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Iceberg Water Transportation from Antarctica to Australia
Iceberg (credit Walk, 2000)
by Bruno SPANDONIDE
School of Geography and Environmental Studies
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the PhD Degree at the University of Tasmania, April 2012
Declaration of Originality
This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any tertiary institution, and to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text of the thesis.
Signed
Bruno SPANDONIDE
25 April 2012
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Annotation
This thesis is an uncorrected text as submitted for examination.
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Abstract
The amount of iceberg water that annually dissolves into the sea corresponds to a substantial part of the world’s annual consumption of freshwater. The Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) has 30 % of the icebergs of the world. This freshwater resource melts into the Southern Ocean. If harvested, it will have a positive effect on terrestrial ecosystems and the water market. This renewable freshwater resource will need a sustainable transportation system. The south western corner of Australia is drought prone and freshwater availability is a limiting factor. Western Australia (WA) and Perth are facing water problems. The demand and requirement for water is increasing. Australian freshwater supplies could be increased using this type of freshwater resource with appropriate technology. The question of whether icebergs from Antarctica could be transported to help solve this water shortage was studied in the 1970s and given up later because of economic and environmental obstacles. The questions need to be examined as to what are the most appropriate transportation techniques, how marine ecosystems could be protected and if a profitable system of transportation can be designed. The aims and objectives of this research are to study the geographical transportation conditions and to determine the feasibility of an iceberg transportation system from the AAT to WA. It will propose future iceberg transportation research. I studied and analysed iceberg properties, iceberg detection, sea transportation systems and techniques, environmental issues and the protection of marine ecosystems, and legal considerations related to the transportation of iceberg freshwater and the profitability of a specific iceberg water transportation system between the AAT and WA. My work provided a paradigmatic frame for iceberg transportation research. It is an original contribution to the water transportation discipline. Within this frame, a new design for an iceberg transportation system was proposed. Practical and feasible technical parameters of the iceberg transportation system were developed. The transportation system is based on three main steps:
1. belting and wrapping of the iceberg in-situ with a bag and a collar; 2. transportation of this system into warmer areas and the collection of the melted water of the iceberg in the collar and specific fresh waterbags, and 3. waterbag transportation from Antarctica to Australia using sustainable techniques of current drifting and kite towing.
Given the increasing challenges for water in south WA this iceberg transportation system, could represent a viable long term source of freshwater. This iceberg transportation system proposal is an innovation which may be used by the Australian Government or private companies in further research to provide solutions for the freshwater crisis.
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Statement of Authority of Access
This thesis may be made available for loan. Copying of any part of this thesis is prohibited for two years from the date this statement was signed; after that time limited copying and communication is permitted in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968.
Signed
Bruno SPANDONIDE
25 April 2012
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Statement of publication
Signed
Bruno SPANDONIDE
25 April 2012
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following persons for their contributions to the completion of this thesis:
My cherished family and friends for the extraordinary love they always offered me. I missed them terribly during my studies and I will never be able to express the gratitude they deserve. Particularly my father who inspired me so much, my mother for her devotion, my aunt for all her help, my wife for all her wonderful smiles, Andrew Harwood and Peter Jamvold, Antoine and Romée Béjui-Payre for their incredible contributions. This work is theirs.
All those who previously devoted so much work, time and effort to the study of icebergs and their utilisation as a source of freshwater. Without them I would never have had the chance to work on this topic.
My supervisors, Dr Lorne Kriwoken and Professor Patrick Quilty, Jon Osborn and the staff of the School of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Tasmania and Dr Neil Bose from the Australian Maritime College, Launceston, Tasmania.
ISOPE (International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers) - The Technical Committee ISOPE 2009 for reading my manuscript and encouraging me to participate with an oral paper June 2009 conference in Osaka, Japan.
Australian Institute of Physics, Technical Committee 18th Biennial Congress of the Australian Institute of Physics, held in December 2008, for considering my research and inviting me to participate with a poster, to this congress at the University of Adelaide, South Australia.
