BOOK REVIEWS 155

Book Reviews

Henrik Bogdan and Gordan Djurd- ogy aims to ‘understand how oc- jevic (eds): Occultism in a Global cultism changes when it “spreads” Perspective. Durham: Acumen (now to new environments, placing oc- Routledge), 2013, 288pp. cultism in its cultural, political and social context’ (p. 5). Hence, the Reviewing anthologies always im- volume seeks to address the his- plies a choice: should the book be torical, typological, and (not least) addressed as a general argument or geographical preferences prevalent as individual contributions? Usu- in studies on Western esotericism. ally, one of three scenarios follows: By juxtaposing similarities and first, a celebration of the originality differences between the occult as a or importance of the project as an global and local phenomenon, they intervention in or contribution to a seek to ‘acknowledge that occultism field of inquiry, while accepting a is not merely a French or British certain unevenness to the book as phenomenon, but rather a Western a collection; second, a lamenting of esoteric current that has travelled a missed opportunity, while com- around the world, having been re- mending individual chapter authors interpreted in a number of different or even the collection as a whole as ways’ (p. 6). Given the status and noteworthy; or third, a recognition current development of the study of of a rare anthology which succeeds Western esotericism in institutions, in furthering a single coherent ar- journals, networks, publications, gument, while also providing an conferences, and scholars both grey interesting collection of voices in and green, this is a very timely and their own right. Occultism in a Global appropriate venture. Employing a Perspective is definitely an anthology wider perspective, a relatively recent of the third type, even if it has a few timeframe, and fresh case studies rough spots. Editors Henrik Bogdan not only broadens the field, it also and Gordan Djurdjevic have done a opens it to neighbouring disciplines great job in taking a disparate selec- and new theoretical angles at an op- tion of contributions and weaving portune moment. them into a whole with a common Having discussed concepts such thread, namely the necessity of a as the occult, the West, and the ‘global turn’ in the study of esoteri- global in the introduction, the an- cism, where global influences and thology takes an appropriately theo- currents provide an important con- retical turn with Kennet Granholm’s text to the traditional, near-sighted chapter on ‘the Western’ as a concept studies of single authors, groups, or ‘both within and beyond the study source material. of esotericism and occultism’ (p. 17). As the editors state in their pro- Granholm embarks on a stimulating grammatic introduction, this anthol- journey through postcolonial theory 156 BOOK REVIEWS

and the sociology of late modernity ways, exhibiting varying degrees of to undertake a discursive analysis of specificity in time and space. our conceptual blind spots, issuing a The first and largest group stud- critique of the field’s homogenising ies examples from Europe, South discourse and hegemonic assump- America, and Australia, all of which tions. Here, ‘Western’ as an emic are influenced by, yet stand outside, category is part of the field of study, the common core of French and not the framework of the discipline; British cases studied in previous it is simply too vague and dysfunc- textbooks and anthologies. Three tional to work in a postcolonial and contributors, Hans Thomas Hakl, postsecular context. While I support Francesco Baroni, and Nevill Drury, the call to focus on more ‘specific lo- offer straightforward presentations, calities and the connections between tackling the German occult group these’ (p. 32), it seems to me that Fraternitas Saturni, the Christian Granholm’s conclusion sidesteps esotericism of the Italian Tommaso Wouter Hanegraaff’s argument that Palamidessi, and the Australian the ‘Western’ in Western Esotericism witch and trance-artist Rosaleen is not part of a whole, but the fieldas Norton, respectively. These chapters a whole (see the editors on page 6). are interesting in their own right, Hence, it makes sense to maintain an yet their historical and descriptive umbrella category precisely to facili- focus comes across as somewhat tate complex descriptions in terms of narrow when viewed in the light transmission, appropriation, and the of the broader argumentation of construction of a sense of identity the anthology itself. The remain- in relation to others. ‘Western’ can ing contributions in this group, by be both an emic category to study Per Faxneld, Arthur Versluis, and and an etic analytical construct with PierLuigi Zoccatelli, offer more in which to demarcate and reflect on terms of theoretical reflection and the field in specific and global per- links to global processes. All three in- spectives. clude a past and a present as well as The chapters that follow discuss a development outside the confines particular cases under this umbrella. of the original group or individual Some contributions examine specific under scrutiny. In Faxneld’s case we groups or individuals in ‘the West’, move from the Danish fin-de-siecle mainly in a historical-descriptive Satanist Ben Kadosh to the modern mode; others attend to regions on Neo-Luciferian Church, with some the boundary (both geographically thought-provoking discussion of the and imaginary) of ‘the West’, or selective appropriation of the past to salient themes highlighting inter- gain legitimacy. Versluis offers some relations between ‘the West’ and its insight into the esoteric Hitlerism of others. Consequently, the case stud- Savitri Devi and the South American ies invite the global perspective out- ‘neo-esotericism’ of Chilean author lined in the introduction in various Miguel Serrano. Finally, Zoccatelli’s BOOK REVIEWS 157

