan, 2013).
2.6.5 Use and knowledge base on traditional medicinal plant species
Human societies all over the world have built up indigenous knowledge on plant species over centuries and on how to use them for medicinal purposes by depending mostly on locally available plant species. Traditional medicine includes the knowledge used by traditional healers to provide primary healthcare (WHO, 2003) because it is the most affordable and easily reachable (Maroyi, 2013). TM is the first choice to stop-gap illness by the majority members of the communities (Quinlan and Quinlan, 2007). According to Cotton (1996), WHO has recognized and identified about 4000 plant species which are used in traditional medicinal system.
Herbal medicine is referred to as complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in the
Americas and Western Europe (Bodeker, 2005). Developed and developing countries use some form of traditional medicines. For instance, the proportion of the population that uses TM is given as Chile 71%, Canada70%, India 70%, France 49%, Australia
48%, USA 42%, Colombia 40%, China 40%, Belgium 31% of their healthcare (WHO,
2002; Payyappallimana, 2009). Furthermore, 44% of physicians use alternative healthcare themselves and 23% incorporated them into their practices (Astin, 1998). In
2002, 56% of the German population reported having used a form of complementary medicine during 2001 (Dixon, et al., 2008).
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The works of Cunningham (1993) and Hillenbrand (2006) showed that most of the population of the developing countries depends on traditional medicines and the proportion of individuals using traditional medicine also varies from country to country, for instance, 60% of Ugandans and Tanzanians; 65.5% of Ghanaians; 70% of
Rwandans; 80% of Beninuas; 80% of Black South Africans and 90% of Ethiopians use traditional medicine (WHO, 2002; Dixon et al., 2008; Payyappallimana, 2009).
In general, any community or society has a particular knowledge of how to use plant species for various purposes. Indigenous knowledge (IK) is a distinctive local knowledge to a given community. According to Warren (1991) and Stephen and Justin
(2003), Indigenous knowledge system is the type of knowledge peculiar to a particular community or locality which they have inherited from their forefathers and is been transferred from one generation to the other (Flavier, 1995); and the accumulated knowledge that resulted from many years of experiences, careful observations, trial and error experiments (Martin, 1995). IK developed through practical experience and skill used to solve problems faced in peoples’ day-to-day activities. Indigenous knowledge includes the way of life of the people such as the food they eat, the way they dress, religion, and innovation (Woyek and Gorjestani, 1998).
2.6.6 Uses of medicinal plants other than their medicinal uses
Plant species that are used for herbal medicine are also used by the local people for various purposes other than their medicinal uses. For example, Agave sisalana
(Agavaceae) and Hypericum revolutum (Hypericaceae) are used as chewing sticks due to their antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus (Ermias et al., 1999); Eucalyptus globulus (Myrtaceae) which is used against common cold, meningitis and as insect repellant is also used as fuelwood and construction material;
27
Tamarindus indica (Fabaceae) which is used against diarrhea is also used for charcoal making; Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fabaceae) is used against leprosy, muscular distrophy and rheumatism and is also considered good food and spice; Coccinia abyssinica (Cucurbitaceae) is used as medicinal and dietary item; Zingiber officinale
(Zingiberaceae) is used against stomach cramps and cultivated as a spice (Amare 1976).
In general, different studies conducted in Ethiopia indicated that plant species used by the local people for traditional medicinal purpose are also used by them for other purposes than medicinal use. These include tooth brush sticks, fire wood and charcoal, food, construction, fodder, spices, forage, shade and many others such as ornamental and furnituremaking. For instance, plants like Allium sativum (Alliaceae), Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae), Carissa spinarum (Apocynaceae), Citrus aurantifolia (Rutaceae),
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), Cordia africana (Boraginaceae), Dovyalis abyssinica
(Flacourtiaceae), Embelia schimperi (Myrsinaceae), Ensete ventricosum (Musaceae),
Ficus sur (Moraceae), Linum usitatissimum (linaceae), Trigonella foenum-graecum
(Fabaceae), Urtica simensis (Urticaceae) and Ximenia americana (Olacaceae) are used for other purposes (Tigist et al., 2007).
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
3.1.1 Location and size
Asunafo-north municipality is in the Brong Ahafo region of Ghana and the capital is
Goaso. The municipality shares boundaries with several districts and municipalities including Dormaa, Asutifi, Juaboso Bia, Asunafo South and Sefwi-Wiawso. Total land size of the municipality is (1,412.0km2) and is largely covered by forest reserves with an
29 area of 578.63 km2. Again, the municipality lies between latitudes 6°27’N and 7°00’N and longitudes 2°52’W (Peprah, 2015).
3.1.2 Relief and drainage
The municipality topography is uneven towards the north and south. The municipality soil type is generally ochrosols and is suitable for crops such as banana, yam, plantain, tomatoes, cocoa, egg plant, oil palm etc. Different types of rocks are in the Asunafo - north municipality. Goaso is drained by two rivers, namely the Ayum and Goa with several smaller streams (Peprah, 2015).