The work for my thesis was also an extraordinary opportunity to discover the natural splendours of Tasmania
Bruno Spandonide
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Table of Contents
Declaration...... ii
Abstract ...... iv
Statement of publication and co authorship ...... vi
Acknowledgments ...... vii
Table of Contents ...... viii
List of Figures ...... xv
List of Tables ...... xxvi
Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 1
1.1 Area of Research ...... 2
1.1.1 Background ...... 3
1.1.2 Scientific Intersest ...... 3
1.2 Research Aims and Objectives ...... 11
1.3 Methods ...... 12
1.4 Organisation of the Research ...... 19
1.5 Limitations ...... 22
1.6 Materials ...... 23
1.7 Chapter Outline ...... 24
Chapter 2 Properties of Ice ...... 26
2.1 Water Cycle ...... 27
2.2 Geophysical Environement ...... 31
2.3 Characteristics of Ice ...... 31
2.4 Ice Phases...... 32
2.5 Ice Ih ...... 33
2.6 Properties of the Ice Crystal Lattice ...... 42
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2.6.1 Thermal Properties ...... 44
2.6.2 Mechanical Properties ...... 44
2.6.3 Electrical Properties...... 46
2.6.4 Optical Properties ...... 46
2.7 Ice in Nature ...... 47
2.8 Glaciers and Polar Ice ...... 47
2.9 Conclusion ...... 50
Chapter 3 Properties of Icebergs ...... 52
3.1 Geography of Iceberg Freshwater ...... 53
3.1.1 Iceberg Definition and Production ...... 55
3.2 Iceberg Classification ...... 57
3.3 Iceberg Properties ...... 61
3.3.1 Chemical Composition of Icebergs ...... 62
3.3.2 Physical Properties of Iceberg Ice ...... 64
3.3.3 Density of the Iceberg Ice ...... 65
3.3.4 Mechanical Properties of Iceberg Ice ...... 66
3.3.5 Dielectrical Properties of Iceberg Ice ...... 67
3.3.6 Optical Properties of Iceberg Ice ...... 70
3.4 Location of Iceberg Resources ...... 70
3.4.1 Iceberg Names ...... 70
3.4.2 Antarctic Region ...... 70
3.4.3 Antarctic Specificities...... 77
3.5 Volume and Size of the Antarctic Iceberg Resource ...... 78
3.6 Natural Routes of Icebergs ...... 82
3.7 Melting and Life Expectancy of Icebergs ...... 90
3.8 Conclusion ...... 94
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Chapter 4 The Environments of Icebergs ...... 96
4.1 Antarctic Climate ...... 97
4.1.1 Surface Air Temperatures ...... 97
4.1.2 Precipitation ...... 98
4.1.3 Winds ...... 99
4.1.4 Benthic Temperature ...... 102
4.2 Ecosystems in Antarctica ...... 103
4.3 Lifecycle of Icebergs and the Antarctic Ecosystems ...... 103
4.3.1 Icebergs as Ice ...... 104
4.3.2 Icebergs Calving ...... 105
4.3.3 Icebergs Drifting and Melting ...... 109
4.4 Icebergs Impacts on Environments ...... 113
4.5 Icebergs and Climate Change in the 20th century ...... 114
4.5.1 Changes in Temperatures...... 116 a. Global Temperatures Changes ...... 117 b. Temperature Change in Antarctica ...... 121
4.5.2 Changes in Mass Balance in Antarctica ...... 128
4.5.3 Sea Level Rise ...... 135
4.6 Discussion ...... 137
Chapter 5 History of Iceberg Transportation ...... 139
5.1 Pioneering Achievements ...... 140
5.2 First International Conference on Iceberg Utilisation ...... 143
5.3 Feasibility Studies during the 1970s ...... 150
5.3.1 RAND Corporation Proposal ...... 151
5.3.2 Saudi Arabia Project ...... 152
5.3.3 Early Australian Projects ...... 155
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5.4 Projects and Studies in the 1980s ...... 156
5.4.1 Australian Project in the 1980s ...... 157
5.4.2 Sobinger’s Project ...... 160
5.4.3 Polarstern Expeditions ...... 163
5.4.4 Other Projects in the 1980s ...... 164
5.5 Projects and Studies in the 1990s ...... 167
