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towards her neighboring countries had been already playing a crucial role prior to the Iraq War in 2003. 2003. in War Iraq the to prior role crucial a playing already been had countries neighboring her towards

issue was newly brought on the agenda – in fact water supply as a determinant factor in Iran’s policy policy Iran’s in factor determinant a as supply water fact in – agenda the on brought newly was issue

like Karkha, Karun and Cherahi, remain entirely unused”. entirely remain Cherahi, and Karun Karkha, like Hereby one is mistaken to assume that this this that assume to mistaken is one Hereby

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amounting up to 20 billion cubic meter, which flow into the Persian gulf from the streams in the south south the in streams the from gulf Persian the into flow which meter, cubic billion 20 to up amounting

billion cubic meter fresh water, which enter Turkey and Iraq from Iran, plus adjacent water resources resources water adjacent plus Iran, from Iraq and Turkey enter which water, fresh meter cubic billion

Consultative Assembly, addressed water issues in Iran he appealed to Iranian officials as follows: “12 “12 follows: as officials Iranian to appealed he Iran in issues water addressed Assembly, Consultative

When Mashallah Hosseini, the former Head of the Commission for Agriculture convened by the Islamic Islamic the by convened Agriculture for Commission the of Head former the Hosseini, Mashallah When

Abstract

WATER SUPPLY HERALDİNG A NEW CRİSİS? NEW A HERALDİNG SUPPLY WATER

RELATIONS: ARE CONFLICTING INTERESTS ON ON INTERESTS CONFLICTING ARE RELATIONS:

OMINOUS TOKENS IN STRAINED IRAN-IRAQ IRAN-IRAQ STRAINED IN TOKENS OMINOUS

ORSAM Middle East Research Assistant Research East Middle ORSAM

İnceleme >

David LEUPOLD LEUPOLD David

The purpose of meeting Iran’s energy demand by building several dams on Karun River may have an harmful effect on the agricultural sector of Iraq. of sector agricultural the on effect harmful an have may River Karun on dams several building by demand energy Iran’s meeting of purpose The

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> 68 > 68 > 69

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As the rivers like the Karun River in the west of Iran are mostly of trans- boundary nature, so does the water issue emerge as a challenge with massive impact not only on a domestic but also on a trans-national level across its borders.

Introduction struggle on fossil fuels, in particular crude oil, or sectarian-ethnic clashes until now we may wit- In face of serious bottlenecks both In Iran and ness a fundamental change of the overall condi- Iraq, coinciding with an axis shift in Iraq’s do- tions as the parameter water may influence the mestic policy on behalf of Shi’i groups, serious dynamics of the considered countries, first on a concerns have been raised recently on regard to domestic scale, yet later on with an international the question whether this silent crisis is likely to impact. In face of this potential threat, the prep- reach the verge of escalation in the next future. aration and implementation of farsighted, well- balanced water policies under consideration of For this reason, in the first part of my article I latest scientific results and technological devel- will determine and briefly discuss various do- opments are of utter importance to avert the fate mestic factors which already have or will emerge of the “ever war-ridden” Middle East. as challenges for Iran’s water policy. In the sec- ond part, I will focus on the significance of a In view of currently conflicting interests on wa- well-balanced water policy of all actors in the ter supply, illustrated by the example of Iran and Middle East with hindsight on the Shatt al-Arab Iraq in this article, I will try to emphasize the issue, delineating the historical events which need for increased collaboration and better co- ultimately led to the Iran-Iraq war in geostrate- ordination in this field to benefit from synergy ef- gic terms. In conclusion, I will critically reflect fects instead of reckless competition which may about the impact of Iran’s water policy on her deal serious damage to both sides, involved in neighboring country Iraq in an attempt to strike the struggle for covering its own steadily rising, a link between the recent tension in the Iran- domestic water demand. The Shatt-al Arab cri- Iraq relations and the national interests of both sis, which contributed significantly to the dete- countries on this particular issue. rioration in the Iran-Iraq relations and entailed a resource-engulfing and relentless Iran-Iraq war An Outline of the Middle East water issue and throughout the 80s, may serve as a warning ex- the Detrimental Impact of Domestic Upheav- ample as it sheds light on the destructiveness of als policies based on the idea of preserving national interests irreconcilably regardless of the national When we look back into history we see that interests of neighboring countries. scarcity of water resources has always been a crucial problem in the Middle East. However, in In fact both Iran and Iraq are countries inter- face of a rapidly growing population throughout nally weakened due to domestic issues which the region, this issue is likely to emerge as one of became obvious most recently in the aftermath the greatest threats to regional security and may of general elections. In the case of Iraq we face a considerably hamper the peace process. country which is going through a critical period of re-orientation and upheavals after the disin- In a region which has been dominated by a tegration of the Baath regime in 2003. As a mat-