3.1.3 Climate
The municipality is within the wet semi-deciduous climatic zone which experiences substantial amount of rainfall. It experiences binary rainfall pattern with the annual rainfall range of between 1250 mm and 1750mm. Major rains are in April and July and the minor season occurs between September and October. The municipality has a mean monthly temperature of about 25oC (Peprah, 2015).
3.2.4 Vegetation
According to Peprah, (2015) the municipality is located in the semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana. Trees within the forest zone are tall and evergreen with diverse economic timber species. Scattered patches of secondary or broken forest are characteristics of the vegetation. This has been as a result of farming, lumbering and settlements by peasant farmers in the forest.
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Fig. 3.1 Map of Asunafo North Municipality showing the study communities.
3.2 METHODS
3.2.1 Experimental Design
The experiment was laid using the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), a method prescribed by (Abugre et al., 2011). This helps to reduce errors in the plots. Land use systems (cocoa farm, oil palm farm and fallow (control) were used as treatments. The plot size for each treatment was 4m × 4m. These were replicated three times to eliminate any biases from the experiment.
31
3.2.2 Light Intensity Determination
Calculation of light intensity under different land uses was done using the Glama - gap light analysis mobile application software, a method prescribed by Simone et al., (2017).
Hemispherical photographs were taken at three different positions in each of the land use systems (cocoa, oil palm and fallow) with a smart phone and average values were determined.
3.2.3 Planting and management
Aframomum melegueta were planted at a spacing of 1m × 1m giving a population of sixteen (16) plants per plot. Management practices (weeding and thinning) were under taken as required.
(a) Cocoa land use (b) Fallow land use (c) Oil palm land use
Fig 3.2 Aframomum melegueta grown in experimental plots.
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3.3 Data Collection
3.3.1 Yield data collection (Objective 1: Determine the effect of land use (cocoa, oil palm and fallow) on the yield of Aframomum melegueta in off reserve tree farms.)
At harvest, all grains of paradise plants in each plot were harvested to determine the yield. Data on yield parameters were collected on number of pods per hectare, pod length, fresh weight of pods per hectare and total yield per hectare. Yield parameters per hectare were calculated by extrapolation, whereby the yield obtained from each plot was estimated in a hectare equivalent.
3.3.3 Ethnobotany data collection (Objective 2: Ascertain farmers ethnobotanical knowledge of Aframomum melegueta)
A combination of semi-structured questionnaire and transect walk were adopted to collect the local knowledge data on Aframomum melegueta. By purposive sampling, a method prescribed by Bryman (2008), was used whereby three (3) communities within the
Asunafo north municipality namely Ahamtamo, Nyamebekyere and Mpomase were selected for the study since they were the only communities cultivating Aframomum melegueta.
A total of thirty (30) respondents comprising nine (9), fifteen (15) and six (6) respondents from Ahamtamo, Nyamebekyere and Mpomase respectively were purposively sampled and interviewed (the only Aframomum melegueta farmers) in the communities.
Three other leaders of Aframomum melegueta farmers from each community were engaged in a transect walk to ascertain additional information such as cultivation challenges and sources of collection for the study.
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3.4 Data Analysis
3.4.1 Yield data
Data recorded were analyzed with the (GEN-STAT) statistical package. Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine if there were any significant differences in the yield of Aframomum melegueta in response to the treatments. Means between the treatments were separated at 5% probability level by using fishers least significant difference (LSD).
3.4.2 Ethnobotanical data
Farmers ethnobotanical data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS), version 23 to test for association between selected socio- demographic variables
(sex, age and educational level) and response variables (sources of collection, challenges and preferred land use). All results were presented in tables.
3.5 The study limitations
The study had the following limitations:
1. Data were collected for only one year.
2. The research did not take into consideration soil chemical constituents because
grains of paradise were planted a year before the commencement of the research.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of Aframomum melegueta.
The effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of
Aframomum melegueta is shown in table 4.1. Number of pods per hectare did not differ
34 significantly (P>0.05) between the different land uses. However, significant difference
(P<0.05) in average pod length was obtained among land uses (Table 4.1). Average pod length of 6.25cm, 5.08cm and 4.38cm were obtained in oil palm, cocoa and fallow respectively.
Table 4.1 Effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of Aframomum melegueta across different land use.
Land use/Light intensity (%) Number of pods/ha Average pod length(cm/ha)
Fallow (11.8±1.3) 3958±621a 4.38±1.27c Cocoa (16.8±3.5) 4375±651a 5.08±2.45b Oil palm (19.9±6.1) 2500±472a 6.25±1.91a F- ratio 3.526 22.744 Degree of freedom 2 2 P- value 0.097 0.002
*Means of same letters are not significantly different at 5% level.
4.2 Effect of land use and light intensity on average fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta.
In (table 4.2), differences in average fresh weight per hectare was not significant among the different land uses (P>0.05). The yield of Aframomum melegueta per hectare did not differ significantly across the different land uses (Table 4. 2).
