ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI
XLIII
ANALECTA ROMANA
INSTITUTI DANICI
XLIII
2018
ROMAE MMXVIII ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI XLIII © 2019 Accademia di Danimarca ISSN 2035-2506
Scientific Board
Karoline Prien Kjeldsen (Bestyrelsesformand, Det Danske Institut i Rom, -30.04.18) Mads Kähler Holst (Bestyrelsesformand, Det Danske Institut i Rom) Jens Bertelsen (Bertelsen & Scheving Arkitekter) Maria Fabricius Hansen (Københavns Universitet) Peter Fibiger Bang (Københavns Universitet) Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt (Aalborg Universitet) Karina Lykke Grand (Aarhus Universitet) Thomas Harder (Forfatter/writer/scrittore) Morten Heiberg (Københavns Universitet) Michael Herslund (Copenhagen Business School) Hanne Jansen (Københavns Universitet) Kurt Villads Jensen (Stockholms Universitet) Erik Vilstrup Lorenzen (Den Danske Ambassade i Rom) Mogens Nykjær (Aarhus Universitet) Vinnie Nørskov (Aarhus Universitet) Niels Rosing-Schow (Det Kgl. Danske Musikkonservatorium) Poul Schülein (Arkitema, København) Lene Schøsler (Københavns Universitet) Erling Strudsholm (Københavns Universitet) Lene Østermark-Johansen (Københavns Universitet)
Editorial Board Marianne Pade (Chair of Editorial Board, Det Danske Institut i Rom) Patrick Kragelund (Danmarks Kunstbibliotek) Sine Grove Saxkjær (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Gert Sørensen (Københavns Universitet) Anna Wegener (Det Danske Institut i Rom) Maria Adelaide Zocchi (Det Danske Institut i Rom)
Analecta Romana Instituti Danici. — Vol. I (1960) — . Copenhagen: Munksgaard. From 1985: Rome, «L’ERMA» di Bretschneider. From 2007 (online): Accademia di Danimarca.
ANALECTA ROMANA INSTITUTI DANICI encourages scholarly contributions within the Academy’s research fields. All contributions will be peer reviewed. Manuscripts to be considered for publication should be sent to: [email protected] Authors are requested to consult the journal’s guidelines at www.acdan.it Contents
Maurizio Paoletti: “Kleom(b)rotos, figlio di Dexilaos, (mi) dedicò”. L’offerta di un atleta vincitore ad Olimpia nel santuario di Francavilla Marittima 7
Jan Kindberg Jacobsen, Peter Attema, Carmelo Colelli, Francesca Ippolito, Gloria Mittica, Sine Grove Saxkjær: The Bronze and Iron Age habitation on Timpone della Motta in the light of recent research 25
Daniel Damgaard: Architectural Terracottas from Etrusco-Italic Temples on the Later Forum of Ostia. Archaic Ostia Revisited 91
Christine Jeanneret: Making Opera in Migration. Giuseppe Sarti’s Danish Recipe for Italian Opera 111
Nikola D. Bellucci: Danici sodales. Schow e Zoëga nel carteggio Baffi (e Baffi nel carteggio Zoëga). Analisi e confronti 135
Marianne Saabye: P.S. Krøyer, Pasquale Fosca and the Neapolitan art scene 149
Anna Wegener: Italian Translations of Scandinavian Literature in the Interwar Period: A Bibliographic Overview 179
Reports:
Gloria Mittica & Nicoletta Perrone: Espressioni votive e rituali nel Santuario arcaico di Timpone della Motta. Le novità dagli scavi DIR 2017 237
Domenico A. M. Marino & Carmelo Colelli: Crotone. Lo scavo urbano di Fondo Gesù 265
Making Opera in Migration Giuseppe Sarti’s Danish Recipe for Italian Opera1
by Christine Jeanneret
Abstract. The first opera season at the permanent theatre of Copenhagen in 1761-2, under the direction of Italian composer Giuseppe Sarti (1729-1802), was a complete fiasco, for both practical reasons and cultural clashes. Unlike anywhere else in Europe, Denmark discovered Italian opera only after the spread of Enlightenment thinking, promoting emergent forms of nationalism that surpassed former universalist perspectives. In Copenhagen, an aristocratic, cosmopolitan culture collided with a bourgeois, nationalist identity, which was rooted in local taste and ferociously opposed to Italian opera. Based on a letter that I recently discovered, this study focuses on Sarti’s solutions for adapting the genre for a foreign audience, from the perspective of opera in migration. The full text of the letter, which is written in French, is given in appendix with an English translation. First, Sarti focussed on the libretto translations, in order to address the criticism of excessive sensuality and theatricality, which had been levelled at opera as a genre. More importantly, he regarded the visual aspects (costumes, above all) as crucial tools for transmitting and adapting the genre to its new environment. Costumes were crucial visual signifiers and played a role even surpassing that of the sung text.
Giuseppe Sarti (1729-1802), director of the season with a permanent theatre in 1761-1762 Italian opera in Copenhagen, faced various turned out to be a complete debacle, as we challenges: his audience did not understand learn from the letter Sarti wrote in response the Italian language and had almost no prior to a request made by the management, a letter exposure to the operatic genre. In Denmark, I recently discovered in the Danish National there was a political conflict between an Archive.2 This article locates Sarti’s efforts aristocratic, cosmopolitan, Italianate identity and suggestions within the fraught cultural on the one hand, and a bourgeois, nationalist contexts of eighteenth-century Denmark, and identity rooted in local Danish taste and a through the broader perspective of opera in resistance to opera on the other. The first opera migration.3 First, I present a brief survey of
1 This article is a revised version of my acceptance modifications: in French, I have tacitly changed “j” talk at receiving Queen Margrethe’s Rome Prize in to “i” and “u” to “v”, capitalization, accents, dier- October 2017. I would like to heartily thank the esis, and cedilla have been modernized; in German, Carlsberg Foundation, Eric Bianchi, Valeria De Luc- “ß” has been modified to “ss;” in Danish, capital- ca, Petra Dotlačilová, Peter Hauge, Jens Hesselager, ization according to eighteenth-century norms has Anne Ørbæk Jensen, Christina Lysbjerg Mogensen, been retained. Square brackets have been used to Nicolai Østenlund, Marianne Pade and the Danish indicate errors or clarify meanings, punctuation and Academy in Rome, Karl Aage Rasmussen, Carmel capitalisation have been normalised. Raz, Ellen Rosand, Magnus Tessing Schneider, Per 2 RA Breve 220, letter from Giuseppe Sarti to the Seesko, Nikolaj Strands and Christoph Wernli for opera management. their precious help and suggestions. Translations are 3 I coined the term, based on previous research on mine unless otherwise stated. I retained the origi- the topic of Italian opera performed outside Italy nal spelling of the sources, except for the following and related issues of cultural transfer, adaptations, 112 Christine J eanneret the introduction of Italian opera in Denmark onerous cultural questions of adapting opera by the traveling troupe of Pietro Mingotti, for a foreign audience. First, he focussed on followed by Sarti and his productions for the the libretto translations, in order to address permanent theatre. Next, I outline the cultural the criticism of excessive sensuality and world Sarti encountered at the Danish court, theatricality levelled at the operatic genre. the concept of “Danishness” and national But more importantly, he regarded the visual identities, language, and migration studies. aspects (above all costumes) as crucial tools The English translation of this sixteen- for transmitting and adapting the genre to page letter originally written in French is its new context. Costumes are primary visual followed by a critical commentary on Sarti’s signifiers and play a role even surpassing that letter, where I present and discuss the most of the sung text. important aspects and challenges faced by the composer in Copenhagen. Finally, the French A Citizen of the World text is given in the Appendix. Fairly little scholarly attention has been paid Transnational studies are not new and to Sarti.4 He is mostly known to us for having many scholars have studied opera in migration: written an aria that Mozart quoted in Don Europe, but also distant continents, main Giovanni.5 He spent almost two decades in centres such as Paris and London, but also Copenhagen (1753-1775), with regular trips smaller cities have benefitted from numerous back to Italy during the summer – or for a studies. However, Scandinavia has not yet longer stay in 1765-68 – to hire new singers appeared on the map and brings a stimulating and procure new music. He was then invited perspective, not only with regard to Denmark by Catherine II of Russia to St Petersburg to but also to other countries, by considering the become director of the imperial chapel and introduction of opera to the northern part of the Italian opera. He paved the way for the Europe. creation national traditions of operas in both At the request of the theatre managers, Danish and Russian, without speaking either Sarti writes down in the letter presented of the two languages. here everything that is necessary for a Italian opera was introduced in Copenhagen professional production of Italian opera. This very late when compared to other European document is rare and fascinating because it cities. Except one case, none of the few clarifies many issues and conventions that isolated performances of music dramas that were never discussed in countries with a took place in the seventeenth century were in longer tradition of producing this genre. Italian.6 Frederik IV’s newly built theatre was Sarti was faced with a series of challenges, inaugurated by a performance of Bartolomeo from practical and technical issues to more Bernardi’s Il Gige fortunato, the first Italian