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- Me of supporters and forces security ernmental and the World, 2009) worked out by Dr. Sadighe Sadighe Dr. by out worked 2009) World, the and

- gov between clashes violent of months entailed (Water Crisis in Iran Iran in Crisis (Water Iran wa Chihan dar Ab e

However, in Iran controversial election results results election controversial Iran in However, Buhran-e Waziyet- Buhran-e paper study the to According

jor Challenge jor

now fragmented along a sectarian-ethnic axis. sectarian-ethnic a along fragmented now

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- Ma and Interest Vital a Iran: in Supply Water Iraq’s estranged political groups, which are until until are which groups, political estranged Iraq’s

cause and to assert itself as the spearhead of of spearhead the as itself assert to and cause

(Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran). Iran). Islamic of Builders of (Alliance ous political interests for the sake of a common common a of sake the for interests political ous

Eslami Iran-e Abadgaran-e Etelaf-e madinejad’s - incongru reconcile to likely is Coalition) Law of

- Ah of favor in forged was election the of result (Rule (Rule al-Qanun Dawlat Itilaf Shi’i-oriented liki’s

candidates in the election who asserted that the the that asserted who election the in candidates - Al-Ma Nouri Minister Prime current nor ment)

(The Green Way of Hope), both both Hope), of Way Green (The Sabz-e Omid Sabz-e - Move National (Iraqi al-Iraqiyya al-Wataniya

4

Rah-e Rah-e Mousavi’s Mir-Hossein and Party) Trust al-Haraka al-Haraka oriented nationally (Arab) Allawi’s

ter of fact, neither former Prime Minister Ayad Ayad Minister Prime former neither fact, of ter (National (National Hezb-e Etemad-e Melli Etemad-e Hezb-e Karroubi’s hdi

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the benefit of both Iran and Iraq. and Iran both of benefit the

Mutual awareness for water demand, has to be increased on both sides to pave the way for a sustainable and fruitful cooperation for for cooperation fruitful and sustainable a for way the pave to sides both on increased be to has demand, water for awareness Mutual

İnceleme > 70 > 71

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In view of the impeding danger of Iran adopting a reckless and irrecon- cilable policy towards its neighboring country Iraq, there is reason to believe that the water issue will emerge as the most detrimental force in the bilateral relations of the two countries.