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Table 4.2 Effect of land use and light intensity on average fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta under different land use.
Land use/Light intensity (%) Average fresh weight- Yield -Kg/ha/yr. Kg/ha/yr.
Fallow (11.8±1.3) 93.31±15.61a 33.34±11.25a Cocoa (16.8±3.5) 90.32±13.14a 30.61±9.71a Oil palm (19.9±6.1) 51.67±9.43a 14.06±3.72a F- ratio 1.982 1.936 Degree of freedom 2 2 P- value 0.218 0.225
*Means of same letters are not significantly different at 5% level.
4.3 Correlation among the measured parameters.
A strong positive correlation (r = 0.962**) between average fresh weight and number of pods was observed. Similarly, yield of Aframomum melegueta and number of pods had a strong positive correlation (r = 0.895**). Yield of Aframomum melegueta and average fresh weight also showed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.967**) (Table 4. 3).
Table 4.3 Pearson’s correlation matrix of the measured parameters.
Light No. of Average Average fresh Yield intensity pods/ha pod weight (Kg/ha) (Kg/ha) (%) length/ha
Light intensity (%) 1
36
No. of pods/ha 0.042 1
Average pod length/ha 0.3 -0.346 1
Average fresh 0.233 0.962** -0.317 1 weight(Kg/ha)
Yield(Kg/ha) 0.333 0.895** -0.417 0.967** 1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
4.4 Ethno-medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta by farmers in Asunafo north municipality.
Stroke treatment was the highest (21.1%) of respondents ethnomedicinal uses, followed by body pains and stomach ache (16.9%) each, and boils treatment (15.5%). Bone fracture and piles accounted for (9.9%) each. Headache (7%) and cough (2.8%) (Table
4.4).
Table 4.4 Ethno-medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
Ethno-medicinal uses of Responses Aframomum melegueta
Number of responses Percent (%) Rank
37
Boil 11 15.50 4th Bone fracture 7 9.90 5th Body pains 12 16.90 2nd Stomach ache 12 16.90 2nd Cough 2 2.80 8th Headache 5 7.00 7th Piles 7 9.90 5th Stroke 15 21.10 1st Total 71 100.00
4.5 Influence of sex variables on the sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
As indicated in table 4.5, the influence of sex (male and female) on the sources of
collection of Aframomum melegueta was not significant (X2 =2.89, P= 0.410). Majority
of respondents rated fallow (82.8%) as the main source of collection. Cocoa and forest
lands accounted for (6.9%) each while oil palm recorded (3.4%) (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5 Sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta and sex variables in Asunafo north municipality.
Sex Source of collection X2 Df P-value Cocoa Oil palm Forest (natural Fallow farm farm environment) land (cultivated) (cultivated) (cultivated)
38
Male 1(6.3%) 0.00% 2(12.5%) 13(81.3%)
Female 1(7.7%) 1(7.7%) 0.00% 11(84.6%)
Total 6.90% 3.40% 6.90% 82.80% 2.89 3 0.410
4.6 Challenges confronting the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
Lack of ready market was the greatest challenge and accounted for (33.3%) with
difficulty in cultivation recording (30%). Similarly, competition with other crops for
nutrients and harbor insects recorded (26.7%) and (10%) respectively. However, age did
not play any role in the challenges identified by respondents.
Table 4.6 Major challenges confronting Aframomum melegueta cultivation in Asunafo north municipality.
Age Challenges X2 D P- f value
Difficult Compete with Lack of Harbor to other crops for ready insects cultivate nutrients market
39
18-30 1(25%) 1(25%) 2(50%) 0.00% 31-45 3(33.3%) 4(44.4%) 2(22.2%) 0.00% 46-60 3(27.3%) 2(18.2%) 4(36.4%) 2(18.2 %) above 2(40%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 1(20%) 60 Total 9(30%) 8(26.7%) 10(33.3%) 3(10%) 7.21 12 0.84
4.7 Preferred land use for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta and educational levels of farmers in Asunafo north municipality.
The preferred land use by farmers for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta was fallow (73.9%), followed by oil palm (21.7%) while cocoa recorded 4.3% (Table 4.7).
Their education level did not influence their choice of land use (Table 4.7).
Table 4.7 Relationship between education levels and preferred land use of Aframomum melegueta farmers in Asunafo north municipality.
Educational Preferred X2 Df P-value level land use
Fallow Oil palm Cocoa
Primary 8(72.7%) 2(18.2%) 9.10% Secondary 3(100%) Tertiary 1(100%) Illiterate 6(75%) 2(25%) Total 17(73.9%) 5(21.7%) 1(4.3%) 5.70 6 0.460
4.8 Influence of farmers age on knowledge of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
Age group of between 46-60 years recorded the highest 11(36.6%) in terms of knowledge of Aframomum melegueta. Ages between 31-45 years accounted for 9(30%) while >60
40 years recorded 5(16.6%). Similarly, ages between 18-30 years accounted for 4(13.3%)
(Table 4.8.)