discussion of Colombian sex gnostic perspective, centred on processes Samael Aun Weor examines how the of migration and influence between work of G. I. Gurdjieff has spread geographically separate regions. and developed throughout the new Henrik Bogdan offers a fascinating world, offering new insights on both exposition of the ‘pizza effect’ by fronts by bringing them together. showing how The Holy Order of A second group of contributions Krishna first appropriate Aleister focuses on occultism in regions Crowley’s Thelema into a Hindu which by their very nature shed context and, conversely, influ- light on ‘the West’, namely former ence Crowley and Kenneth Grant Yugoslavia and Turkey. While Gor- through British occultist David Cur- dan Djurdjevic’s survey of occultism wen and his guru Swami Pareswara in former Yugoslavia initially comes Bikshu. This web of relationships, across as a bewildering collection based on manuscripts, initiations, of individuals, groups, and liter- and possible meetings, complicates ary outputs, it is in fact organised the traditional image of sexual around certain themes and currents magic, tantra, and carnal alchemy in prevalent in the occult milieu in this the East and West by contextualising region, culminating in presentations similarities. Even more intricately of Z. M. Slavinski and J. Trobentar, woven is Emily Aoife Somers’s both of whom are connected to post-structural discussion of neo-nô Thelema and the OTO. It is interest- stage plays in Ireland and Japan as ing to learn how this specific current strategic epistemologies utilising contributes to global developments, the twilight and ‘in-between-ness’ and how former Yugoslavia is of folklore to re-centre and subvert in turn affected by global flows. political narratives of time and Similarly, Thierry Zarcone’s study space. Here, the ‘necromantic’ per- of occultism in Turkey examines formances of W. B. Yeats and Izumi exchanges between Europe and Kyôka can be read as both esoteric Turkey in an Islamic context, thus and political interventions which, highlighting not only specific organ- when seen together, work on the na- isations and spokespersons relevant tional in a transnational perspective. to the region, but also the dangers As should be obvious, Occult- of homogenising ‘Christian Europe’ ism in a Global Perspective travels far and ‘Islamic Turkey’, as well as ste- and wide to substantiate its central reotyping ‘Christian’ and ‘Muslim’ thesis. One could argue that the esoteric trends. Batinism, Muslim strong emphasis on historical de- occult sciences, and contemporary velopment and regional specificity trends illustrate the harmonisation obscures possible insights based processes at work on the boundary. on contemporary perspectives and The final group of chapters global flows; here, general atten- examines the development of oc- tion to theories of transnationalism cult ideas and practices in a global and globalisation such as Thomas 158 BOOK REVIEWS

Tweed’s ‘crossing and dwelling’ or Arjun Appadurai’s ‘scapes’ and ‘flows’ might counteract the tempta- tion to fall back on traditional modes of analysis. But this only proves that there is room for another volume built on different intentions and areas of interest. By linking specific sites, by theorising on global per- spectives, or simply by shedding light on neglected corners of the global ‘esoscape’, the editors and contributors succeed in building a case for an increased sensitivity to, and interest in, the global and the local in the study of esotericism and occultism. That is more than enough.