Babran, scholar at Azad-e Eslami University, Te- For that reason the value of drinkable water in heran, and director of a research group for sus- Middle East cannot be overestimated and in face tainable growth and environmental protection, of the fact that a shortage in water supply will Iran will face a severe water crisis in the years to emerge as the most grievous problem in Iran’s come. He points out that the rapid, high growth domestic politics, the importance of water is in population is the main reason for Iran’s in- likely to eclipse even the supply of such crucial creased demand for fresh water. According to resources like crude oil and electricity. Hereby demographical calculations, Iran will emerge as especially the vast demand of the agricultural one of ten countries with the highest population sector creates major problems. According to by 2050 – a circumstance which is further wors- Abdul Ghafar Shojaa, a scholar who working in ened by the increasingly diverging gap between the field of agricultural engineering and natural fresh water (demanded by households) and re- resources, stated that 94% of water available is cyclable water resources available (sarane-ye ab consumed by the agricultural sector and only a tajdeedpazeer). 5 Furthermore recent scientific remaining share of 6 % is consumed by private research indicates that deforestation and, in this households and the industrial sector. 7 context, the vast extinction of flora and fauna which is needed in the natural water purifica- As the rivers like the Karun River in the west tion process accord mainly for the increasing of Iran are mostly of trans-boundary nature, lack of drinkable water. As a matter of fact 60 so does the water issue emerge as a challenge % of Iranian territory is located in an arid zone, with massive impact not only on a domestic but a weather zone characterized by high tempera- also on a trans-national level across its borders. tures and less rainfall. According to an article In view of the impeding danger of Iran adopt- published by the RFI the Iranian provinces of ing a reckless and irreconcilable policy towards Sistan, Baluchestan and partially Khorasan are its neighboring country Iraq, there is reason to most strongly affected by the water shortage.6 In believe that the water issue will emerge - apart order to meet the high water demand Iran initi- from the Fakka oil field issue8 – as the most det- ated projects to exploit water reservoirs below rimental force in the bilateral relations of the the surface, yet the use of such state-of-the-art two countries which might eventually cause a techniques are unlikely to be affordable on a profound rupture reminiscent of the rivalry trig- large scale. Besides that an increasingly falling gering the Iran-Iraq war in 1980. water level further compounds the exploitation of sub-terrestrial rivers. As a matter of fact most The Geopolitical Aspect of the Iraq-Iran War: of the rivers which ran around 40 meter below Shatt-al Arab the surface in the past, now run 250-300 meter below the surface – which creates both a scien- As a matter of fact, the power struggle which tific and an economic challenge. crystallized around the area of Shatt-al Arab

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argumentation and the claims related related claims the and argumentation this ing should again emerge as a disputed issue. disputed a as emerge again should

- repudiat thus successor, legitimate its being of that in the following course of events this region region this events of course following the in that

Bagdad, Basrah and Mosul, persisted on the idea idea the on persisted Mosul, and Basrah Bagdad, However, when we look back into history we see see we history into back look we when However,

Empire upon unification of the three provinces provinces three the of unification upon Empire

the Shatt was guaranteed to Persian vessels.” Persian to guaranteed was Shatt the

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of Iraq, which had evolved from the Ottoman Ottoman the from evolved had which Iraq, of Shatt. Also, freedom of navigation throughout throughout navigation of freedom Also, Shatt.

Ottoman Empire, did not longer exist. The state state The exist. longer not did Empire, Ottoman

anchorage and land on the eastern shore of the the of shore eastern the on land and anchorage

was no longer valid as one of its signatories, the the signatories, its of one as valid longer no was

of Khorramshahr, the island of Abadan and the the and Abadan of island the Khorramshahr, of

col on legal grounds, arguing that the protocol protocol the that arguing grounds, legal on col

formally ceded to the Persian Empire the city city the Empire Persian the to ceded formally

- proto former the accept to refused it as claims

Ottoman Empire, under the Treaty of Ezerum, Ezerum, of Treaty the under Empire, Ottoman

WWI period however, Iran came up with new new with up came Iran however, period WWI

of the Ottoman Empire. In 1847, the weakening weakening the 1847, In Empire. Ottoman the of

on various islands within the river. In the Post- the In river. the within islands various on

Arab was an inland river under the sovereignty sovereignty the under river inland an was Arab

territory of Iraq whilst granting Iranian claims claims Iranian granting whilst Iraq of territory

about fifty-five miles. Before 1847, the Shatt-al- the 1847, Before miles. fifty-five about

the eastern bank of the river as the boundary boundary the as river the of bank eastern the

between Khorramshahr and Basra, a distance of of distance a Basra, and Khorramshahr between

, reaffirmed reaffirmed , Protocol Constantinople the as to

on the Persian Gulf to appoint almost halfway halfway almost appoint to Gulf Persian the on spectively. The latter protocol, which is referred referred is which protocol, latter The spectively.