Table 4.8 Age of farmers and knowledge of Aframomum melegueta. in Asunafo north municipality.
Age Knowledge on Aframomum melegueta
18-30 4(13.3%) 31-45 9(30%) 46-60 11(36.6%) above 60 5(16.6%)
Total 30(100)
4.9 Period of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
The analysis on the collection period of Aframomum melegueta suggested that, most farmers collect the specie from January – May which accounted for 17(56.60%) with
June - October recording 13(43.3%) (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9 Period of Aframomum melegueta collection in Asunafo north municipality.
Period of collection of Responses Aframomum melegueta Number of responses Percent (%)
41
January – May 17 56.60
June - October 13 43.40
Total 30 100.00
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
5.1 Effect of land use and light intensity on number of pods and average pod length of Aframomum melegueta.
The results of this study indicated that, the different land uses (cocoa, oil palm and fallow) and associated light intensities did not influence the number of pods obtained from Aframomum melegueta. These results confirmed that, the level of shade within cocoa, oil palm and fallow provide conditions necessary for the growth and performance
42 of Aframomum melegueta. Since the specie is a shade loving plant, the results suggested that, it can perform well under cocoa, oil palm and fallow conditions. These results are in agreement with El- Abd et al., (1994) who indicated that shading increased total number of fruits of tomatoes. Similarly, Tuzel (2009) alluded that, tomatoes production increased under shading conditions than under non – shading conditions. The shade levels under cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use played a significant role in modifying microclimate that favors the performance of Aframomum melegueta, which is in accordance with Lin
(2007) who stated that, shade influences microclimate variations more intensely than that of the moisture content in the soil. In addition, Vaast et al., (2008) reported that, shade is significantly important for the growth parameter and increasing yield in coffee cultivation in harsh climatic conditions.
The research observed that, cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use and associated light intensities significantly affected average pod length of Aframomum melegueta (P<0.05).
This indicated that varying light intensity as influenced by cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use accounted for the differences in pod length. The highest pod length obtained in oil palm treatment could be attributed to the high level of light (19.9%) as compared to cocoa and fallow treatments which recorded 16.8% and 11.8% respectively. These results agreed with findings of Moniruzzaman et al., (2007) who reported higher pod length of okra owing to high light intensity. These observations are in contrast with the assertion made by Rylski and Spigelman (1986) that, under high shading conditions, individual pepper pods were characterized by high length. The conflicting results might be due to the differences in the environmental conditions of the study area and the unique nature of the genetic material used for this experiment and the type of crop. Again, the highest pod length recorded in oil palm treatment could be attributed to the wide spacing of the oil palm trees which probably might have reduced above ground and below ground
43 competition with Aframomum melegueta. This assertion agreed with Aliyu et al., (2016) who reported that, the longer pods length obtained from Clemson spineless variety of okra was due to the minimum competition for space, nutrients and water with trees crops.
Pod length reduction in fallow treatment could be attributed to the low light intensity and also inter-specific competition for nutrients and space by fallow trees with Aframomum melegueta. These findings are in conformity with Fernandes (1990) who alluded that, the poor performance of crops pod length under fallow cropping were as a result of root competition and over shading.
5.2 Effect of land use and light intensity on average fresh weight and yield of
Aframomum melegueta.
Aframomum melegueta yield obtained between the treatments were not significantly different. This may be an indication that, fallow, cocoa and oil palm land use systems and their associated light intensities provided favorable conditions for the cultivation of the specie. This observation is in agreement of Lin (2010) who alluded that, the shade in tree- crop based farming system is likely to reduce evaporation of soil moisture and evapotranspiration in coffee. These dynamics explain the results showing the performance of Aframomum melegueta under cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use systems. Another probable explanation could be that shade trees within the land use systems increased moisture which enhanced the performance of Aframomum melegueta.
This is in accordance with the assertion made by Siles et al., (2010a) that, trees on farms reduce severe variation in temperature that affect the development and growth of coffee plants. Riadh et al., (2013) studied the effect of different light levels on the growth and yield parameters of hot pepper and reported that, low light level provides microclimate which insures a better vegetative growth and a prolongation of the main physiological activities. Although no significant difference was obtained for yield. This finding is in
44 agreement with the observations of this research. The implications of these results are that, light intensity in the range of 11.8% - 19.9% under fallow, cocoa and oil palm land use systems are suitable for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta.
5.3 Correlation analysis of number of pods, average pod length, average fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta.
There was a strong positive correlation between number of pods and average fresh weight, number of pods and yield as well as average fresh weight and yield of
Aframomum melegueta. This observation suggested that, the higher the number of pods, the greater the yield. In a study by Phakamas et al., (2008), the number of pods per plant were positively correlated to seed yield in peanut varieties.