and transformations: see Strohm 2001; Bucciarelli Variazionen auf eine seinige Aria gemacht, woran et al. 2006; Dubowy et al. 2007; Herr et al. 2008; Co- er sehr viele Freude gehabt hat.” (Sarti is an honest, las & Di Profio 2009; Price et al. 1995; Lindgren good man! I played a lot for him, also variations 1995; Nieden & Over 2016; and the transnational on one of his arias, from which he took very great project directed by Körner, Vella & Walton Re-imag- pleasure.), quoted in ibid., translation by Heartz. ining Italianità. 6 In 1634, to celebrate the wedding of Christian, 4 Thrane 1902; Baroni et al. 1986; Brover-Lubovsky et Prince-Elect (“udvalgt prins”) of Denmark, Hein- al. 2017. rich Schütz probably composed the music to ac- 5 The motive of “Come un agnello” from Sarti’s Fra company two German plays, Wie Aquilo der Regent i due litiganti il terzo gode (1782) is quoted in the sup- mitternächtigen Länder die edle Princessin Orithyjam heim- per scene of Don Giovanni, see Heartz & Bauman führet and Wie die Harpyiæ von zweyen septentrionalischen 1990, 169-179. Mozart wrote in a letter to his father Helden verjaget und König Phineus entlediget wird by Jo- (June 12, 1784): “Sarti ist ein rechtschaffner braver hannes Lauremberg. In 1689, the performance of Mann! Ich habe ihm sehr viel gespiellt, endlich auch Der vereinigte Götterstreit by Danish composer Povl
Making Opera in Migration 113 opera to be performed in Copenhagen by Sarti to be performed in Copenhagen (1703).7 Religious opposition from the pietist was Vologeso (after Zeno’s Lucio Vero), which movement and a general lack of interest premiered during the 1754 Carnival season. doomed the undertaking to failure. The Sarti composed three new operas for each performances were interrupted from 1708 season, most of them to Metastasian librettos, onwards. The pietist Christian VI drastically such as Ciro riconosciuto, premiered in December imposed a complete ban on dance, theatre, 1754, and Demofoonte (1755).11 Frederik V and opera from 1738 until his death in 1746. named him Capelmester in 1755 as successor Frederik V lifted the ban as soon as he was to Paolo Scalabrini.12 At the end of the 1760 crowned in 1746, opening the venue to Pietro season, Mingotti declared bankruptcy, but Mingotti’s performances in Copenhagen; his Sarti remained in Denmark as Hofcapelmester.13 traveling troupe performed in Copenhagen The next season saw the beginning of a in 1747 for the very first time. The troupe permanent Italian troupe in Copenhagen. returned every season from Hamburg, The opera troupe was now directly employed accompanied by Sarti as music director from by the Danish theatre, with Sarti hired to 1753 onward.8 An embodiment of the perfect conduct all operas and compose three new cosmopolitan gentleman, Sarti was not only operas each season. The catastrophic season a skilled composer and musician but also an of 1761-1762 to which Sarti referred in excellent diplomat. He attracted the favours of his letter saw the performances of Nitetti, the Danish court and thanks to him, Mingotti Alessandro nelle Indie (both to librettos by managed to secure a contract from 1754 until Metastasio), and La figlia ricuperata (by Pastor 1760 to rent the Danish Theatre (Den danske Arcade Timido). To begin with, he produced Skueplads). This required Mingotti to build a opera sung in Italian with a bilingual libretto “magnificent theatre,” and to hire the “best published in Danish and Italian.14 As we virtuosos,” with a preference for “actresses shall see, after a few years he abandoned the who have husbands or brothers able to play “corrupt” translations that, by presenting the in the orchestra,” along with dancers.9 The text entirely in prose, privileged the content troupe was also substantially augmented “so and clarity of the plot, but sacrificed style and that all the operas by Metastasio could be poetry. Instead, he turned to writing music represented” as stipulated.10 The first opera for syngespil in Danish or music for French
Christian Schindler on a German libretto by Peter “Pierre Mingotti qui s’engage: I. De bâtir et con- Anton Burkhard ended in a tragedy: the theater struire à ses dépens […] un magnifique théâtre burnt to the ground killing 180 people. Hammerich […]. V. D’entretenir la meilleure troupe de virtuosi 1921, 131; Schepelern 1995, 12; Wade 1996. The et virtuose, qu’il sera possible d’avoir, et de tâcher only exception is Girolamo Pignani’s Il Cadmo, an d’engager des actrices, qui ayent des maris, ou des “introduction for a ballet” performed in 1663 in frères capables de jouer dans l’orchestre.” the gardens of Frederiksborg castle to celebrate the 10 Müller von Azow 1917, 129: “De compléter sa engagement of Anna Sophie, King Frederik III’s troupe de façon, que touts [sic] les rôles soyent daughter, Nicola Usula, “’Costretto andar pelegri- remplis, et que l’on puisse rappræssentir [sic] les nando per tutto l’universo’: Girolamo Pignani and opéras de Metastasio; sans en retrancher aucun.” the First Italian Musicians in the Nordic Countries 11 A printed score of Ciro without the recitatives during the Seventeenth Century” (unpublished pa- was published in 1756 by Thiele, and dedicated to per). Frederik V, Sarti 1756. 7 Romagnoli 2006, 85-86. 12 Brover-Lubovsky et al. 2017. 8 On Mingotti, see Müller von Azow 1917; on Sarti, 13 Müller von Azow 1917, 137-139. see Brover-Lubovsky et al. 2017; Baroni et al 1986; 14 His first production for the Danish stage was Il Thrane 1902. Vologeso, with the Mingotti troupe. He was not di- 9 The first opera theatre was built and decorated rectly involved in Gram og Signe, the very first Dan- by the painter and architect Jacopo Fabris in the ish syngspil (1756) on a libretto by Niels Krog Bre- great hall of Charlottenborg Palace. The contract dal, who borrowed Sarti’s arias. Soliman den Anden is published in Müller von Azow 1917, 128-130: (1770), an Danish adaptation of Favart’s Soliman 114 Christine Jeanneret theatre plays. In spite of adversities, both the threat to masculinity they represented.18 financial and political, he had a successful The talent and skills of these musicians could career in Copenhagen, bringing him fame sometimes overcome these prejudices, but and appreciation in his homeland and all over were not sufficient to establish a respected Europe. His last work, Kærlighedsbrevene (Love tradition of both singers and the music drama. Letters, a translation and adaption of Louis de Opera performances depended on audience Boissy’s Les billets doux by Danish playwright expectations and market opportunities that and translator Charlotta Dorothea Biehl) was were overwhelmingly local, varying greatly performed in 1775.15 He was sued for taking from Copenhagen to Italy to Germanic bribes from Norwegian jurists who wanted states – or even within them. The foreign positions at the court, condemned to give up musicians had to shape their careers in order his position and leave the country within eight to successfully adapt to their host country’s days, with his wife, singer Camilla Pasi, and culture. Sarti negotiated the Danish court and their two daughters.16 He left for Hamburg tailored his productions to meet his audience’s and then Italy on 9 June 1775. expectations in order to secure his position in a city that had little exposure to Italian The Italian Diaspora of Musicians in the North opera before his arrival. Unlike anywhere Italian musicians in the diaspora had acquired else in Europe, Enlightenment ideas spread their skills in their homeland. They were sought in Denmark prior to Italian opera. During after for their competences, and precisely Sarti’s time in Copenhagen, the opera reform because these skills were linked to Italy and was already well on its way all over Europe the myth of italianità. They usually began their and Metastasian librettos were generally careers with a travelling troupe, and later, when considered old-fashioned, unnatural, and they had gained a measure of reputation, were absurd and were the target of numerous invited as professional visitors to courts and criticisms.19 cities all over Europe. During their stays – whether for a single season or longer – they Cosmopolitanism VS Cultural Differences tended to create enclaves representing their Cultural differences represented an obstacle distinctive beliefs and habits. In Copenhagen, to cosmopolitanism and stood in the way of a the Italian troupe all lived together in Sarti’s successful migration of Italian opera. In 1747, house.17 Religious and professional prejudices the year Mingotti’s troupe first performed in were not uncommon, especially in Protestant Copenhagen, the German author Johann countries, and operisti were often regarded as Elias Schlegel rejected the universality of minstrels, jongleurs, or (in the case of female theatre in Gedanken zur Aufname des dänischen singers) as courtesans. Castratos and women, Theaters. Schlegel, who had spent nearly a especially, caused a stir and were paradoxically decade in the Danish capital, observed the sought after by their admirers while also different attitudes towards humour, among meeting with a fascinated abhorrence by their Danes and Italians, with a telling – albeit detractors. The latter expressed significant slightly stereotyped – example: resistance to these singers upon aesthetic, national, and religious grounds, along with According to the judgment of native Danes
Second by Charlotte Dorothea Biehl was his first England against Italian opera, see Strohm 2001, composition in Danish. 1-3; for documents, see Lindgren 1991. 15 Biehl 1999; Alenius 1987. 19 However, the theater’s managers specifically stip- 16 Thrane 1902, 534-538. ulated in Sarti’s contract that he had to compose 17 Thrane 1908, 131. three operas on Metastasio’s librettos each season 18 Aspden 2013; Feldman 2015. On the resistance in (see below, comment on §3).