Jesper Aagaard Petersen NTNU, Trondheim, Norway

JESPER AAGAARD PETERSEN is Associ- ate Professor at the Programme for Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). E-mail: jesper. [email protected] BOOK REVIEWS 159

Bengt-Ove Andreassen and James and periphery. Indeed, as Jonathan R. Lewis (eds): Textbook Gods: Genre, Z. Smith has more generally ob- Text and Teaching Religious Studies. served concerning the metaphor of Sheffield: Equinox, 2014, 252pp. the map, researching and writing about religion is like making a map, This anthology, edited by Bengt-Ove which should not be confused with Andreassen and James R. Lewis, territory (p. 1–6). Religious educa- offers analyses of textbooks used tion is, therefore, work done with in religious education in various maps or constructions of religion. countries. It covers books used in The book’s title mentions ‘teach- primary, secondary, and higher ing religious studies’, but only a education, although most of the few of the chapters deal with the book deals with religious educa- relationship between the academic tion or other arrangements where discipline of religious studies and religion is part of the curriculum religious education at any length, in public education. The textbooks although many reference it. Many are studied by scholars with back- of the authors frame their analyses grounds in the academic study of with insights from religious stud- religion or education, or both. There ies. There is also, of course, a clear is a slight emphasis on Nordic coun- link between the academic study tries, although materials from Japan, of religion and what has become Australia, Switzerland, Britain, and the conventional textbook wisdom Canada are also analysed. concerning religion. It would also Textbooks are rewarding objects be interesting to read a book-length of research for various reasons, and examination of the materials (and the introduction by Bengt-Ove An- of methods and focus areas) used in dreassen outlines them well. Many higher education. are connected with the power and The most detailed discussion of reproduction of ideology. Textbooks this relationship is to be found in must embody authority in order to Annika Hvithamar’s piece, in which, be what they are, and they convey as a published textbook author, she ‘key knowledge’ and, in effect, reflects on the challenges of writing ‘truths’ about particular subjects. religious studies-based textbooks for They are written by ‘expert(s) in Danish religious education. In addi- the field’, and they emphasise the tion to her reflection on the student qualifications of the author(s). The textbook, she also expands on the di- choice of images combined with the dactics of religion and explores how text represents religions in particular teachers, most of whom do not have ways, showing what is considered a degree in religious studies, can be ‘important’. Even maps are biased instructed in teaching about religion and work in favour of particular via a teacher’s guide. According to interests, as they represent certain Hvithamar, one of the key issues viewpoints and define both centre is that the field of religious studies 160 BOOK REVIEWS

is unfamiliar to the public, which that such perspectives are too norma- means that its ‘neutral approach’ is tive and ideological to be useful in often interpreted as a ‘lack of reflec- proper education about religion. tion or as an uncritical approach’. Most of the authors scrutinise When scholars of religion focus on written texts, but in their chapters minorities in illustrating religious Mary Hayward and Suzanne Anett dynamics it is seen as irrelevant, and Thobro examine the use of images when religion is said to be compa- and representations in maps. Torsten rable to a cultural phenomenon it is Hylén’s and James R. Lewis’s pieces considered controversial, she writes. also differ from the others. Their aims In other words, there seems to be a are slightly more general. Hylén ex- clash between Christian theology- amines the problem of essentialism based and RS-based educational in academia, mostly in the history of interests. In my own experience religions. Having offered critiques of similar conflicts may be observed Karen Armstrong, John L. Esposito, in Finland. I agree completely with the philosopher Martha Nussbaum, Hvithamar’s assertion that religious and others, he proposes a prototype- studies scholars should participate based approach, building on Benson in the writing of textbooks and in the Saler and others, as a starting point various bodies producing executive for overcoming the problem of es- orders and curricula. sentialism in teaching about religion. Bengt-Ove Andreassen contrib- Lewis’s chapter, in turn, presents an utes a chapter in a similar vein, in updated version of his earlier piece which he analyses Norwegian text- from 1990 entitled ‘Images of Tradi- books intended as introductions to tional African Religions in Surveys the didactics of religion in teacher of World Religions’. He analyses the education. He identifies several in- ‘evolutionary pattern’ of religions in teresting discourses connected with widely used academic world religion familiar and important issues. The textbooks, focusing especially on books present religion as a positive the treatment of African religions. source for spiritual growth and Lewis finds that contemporary world human development. Andreassen religions textbooks are considerably argues that religions are presented – better than works from the nine- through the use of familiar but vague teenth and early twentieth centuries, concepts such as ‘the Holy’ or ‘Mys- but some problematic features have tery’ – as a reservoir of symbols from survived. For example, smaller-scale which the students can draw as they traditional religions, usually from grow. This empathetic approach, Sub-Saharan Africa, are often still clearly rooted in liberal theology and portrayed as representatives of an phenomenological perspectives, pro- earlier stage in the assumed evolu- vides few tools for an analysis of the tionary development of religions. negative phenomena associated with To illustrate a critical point con- religion. Andreassen is correct to say cerning some of the chapters, I BOOK REVIEWS 161