Similarly, Ali and Tahir (1999) observed the same finding in chickpea genotypes. These findings are similar to the report of Baligar and Jones (1997) that, the number of pods is a function of seed yield in legume. There was a strong positive correlation between number of pods and average fresh weight (r = 0962). This observation is not unexpected as high pod numbers generally implies high fresh weight. Hence, a site with more Aframomum melegueta pods is likely to have higher fresh weight. A significant positive correlation between average fresh weight and yield of Aframomum melegueta is not surprising as high fresh weight means greater yield.
5.4 Ethno- medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta by farmers in Asunafo north municipality.
The study identified eight diseases that can be treated with Aframomum melegueta. The importance of the plant for the treatment of each disease identified was determined by the number of citations made by the respondents. These results suggested that a large number
45 of medications have been developed from the specie by farmers of the study area. This is consistent with Goleniowski et al., (2006) that, majority of rural people in the developing countries still use traditional medicines in healthcare. Again, the findings of this research are in agreement with Ilic et al., (2010) that Aframomum melegueta are used in West
Africa for the treatment of stomach ache and diarrhea. Similarly, it is used for the treatment of hypertension, stroke, tuberculosis and remedy for snake bites (Kumar et al.,
2015). Other studies had shown that the extracts of Aframomum melegueta seeds are used to treat diarrhea, gastro- intestinal disorders, snake bites and body pains (Kokou et al.,
2013). The use of the specie for the treatment of stroke, stomach ache, body pains and other ailments by the inhabitants of the study area could be attributed to the fact that, they think it contains some secondary metabolites which serves as chemical defense.
Traditional healers add Aframomum melegueta seeds in the formulation of many herbal medicines because they think that the seeds potentiate the efficacy of bioactive compounds of medicinal plants (Enyi-Idoh et al., 2013). Analysis of the seeds of
Aframomum melegueta has shown that hexanoic and methanolic extracts are rich in 6- paradols, 6-gingerols and 6- shogaols (Sugita et al., 2013). Owing to this assertion,
Teixeira et al., (2003) indicated that, natural herbal products are generally considered to be safe and thus must be noted that plants contain different secondary metabolites used as a defense mechanism. Currently, herbal medicines continue to increase and plays an essential role in the current public healthcare (Eddouks et al., 2002). Another study by
Thirumalai et al., (2009), indicated that, across the world, plants have traditionally played an indispensable role in the treatment of human ailments. According to Van Andel et al.,
(2012), the seeds of Aframomum melegueta are commonly used as seasoning on food products. However, the plant is cultivated in the study area owing to its medicinal uses that complement its economic values. The abundant information about the ethno-
46 medicinal uses of Aframomum melegueta reported by the respondents is an evidence for the existence of local knowledge of folk medicine in Ghana.
5.5 Relationship between sex variables and sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
The results of this study showed that sex variables (male and female) did not play significant role on the sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta. This confirms the findings by Egbe et al., (2012) that collection of NTFPs from diverse sources was previously carried out by women but men have intensified NTFPs collection to better their incomes due to the high cost of living. These results are contrary to those of several authors, for example Nkem et al., (2010), Ndoye et al., (1997) and Sunderland et al.,
2004) who found that collection of NTFPs is a female dominated activity.
The study revealed that Aframomum melegueta are collected from several sources in the study area. These sources could be categorized into two: forest environment (wild) and cultivated (cocoa farm, oil palm farm and fallow land). However, fallow lands
(cultivated) dominated the sources of collection of Aframomum melegueta. This is an indication that farmers cultivate the specie on fallow lands probably because it offers the best conditions for growth and development. Thus, the domestication could be significantly beneficial to these communities in terms of livelihood development. These results are consistent with those of Van Dijk and Wiersum (1999) who suggested that enhanced forest- based livelihoods could be fulfilled by optimizing NTFPs production.
The findings of several authors deviate from these assertions especially in the studies of
El- Hilaly et al., (2003) who stated that, most medicinal plants are collected from the natural habitat. Emiru et al., (2011) indicated that 62.96% of medicinal plants are collected from wild while 18.52% are from cultivation. Lange (1997) noted that 69.1% of medicinal plants in Southern Ethiopia was from the wild. Similarly, Mesfin (2007)
47 alluded that, medicinal plants are mostly harvested from the wild for local consumption and trade purposes. The conflicting results could be attributed to the present depleted state of the natural forest (wild) which has necessitated the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta by farmers.
5. 6 Challenges confronting the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
The research observed that, Aframomum melegueta cultivation is confronted with critical challenges such as lack of ready markets, difficulty in cultivation, competition with food crops for nutrients and hosting of insects. Among these challenges, emphasis was placed on lack of ready market. The reason been that the market for NTFPs is not consistent.
