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Ancient History ANCIENT HISTORY Essay: Julio-Claudian Emperors and their Armies The relationships between the princeps and army were vital towards success, as evident throughout the reigns of Tiberius, Gaius, Claudius and Nero. Augustus’ successors thus rested upon their control over, and collaboration with, the army. Growth from an unpaid citizens’ militia towards a world-conquering professional force the army facilitated Roman Empire expansion, and became Rome’s greatest influential and contributory Julio-Claudian institution, as it flourished extensively. Such a deduction may be concluded from an evaluation of archaeological, ancient and modern sources. The only significant threats to Pax Romana (‘Roman Peace’) occurred at the beginning of Tiberius’ reign in A.D. 14. Four Roman legions stationed on the Rhine and three upon Danube (province of Pannonia) organised mutinies upon Augustus’ death. Protests derived from poor pay, harsh conditions of service, and failure to discharge the elderly. Soldier historian Velleius Paterculus wrote, “the army… wanted a new leader, a new order of things,” which Suetonius confirms, claiming German soldiers “refused to recognise an emperor whom they had not chosen.” Tiberius thus troubled over which mutiny, if any, to attend first – for fear of offending the latter. Avoiding this dilemma, he attended neither, however left Germanicus to handle Rhine mutineers and his son Drusus, along with Lucius Aelius Sejanus – the Praetorian Guard prefect – to Danube. Tacitus argues that this portrayed an irresponsible Emperor, and “the soldiers were disaffected and could not be checked by the unmatured authority of two youths. He ought to have gone himself.” Soon after, however, Tiberius paid his troops Augustus’ legacies, demonstrating acknowledgement of the army’s influence and necessity of maintaining good relations. Consequently, legions became loyal and, according to Scullard, Tiberius “was popular with the army, the first and indispensable need for any successor.” Restoring army discipline, as Tacitus asserts “there was still a savage feeling among the troops – and a desire to make up for their lunacy by attacking the enemy,” Germanicus led his men across the Rhine, without Tiberius’ authorisation. A second possible motive was the desire to emulate his father’s (Drusus) work by, conquering and extending the Elbe River border. However, this was against Augustus’ policy, followed closely by Tiberius, to maintain a strong frontier on the Rhine. Indeed, Tiberius remarked in a speech to the senate in 25, “I treat all [Augustus’] actions and words as if they had the force of law.” Subsequently, Tiberius forbade war prolongation and recalled Germanicus back to Rome. Upon departure, each of the three Gauls (Aquitania, Belgica, and Lugdunensis) were made independent provinces, and two new administrative districts were created, declared Upper and Lower Germany. Province revenue allowed Tiberius to halve 1% sales tax, ultimately supporting military treasury. Tiberius’ wise continuation of Augustus’ policy provided a valuable, stable period for the Principate; according to Webster, he “left the frontiers in a more stable condition.” Nevertheless, the reign had its’ share of military and imperial struggles, such as the war against the guerrilla leader, Tacfarinas, in North Africa (AD 17-24). Africa was vital here in supplying two thirds of Roman grain needs. In 21, Junius Blaesus was assigned command and successfully ceased the revolt, returning provincial harmony within two years. “The African war,” writes Velleius, “was soon buried, under [Tiberius’] auspices and by his plans.” Gaius also had close connections to the army upon accession in A.D. 37, following from his father’s (Germanicus) and grandfather’s (Drusus) legacy. However, despite having no military credit himself, Gaius desired far greater success – riding in on a popular wave being supported by Macro, the Praetorian Guard prefect. According to Suetonius, “Gaius’ accession seemed to the Roman people ... like a dream come true,” demonstrating “extravagant joy that he was now emperor.” It was soon forgotten that Gaius had not been born among legions and became favourable amongst troops, nicknaming him ‘Caligula’ from the little military boots he wore as a ‘Child of the Camp.’ Gaius sought impressive military achievements in regaining army loyalty and enhancing his own standing. His plan: to invade Britain in A.D. 39, leading his troops into the English Channel. After ordering catapults fire into the sea, he allegedly demanded the army gather seashells as “spoils of the sea,” according to Suetonius. Even though the invasion did not eventuate, Gaius announced Britain’s annexation, giving all legionaries an extra four gold pieces for apparent success. Accordingly, it is evident Gaius was no keener than Tiberius in undertaking any important provincial reforms, as Augustus’ structures still held sufficient. Barrett comments that Gaius “seems to have been concerned primarily with preserving stability in the [Eastern] part of the empire, rather than with extending the Roman imperium.” However, problems resurfaced on the frontiers, including the abortive campaign against the Chatti in 39 and a temporary abandonment of Armenia and Judaea. Gaius weakened Rome’s position in the east by reversing Augustus’ policy to strengthen frontiers against Parthia. By removing the Armenian King, Parthia received the opportunity to regain influence in Armenia. Thus, as Salmon asserts, Gaius was autocratic, provocative and erratic in foreign policy and “attempted to gain universal popularity.” On the positive side, there was the development of a vast Thracian state and a new policy for Africa. Fear awakened by Gaius’ unpredictable violence proved to be fatal, leading to his stabbing in A.D. 41 by a tribune of Praetorian Guards whom he grossly insulted. Never before had this loyal body shown itself willing to betray the Emperor, however Gaius was mistaken by alienating them, surrounding himself with an exotic entourage of German troops. Accordingly, Roman soldiers perhaps believed that a Julio-Claudian family member as subsequent Emperor was appropriate since the family were familiar, had ensured pay and benefits, and would certainly sustain the Guard’s existence. The donative Claudius paid his army was around 15,000 Sesterces each, and never forgot his debt by maintaining annual payments. Despite his scholarly pursuits, lack of military experience and unmilitary appearance, Claudius cultivated soldiers as he appreciated the importance of a military image and support from Praetorians following his proclamation as Emperor. Claudius faced a crisis in A.D. 41 when Dalmatian Governor, Scribonianus, staged a revolt. However, Scribonianus’ legions refused to follow and consequently became unsuccessful. Claudius accordingly rewarded legions with the title ‘Claudia Pia Fidelis’ – ‘Claudius’ Own Loyal and True.’ Toni Hurley et. al. asserts, “the army was well disciplined and generally content throughout Claudius’ reign.” Officially recognising his debt to the army and proclaiming his connection that same year, he issued two series of gold and silver coins. The first bore the legend IMPER (ator) RECEPT (us), depicting the Praetorian camp with a soldier standing with military standard at the gate, and the other inscribed PRAETOR (iani) RECEPT (i), illustrates the Emperor joining hands with a soldier, strengthening his army relations. Claudius, mindful that the army was essential for imperial power, thought it wise to emulate Caesar’s, rather than Augustus’, foreign policy of expansion and assimilation by invading Britain. Apart from desiring to improve Roman prestige following Caligula’s fiasco, it is possible that rumours of riches that lured Caesar to Britain also attracted Claudius. Yet, Claudius’ motive was probably to obtain military reputation and strengthen his hold upon the frontier garrisons, thus supporting his regime and increasing popularity amongst troops. According to Grant, “what he proposed was a major military aggression in the spirit of his brother Germanicus.” Thus he led troops to subdue Britain in A.D. 43 and once conquered, his military credentials were firmly established. Despite a 40,000 troop mutiny, alarmed at invading an unknown land, the Romans defeated the British after two days. Claudius’ presence at the conquest boosted army morale, demonstrating anxiety to win soldiers’ loyalty and affection, and later named his son Britannicus suggesting lifelong commemoration. Furthermore, a silver coin later issued in AD 46-7 reveals Claudius’ determination for recognition as a successful military figure. The reverse emphasises prestige in depicting a winged, draped female combining attributes of Peace, Safety, Victory, Prosperity and Propriety underneath, ‘To the Augustan Peace.’ Here Claudius portrays himself as a successful leader paralleling Augustus, who utilised military victories in securing peace and prosperity. The camaraderie between Claudius and the army is demonstrated in his appointment as imperator 27 times. For Claudius, his invasion of Britain was pinnacle of his reign, being one of his prime ruling claims as his exploitation demonstrated; though also extending Roman influence in Palmyra and around the Black Sea. He annexed Lycia (43) and eastern client kingdoms of Judaea (44), Thrace (46) and Ituraea (49), which incorporated into Syria, becoming known as an ‘Extender of the Empire.’ Nero, acclaimed Emperor in A.D. 54, was initially concerned with the maintenance
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