will begin with two quotations. In truth’ – as described by Andreassen her chapter on a Swiss textbook in the introduction? Katharina Frank writes: ‘I will This is not to say that there are no analyse the new textbook Sachbuch harmful stereotypes, misinformation Religionen with respect to how “re- concerning groups of people, or un- ligion” generally and the religious balanced portrayal of those groups traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, in educational material. Indeed, Judaism, Christianity and Islam many of the authors highlight these are represented and what images faults very well. However, a critical of these religions are conveyed.’ analysis of a textbook – especially (p. 63) In their chapter on the eth- when the introductory chapter raises ics and religious culture textbooks issues of power and the construc- used in Quebec Sivane Hirsch and tion of ‘truths’ – should perhaps not Marie McAndrew write that ‘[t]he be restricted to ‘fact checking’ or study of Judaism and the portrayal the common stereotype vs. reality of Jewish community in these text- evaluation. Religion textbooks offer books will be the subject of this constructions like ‘religion’, ‘world chapter’. They also ask: ‘Can the religions’, ‘Islam’, ‘Judaism’, and so new textbooks change perceptions on. They are constructed for primar- of this community by making its ily pedagogical reasons, but other social, cultural and religious reality interests are often in play as well: the more intelligible?’ (p. 86–7) Barbara maintenance of national and cultural Wintersgill and Carole M. Cusack identity, the integration of minorities, examine similar questions – issues increasing tolerance, confessional in- of representation – in their chapters. terests, and so on. It would be useful The evaluation of how accurately to make interests like these visible certain social phenomena are repre- in studies of religion textbooks, and sented by the textbooks is a worth- while some of the articles meet this while task in the educational sense, expectation well, some fall a little but at a more critical-theoretical level short. it is my contention that the reality/ A good example of a properly representation relationship needs critical examination is the piece by to be problematized. What is the Jens-André P. Herbener, in which he reality against which the material is examines the School Bible, a combina- evaluated, and why is it usable as a tion of Bible and religion textbook reference point? Is there in any strict intended for Christian studies class- sense ‘real’ Christianity to begin with, es in Denmark’s municipal primary for example, or are we comparing and lower secondary schools. He maps with maps, not maps with offers not a few valid criticisms of territory? Would it not have been the book’s contents – most of which methodologically more accurate to target its confessional, unhistorical, emphasise not the representation of and biased nature (towards Danish ‘the truth’ but the construction of ‘the Protestantism). The book is pro- 162 BOOK REVIEWS

duced by a Christian organisation, and Herbener argues that it serves the interests of the Evangelical Lu- theran Church in Denmark. Finally, I have two minor com- plaints. First, maps used in Thobro’s chapter are printed in black and white, which makes them a little dif- ficult to read. Second, some chapters use Roman numerals to divide the sections, while some use numbered or unnumbered subheadings. Textbook Gods offers many inter- esting findings, relevant information on teaching materials used in various settings, and several good insights into the difficult task of writing about religion. Questions of didactics and pedagogy add further challenges, which some of the writers tackle engagingly. The volume is a valuable addition to comparative research on religious education, which often focuses on the legal arrangements in different countries instead. It also affords a good practical example of the discursive study of religion, an approach gaining scholarly attention in our field at the moment, which focuses on the constructions of the category of religion. Religious educa- tion continues to be an active topic of debate in the academic, popular, and political spheres, and a critical exami- nation of the educational materials should be seen as essential.

