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Forgotten by the Highway: Globalisation, Adverse Incorporation and Chronic Poverty in a Commercial

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Forgotten by the Highway: Globalisation, Adverse Incorporation and Chronic Poverty in a Commercial Forgotten by the highway: Globalisation, adverse incorporation and chronic poverty in a commercial Andries du Toit, December 2004 Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies School of Government, University of the Western Cape Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, Cape Town, South Africa. www.uwc.ac.za/plaas, [email protected] CPRC Working Paper 49 PLAAS Chronic poverty and development policy series No. 4 Chronic Poverty Research Centre ISBN Number: 1-904049-48-6 Abstract This paper presents key findings from a livelihoods survey of households in four poor neighbourhoods in the Western Cape district of Ceres, one of the centres of South Africa’s deciduous fruit export industry. It explores the nature and dynamics of the persistence of poverty in the context of continued and relatively sustained economic development and growth, and considers whether the concept of ‘social exclusion’ can help in making sense – especially policy sense – of these dynamics. It is suggested that while focusing on ‘social exclusion’ certainly helps draw attention to power relations, powerlessness, and the processes that perpetuate these, coming up with workable policy responses to social exclusion requires developing a much more nuanced analysis of the social processes involved in what is perhaps more productively thought of as ‘adverse incorporation’. The paper begins with a short description of Ceres and a brief introduction to the key theoretical issues. A schematic overview of social relations and inequality in Western Cape agriculture precedes a summary of some of the key policy responses developed to address poverty and inequality after the transition to democratic rule, and a sketch of some of the most important trends in the sector. This provides the background for a discussion of household livelihood activities and problems. The paper draws on quantitative surveys and semi-structured interviews with selected households, as well as on analyses and insights flowing from medium and long-term qualitative research and fieldwork on deciduous fruit production and social power relations in the area. Author’s note An earlier version of this paper was presented at the April 2003 Chronic Poverty conference (Du Toit 2003). Some of the arguments have appeared in modified form in journal form (Du Toit 2004). The names of some persons cited in case studies and examples in the study have been changed in order to conform to agreements entered into during interviews. Acknowledgments The work in these papers is based on research made possible by the UK Department for International Development (DFID)-funded Chronic Poverty Research Centre. The author wishes to thank all those – field workers and respondents – who gave of their precious time and energies to the study. Numerous people shaped the ideas expounded here. In particular the author thanks David Hulme, Sarah Bracking, Colin Murray, Uma Kothari, Rick de Satgé, Ben Cousins and Cobus de Swardt for their contributions. Copy-editor: Stephen Heyns Location maps of Ceres (Figure 1): Anne Westoby Map of Ceres area (Figure 3): John Hall ii Forgotten by the highway: Globalisation, adverse incorporation and chronic poverty in a commercial farming district Contents Abstract, author’s note, and acknowledgements..............................................................................ii List of tables....................................................................................................................................iv List of figures..................................................................................................................................iv List of boxes....................................................................................................................................iv 1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................1 ‘Left behind’ in Bella Vista Zone 3 .................................................................................................1 Chronic poverty on a farmed landscape...........................................................................................2 2. Livelihoods at the margin ............................................................................................................4 Ceres: poverty in a fertile valley......................................................................................................4 Social exclusion and inequality in South Africa..............................................................................4 Understanding livelihoods at the margin .........................................................................................7 3. Change in Ceres .........................................................................................................................10 White power in an African valley..................................................................................................10 Policy and law after 1994...............................................................................................................11 Re-configuring power ....................................................................................................................12 4. Off-farm poverty in Ceres..........................................................................................................15 Research approach .........................................................................................................................15 Dimensions of poverty...................................................................................................................17 Dependency on agriculture ........................................................................................................17 Seasonal employment: power and dependency .........................................................................19 The hungry months: The costs of seasonality............................................................................22 Social capital, gender and hidden labour ...................................................................................22 Politics, power, passivity ...........................................................................................................25 Modernising chronic poverty.........................................................................................................27 5. Theorising chronic poverty ........................................................................................................28 Poverty and social exclusion..........................................................................................................28 Beyond inclusion and exclusion ....................................................................................................28 6. Conclusions................................................................................................................................34 7. Bibliography...............................................................................................................................35 Endnotes.........................................................................................................................................39 iii Forgotten by the highway: Globalisation, adverse incorporation and chronic poverty in a commercial farming district List of tables Table 1: South Africa’s class structure and income inequality (from Nattrass & Seekings 2001)......6 Table 2: Comparison between jobs per hectare in 1995 ....................................................................13 Table 3: Farms abjuring paternalist housing function (32% of entire sample)..................................13 Table 4: A profile of adults in the Ceres survey ................................................................................17 Table 5: Household access to land for food production (% of households) ......................................17 Table 6: Main sectors of employment for employed adults...............................................................18 Table 7: Average incomes per adult equivalent, by site ....................................................................19 Table 8: Households reporting ‘hungry periods’, by site...................................................................22 Table 9: Reported activities for more than one hour a day, by sex*..................................................24 List of figures Figure 1: Location maps of Ceres........................................................................................................2 Figure 2: ‘Vertical’ and ‘horizontal’ processes of mediation in agro-food related livelihoods...........8 Figure 3: Map of the Ceres area.........................................................................................................16 Figure 4: Seasonal income variability in Ceres .................................................................................19 List of boxes Box 1: A Ceres farmer’s wife’s perspective on power politics among white farmers ......................11 Box 2: How contracting arrangements help one farmer externalise the costs of on-farm labour......21 Box 3: Pen sketch of “Freddie Arends” – Smokkelaar, rebel, social entrepreneur............................26 iv 1. Introduction ‘Left behind’ in Bella Vista Zone 3 Katriena Sym considers herself lucky. She has a roof over her head, a husband who has found work on a farm near by, and a lodger who contributes
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