Making Opera in Migration 115
themselves, there is something reserved According to Schlegel, absurd and coarse and even-tempered in the character of jokes, such as the lazzi of Italian comedy, their nation. If one were to conclude would create only shame and forced laughter that extravagantly funny ideas and really for the Danes. Temperaments could not be ridiculous plots are necessary to get these more different: the reserved Scandinavians people out of their phlegm and to bring them and the effusive Italians required totally to laugh, one would be terribly mistaken. different comic devices. Even if Italian was They would indeed laugh more, but in fact widely considered the musical lingua franca, it would arouse in them less pleasure than superior in its beauty and musicality to that a well-mannered joke. Because one should of any other nation, Italian as sung remained consider, that even if the most respectable incomprehensible for most non-Italian people will be unable to keep themselves listeners. Opera was therefore considered as from laughing at absurd and gross matters, a purely sensual experience, raising aesthetic they would even laugh out loud, inasmuch and moral concerns. While a tiny – aristocratic as [these jokes] are funny; but they will and educated – fraction of the audience could also be the first to feel ashamed for having understand Italian, most spectators simply laughed, and their pleasure cannot be that enjoyed the spectacle, without bothering great, if they laugh against their will. A to read the bilingual libretto, hence without joke with truth and finesse is precisely the understanding the words or grasping the plot kind that inspires most pleasure for [these] structure. This confirmed the irrationality of respectable people; because it tickles, so opera to its detractors. One of the strongest long and so often as one thinks about it. opponents of opera was the famous writer Such people can laugh most easily [and] Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754), who savagely heartily at the depiction of foolishness, attacked the genre for its absurdity and whereas, because of their even-tempered considered it to be shamefully un-Danish. nature, they are more capable than others Holberg not only disparaged opera but also of recognizing the excesses that often ferociously ridiculed the naïve audience come from an extravagant vivacity and for falling for its deceptive charms.21 The because they themselves are not prone to backdrop of Holberg’s position was linked to such foolishness. Italians, who are least of the emergence of nationalism and a bourgeois all apathetic and even-tempered, carry this Danish culture. type of buffoonery to its extreme.20
20 Schlegel 1764, 268: “Nach den Urteilen geborner gelacht hat. Ein Scherz hingegen, der Wahrheit und Dänen findet sich in dem Charakter ihrer Nation Feinigkeit in sich hält, ist gerade derjenige, welcher etwas Gesetztes und Gelassenes. Wenn man dar- gesetzen Leuten das meiste Vergnügen erweckt; aus schliessen wollte, dass ausschweifend lustige denn er kitzelt, so lange und so oft, als man daran Einfälle und wahre Lustigmacher-Schwänke nothig denkt. Solche Leute können am leichtesten bey den wären, dergleichen Leute aus ihrer Gleichgültigkeit Abschilderungen der Thorheiten von gutem Her- zu bringen, und zum lachen zu bewegen, so würde zen lachen, weil sie durch ihre Gelassenheit mehr man übel schliessen. Man wird dadurch zwar mehr als andere im Stande sind, die Ausschweifungen lachen, aber in der That weniger wirkliches Vergnü- einzusehen, die oft aus einer allzugrossen Lebhaft- gen erwecken, als durch einen gesitteten Scherz. igkeit herrühren, und weil sie nicht sich selbst zu Denn man muss bedenken, dass auch wohl der al- dergleichen Thorheiten geneigt finden. Die Italiän- lergesetzeste Mensch sich oft nicht wird enthalten er, welche nichts weniger als gleichgültig und gelas- können, über ungereimte und grobe Dinge zu sen sind, treiben die Buffonnerie aufs höchste.” lachen, ja laut zu lachen, wofern sie sehr possierlich 21 Two comedies published in 1725 specifically -de sind; aber dass auch er der erste seyn wird, der sich nounced opera: Ulysses von Ithacia, eller en tydsk Comedie schämt, gelacht zu haben, und dass sein Vergnügen focussed on absurd plots and exotic settings, where- nicht gross seyn kann, da er wider seinen Willen as Kilderejsen ridiculed the audience: Holberg 1725; 116 Christine Jeanneret
“Danishness”, Nationalism, and Cosmopolitanism Struensee – the king’s physician – became the By the end of the eighteenth century, de facto regent of Denmark and the queen’s Copenhagen’s population of circa 100.000 paramour, while the king, Christian VII, was was divided roughly evenly between three incapacitated by a severe form of dementia.25 groups: native Copenhageners, Danes from Struensee showed himself an avid and the provinces, and foreigners.22 In the second enlightened reformer, introducing dramatic half of the century, various positions on political and social reforms at a frenetic pace, the definition of homeland as fatherland including unrestricted freedom of the press, (Fædreland) and national identity existed and religious tolerance, agrarian reforms, and confronted each other.23 First, a cosmopolitan the abolition of torture. Not content with perspective viewed civic virtue and the usurping royal power, he also conquered the social morality of the citizens (Borgerdyd) as king’s wife, Queen Caroline Mathilde, with fundamental, whereas place of birth, language, whom he had a notorious affair. In 1772, and culture were considered as secondary Queen Dowager Juliana Maria was behind the and fortuitous. A second perspective, palace coup that led to the arrest of Struensee, Helstatspatriotisme, resembled something we along with the reigning Queen and Struensee’s might now call ‘patriotic society.’ In this friend, Enevold Brandt, the king’s maître view, place of birth was paramount – yet it des plaisirs and director of the theatre. The was also somewhat flexible, since it accorded queen was exiled to Celle, in the Electorate equal dignity to all subjects born anywhere in of Hannover, while Struensee and Brandt the realm of the Danish monarchy. A third were found guilty of lèse-majesté, condemned perspective saw language as the main criteria and executed in a gruesome manner. In the to define citizenship: this privileged native wake of the Struensee affair, the Nationality Danes, especially against German speakers. Law (Indføds-Retten)26 was drawn up in 1776. This last viewpoint became the most popular It stipulated that official positions should after the political turmoil of the 1770s. now be restricted to native Danes (jus soli). German speakers were a majority in holding The former concept of the Danish state as state positions and were opposed by the a cosmopolitan and enlightened Fædreland emerging Danish bourgeoisie, in a conflict gave way to a more territorial and restrictive expressing divergences both on an economic view of patriotism. Simultaneously, notions and class basis. Anti-German feelings were of universal citizenship not only contributed instrumental in defining “Danishness” and in to erase boundaries between states but creating more restrictive views on nationalism also created new forms of inclusion and and patriotism. By no coincidence, the term exclusion. For those who were not part Danskhed (Danishness) is attested for the of the cosmopolitan aristocratic society, first time at this period in an ode by the poet “Danishness” came to be defined, not least, and writer Johannes Ewald (1743-1781) who as a political and cultural rebellion against played an instrumental role in the controversy the court elite and specifically against the against opera and the so-called Tronfølgenfejde.24 Germans’ hegemony. In these struggles for The Struensee affair contributed to exacerbate power, nationalism, and culture, opera and the conflict. An ambitious German doctor Sarti’s Italian troupe played a variety of roles. who never learned Danish, Johann Friedrich Brandt, executed together with Struensee,
Holberg 2016; see Hesselager 2016 and Holm 2004. 1975, 23; Jeanneret a (forthcoming). 22 Parby 2015, 23. 25 Langen 2008, 290-308, 374-391. 23 Damsholt 2000, 119-120. 26 The Danish term “indfødsret” literally means “the 24 “Danskhed” Ordbog; on Tronfølgenfejde, see Carlson right of national citizenship.”
Making Opera in Migration 117 was also a German and Sarti’s superior as and, if they find [my productions] good, it director of the theatre. Twelve years before, in will be very encouraging to me. response to his detractors and to the fiasco of the first season, Sarti rolled up his sleeves and [§2] The rehearsals must be done where the presented a plan for successful productions management orders: in the past, they have of Italian opera. seen fit to have them held at my place: it will depend on you to order that. Regarding the Giuseppe Sarti’s letter to the theatre’s managers, schedule, the master of music will decide Copenhagen 1762 that according to need. The management will have the kindness to send the necessary Sir, lights.