5.5.1 Alaskan Iceberg Project ...... 167
5.5.2 Canadian Projects ...... 168
5.6 Recent Projects in Early Years of the 21st century ...... 169
5.7 Patents for Icebergs Transportation, Bagging and Propulsion ...... 170
5.8 Discussion ...... 176
5.9 Conclusion ...... 180
Chapter 6 New Technologies for Iceberg Transportation ...... 182
6.1 Iceberg Detection Techniques...... 184
6.1.1 Discussion ...... 191
6.2 Iceberg Selection Process ...... 192
6.2.1 Operational Selection ...... 193
6.2 2 Operational Selection of Icebergs ...... 195
6.3 Operational Iceberg Management ...... 197
6.3.1 Harnessing Icebergs...... 198
6.3.2 Iceberg Deterioration ...... 203
6.3.3 Sailing Conditions ...... 203
6.3.4 Risks Associated with Harnessing Icebergs ...... 205
6.4 Waterbag Technology for Melted Fresh Water Transportation ...... 208
6.4.1 Specialised Companies in Waterbag Transportation ...... 209 a. Aquarius Water Trading and Transportation Ltd...... 210
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b. Nordic Water Supply (NWS)...... 210 c. Medusa Corporation...... 211 d. Spragg & Associates...... 213 e. Australian Companies: Fabric Solution Australia and Solartran ...... 214
6.4.2 Waterbags Transportation Technologies ...... 217
6.4.3 Ocean Currents for Waterbags Transportation ...... 219
6.5 Kite-Assisted New Maritime Transportation Technology ...... 219
6.5.1 Kite Installation ...... 221
6.5.2 Kite Operation ...... 227
6.5.3 Navigation ...... 228
6.5.4 Safety, Crew and Maintenance ...... 231
6.5.5 Discussion ...... 231
6.6 Optimisation of Icebergs Transportation with new Technologies ...... 232
6.7 Summary ...... 233
Chapter 7 Designing a New Iceberg Transportation System ...... 235
7.1 Iceberg Detection, Selection and Environmental Assessment ...... 237
7.2 Pre-Packing Operations ...... 239
7.2.1 Equipment ...... 239
7.2.2 Capture ...... 243
7.2.3 Internal Netting ...... 245
7.2.4 Iceberg Wrapping ...... 247
7.3 Collar Installation and Connection ...... 251
7.4 Iceberg Melting and Water Collection ...... 255
7.4.1 External Netting ...... 257
7.5 Manoeuvring ...... 259
7.5.1 Bagged Iceberg and Collar Manoeuvring ...... 259
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7.5.2 Melted Water Manoeuvring ...... 265
7.6 Waterbag Design ...... 266
7.7 Transportation Logistics ...... 268
7.7.1 Train of Waterbags Assembling Process ...... 269
7.8 Proposed Maritime Transportation Technology ...... 272
7.8.1 Launching into the Currents...... 273
7.8.2 Waterbag Drifting Waterbags with the Current ...... 273
7.8.3 Kite-Assisted Control of Waterbag Direction ...... 275
7.8.4 Sailing ...... 276
7.8.5 Propulsion System ...... 277
7.8.6 Sensors ...... 281
7.8.7 Route Planning, Itineraries, Meteorological Conditions ...... 281
7.8.8 Risks ...... 283
7.9 Freshwater Delivery ...... 284
7.10 Conclusion ...... 285
Chapter 8 Environmental Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 288
8.1 Background ...... 289
8.2 Environmental Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 291
8.3 Level of Exposure of Iceberg Environment ...... 293
8.4 Expected Environmental Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 297
8.5 Scales of Environmental Impact of Transportation ...... 303
8.6 Alternatives to Iceberg Transportation Environmental Impacts ...... 304
8.7 Mitigation of Environmental Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 311
8.8 Transportation Environmental Management ...... 312
8.9 Iceberg Transportation Environmental Management Plan ...... 314
8.10 Response Actions in Case of Accident of Iceberg Transportation ...... 316