Tuomas Äystö University of Turku, Finland

TUOMAS ÄYSTÖ is Doctoral Candidate in Comparative Religion at the University of Turku. E-mail: [email protected] BOOK REVIEWS 163

Nadia Jeldtoft and Jørgen Nielsen so on, but since the 1980s they have (eds): Methods and Contexts in the been increasingly perceived through Study of Muslim Minorities: Visible a religious lens as Muslims. In their and Invisible Muslims. Abingdon: introduction Nadia Jeldtoft and Routledge, 2012, 242pp. Jørgen Nielsen discuss how the cat- egorisation of Muslims as ‘Muslims’ Recent decades have seen a bur- has in recent decades been reified geoning of research on Islam and in research, in the media, and in Muslims in Europe. Very often this politics. As a consequence, it is now research has concerned Muslim mi- more or less taken for granted that norities in a particular country, fo- one can describe and count Muslims cused on Islamic organisations and as a distinct religious minority. It is their activities, or dealt with Islam in this commonsensical categorisation different contexts, such as migration, of Muslims as Muslims that this law, education, and politics. What volume aims at problematising. The thus far has been very much lacking authors are very well aware that it in research on Muslims in Europe is is not only the media and the public an analysis of the different concepts, in general that are responsible for categorisations, and methods it has reproducing the category of Mus- utilised. lims, but that research has also been Methods and Contexts in the Study involved in this reification process. of Muslim Minorities, edited by Na- Consequently, it is all the more im- dia Jeldtoft and Jørgen Nielsen, is, portant to analyse how and by what therefore, a very welcome collection methods research constitutes images of articles in mapping the field for of Muslims, how research describes the critical discussion of research on Muslims as a distinct group, and the Muslims in Europe and, especially, portrayals of Muslims such research the constitution and use of the cat- has constructed. This question can egory of ‘Muslim’ itself. As the title also be turned around to ask how suggests, the volume consists of the methods we use determine our thirteen articles divided into two analytical outlook. parts, namely those of methods and One of the main contributions of contexts. Methods and Contexts in the Study of One of the most important issues Muslim Minorities is its focus on the for the methods of studying Muslims so-called ‘invisible Muslims’, i.e. in Europe concerns terminology. An Muslims who are neither activists interesting shift in the categorisation nor organised in any way. The vol- of the people migrating to Western ume highlights the observation that Europe from Muslim populated research on Muslims in Europe is countries after the Second World heavily focused on the institutional War has taken place. In the 1960s and public expressions of Islam. As and 70s they were mainly described Jeldtoft and Nielsen note, this ap- ethnically, as Turks, Moroccans, and proach leads to a bias, especially in 164 BOOK REVIEWS

the media, where all Muslims are on the visible elements of Islam, often grouped as activists of one such as rituals and dress, but should sort or another. This in turn obscures also focus on less visible aspects, the fact that a large proportion of such as spirituality, morality, and the people we call Muslims may philosophy. Moreover, instead of self-identify as Muslims in one way ‘institutional bias’, research should or another, but are not necessarily direct more attention to the ways involved in the organised forms of Muslims, living and functioning in Islam. As a consequence, the plat- different contexts, make sense of form is often given to those who Islam personally and in their eve- see themselves as spokespersons ryday life. of Islam actively representing all In the main, these studies employ Muslims, while the majority of different ethnographic methods Muslims is rendered invisible in the among Muslims varying according public eye. to age, gender, ethnicity, religiosity, The reasons research has fo- and nationality. They highlight the cused on the public and organised fact that Muslim identities are as expressions of Islam and its active eclectic and fluid as those of other representatives are obvious, as Europeans; Islam does not encom- several of the articles Methods and pass all aspects of an individual’s life Contexts in the Study of Muslim Mi- and there can be many variations in norities observe. It is easy enough being a self-identified Muslim. They for a researcher to study institutions also show that it is quite impossible such as mosque organisations and to draw a clear line between ‘organ- their activities, and to find willing ised’ and ‘non-organised’ Muslims, interviewees among their leading or private and collective religiosity, members. The same cannot be said and that it does not automatically of the Muslims who constitute a follow that being non-organised ‘silent majority’. In studying them implies that Islam is not practised. we are faced with these questions: In sum, the religiosity of European first, how this somewhat invisible Muslims is a very multifaceted phe- and very heterogeneous group of nomenon, which the case studies in people should be named; second, Methods and Contexts in the Study of how data ‘thick’ enough for draw- Muslim Minorities open up nicely ing some general conclusions can from different angles. be collected. The second part of Methods Eight articles in the first part of and Contexts in the Study of Muslim Methods and Contexts in the Study Minorities, which consists of four of Muslim Minorities offer various quantitative studies, differs greatly answers to the question of how to from the first in its methodology. By study ‘unorganised’ Muslims in utilising different surveys, these arti- Western Europe. They suggest that cles pinpoint some crucial factors af- research should not primarily focus fecting the incorporation of Muslim BOOK REVIEWS 165