[§1] You have been kind enough to [§3] For the music of the intermezzi,28 I command me to set down in writing my have the new comic operas that are staged opinions about opera. I have the honour to every year in Venice sent from Italy at the obey you, Sir, and so that I may do my best expense of the management, both music and forget nothing, permit me, to say a few and librettos. I arrange some of them here, words about each aspect of this spectacle. as much as I can to the taste of the country, and I have some others arranged by some To stage an opera we need poet in Italy, whom the management is Poem kind enough to pay, because I do not have Translation enough time to do everything alone. Music Actors [§4] It is necessary to hire a harpsichord Orchestra tuner at a fixed wage each month from Costumes September until the end of the opera Sets and Machines [season] to tune all the harpsichords of the Lights troupe. Supernumeraries27 Prompter [§5] For the orchestra, it was I who and choir assembled it last year, and although several The ballets are not under my supervision, of the musicians I had, have been hired so I will not discuss them. in the navy, however, if the management orders me to assemble it again this year, I The actors are already at the service of the will do my best to obey, but I will need to management. have full authority in writing, as Counsellor Fedder did last year, because I must make a For the music, Messrs the Directors contract with each of the musicians (in case are kind enough to content themselves the management does not find it better to with my modest talents, however if they make it itself, and to sign the contracts with sometimes will have the kindness to listen them). I will give a note of the orchestra we to rehearsals, I would be most obliged if had last year. they would tell me their thoughts on my productions. This will be instructive for me [§6] For the supernumeraries, the best idea
27 Sarti uses the Danish word “statist”. 28 Original: petites pièces. 118 Christine Jeanneret
is to take soldiers; when I was impresario, I the piece carefully to see whether there is used them. I gave them five sols29 each time, anything shocking and whether it can be either for an opera or for the rehearsals and shown to an enlightened audience. I found myself very well served. It is true that nowadays there are not as [§10] The costumes must be suited to the many free men30 in the city as there were personality of each character,31 and must fit at that time, but the management could well with taste the person that has to wear ask captains (or others) for the number of them. Mr Mazzioli is the tailor who is at soldiers that are necessary for an opera. Try the service of the management: one must to find good-looking persons and of the keep his eye on him so that he does exactly same height as much as possible, at least what he has been ordered to do and so for each pair: I even think that nowadays that he does not double the management’s Norwegians are good fellows and we could expenses for things that are useless to get a good deal out of them. At the very theatrical effect and good taste. Broad least soldiers are used to obey and to stand strokes made with taste in the designs make in order, and the Captain vouches for them. an admirable effect on stage. But a quantity of little trifles – in addition to doubling [§7] The prompter we had last year was the labour (and consequently the expense) Mister Wintmüller [Jens Wintmølle], it – creates only confusion and renders the would be desirable that he had a better costumes unbearable to the actors because voice and more art for this. The poems of their heaviness, which can bother them have been translated by him, I will say greatly, and prevent them from doing something about that. their duty (one must take into account that they are singing actors). Moreover, [§8] The matters mentioned, once done, no what contributes much to the good effect longer need to be thought about; the four is the combination of colours; this is why next ones require the eye of the master. one must recommend him to do exactly These are what we tell him: the management can rest The translation assured that we will order him to do things The costumes neither too expensive nor less magnificent The sets and machines than what they seem to desire. The lights. I seem to understand that the management [§9] The translation. Since one can does not wish to buy our wardrobe, as I never devote too much attention to a proposed, and that they wish to use the public spectacle, one must show great costumes made for last year as much as consideration for the spiritual part it possible. contains, that is the poem, here the Therefore, it will be necessary to make six translation; this is why I especially beseech new costumes: the management to forbid anything to be printed unless they themselves have read
29 It is hard to understand what he means; a sol is a skilling). French coin during the Ancien Régime (1 livre is 30 Original: Fraymann, problably Frimand: soldiers on worth 20 sols or sous, 1 sol is worth 12 deniers), but temporary home permit. Sarti never worked in France. He probably means 31 Original: Les habits doivent être selon le caractère du per- the Danish coin called mark in use at that time (1 sonnage. rigsdaler was worth 6 mark and 1 mark was worth 16 Making Opera in Migration 119
In the opera Semiramis everything was ready on time in the crates One for Semiramis, a man in heroic style where there was only what was necessary One for Ircano in barbarian style for the opera being given. Sometimes forty persons got dressed at the same time without In the opera Dido any confusion; and when they undressed One for Dido as a woman in brown colour (principal observation) the costumes were One for Iarba as negro prince placed one after the other very neatly, and with order in the crates. (Afterwards, our In the opera Narcisse clothes, which were used for three years are One for Narcisse (it must be a costume of like new, whereas yours, which have only taste) served one year, are already old.) One for Tirreno as high priest. I think that this Galeotti could very well succeed in that again, if the management The rest can be used, however, some would order this task to him. changes will have to be made to the two heroic costumes of Mr. Scogli [Domenico I must again bring to your attention that, Scogli], either in manner or in proportions. besides the six new serious costumes If the management allows it, we will give indicated above, it will be necessary to add detailed instructions to the said Mazzioli a seventh for Miss Galeotti the younger; on everything that must be done, even the reason is that the two serious costumes indicating for him such-and such-costumes we had made for her last year are: a red one, for such-and-such opera, and character. We magnificent, for Nitteti and a dark blue for have a person for this who has good taste Erissena in Alexander. and who understands these matters very The red one could be used for Tamiri in well: it is the brother of the Demoiselles the opera Semiramis. But the blue one will Galeotti [Marianna and Vittoria Galeotti]. not be suitable for Selene in the opera Dido. It would be opportune for the management Because the elder [sister], who is Dido, to engage this man to do many things that must precisely have a costume of a similar Mazzioli does not, these are head-pieces,32 colour, being such her character, and it bonnets, powder boxes,33 etc.; and other is not convenient that two women in the little things that the actors must wear. He same opera are dressed in almost the same had the kindness to make them last year colour. Selene must have a gay costume. without any sort of reward. If we do the opposite, by giving the blue costume to Tamiri, this costume would be too It does not end when one has merely paid poor to be worn by the princess and queen to have such things made. They have to be of Bactrians, on the very day of her wedding preserved: they have to be kept in order. when she shows herself to a multitude of As the tailor makes the costumes, he sends foreign princes to chose a husband. If we them to the wardrobe. There must be a absolutely want to save money by thinking trustworthy and competent man at the only of this year, we could modify the yellow head of the wardrobe of the opera (what costume the elder sister wore last year in belongs to the opera and intermezzi), who Alexander and adapt it for the younger sister. keeps it in order. The question is whether it is worth ruining In my time, Mr Galeotti took care of all this: a costume made for the elder sister that she
32 Original: casquets, erroneously for casquettes. 33 Original: boudrieres, erroneously for poudrières 120 Christine Jeanneret
could wear another year. That is for the proposed him, I was mortified. This is why management to decide. I wish that the management itself to choose N.B. If you purchase our wardrobe, no this stage designer – but it is necessary that further trouble will be necessary because he speaks a language that I understand so (among other things) there is a magnificent that we can agree together on what has to costume precisely made to suit Tamiri. be done, otherwise we will find ourselves in I must add still that if you wish to make new a big mess. costumes, we should see as soon as possible I urgently beg the management to choose what you have by way of flashy costumes34 this stage designer as soon as possible: if because the season is too far along to have we start working sooner, we will be doubly them come on time from Nuremberg. rewarded in everything. Days are long: N.B. Even in Nuremberg, they often do not the weather dries the colours, which is so have them ready, and we should allow time troublesome in winter, when we must do to have them made as we order them: this with heat from the fire, which costs For the new little pieces, almost everything more and has much less effect. has to be done anew. Our wardrobe is well As soon as the stage designer is chosen, stocked in these and the costumes are like I first need to have a long conversation new. with him. We will attempt to do our best to honour the management, but with the [§11] For the sets and machines, we most savings. must have a painter of genius, to invent the designs,35 the drawings, to give the Also, there must be order in this, by having measurements for the most important a person keep an eye on whether the said elements, and to keep an eye on and to persons work, what they are doing etc. And manage the painters who are working; this he has to oversee the various little machines one I call the stage designer. we use on stage, and he must distribute Then we need one or two painters to them in time and take care of an infinity execute the design; they are paid by the day. of things that would be too long to detail Were I the master, I would only take one; I here. He is what we call an inspector. He would hire him for the whole time: I would has to be given good instructions and one start first, and I would have him working has to recommend him to follow them with on everything there is to be painted on accuracy. the stage. The stage designer could even provide the said painter. [§12] For the Lighting. The lamps that It is also necessary to have carpenters, also are down in front of the stage above the paid by the day. orchestra, even if these are the ones that we The stage designer last year was Crammer get the most light from in the theatre, they [Peter Cramer]; he was granted 100 crowns are nevertheless not sufficient to imitate for his labors, but in the end it was too little, nature, this is the reason why every theatre either because of his negligence, or because abounds with lights at the sides; there are of the lack of assistants. It meant that he two types of steady wings, that are at both often had to execute the work himself and sides of the stage, two are nearest to the was then paid separately, which shocked parterre: these never move, and they are the management somewhat. And since I filled with many candles or other lights, etc.