forms the Iranian-Iraqi boundary from its mouth mouth its from boundary Iranian-Iraqi the forms - re 1914 and 1911 in signed were protocols and

tuary of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and it it and Rivers Tigris and Euphrates the of tuary the river bank region, an agreement was reached reached was agreement an region, bank river the

Iran-Iraq crisis. Iran-Iraq - es the is Shatt-al-Arab “The missions which scrutinized the legal claims of of claims legal the scrutinized which missions

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contributed significantly to the eruption of the the of eruption the to significantly contributed - Com Joint of establishment the upon fact, In

largest dam but it needs a total reconstruction. reconstruction. total a needs it but dam largest

Iraq has serious problems in water management and this problems severe Iraq’s water scarcity. For example, Mosul Dam is the Iraq’s Iraq’s the is Dam Mosul example, For scarcity. water Iraq’s severe problems this and management water in problems serious has Iraq

İnceleme > 72 > 73

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The Gotvand Dam, Masjed Solayman Dam, Shahid Abbaspour Dam, Karun-3 and Karun-4, respectively, all serve the purpose of meeting Iran’s energy demand, but at the same time may have an harmful effect on the agricultural sector of Iraq.

to it. Iran, however, succeeded in regaining to give in to a re-demarcation of the boundary on its sovereignty over the port city of Khorram- behalf of Iran. This power constellation resulted shahr, which is located near the confluence with in the Algiers Accord of 1975, in which Iraq ir- the Haffar arm of the Karun River, the anchor- revocably reaffirmed the borderline according to age surrounding Abadan and the eastern shore the valley trail, thus resigning to the irretrievable of the river as the boundary was moved to the loss of the territories on the Eastern side of the valley trail in the middle of the river.11 Shatt al-Arab. Conversely, Iran guaranteed Iraq to abandon its support for the Iraqi Kurds – a However the dispute on this issue was not allayed tactical move which, as mentioned above, also as both sides refused to respect the conditions complied with Iran’s own domestic interests. laid down in the agreement on the pretext that it was worked out under the pressure of Great In 1979, in the wake of the Islamic Revolution in Britain. In 1969 Mohammad Reza Pahlawi, the Iran, Saddam Hussein seized the opportunity to then Shah of Iran, scented unprecedented op- hoodwink a domestically weakened Iran and re- portunities to gain leverage over a weakened gain the territories east of Shatt al-Arab by mili- and crisis-ridden Iraq and consequently pushed tary force. The occupation of this territory trig- through its demands by means of military forc- gered the Iran-Iraq war, a war to whom the Ira- es. In this context, Iran took also advantage of nians refer to as the Jang-e Tahmili (the Imposed Kurdish insurgents, in the first instance to exalt War) and the Iraqis as the Defā’-e-Moqaddas its influence over Iraqi domestic policy and to (the Holy Defense). As a matter of fact this war, create a tense environment in which Iraq would which lasted for eight years and caused over 1 have got no choice but to waive from its claims million casualties and a total economic loss of on the specific territory. On this regard, Iran estimated 1000 billion US dollar, ended without provided Mela Mistefa Barzani with sophisti- any territorial changes and both parties agreed cated artillery and supported the militia of the again on the Algiers Accord as the binding docu- Partîya Demokrata Kurdistan (Kurdish Demo- ment. cratic Party) against the Baath regime estab- lished in Baghdad. 12 Water Supply: Eye of Contention in the Post- 2003 Iraq War Period Yet later on Iran abandoned its support for Kurdish separatist movements most probably The issue of water supply became evident most due to the fact that the potential establishment crudely in the most recent Iraqi water crisis. As a of Kurdistan in northern Iraq would also jeop- matter of fact, a devastating drought stroke Iraq ardize its own national integrity. Nevertheless, in the 2007-2008, continuing until 2009.13 Ac- Iraq, having suffered from a death toll of 60,000 cording to a statement made by the Foreign Ag- casualties during the Kurdish uprisings, was not ricultural Service of the U.S. Department of Ag- on a par with its strengthened adversary and had riculture, in particular northern Iraq is affected