immigrants into Western European In a secular society ‘religion can be society, and especially the factors af- seen as more of a boundary than a fecting their religiosity in their new bridge’, hence hampering successful environment. It is impossible here to integration, as Maliepaard, Lubbers, go into detail concerning the discus- and Gijsberts discuss in the final sion of the background hypothesis chapter about the Netherlands (p. and process of analysis in these 219). However, more research is articles but, to list some of their find- needed on this topic. ings, they show: Muslim immigrants Methods and Contexts in the Study tend to be more religious where the of Muslim Minorities offers new and host society is less welcoming; there fascinating insights into Muslims is a correlation between negative in Western Europe, and especially attitudes of young people towards in relation to unorganised and Muslims and populist right-wing ‘invisible’ forms of religiosity. It is involvement in local government; therefore a little surprising that the the differences in democratic values volume does not contain any arti- among ethnic minorities of mixed cles on the ‘old’ Muslim minorities religious composition are explained in Europe such as the Tatars, who by ethnicity rather than religion; are well integrated into Western there is a decline of both religious society. Showing how religion and and ethnic identity among second ethnicity are entangled in the lives generation self-identified Muslims, of Tatars, and especially how the and, therefore, no evidence of eth- meaning of religion has changed in noreligious revival among them. As their lives over their hundred years such, these studies may serve as an of residence in Europe, would add excellent springboard for quantita- a historical perspective to the above- tive research on Muslim populations mentioned qualitative and quantita- in different European countries. tive studies which focus strongly on At first sight, the two parts of contemporary times. After all, Islam Methods and Contexts in the Study and Muslims are not new to Western of Muslim Minorities seem a little at Europe. odds with one another, but a closer What Methods and Contexts in the examination reveals a general link Study of Muslim Minorities highlights between them. As noted by Philip in general terms is a problem with Connor, ‘a seemingly individual- which both research and the media ized behavior such as religiosity tend to be riddled, namely that Mus- is contextually guided by society lims are often perceived through a more generally’ (p. 160). What seems religious lens, thus making them characteristic of Western European more religious then they actually societies is that religion does not are. In this respect the worry about function as a vehicle for the incor- the ‘religionisation’ of Muslims poration of immigrants in a host so- reiterates the critical discussion ciety, as it does in the United States. about the ‘religious paradigm’ with 166 BOOK REVIEWS

regard to Western perceptions of (Muslim) women in Turkey and the Middle East that was already being conducted in the 1980s. This demonstrates that European percep- tions of Islam and Muslims change very slowly and that the critique of Orientalism raised some decades ago by Edward Said and others still needs to be taken seriously. Even if Methods and Contexts in the Study of Muslim Minorities is not concerned with the critique of Orientalism as such, it helps us to problematise the categorisation of ‘Muslims’ and alert us to the fact that the terminology we employ in our research is far from innocent.

Tuula Sakaranaho University of Helsinki, Finland

TUULA SAKARANAHO is Professor of the Study of Religions, University of Helsinki. E-mail: [email protected] BOOK REVIEWS 167