34 Original: ce que vous avez de clinquan[t]. 35 Original: pour faire les inventions. Making Opera in Migration 121
from the top until the bottom. They give To make lasting candles that will light like an admirable brightness and provide light wax where the said lamps cannot reach. On and that do not need to be snuffed our stage, the said wings were previously out continuously there, but they have been removed for the pantomimes, in order to substitute Soak the wick in wine spirit, then in wax. them with two machines each containing a When the tallow is melted, throw in door and a balcony. This makes a very bad powdered alum that has been sifted. impression; besides being hideous they are N.B. I think that this kind of candle could not appropriate for an opera theatre; since be used in chandeliers, instead of wax, they are almost white in colour, they darken without any inconvenience. It would do the whole scenery of the theatre, even if nothing but save money (one has to try it). the lights are doubled, they always clash. N.B. There is a person who offers to supply My feeling on this would be to get rid of said candles at the same price per pound the said machines and put the old wings than the ordinary candles that are sold here. back in place as before, and in case the two (It is necessary to try a few beforehand.) wings no longer exist, two new ones can be made quickly. [§14] Here, Sir, as concisely as I could, is what concerns opera. I took the liberty of [§13] Last year, we had a quantity of smoke indicating the inconveniences as well as the produced by the lamps, which, besides means to put them in order. There will be creating a sort of cloud in the theatre that after this something more to say on the bothered, according to the winds, even the scenery, but I will not be able to speak with spectators, also furiously blackened the certainty before I have talked to the stage costumes, sceneries, etc. designer. I will give the secret to prevent lamps I have the honour to be, with the deepest from creating smoke and the way to make submission. suitable tallow candles36 that will light as wax candles,37 and that will not cost more [Giuseppe Sarti] than the ordinary, because the ones that can be bought in the country are not worth A Recipe to Make Opera: Critical Commentary on anything. Sarti’s Letter The letter is conceived and written as a To prevent tallow lamps from smoking. recipe for professional opera productions, First one must put wicks soaked in wax in which makes it a very special document not the lamps and then as much good tallow at to be found anywhere else to our knowledge. discretion. Wicks must be in cotton thread Manoeuvring between practical, economical, and the wax must not reach the upper and aesthetic considerations, Sarti tries part that should be rubbed with a drop of to explain to, and cajole the managers of turpentine oil so that they light easily. Then the opera, in order to successfully adapt you will stick a little iron nail in each wick. Italian opera to the Danish stage. At the The nail’s head must be smaller than the very beginning of the letter [§1], he lists wick, so that the latter will stand higher. what is required for the staging of opera.38 Unsurprisingly, he begins with the libretto,
36 Original: chandelles. 38 The numbers given in this critical commentary re- 37 Original: bougies. fer to the paragraphs in the letter. 122 Christine Jeanneret but it is worth noting that the section about excellent musicians, the former two lacked the libretto is immediately followed by one on experience and technique. Between the lines, its translation, indispensible in the context of we can read that the result was not quite producing an opera for a foreign audience, as satisfying. In fact for the next season – and we shall see further on. He starts by addressing as a direct consequence of Sarti’s request in the practical problems that are easier to the letter – he was lucky enough to hire the solve than the more complex questions of whole orchestra of the late Frederik Carl translation, adaptations, costumes, machines, von Carlstein, duke of Schleswig-Holstein- and lights. Sonderburg-Plön, who died without heirs. The duke had a small orchestra of twelve Practical Problems: Rehearsal, Orchestra, Supernume- highly skilled musicians, who reinforced Sarti’s raries, and Prompter orchestra and brought professionalism and [§2] The rehearsals had to be held in Sarti’s instrumental technique along with them.42 house for lack of a proper place to do it.39 Sarti also encountered problems with Moreover, his request for appropriate lights supernumeraries and the prompter. [§6] implies that they were scarce or absent. Never complaining, but instead suggesting As we have seen, the Italian musicians in improvements, Sarti proposed hiring soldiers Copenhagen lived all together in Sarti’s house. as supernumeraries, because they “are used This was a common practice for diasporas of to obey and stand in order.” Moreover, they musicians. The traveling troupes were often also needed to be good-looking and of similar made of parents, family, married couples, and heights. We can infer that the supernumeraries clans.40 When they settled down for a longer for the previous season were casually chosen, period, they lived together, especially in the behaved badly on stage and were ugly. [§7] The case of Catholics in Protestant countries. The otherwise unknown prompter of the Danish family ties created protection, favoured the theatre, Jens Wintmølle (1728-1801) had a development of musical skills, and allowed weak voice; he could not be heard and he also the musicians, especially women – often happened to be the translator of librettos. In exposed to moral and religious prejudices – large cities with a long tradition of staging to maintain their respectability. Italian opera, specialisation was promoted The second issue concerns music and the and musicians or other staff members were orchestra and also deals with inexperience. highly skilled.43 In smaller cities, or courts [§4] Nobody was there to tune the harpsichord without experience, versatility became a during the first season and Sarti required an necessary virtue. Sarti himself, in addition extra staff member to this effect. [§5] Until to being composer, chapel master, and 1761, the orchestra for the opera was made music director, was also responsible for the by bringing together the town’s musicians costumes, machines, sceneries, and lighting. (stadsmusikanter), military wind players – to These activities were delegated to different whom Sarti refers when mentioning the appointees in other courts.44 Wintmølle was navy, – and the king’s private ensemble, called another example of a versatile staff member, the court’s violins.41 The latter was made of assuming two very different types of tasks as
39 Thrane mentions that Sarti had a spacious house in 42 Among the musicians was Duke Frederik Carl’s Store Kongensgade, where he could host his sing- koncertmester, Johann Ernst Hartmann (1726-1793), ers in 1771, Thrane 1908, 131. It might not have whose descendants would play an important role in been the same address in 1762 but it must have Copenhagen musical life. been large enough to host singers and rehearsals, as 43 Strohm 2001, 32-33. was the practice. 44 Larger courts like the Palatine court in Mannheim 40 Strohm 2001, 26-32. or the electorate court in Bonn had several music 41 Bergsagel 2016, 629 and 635; Koudal 2000. directors, Strohm 2001, 32-33. Making Opera in Migration 123 both prompter and translator. However, he as we will see – did read, and in some did not seem to have been skilled in either of cases, also speak French, along with Danish them, as we shall see further with regard to and German. As we have seen, Sarti was the translations. confronted with an audience that perceived [§3] Sarti was well aware of the need to Italian opera as excessively theatrical and specifically tailor his productions for his Danish unnatural, dangerously sensual, and based on audience. His contract stipulated that he was absurd plots. He addressed the criticism by in charge of composing three new operas on focusing on the content of the libretto and its Metastasio’s librettos for each season and that translation.47 In his letter he made an edifying he had to provide the music copies of several comment about the Danish translations of comic operas “played and applauded in all his librettos. He defended the morality of Italy […] composed by the most appreciated opera against its detractors by affirming that and renowned chapel masters”.45 Discussing its “spiritual part” (the translated libretto) had the comic operas, he affirmed in his letter to be carefully taken into account. He was that he adapted some of them “to the taste fighting a losing battle, however, as he himself of the country”.46 Even if he did not further could not speak Danish and therefore had specify in this passage how he realised this absolutely no control over the translation. The cultural adaptation, it is clear from the rest operas were performed in Italian but a bilingual of the text that he mostly focused on two libretto was published so that the audience areas: the translation of the librettos and the could follow the plot, either by reading it visual aspects. [§8] Many of the issues that had beforehand or by bringing it with them to the contributed to the fiasco of 1761-62 could be theatre. Translation became an imperative of easily resolved according to Sarti; they were just the Enlightenment and was rooted in ideals the practical failures discussed above and were of cosmopolitan and universalist interests.48 due to inexperience. However, four matters Neo-Latin lost its status as lingua franca and “require the eye of the master” and they are was only partially substituted by French. The “the translation, the costumes, the sets and European vernacular languages became the machines, the lights.” As we shall see, these vehicles for the transmission of text and ideas. features were fundamental in a context where As a result, the quantity of translations grew in the audience did not understand the Italian an unprecedented manner.49 In Denmark, as language and had almost no prior exposure to elsewhere in Europe, the national cultures that the operatic genre. emerged towards the end of the eighteenth century were also challenged by means of “Traduttore, traditore” translations. Especially theatre, “moving [§9] Not surprisingly Sarti wrote his letter is from a nomad to a city-based existence and in French, the cosmopolitan language of the taking on “national” aspirations was a great Enlightenment. He himself did not speak consumer of translations.”50 Translation Danish and his interlocutors both at the court enabled the crossing of national and linguistic and in the theatre – with some exceptions, boundaries. However, it is a messy business:
45 RA Contrat, 2 §4: “jouées et applaudies dans toute dk/1850t/tnr4570.htm>. l’Italie […] composée [sic] par des maîtres de cha- 47 For a more detailed study of Danish translations of pelles les plus goûtés et les plus renommés.” Italian librettos and cultural transfer, see Jeanneret a 46 The librettos were printed in a bilingual edition and (forthcoming). most of them are preserved in the Royal Library; 48 Stockhorst 2010, 7-14. most of the manuscript scores have disappeared. 49 Oz-Salzberger 2006, 387-388. For a full list of the Italian productions, see Jensen, 50 Oz-Salzberger 2006, 387. Dansk Forfatterleksikon:
51 Burke & Hsia 2007, 10. 54 For a detailed study of Sarti and costumes, see 52 For examples of English translations, see Degott Jeanneret b (forthcoming). 2010. 55 Doumergue & Verdier 2014; Huthwohl 2011. 53 Oz-Salzberger 2006, 389. Making Opera in Migration 125 giving immediate visual clues to the characters. scenographer, Danish painter Peter Cramer, First, they set the character in a temporal and because they did not have a common language. geographical frame (costume à l’antique, costume Sarti was fluent in Italian and French and à la barbare, costume héroïque). Second, they gave Cramer in Danish and German. This anecdote indications of gender and rank (including not only shows the practical and everyday games of cross-dressing). Third, they signalled problems in collaborating, but it also indicates the character’s temperament or emotional state, the limits of cosmopolitanism and the myth as emblematic or psychological signifiers. And of French as a universal language. The idea finally they were central to operatic splendour that European educated citizens all mastered and must therefore show both magnificence the French language has been reviewed in and good taste, while creating a beautiful favour of a more nuanced view, with very match with contrasting colours on stage. In different French linguistic skills, ranging from Sarti’s days, costumes were a compromise perfect to nothing.57 Most educated citizens between magnificence, contemporary fashion were able to read French, but not to speak and some kind of realism. Sarti not only it. Regarding the sets, Sarti was confronted evoked the aesthetic function of costumes, with a typical Danish climatic problem. In but as a practical man of theatre he also took the winter, colours had to be dried with fire, into account their preservation and their which was expensive and ruined the effect and arrangement so that the singers had time to the brilliance of the colours. He advocated change them between the acts. He suggests that they be painted as early as possible in the that costumes were usually ordered from season, when days are long and the weather Nuremberg, possibly due to its status as a dries the colours naturally. Surely, he had not major trade link between the north of Europe experienced this problem in his own country. and Italy (and through Venice, the Ottoman [§12] Sarti devoted the last section to lighting. empire). Nuremberg had a flourishing glass This was absolutely necessary since, the year industry that could supply fake pearls, jewels, before, the lights filled the theater with smoke, and little mirrors that adorned theatrical choking the audience, and blackening the costumes to make them more visible in the costumes and sets. Sarti first indicated a clever candlelight (what Sarti called le clinquant). arrangement and use of candles to create a Navigating again between aesthetic and natural lighting by combining the light sources economical considerations, Sarti next tried to from both the front of the stage and the wings. sell his entire wardrobe to the directors. He [§13] He then gave detailed instructions for eventually succeeded in convincing them to lay making tallow lamps, undoubtedly in order to out the astronomical sum of 2000 rigsdaler a avoid heavy clouds of smoke, giving here a few months later, as we learn from the archival fascinating recipe for performers interested in receipts of the Danish Theatre.56 historical stagings with candlelights. [§14] Sarti concludes his letter on an Sets, Machines, and Lights, Or How to Get into a optimistic note, affirming that he not only Big Mess presented the difficulties he encountered but [§11] Concerning the sets and machines, also provided the solutions to remedy them. Sarti was confronted with two very different In fact, the next opera seasons seemed to have problems, both enlightening in the perspective functioned much better, thanks to Sarti’s plan of cultural transfer and adaptation. First, for professional productions of Italian opera. he had a lot of trouble working with the However, the Italian performances were
56 RA 220, Note from Iver Als, intendant of the theatre. 57 Markovits 2014, 100-105. 126 Christine Jeanneret short-lived in Copenhagen. They clashed Copenhagen until 1840. with an audience that considered singing – Amid conflict between cosmopolitanism specifically recitative – instead of talking to and Danish self-fashioning, Sarti’s letter be un-Danish, thereby acquiring the force offers rare and exceptional testimony of of a political and nationalistic argument, the challenges faced by Italian troupes in formulated as anti-German. In addition to migration. By definition, conventions are being considered too extravagant, absurd taken for granted and are never put down in and exotic, Italian opera was associated with writing. In this case, Sarti penned a careful the court and championed by the German and thorough list of all the aspects of opera elite. The French opéra comique with spoken production, thereby giving us a privileged dialogues or the Danish syngespil became a insight behind the wings of opera productions more acceptable form, better suited to the outside Italy, valid not only for Copenhagen, Danes than Italian opera. It was also easier to but for the exportation of a genre defined by adapt, translate, and nationalise in Denmark. his italianità, clashing with local cultures. Clearly, the rejection of opera’s unnaturalness and absurdity was not an exclusively Danish phenomenon, in the age of opera reforms. Christine Jeanneret However, the rejection of Metastasio resulted HM Queen Margrethe II’s Distinguished in operatic reforms elsewhere, whereas Fellow (Carlsberg Foundation) in Denmark, it seems to have become an Museum of National History alternative between opera or opéra comique (or (Frederiksborg Castle) no opera at all). In fact, after Sarti’s departure Centre de Recherche (Château de in 1775, there would be no Italian troupe in Versailles)
ABBREVIATIONS
RA Breve 220: Rigsarkivet København, Det Kongelige Teater og Kapel, 1752-1756, Breve resolutioner og lignende, letter from Giuseppe Sarti to the opera management, 1762. RA Contrat 220: Rigsarkivet København, Det Kongelige Teater og Kapel, 1752-1756, Breve resolutioner og lignende, contract Joseph Sarti 1762.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Bergsagel, J. Hammerich, A. 2016 “Music in Scandinavia in the Eighteenth Century”. In: 1921 Dansk Musikhistorie indtil ca. 1700, Copenhagen. Kour, E. I. & Olesen, J. E. (eds.), The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, vol. 2: 1520-1870, Heartz, D. & Bauman, T. Cambridge, 628-37. 1990 Mozart’s Operas, Berkeley.
Biehl, C. D. Herr, C. et al. 1999 Mit ubetydelige Levnets Løb, Copenhagen. 2008 Italian Opera in Central Europe. Vol. 2: Italianità: Image and Practice in Central European Opera in the Brover-Lubovsky, B. et al. 17th and 18th Centuries, Berlin. 2017 “Giuseppe Sarti”. In: Dizionario biografico degli Italiani, vol. 90, Rome
Doumergue, D. & Verdier, A. (eds.) Jensen, N. 2014 Le costume de scène: Objet de recherche, Cirey-lès- Dansk Forfatterleksikon
Dubowy, N. et al. (eds.) Körner, A. et al. (eds.) 2007 Italian Opera in Central Europe, 1614-1780. Vol. 3: Re-imagining Italianità
Koudal, J. H. Romagnoli, A. 2000 For Borgere og Bønder: Stadsmusikantvæsenet i 2006 “From the Habsburgs to the Hanswursts, to the Danmark 1660–1800, Copenhagen. Advent of Count Sporck: The Slow Progress of Italian Opera on the Bohemian Scene”. In: Langen, U. Bucciarelli, M. et al. (eds.), Italian Opera in Central 2008 Den Afmægtige: En biografi om Christian, 7 Europe. Vol. 1: Institutions and Ceremonies, Berlin, Copenhagen. 67-97.