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during two further meetings of ORSAM experts experts ORSAM of meetings further two during was faced with stern concern by Iranian officials officials Iranian by concern stern with faced was

oriented Fadila Party in the region of Basrah Basrah of region the in Party Fadila oriented powerhouse, initiated by ISAF forces in 2007, 2007, in forces ISAF by initiated powerhouse,

ment. This opinion was also backed by the Shi’i- the by backed also was opinion This ment. the works on the rehabilitation of the Kajaki dam dam Kajaki the of rehabilitation the on works the

- Move Sadr Shi’i-oriented the of officials ranking but also most recently with Afghanistan. In fact, fact, In Afghanistan. with recently most also but

on domestic water supply is also shared by high- by shared also is supply water domestic on ply has not only strained its relations with Iraq, Iraq, with relations its strained only not has ply

gard to neighboring countries’ negative impact impact negative countries’ neighboring to gard - sup water its maintain to Iran of endeavors that

arise from it. from arise - re on concern the that revealed 2010, vember, Hereby it is important to note note to important is it Hereby

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es worries about military conflicts, which could could which conflicts, military about worries es - No of week first the in and 2010, 9, February

- rais and circumstance precarious a as regarded rent Deputy speaker of the Iraqi parliament, on on parliament, Iraqi the of speaker Deputy rent

water supply among countries of this region is is region this of countries among supply water - cur Al-Suhayl, Qusei with experts ORSAM of

the Middle East, thus competition in the field of of field the in competition thus East, Middle the tional interests instead. In this context, meetings meetings context, this In instead. interests tional

conflicts within the last 50 years took stage in in stage took years 50 last the within conflicts - na on based stance critical a take but neighbors

published in 2003, stating that 30 of 37 water water 37 of 30 that stating 2003, in published Iraq refrain from closing ranks with their Shi’i Shi’i their with ranks closing from refrain Iraq

riousness of this issue, referring to a U.N. report report U.N. a to referring issue, this of riousness Shi’i-oriented groups in the center and south of of south and center the in groups Shi’i-oriented

- se the emphasize to like would I conclusion, In is worth noting that, contrary to expectations, expectations, to contrary that, noting worth is

by sectarian and ethnic disruptions. Hereby it it Hereby disruptions. ethnic and sectarian by

Conclusion uniting an Iraqi society otherwise fragmented fragmented otherwise society Iraqi an uniting

supply emerges as an issue of national interest, interest, national of issue an as emerges supply

which aggravated the current problems. problems. current the aggravated which In this context it is striking to see that water water that see to striking is it context this In

in face of a rapid growth in population, a fact fact a population, in growth rapid a of face in

of Iraq. of ure to draw up an effective water-pricing policy policy water-pricing effective an up draw to ure

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have an harmful effect on the agricultural sector sector agricultural the on effect harmful an have - fail the for criticism faced also have themselves

water comes from Iranian land. Iranian from comes water Iran’s energy demand, but at the same time may may time same the at but demand, energy Iran’s Iraqi officials officials Iraqi

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resources, bearing in mind that 70% of the rivers rivers the of 70% that mind in bearing resources, respectively, all serve the purpose of meeting meeting of purpose the serve all respectively,

seriously jeopardizing Iraq’s aim to secure water water secure to aim Iraq’s jeopardizing seriously Shahid Abbaspour Dam, Karun-3 and Karun-4, Karun-4, and Karun-3 Dam, Abbaspour Shahid

out that the change in its stream direction was was direction stream its in change the that out site. The Gotvand Dam, Masjed Solayman Dam, Dam, Solayman Masjed Dam, Gotvand The site.