Andrew Dawson: Santo Daime: acterised by all three aspects: the A New World Religion. London: religion was born in South America; Bloomsbury, 2013, viii + 226pp. the idea of a new world order is at the heart of Santo Daime practice; As the past century has witnessed, and, despite its still modest number processes of modernisation have of adherents (around 20 000), it has had a substantial impact on religion already spread to other continents. and religiosity. The changes thus ef- These three meanings embedded in fected have been the object of study the title correspond well with the particularly since the 1960s, and es- contents of the book. pecially in relation to religion both in The book addresses three main the Western world and in other parts questions: the origins and ethos of of the globe. Andrew Dawson’s Santo Daime as a religious system; book on Santo Daime provides an the processes of transformation important contribution to this field. related to Santo Daime’s move- Dawson, who is senior lecturer in ment first beyond the Amazonian Religious Studies at Lancaster Uni- lowlands and later Brazil; and Santo versity in the UK, has been study- Daime’s relationship with the socio- ing Santo Daime since 2005. Santo cultural dynamics characteristic of Daime is an ayahuasca religion Western late-modernity. The book originating in Brazilian Amazonia is organised around these questions: in the 1920s that has spread first the first chapters deal with the basic to urban Brazil and later to several principles and the formative period countries around the world. Daw- of Santo Daime; the later chapters son’s book’s title is a play on words. concentrate on the urbanisation of The ‘New World’ in the title may be Santo Daime and its interconnec- read as referring to South America tion with Afro-Brazilian religiosity, as a continent. Simultaneously, how- Western esotericism, and Western ever, it can be understood as point- late-modern society. ing to the Santo Daime view of a new The book’s main contribution world order, which may be seen as lies in its discussion of the rela- either imminent or as something tionship Santo Daime has with the desired. In both cases the new order sociocultural processes of what the contrasts with the current conditions author calls late-modern (Brazilian) on planet Earth. Furthermore, when society. Dawson shows how the considered with the term religion, aspects associated with modernity, the New World in the book’s title e.g. individualisation, subjectivism, refers to the common three-part pluralisation, and commoditisation, classification of religious traditions have worked and are still working to into world religions, indigenous transform Santo Daime. These pro- religions, and new religious move- cesses tend to cause internal conflicts ments. In one way or another, the within the religion as its newly mid- author states, Santo Daime is char- dle class urban practitioners have 168 BOOK REVIEWS

different needs for and expectations formerly more egalitarian relations, of their religious praxis than those and spirit mediumship is increas- living in rural areas. Drawing from ingly accepted in different ritual the scholarship of modernisation, times and spaces. Furthermore, they Dawson identifies six central char- can be realised by any of the prac- acteristics which work to organise titioners. the contemporary, and especially It is, then, in relation to the middle class, daimista repertoire. spirit mediumship praxis that the These are: 1) the ‘subjectivized val- processes of individualisation, sub- orization of the individual as the jectivisation, pluralisation, and even ultimate arbiter of religious author- commoditisation of Santo Daime ity and the primary agent of spiritual become most visible. The discussion self-transformation’; 2) an instru- on spirit mediumship and mod- mental religiosity oriented toward ernisation is theoretically and eth- self-realisation; 3) a holistic world nographically the most interesting view relativising belief-systems as and fruitful part of Dawson’s book. expressions of universal truths; 4) It is a pity that the discussion comes an aestheticised demeanour char- only in the last two chapters, and acterised by inward self-exploration that the first three are not similarly and outward self-expression; 5) a constructed. The first three chapters meritocratic-egalitarianism; and 6) are theoretically fragmentary and, a this-worldly ethos (p. 197). while the author does refer to clas- The author presents an innova- sics such as Bourdieu on ritual space tive discussion of these processes and Berger and Luckmann on, for of transformation by exploring example, subjectivisation, in these the changes taking place in spirit chapters’ theoretical discussions, mediumship practices within Santo more recent scholarship on many Daime. Whereas traditionally in theoretical issues is eclipsed. Amazonian-based Santo Daime Furthermore, unlike the latter practices human-spirit relationships part of the book, which provides em- were centred on the spirit of daime pirical material through which the or ayahuasca, restricted to certain reader has access to the daimistas’ ritual occasions and often to certain ‘personal voices’, the first chapters persons, and were spatially regu- fail to bring the reader close to the lated, in contemporary middle class Santo Daime community. In many urban daimista praxis individual ways the book succeeds in captur- possession is increasingly common ing its reader only in its last two and accepted. The scope of spirits chapters. with which people interact has wid- Nevertheless, as a whole the ened, interaction with them more book provides an intriguing exam- often takes the form of possession in ple of how the individualisation and which the individual momentarily subjectivisation of religion do not di- loses their agency in contrast to the minish the legitimacy or importance BOOK REVIEWS 169

of religious dogma and practice, as has often been argued. Rather, as the author notes, although these processes involve the ‘recalibration of established modes of participa- tion and belonging in a way which relativizes corporate dynamics through their subordination to the subjectivized needs and aspirations of the late-modern individual’, they do not necessarily ‘entail the end of collective forms of religious associa- tion’ (p. 198). This book is important reading for anyone interested in religion in the contemporary world.

Minna Opas University of Turku, Finland

MINNA OPAS is Senior Research Fellow in Comparative Religion at Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, University of Turku. E-mail: [email protected] 170 BOOK REVIEWS