Aframomum melegueta is not like cereals that can be consumed at home if not sold. To promote the specie at commercial scale, market information is very important to help local economies. ABTRACO, (2004) reports that the existing market structures for
NTFPs are imperfect with regards to nature of competition, demand and supply characteristics. Unfortunately, lack of an organized marketing information system has given Aframomum melegueta farmers no choice than to sell products to traders at low price. At some point, Aframomum melegueta get rotten due to the lack of ready market.
Studies by Arnold and Ruiz- Perez, (2005) observed that trade flows are susceptible to changes in market requirements. The situation has compelled most of Aframomum melegueta farmers to process the fruits for storage waiting for high market demands during the minor season. Edwards, (1996a) reported that small scale value adding activities by NTFPs farmers would be of relevance to rural development. Laird and
Pierce, (2002) observed that markets let farmers down when consumers turn their attention to other products. Farmers and harvesters of NTFPs get small share of profit whereas most are taken by those who trade in international markets (Maraseni, 2004).
48
Ahenkan and Boon, (2008) stated that the knowledge of NTFPs marketing is scanty unlike timber marketing which has been extensively discussed in forestry literature.
Furthermore, the results of the research showed that Aframomum melegueta serves as a host to insect pest. These organisms could be beneficial or harmful to the farming system.
Mello et al., (2002) indicated that plants and insects interact in a complex way in the ecosystem. Plants and insects are in a close association since insects have several benefits which encompasses defense and pollination while plants provide shelter, oviposition sites and food, the main factors for insect proliferation (Panda and Khush, 1995). The presence of insects in Aframomum melegueta may be that, the plant offers optimum conditions for insect development and are thus selective and do not harm important natural insects. This is in conformity with Okpako et al., (2013) that insects are able to multiply under optimum condition. Resulting from this development, Aframomum melegueta farmers tend to apply chemicals for protective purposes. This agrees with Okpako et al., (2013) that due to severe susceptibility of vegetables to insects, farmers tend to apply chemicals for control. A transect walk with farmers revealed that these challenges have compelled most farmers to discontinue the cultivation of the specie as most farmers have cut down the specie to make way for other agricultural crops such as cocoyam, yam, cassava, etc.
This shows a trend of gradual decline in Aframomum melegueta production in the study area.
5.7 Relationship between education levels and preferred land use of Aframomum melegueta farmers in Asunafo north municipality.
Majority of farmers preferred fallow land use system for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta because they think it offers favorable conditions for the production and maximization of yield and also to avoid below and above ground competition with other crops. The transect walk with farmers confirmed this information, as farmers who
49 intercropped the specie with cocoa have cut down the plant because they think it competes with cocoa for nutrient and other resources resulting in low cocoa production.
However, there was no relationship between education levels of farmers and preferred land use. This implies that farmers would like to cultivate the specie on fallow land regardless of their levels of education. This finding is inconsistent with previous studies by Katungi (2006), which reported that educated farmers have greater access to information than uneducated farmers and will always follow a particular line of innovation. The inconsistency in the findings may be based on the fact that farmers have indigenous knowledge on the shade loving nature of Aframomum melegueta and the conditions under which it can thrive best. Again, informal training given to farmers by
Rudeya, a non- governmental organization has built their capacity on Aframomum melegueta cultivation practices. Similarly, the finding of this research is an indication that fallow land use systems provide suitable light levels for the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta which mimics the natural environment (wild). This reaffirms the finding of
Lin (2010) that trees on coffee plantation reduce coffee transpiration and soil evaporation. The choice of fallow, cocoa and oil palm land use systems by farmers for cultivation of Aframomum melegueta is as result of the land use systems available within the study area. It is therefore imperative to monitor the trends in land use systems to delineate strengths and weaknesses in the current state of knowledge and to foster guidance for further investigation and more productive feedback loops between researchers and farmers (Pattanayak et al., 2003).
5.8 Relationship between farmer age and knowledge on Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
A good understanding of traditional knowledge of native plant species will enhance
Aframomum melegueta cultivation. There seemed to be a relationship between
50 respondents age and knowledge of Aframomum melegueta. Traditional knowledge of medicinal plants among rural communities varies according to individual characteristics such as age, education, gender, aptitude and religion (Berkes, 1993). The results of the study suggested that 46- 60 years age group is the most knowledgeable of Aframomum melegueta. This shows an ongoing gradual knowledge loss. This is consistent with Awas
(2007) who reported that older generation were more knowledgeable than younger people in a research conducted on the people of South – Western Ethiopia. This may be as a result of knowledge accumulation through time. Similarly, older members were more inclined in the knowledge of medicinal herbs than youngsters and this is an indication of knowledge been dying out (Awas, 2007). These findings are inconsistent with Paniagua-
Zambrana et al., (2014) who reported that the relationship between age and knowledge in the communities of the lowlands suggest that older people are not experts with a much greater knowledge than younger people. This reflect an ongoing process of knowledge transfer. Similarly, Sankaranarayanan et al., (2010) reported that lack of interest on the part of the younger generation is causing the loss in traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. According to Haselmair et al., (2014) medicinal plant knowledge evolves historically within a specific social context. During this process of transmission, the content of knowledge undergoes constant change and new interpretations. The observations made by the study showed that knowledge of Aframomum melegueta is gradually getting lost among the youngsters in the study area and immediate interventions are required to bridge the knowledge gap between the older and the younger generations to promote the cultivation of Aframomum melegueta.