Iranian territories. In this context he pointed pointed he context this In territories. Iranian the river’s potential as a hydroelectric power power hydroelectric a as potential river’s the

branch of the Zab River – both springing from from springing both – River Zab the of branch were built mainly for the purpose of exploiting exploiting of purpose the for mainly built were

importance of the Sirwan River and the smaller smaller the and River Sirwan the of importance dams built by the Iranians. The various dams, dams, various The Iranians. the by built dams

Ministery of Water Resources, who stressed the the stressed who Resources, Water of Ministery ing in the Shatt al-Arab, as a result of several several of result a as al-Arab, Shatt the in ing

Ahmad Rasul, general director of dams at the the at dams of director general Rasul, Ahmad - converg tributary a originally River, Karun the

sis”. ger position. This idea is also shared by Akram Akram by shared also is idea This position. ger Hereby he is alluding to the diversion of of diversion the to alluding is he Hereby

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- cri the compounded “further had River Karun - stron the in thus and upstream located is Iran

with critical remark that Iran’s diversion of the the of diversion Iran’s that remark critical with that the hands of Iraqi authorities were tied as as tied were authorities Iraqi of hands the that

national interests national Tigris and Euphrates was not sufficient, together together sufficient, not was Euphrates and Tigris . Hereby he stressed the idea idea the stressed he Hereby .

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on that issue, blaming Tehran for ignoring Iraq’s Iraq’s ignoring for Tehran blaming issue, that on of Basrah, pointed out that the water reaching reaching water the that out pointed Basrah, of

that no dialogue could be established with Iran Iran with established be could dialogue no that agricultural director in the Southern province province Southern the in director agricultural

Iraqi water minister, Latif Rashid, complained complained Rashid, Latif minister, water Iraqi infrastructure. In this context Amir Salman, Salman, Amir context this In

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also raised in 2009 on an official level as the then then the as level official an on 2009 in raised also stricting the flow of water with dams and other other and dams with water of flow the stricting

ward but hardly ever questioned. Criticism was was Criticism questioned. ever hardly but ward - re unfairly for blame they which Iran, à-vis

ly to be utilized by Iran – a thesis often put for put often thesis a – Iran by utilized be to ly - vis- others among complaints its reiterated ply,

- like population Iraqi Shi’i a of thesis the butting - sup water domestic its meet to struggling Iraq,

- re thus bluntly most Iran, including countries,

on regard to the negative impact of neighboring neighboring of impact negative the to regard on to Iraq’s nutrition supply. supply. nutrition Iraq’s to

fact, Shi’i politicians expressed their grievances grievances their expressed politicians Shi’i fact, failure of the rain-fed wheat, which is essential essential is which wheat, rain-fed the of failure

in June 2009 and February 2010, respectively. In In respectively. 2010, February and 2009 June in worse by the drought, causing substantial crop crop substantial causing drought, the by worse

İnceleme > 74 > 75

İnceleme as it controls the water flow to Iran.20 Iran, hav- have to be encouraged by all means. Hereby ing suffered a severe setback in its endeavors mutual awareness for national interests, and in to maintain control over water resources along particular water demand, has to be increased its Eastern border, may turn west to secure its on both sides to pave the way for a sustainable economic interests. In this context, Teheran is and fruitful cooperation for the benefit of both unlikely to restrict itself on exerting exterior po- Iran and Iraq. In this context, the most recent litical pressure on state-level only but will also call for cooperation on border and security is- try to gain leverage as an unofficial player in the sues alongside a meeting between Mostafa Mo- decision-making processes on a domestic level. hammad Najjar, Iranian Minister of Interior Af- In order to forestall a conflict of interest flaring fairs, and his Iraqi counterpart, Jawad al-Bulani, up, eventually harming both countries, nego- in Tehran 2010 might form the milestone on the tiations between both countries on this subject way to rapprochement.21