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8.11 Costs of the Environmental Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 316
8.12 Conclusion ...... 317
Chapter 9 Law of Antarctic Iceberg Transportation ...... 320
9.1 The Antarctic Treaty System ...... 321
9.2 Iceberg Transportation and Marine Legal Regimes ...... 327
9.3 Marine Law Discussion ...... 330
9.4 Iceberg Transportation under Australian Law ...... 332
9.5 Iceberg Transportation Legal Future ...... 339
9.6 New Legal Status ...... 341
9.7 Iceberg Treaty Principles ...... 343
9.8 Operating Zones ...... 344
9.9 Operating Rules ...... 345
9.10 Environmental Impact Assessment ...... 347
9.11 Permits System ...... 348
9.12 Iceberg Operating Committee ...... 348
9.13 Conclusion ...... 351
Chapter 10 Economic Analyses of Iceberg Transportation ...... 354
10.1 Space Specialisation and the Transit Process ...... 356
10.2 Space Values and Transit Networks ...... 357
10.3 Transportation Costs ...... 361
10.4 Project Cost Analysis ...... 362
10.5 Evaluation of the Transport Demand ...... 372
10.6 Price ...... 373
10.7 Iceberg Transportation Costs Benefits Discussion...... 379
10.8 Cost-Benefit Analysis ...... 382
10.9 Sustainable Technologies ...... 385
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10.10 Comparison with Other Water Supplies ...... 390
10.11 Conclusion ...... 395
Chapter 11 Conclusion ...... 397
11.1 Concluding Remarks ...... 398
11.2 Findings ...... 399
11.3 Methods ...... 403
11.4 Aims and Objectives...... 403
11.5 Theoretical Remarks ...... 404
11.6 Outcomes and Future Research ...... 405
11.7 In Situ Experiments ...... 409
11.8 Funding ...... 409
Appendix 1 Water Demand in the World ...... 411
A1.1 Values Use and Demand ...... 411
A1.2 Water Consumption and Acess ...... 412
A1.3 Direct Water Consumption ...... 415
A1.4 Direct Consumption Water Crisis ...... 416
A1.5 Environmental Values of Water ...... 418
A1.6 Indirect Water Consumption ...... 419
A1.7 Water Resources ...... 421
A1.8 World Water Shortage ...... 425
A1.9 International Problems ...... 427
Appendix 2 Iceberg Environment ...... 432
A2.1 Flora in Antarctica ...... 432
A2.2 Fauna in Antarctica ...... 433
Appendix 3 Impacts of Iceberg Transportation ...... 440
A3.1 Iceberg Production and Melting Figures ...... 440
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A3.2 Iceberg Production Impacts ...... 441
Appendix 4 Water Transportation Technologies ...... 442
A4.1 Iceberg Shape Characterisation ...... 442
A4.2 Mass Estimation Process ...... 445
Appendix 5 Iceberg Water Cost...... 447
A5.1 Water Consumption ...... 447
A5.2 Iceberg Water Costs Estimates ...... 448
Appendix 6 Technical Evaluations of Preliminary Testing ...... 449
A6.1 Project Proposal ...... 449
A6.2 Preliminary Laboratory Experiments Evaluations ...... 452
A6.3 First Experiment: Melting Iceberg Hydrodynamic Stability ...... 453
A6.3.1 Modelling Guidelines of the Characteristics of the Iceberg ...... 454
A6.3.2 Collar, Bag and Net System Model Materials ...... 455
A6.3.3 Science Involved in Melting Iceberg Stability Modelling ...... 456
A6.3.4 The Bagged Iceberg Stability Testing Methodology ...... 460
A6.4 Second Experiment: Iceberg Water Waterbags Transportation ...... 462
A6.4.1 Waterbag Modelling Principles ...... 463
A6.4.2 Making the Waterbag Models...... 463
A6.4.3 The Waterbag Stability Test Methodology ...... 467
A6.5 Logistic Support ...... 468
A6.6 In-Situ Experiments ...... 468
A6.7 Conclusion ...... 469
Units ...... 470
Glossary ...... 471
Reference Literature ...... 477
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