Lindgren, L. Sarti, G. 1991 “Musicans and Librettists in the Correspon- 1756 Ciro riconosciuto, opera in musica, Copenhagen. dence of Gio. Giacomo Zamboni”, Royal Musi- cal Association Research Chronicle 24, 1-194. Schlegel, J. E. 1764 “Gedanken zur Aufnahme des dänischen Lindgren, L. Theaters”. In: Werke, dritter Theil, Copenhagen 1995 “Critiques of Opera in London, 1705-1719.” & Leipzig, 259-298. In: Colzani, A. (ed.), Il melodramma italiano in Italia e in Germania nell’età barocca. Atti del 5. Schepelern, G. Convegno internazionale sulla musica italiana nel 1976 Italienerne paa Hofteatret, Copenhagen. secolo 17 (Contributi musicologici del Centro ricerche dell’A.M.I.S, 9) 145-65, Como. Schepelern, G. 1995 Operaens historie i Danmark 1634-1975, Markovits, R. Copenhagen. 2014 Civiliser l’Europe: Politiques du théâtre français au XVIIIe siècle, Paris. Stockhorst, S. (ed.) 2010 Cultural Transfer Through Translation: The Müller von Azow, E. H. Circulation of Enlightened Thought in Europe by 1917 Angelo und Pietro Mingotti, Dresden. Means of Translation, Amsterdam & New York.
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APPENDIX: transcription of the original letter in French
Monsieur, [§1] Vous avez eu la bonté de m’ordonner de mettre par écrit mes sentimens à l’égard de l’opéra. J’ai l’honneur de vous obeïr, Monsieur, et pour le faire au mieux que ma capacité le pourra, et ne rien oublier, vous me permettrez, Monsieur, de dire quelque chose sur toutes les parties qui concernent le dit spectacle.
Pour faire un opéra il faut Poëme Traduction Musique Acteurs Orchestre Habits Décorations et machines Illumination Statistes Souffleur et chœur Les balets [sic] n’etant pas de mon inspection je n’en parle point.
Les acteurs sont déjà au service de la direction.
Pour la musique, Messieurs les Directeurs veulent bien avoir la bonté de s’en tenir à ma petite capacité, cepandant s’ils voudront bien avoir la complaisance d’entendre quelque fois les répetitions que l’on fera, je leur en aurai [sic] beaucoup d’obligations s’ils voudront bien me dire leur [sic] sentiments sur mes productions. Ils m’apprendront et m’encourageront beaucoup s’ils les trouveront bonnes.
[§2] Les répetitions doivent se faire où la direction l’ordonne : pour [sic] le passé, on a trouvé bon qu’on les fassent [sic] chez moi. Il dépendra d’elle d’ordonner là dessus. Pour le tems de les faire, c’est le chef de la musique qui en décide selon le besoin. La direction a la bonté d’envoyer les lumières nécessaires.
[§3] Pour la musiques [sic] des petites pièces, je fais venir d’Italie, aux dépens de la direction les nouveaux opéras comiques que l’on fait tous les ans à Venise, musique et livres. J’en réduis quelqu’un [sic] ici, autant que je puis au goût du pays, et j’en fais réduire quelques autres à quelque poëte en Italie, que la Direction a la bonté de payer, car le tems n’est pas assez long pour que tout seul je puisse tout faire.
[§4] Il faut engager un accordateur [sic] de clavecin à un tant par mois depuis septembre jusque à la fin de l’opéra pour accorder tous les clavecins de la troupe.
[§5] Pour l’orchestre, c’est moi qui l’a formée [sic] l’année passée, et quoique plusieurs des 130 Christine Jeanneret musiciens que j’avois se sont engagés sur la flotte, néanmoins, si la direction m’ordonne de le former encore cette année, je ferai de mon mieux pour l’obeïr, mais il faut que l’on me donne un plein pouvoir par écrit, comme Mons[ieu]r le conseiller Fedder a fait l’année passée, car il faut que je fasse un contract [sic] avec chacun des musiciens (en cas que la direction ne trouve pas mieux de la former elle-même, et de faire elle-même le contrat avec eux). Je donnerai une note de l’orchestre que nous avons eu l’annnée passée.
[§6] Pour les statistes, le meilleur parti c’est de prendre des soldats. Lorsque j’étois entreprenneur [sic], je m’en suis servi. Je leur donnois cinq sols par fois, soit pour opéra, ou pour répetitions, et je m’en suis fort bien trouvé. Il est vrai que aujourdui [sic] l’on ne trouve pas dans la ville autant de Fraymann que l’on trouvoit dans ce tems-là, mais la direction pourroit demander le nombre de soldats qu’il faut pour un opéra aux capitaines, ou autres etc. Tâcher de choisir des gens de bonne figure et d’égale grandeur autant qu’il est possible, au moins par pair. Je crois même que ces Norvégiens d’à présent sont de bonnes gens et qu’on pourroit en tirer bon parti. Aux [sic] moins les soldats sont accoutumés à obeïr et a se tenir en ordre et le capitaine en répond.
[§7] Le souffleur que nous avons eu l’année passée, c’est Mons[sieu]r Wintmüller, il seroit à souhaiter qu’il eut une meilleur [sic] voix et plus d’art pour cela. C’est lui qui a traduit les poèmes, dont je dirai quelque chose.
[§8] Des articles dont j’ai parlé, ce sont des choses, une fois faites, il n’y a plus à y penser, pour ainsi dire. Les quattre [sic] suivans ont besoin de l’œil du maître. Ce sont La traduction Les habits Les décorations et machines L’illumination.
[§9] Traduction. Comme on ne sauroit pas trop perfectionner un spectacle public il faut avoir beaucoup d’égard à la partie spirituele [sic] qui s’y trouve, c’est le poëme, ici la traduction. C’est pourquoi je suplie [sic] instamment la direction de ne pas permettre que l’on imprime rien sans avoir elle-même bien lu la pièce et examiné s’il n’y a rien de choquant et si cela se peut montrer au publique [sic] éclairé.
[§10] Les habits doivent être selon le caractère du personnage et doivent aller bien avec goût à la personne qui doit les porter. Le s[ieu]r Mazzioli est le tailleur qui est au service de la direction. Il faut y avoir l’œil pour qu’il fasse exactement ce qu’on lui ordonne et qu’il ne double pas la dépense à la direction par des choses innutiles [sic] à l’effet, et au bon goût théâtral. Des gros traits dans le dessein [sic] faits avec goût font un effet admirable sur le théâtre et les masses de petites minuties, outre qu’ils doublent le travail (et par conséquent la dépense) ne font que confusion, et rendent les habits insuportables [sic] aux acteurs par leur pesanteur, ce qui peut les incommoder beaucoup et les empêcher de faire leur devoir. (Il faut avoir égard que ce sont des acteurs chantants). Ce qui contribue encore beaucoup au bon effet, c’est l’assortissement [sic] des couleurs ; c’est pourquoi il faut bien lui recomander [sic] de faire à la lettre ce que nous lui dirons. La direction peut etre assurée que nous ne lui ordonnerons pas des choses qui soiyent [sic] trop coûteuses, ni moins magnifiques de ce qu’elle paroit désirer. Making Opera in Migration 131
Il me parroit [sic] que la direction n’a pas envie d’achetter [sic] notre garderobe, comme je lui avois proposé et qu’elle est d’avis de se servir autant que l’on peut des habits faits de l’année passée. Sur cela donc il faudra néccessairement [sic] faire six nouveaux habits :
Dans l’opéra Semiramis Un pour Semiramis en homme à l’héroïque Un pour Ircano à la barbare
Dans l’opéra Didon Un pour Didon en femme d’une couleur brune Un pour Iarba en prince neigre [sic]
Dans l’opéra Narcisse Un pour Narcisse (il faut que ce soit un habit de goût) Un pour Tirreno en grand prêtre.
Le reste pourra servir, cependant il faudra faire quelque changements aux deux habits héroïques de M[onsieu]r Scogli, soit en façon, et soit en rapports. Si la direction le permet, nous donnerons pour cela une instruction en détail au dit Mazzioli sur tout ce qu’il y aura à faire en lui marquant même tels et tels habits pour tel et tel opéra et personnage. Nous avons une personne pour cela qui a beaucoup de goût et qui s’y entend beaucoup : c’est le frère des demoiselles Galeotti. Il seroit à souhaiter que la direction s’attachat cet homme-là pour faire bien des choses que Mazzioli ne fait pas, ce sont les casquets [sic], bonnets, boudrieres [sic = poudrières] etc. ; et autres petites choses que doit [sic] porter les acteurs. Il a eu la complaisance l’année passée de les faire sans aucunes [sic] récompense.
Ce n’est pas tout quand on a tant fait que de faire la dépense que coûtent de telles choses. Il faut les conserver : il faut y mettre un ordre. À mesure que le tailleur fait les habits, il les envoie à la garderobe. Il faut qu’il y ayet [sic] un homme de cœur et entendu à la tête de la garderobe de l’opéra (ce qui appartient à l’opéra et petites pièces) qui la tienne en ordre. De mon tems M[onsieu] r Galeotti avoit soin de tout cela : tout étoit preparé à tems dans des caisses où il n’y avoit que ce qu’il falloit pour l’opéra que l’on devoit jouer. Quelque fois 40 personne [sic] s’habilloient à la fois sans aucunes [sic] confusion. Et lorsque on se désabilloit [sic] (point principal) les habits étoient placés à mesure très proprement et avec ordre dans les dites caisses. (Ensuite nos habits qui ont servi trois ans sont comme neufs et les vôtres qui n’ont servi qu’un an sont déjà vieux.) Je crois que le dit Galeotti pourroit fort bien y réussir encore, si la direction vouloit lui en ordonner cette commission.