1 Aftabnews: Cheshm-e Andaz Menba’a-ye Ab dar Iran: Khater Nazdik Ast (the danger is near: a view on Iran’s water supply), 2009-04-05 (ordibehesht 5, 1388); http://www.aftabnews.ir/vdciwpav.t1ayq2bcct.html (last access: 2010- 12-06) 2 Çubukçu, Mete / Özhan, Taha. SETA Analiz: İşgal Altında İstikrar Arayışları – 2010 Irak Seçimleri (Search for Stabi- lity in Times of Occupation – 2010 Elections in Iraq), Ankara, 2010 3 BBC Farsi Online. Mehdi Karroubi:Ba Ebtal-e Entehabat Aramesh-ra Be Jamiah Bazgerdanid (If elections are dec- lared null and void society will come to rest), 2010-06-22, http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/iran/2009/06/090622_ag_ short_news.shtml (last access: 2010-06-10) 4 BBC Farsi Online. Mir-Hossein Mousavi: Heghaigh-e ra Warune Jelwe Midahad (truths seem to be distorted), 2010-06-25, http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/iran/2009/06/090625_op_ir88_mousavi_statement8.shtml (last ac- cess: 2010-06-10) 5 Babran, Sadighe. Buhran-e Waziyet-e Ab dar Chihan wa Iran (Water Crisis in Iran and the World), Merkez-e Tahqiqat-e Estratejik, Teheran, 2009; http://www.csr.ir/center.aspx?lng=fa&abtid=04&semid=79 (last access: 2010-12-07) 6 RFI Farsi: Kambud-e Ab-e Buhran-e Modiriyet-e Menba’a-ye Ab (Water Shortage and Trouble in the Water Supply Department) 2008-04-04; http://www.rfi.fr/actufa/articles/100/article_1759.asp (last access: 2010-12-05) 7 Aftabnews: Cheshm-e Andaz Menba’a-ye Ab dar Iran: Khater Nazdik Ast (the danger is near: a view on Iran’s water supply), 2009-04-05 (ordibehesht 5, 1388); http://www.aftabnews.ir/vdciwpav.t1ayq2bcct.html (last access: 2010- 12-06) 8 TAZ Online: Iran bereitet Maliki kopfzerbrechen (Iran brings Maliki into trouble) , 2010-01-21; http://www.taz.de/1/ politik/asien/artikel/1/iran-bereitet-maliki-kopfzerbrechen/ (last access: 2010-12-05) 9 Martinson, Martin J. (U.S. Major): The Iran-Iraq War: Struggle Without an End, Marine Corps Command and Staff DİPNOTLAR College, 1984,; http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/MJM.htm (last access: 2010-12-06) 10 Martinson, Martin J. (U.S. Major): The Iran-Iraq War: Struggle Without an End, Marine Corps Command and Staff College, 1984,; http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/MJM.htm (last access: 2010-12-06) 11 Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). “Muhamrah”. Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press 12 McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: IB Tauris, 2007 ed. p. 325 13 NASA: Eart Observatory. Natural Hazards. Drought in Iraq; http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view. php?id=38914 (last access: 2010-12-06) 14 Radio Free Europe. Iraq Tussles With Neighbors Over Water, 2009-09-13; http://www.rferl.org/content/Iraq_Tus- sles_With_Neighbors_Over_Water/1821603.html (last access: 2010-12-05) 15 Radio Free Europe. Iraq Tussles With Neighbors Over Water, 2009-09-13; http://www.rferl.org/content/Iraq_Tus- sles_With_Neighbors_Over_Water/1821603.html (last access: 2010-12-05) 16 Iran Water and Power Resources Development Co. Technical Information; http://en.iwpco.ir/default.aspx (last ac- cess: 2010-12-05) 17 The National: Iraq’s new war is a fight on water; http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middle-east/iraqs- new-war-is-a-fight-for-water?pageCount=0 (last access: 2010-12-20) 18 Iraq Updates: Kurdistan water resources need protection; http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/arti- cle/18117 (last access: 2010-12-20) 19 Radio Free Europe. UN: Report Warns Of World Water Crisis In Coming Decades, 2003-03-05;, 2009-09-13; http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1102420.html (last access: 2010-12-06) 20 Guardian Newspaper, Online Edition: Power Projection, 2008-09-04; http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentis- free/2008/sep/04/afghanistan (last access: 2010-12-06) 21 Fars News Agency: Iran, Iraq to boost border cooperation, 2010-10-16; http://english.farsnews.com/newstext. php?nn=8907241648 (last access: 2010-12-24)

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