5.9 Period of collection of Aframomum melegueta in Asunafo north municipality.
51
The results of the study indicated that Aframomum melegueta are collected in two different periods thus, January – May and June – October. This means that fruiting occurs at different periods and is an indication that considerable interannual variation in
Aframomum melegueta collection may continuously change over long time. This development could be as a result of climate change (Brearley et al., 2007). This is consistent with Chapman et al., (2005) who reported that the different pattern of fruiting and maturity of Trilepisium madagascariense suggest that climate change is the agent.
Climate change has influenced the flowering and fruiting of plants (Cleland et al., 2007), and will continue to change plants phenology. The statement reflects the failure of many
Aframomum melegueta to fruit on time every year and might affect fruit production, maturity and collection periods. Again, Brearley et al., (2007) reported that abnormal climate events are the main causes of different fruiting, maturity and collection patterns in plants.
The study again observed that, most respondents collect Aframomum melegueta from
January to May which means the plants flower during the dry season. According to
Chapman et al., (2005) the beginning of the dry season is the time when energy becomes readily available to plants, permitting the buildup of assimilate needed for fruiting.
Similarly, Bolmgren and Cowan (2008) reported that flowering in the dry season is needed for fruits to ripen on time. The implication of this observation is that,
Aframomum melegueta farmers are likely to harvest the specie all year round for income generation and rural community healthcare. Again, the specie need to be provided with the required level of shade to be able to withstand the high light intensity during the dry season since they flower during that period.
52
53
CHAPTER SIX
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion
The cultivation of Aframomum melegueta is favourable under cocoa, oil palm and fallow land uses with light intensity range of 11.8% - 19.9%. Its potential for improving livelihood of farmers is high because many more farmers can incorporate it on their farms. The species thrive best under shady conditions in tree – based farming systems, therefore the light intensity range of the various land uses provided that minimum shade required for the plant to thrive.
Farmers ethnobotanical knowledge of Aframomum melegueta was high because is a useful ethno-medicine and is employed in the treatment of eight ailments/ disorders including stroke, piles, bone fracture and cough among others in the municipality. This implies that farmers are likely to cultivate the specie to improve rural economies and for primary health care. The study identified challenges hindering the cultivation of
Aframomum melegueta such as lack of ready market and difficulty in cultivating the plant. Minor challenges were competition for resources (nutrients and light) with other species, and problem of being a host to insect pests as these are likely to influence the potential cultivation of Aframomum melegueta.
6.2 Recommendations
After a thorough and careful study, the following recommendations are made: Further studies should be conducted for a period of more than two years to find
out whether yield of Aframomum melegueta could vary significantly among
cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use.
54
Different light levels should be created within cocoa, oil palm and fallow land use
to find out whether different yield could be obtained.
The older people should educate the younger generation on the ethno- medicinal
uses of Aframomum melegueta to ensure knowledge transmission from one
generation to the other.
Further studies should be conducted in different localities to find out whether
there could be other uses of Aframomum melegueta apart from ethnomedicinal
uses.
Management practices such as weeding and thinning should be adhered to get optimum yield.
55
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APPENDICES GRAINS OF PARADISE
Descriptives
95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Number of Cocoa Farm 3 4375.0000 625.00000 360.84392 2822.4139 5927.5861 3750.00 5000.00 Pods Oil palm farm 3 2500.0000 625.00000 360.84392 947.4139 4052.5861 1875.00 3125.00
Fallow land 3 3958.3333 1301.04125 751.15652 726.3677 7190.2990 2500.00 5000.00 Total 9 3611.1111 1159.95091 386.65030 2719.4939 4502.7283 1875.00 5000.00 Average Cocoa Farm 3 5.0767 .15044 .08686 4.7029 5.4504 4.98 5.25 Pod Length Oil palm farm 3 6.2500 .22113 .12767 5.7007 6.7993 6.00 6.42 (cm/ha) Fallow land 3 4.3767 .53201 .30716 3.0551 5.6982 3.82 4.88 Total 9 5.2344 .87215 .29072 4.5640 5.9048 3.82 6.42
ANOVA
Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Number of Pods Between Groups 5815972.222 2 2907986.111 3.526 .097 Within Groups 4947916.667 6 824652.778 Total 10763888.889 8
Average Pod Length Between Groups 5.376 2 2.688 22.744 .002
Within Groups .709 6 .118 Total 6.085 8
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Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons LSD
Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval Dependent Variable (I) Land -use (J) Land-use (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound Number of Pods Cocoa Farm Oil palm farm 1875.00000* 741.46377 .045 60.7035 3689.2965 Fallow land 416.66667 741.46377 .595 -1397.6298 2230.9631
Oil palm farm Cocoa Farm -1875.00000* 741.46377 .045 -3689.2965 -60.7035 Fallow land -1458.33333 741.46377 .097 -3272.6298 355.9631 Fallow land Cocoa Farm -416.66667 741.46377 .595 -2230.9631 1397.6298 Oil palm farm 1458.33333 741.46377 .097 -355.9631 3272.6298 Average Pod Length Cocoa Farm Oil palm farm -1.17333* .28070 .006 -1.8602 -.4865 Fallow land .70000* .28070 .047 .0132 1.3868 Oil palm farm Cocoa Farm 1.17333* .28070 .006 .4865 1.8602 Fallow land 1.87333* .28070 .001 1.1865 2.5602 Fallow land Cocoa Farm -.70000* .28070 .047 -1.3868 -.0132
Oil palm farm -1.87333* .28070 .001 -2.5602 -1.1865 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
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One way Descriptives
95% Confidence Interval for Mean N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Lower Bound Upper Bound Minimum Maximum Average Fresh Weight Cocoa farm 3 90.3167 31.82003 18.37130 11.2713 169.3620 67.63 126.69 (Kg/ha) Oil Palm farm 3 51.6700 16.23583 9.37376 11.3380 92.0020 33.38 64.38 Fallow Land 3 93.3133 34.26152 19.78090 8.2030 178.4237 56.38 124.06
Total 9 78.4333 31.89171 10.63057 53.9192 102.9475 33.38 126.69 Yield (Kg/ha) Cocoa farm 3 30.6067 15.18813 8.76887 -7.1228 68.3361 18.63 47.69 Oil Palm farm 3 14.0633 6.68099 3.85727 -2.5332 30.6598 6.94 20.19 Fallow Land 3 33.3367 15.17851 8.76331 -4.3688 71.0422 15.94 43.88 Total 9 26.0022 14.42221 4.80740 14.9163 37.0881 6.94 47.69
ANOVA
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Average Fresh Weight Between Groups 3236.712 2 1618.356 1.982 .218
(Kg/ha) Within Groups 4899.937 6 816.656 Total 8136.649 8 Yield (Kg/ha) Between Groups 652.596 2 326.298 1.936 .225 Within Groups 1011.404 6 168.567 Total 1664.000 8
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QUESTIONNAIRE FORM FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL INTERVIEWS ON
GRAINS OF PARADISE (AFRAMOMUM MELEGUETA).
UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES, SUNYANI
Department of Forest Science
Respondent details
1. Age class 18 – 30 [ ] 31 – 45 [ ] 45 – 60 [ ] Above 60 [ ]
2. Sex Male [ ] Female [ ]
3. Highest level of education Primary [ ] Secondary [ ] Tertiary [ ]
Illiterate [ ]
4. Marital status Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ ]
Grains of paradise use, challenges and integration into cropping systems
5. Have you seen or heard anything about grains of paradise before? (asked with a sample at hand)
Yes [ ] No [ ]
6. If seen, where?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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7. If heard, what?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
8. Have you personally collected grains of paradise before? Yes [ ] No [ ]
9. If yes, from where?
......
......
......
......
10. Which period of the year do you collect grains of paradise?
January – May [ ] June – October [ ]
11. How do you use it?
......
......
......
12. Where can grains of paradise be found? Forest reserve [ ] Off- forest reserve [ ]
Both [ ]
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Taste
13. How does it taste like?
Sweet [ ] Bitter [ ] Acidic [ ] Salty [ ] Peppery [ ]
14. How does it looks like?
......
......
......
Medical function
15. Do you use grains of paradise as medicine? Yes [ ] No [ ]
If yes, which diseases can it cure?
......
......
......
......
......
16. Does the use of grains of paradise have any beneficial effects on your health? Yes [
] No [ ]
If yes, describe these effects in detail.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
17. Does the use of grains of paradise have adverse effects? Yes [ ] No [ ]
If yes, explain?
......
......
......
......
18. Are there any taboos or beliefs associated with the production or use of grains of paradise? Yes [ ] No [ ]
If Yes, what are they?
......
......
......
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
19. Can grains of paradise be integrated in off reserve tree farms? Yes [ ] No [ ]
20. If yes, have you cultivated it in your farm before? Yes [ ] No [ ] a. If yes, where and for how long?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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……………………………………………………………………………………………
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21. If yes to question 20, where did you get the grains of paradise for cultivation?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
22. If no to question 20, would you want to try cultivating grain of paradise Yes [ ]
No [ ]
23. If yes, which land use will you cultivate grains of paradise?
Cocoa farm [ ] Oil palm plantation [ ] Fallow [ ]
24. Have you personally planted grains of paradise before? Yes [ ] No [ ]
25. If yes to question 24, can you tell any challenges associated with planting grains of paradise?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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26. Where did you get the technical know-how?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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