Je dois encore représenter que outre les six nouveaux habits sérieux, marqués ci-dessus, qu’il faut nécessairement faire, il faut encore y en ajouter un septième pour Mlle Galeotti la cadette ; la raison en est, que les deux habits sérieux que l’on a fait pour elle l’année passée sont : un rouge, magnifique, pour Nitteti et un bleu foncé pour Erissena dans l’opéraAlexandre . Le rouge pourroit lui servir pour Tamiri dans l’opéra Semiramis : mais le bleu ne pourra pas aller pour Selene dans l’opéra Didon. Car l’aînée, qui est Didon, doit avoir un habit justement d’une couleur approchante, étant ainsi son caractère, et il n’est pas convenable que les deus [sic] femmes dans le même opéra soient habillées presque de la même couleur. Il faut que Selene ayet [sic] un habit gay. Si l’on prennoit l’oposit [sic], en donnant l’habit bleu à Tamiri ; cet habit-là seroit trop 132 Christine Jeanneret pauvre pour le faire porter à la princesse et reine des Bactrianiens, le jour même de ses noces, qu’elle se montre à une multitude de princes étrangers pour en choisir un époux. Si l’on vouloit absolument épargner en ne pensant qu’à cette année ici ; l’on pourroit faire changer de face à l’habit jaune qu’a eu l’aînée l’année passée dans L’Alexandre en l’accommodant pour la cadette : il s’agit de savoir s’il vaut la peine de gâter un habit qui a été fait pour la grande, et qu’elle pourroit porter une autre année. Il dépend de la direction de décider là-dessus. N.B. si vous faite [sic] l’emplette de notre garderobe il n’y a pas besoin d’autres embaras [sic], car il y a entre autre [sic] un habit magnifique qui seroit justement a propos pour amiri.T Il me reste à dire que voulant faire de nouveaux habits, il faut voir au plus tôt ce que vous avez de clincan [sic], car la saison est même trop avancée pour en faire venir à tems de Nüremberg. N.B. à Nüremberg même souvent il n’y en a pas de fait, et qu’il faut donner le tems de le faire à mesure qu’on l’ordonne : Pour les nouvelles petites pièces, il faudra presque tout faire de nouveau. Notre garderobe est bien fournie la dessus ; et les habits sont comme neufs.
[§11] Pour décorations et machines, il faut avoir un peintre qui ayet [sic] du génie, pour faire les inventions, les desseins [sic] et donner les dimensions des choses néccessaires [sic] et avoir l’œil et diriger les peintres qui travaillent ; celui-là je l’appelle le décorateur. Ensuit [sic] il faut avoir un ou deux peintres pour exécuter; ce sont des peintres que l’on payent [sic] à la journée. Si j’étois le maître, je n’en prendrais qu’un ; je l’engagerois pour tout le tems. Je commencerois dabor [sic] et le ferois travailler à tout ce qu’il y a à peindre sur le théâtre. Le décorateur pourroit lui-même fournir le dit peintre. Il faut avoir encore des menuisiers, aussi que l’on payet [sic] à la journée. Le décorateur de l’année passée a été Crammer ; on lui avoit accordé cent écus pour sa peine, mais soit que par sa négligence on se réduisoit trop à la fin, ou par manquement des peintres qui exécutoient, il étoit obligé souvent de travailler lui-même et il se faisoit payer à part son ouvrage, ce qui a un peu choqué la direction et comme c’étoit moi qui l’avoit proposé, j’en ai été mortifié. C’est pourquoi je souhaiterois que la direction elle-même choisit ce décorateur, mais il est néccessaire [sic] qu’il parle une langue que j’entends pour pouvoir convenir ensemble de ce qu’il faut faire, sans cela nous serions bien embrouillés. Ce que je prie instamment la direction, c’est de choisir le plus promptement qu’il est possible ce décorateur : au plus tôt que l’on commence a travailler c’est le double de gagné en toutes choses. Les journées sont longues : le tems fait sécher les couleurs ; ce qu’en hiver est d’un grand embarras et qu’il faut faire a force de feu, avec plus de dépense et moins d’effet. Dès que le décorateur sera décidé, il faut d’abord que j’aye une grande conversation avec lui : il faut tâcher de faire les choses au mieux et pour faire honneur à la direction, mais avec le plus d’épargne. Il faut aussi un ordre à cela qui est d’avoir une personne qui veille, si les dites gens travaillent, ce qu’ils font etc. et qu’il ayet [sic] soins [sic] de tenir compte de plusieurs petites machines que l’on se sert sur le théâtre et de les distribuer à tems et avoir attention à une infinité de choses que le détail en seroit à present trop long. C’est ce qu’on appelle inspecteur. Il faut lui donner de bonnes instructions et bien lui en recomander l’exactitude.
[§12] Pour l’illumination. Les lampes qui sont en bas, au devant du théâtre, au dessus de l’orchestre, quoique ce sont celle [sic] dont on tire le plus de clarté au théâtre ; cela n’est pourtant pas assez pour imiter la nature, c’est pourquoi tous les théâtres abbondent [sic] beaucoup de lumières dans les flancs ; ce sont deux espèces de coulisses stables qui sont aux deux côtés du théâtre, les deux plus près au parterre : celle[s]-là ne remuent jamais, et on les garnient [sic] en dedans de beaucoup Making Opera in Migration 133 de chandelles ou autres etc., depuis le haut, jusque en bas. Elles donnent une clarté admirable et fournissent la lumière où les dites lampes ne peuvent pas atteindre. Sur notre théâtre, il y avoit auparavant ces dites coulisses, mais on les a ôtés [sic] pour les pantomimes, pour y substituter deux machines contenant chacune une porte et deux balcons. Cela fait un très mauvais effet ; outre qu’elles sont au plus ignoble [sic] et pas convenables à un théâtre d’opéra. Comme elles sont d’une couleur presque blanche, elles obscurcissent toute la décoration du théâtre et l’on a beau doubler les lumières, cela jure toujours. Mon sentiment la dessus seroit d’ôter les dites machines et de remettre à la place le [sic] deux vieilles coulisses, comme auparavant et en cas que ces deux coulisses n’existent plus, on en a bien tôt fait deux autres de neufs [sic].
[§13] L’année passée nous avons eu quantité de fumée produite par les lampes, qui outre d’avoir formé comme un nuage dans le théâtre qui incommodoit, selon les vents, mêmes les spectateurs, elle noircissoit furieusement les habits, les décorations etc. Je donnerai le secret d’empêcher aux lampes de faire de la fumée et la manière de faire les chandelles convenables qui éclaireront comme des bougies et qui ne coûteront pas d’avvantage [sic] que l’ordinaires [sic], car celle [sic] que l’on achette [sic] dans le pays ne valent rient [sic].
Pour empêcher que lampes à suif ne fument point. Premièrement il faut mettre dans les lampes des mèches imbibés de cire, puis du bon suif à discrétion. Les mèches doivent être de fil de coton et la cire ne doit point monter jusqu’au bout supérieur que vous frotterez d’une goutte de huile de térébentine [sic] affin [sic] qu’elles s’allument aisément. Puis vous picquerez dans chaque mèche un petit clou de fer, dont la tête moins grosse que la mèche l’excédera par le haut.
Pour faire des chandelles durables qui éclaireront comme de la cire, et que l’on ne sera pas obligé de moucher à tous moments. Trempez la mèche dans de l’esprit de vin, puis dans de la cire. Quand le suif est fondu, gettez - y de l’allun [sic] en poudre passé au tamis. N.B. Je crois que ces sortes de chandelles pourroient s’employer dans les lustres, au lieu de cire sans aucun inconvénient. Cela ne laisseroit pas que d’être un [sic] épargne. (Il faut en faire l’expérience.) N. B. Il y a une personne qui s’offre à fournir les dites chandelles au même prix à la livre que les chandelles ordinaires se vende [sic] ici. (Il faut en avoir quelques épreuves auparavant.)
[§14] Voilà, Monsieur en abrégé autant que j’ai pu, ce qui concerne l’opéra. J’ai pris la liberté de marquer les inconvénients et les moyens d’y mettre ordre. Il aura après cela quelques choses encore à dire sur la décoration, mais avant que d’avoir parlé au décorateur, je ne serai pas en état de parler sûrement. J’ai l’honneur d’être avec la plus proffonde [sic] soummission.
[Giuseppe Sarti]