Rules-For-Selection-And-Development

DANUBIUS‐PP Deliverable 5.10

Final report on the role and operation of Supersites. Rules for selection and development of Supersite Hosting Institutions and associated facilities Deliverable 5.10 DANUBIUS-PP Deliverable 5.10

Preparatory Phase for the pan-European Research Project Full title Infrastructure DANUBIUS–RI “The International Centre for advanced studies on river-sea systems”

Project Acronym DANUBIUS-PP

Grant Agreement No. 739562

Coordinator Dr. Adrian Stanica

Project start date 1st December 2016, 36 months and duration

Project website www.danubius-pp.eu

Deliverable Nr. 5.10 Deliverable Date M18

Work Package No. WP5

Work Package Title Architecture

Responsible GeoEcoMar

ROMANIA

GeoEcoMar

Nicolae Panin, Adrian Stanica, Michael Schultz, Maria Ionescu, Adriana Maria Constantinescu

AUSTRIA

WCL

Author & Institute Acronyms Eva Feldbacher, Thomas Hein, Gabriele Weigelhofer, Wolfram Graf, Stefan Schmutz

GERMANY

BaFG

Lars Duester, Katharina Schuetze, Axel Winterscheid, Carmen Kleisinger, Andreas Schöl, Elmar Fuchs

HZG

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Jana Friedrich, Justus van Beusekom, Sina Bold

BAW

Ingrid Holzwarth, Elisabeth Rudolph, Marcus Boehlich

GREECE

HCMR

Panagiotis Michalopoulos

DUTH

Gyorgios Sylaios

HUNGARY

SZE

Balasz Trasy, Miklós Bulla, István Fórizs, István Gábor Hatvani, Imre Jánosi, Tibor Németh, Csaba Szabó, András Torma, Erika Tóth, Balázs Trásy, Gábor Várbíró, József Kovács

ITALY

ISMAR CNR

Debora Bellafiore, Francesca de Pascalis, Georg Umgiesser, Andrea Barbanti

CORILA

Caterina Dabala, Pierpaolo Campostrini

THE NETHERLANDS

Deltares

Jos Brils, Tom Buijse, Henriette Otter, Jasperien de Weert, Harm Duel Rijkswaterstaat, Ralph Schielen

SPAIN

UPC

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Vicente Gracia, Daniel Gonzalez Marco, Agustin Sanchez Arcilla

POS

Antonio Torralba Silgado, Manuel Alberto Moreno García, Antonio Bejarano Moreno, Jose Carlos García Gómez

UNITED KINGDOM

USTIR

Andrew Tyler, Claire Neil

CEH

Mike Bowes, Gareth H. Old

FRANCE

Davide Vignati

Final (F) 

Status: Draft (D)

Revised draft (RV)

Public (PU)

Restricted to other program participants

(PP)

Restricted to a group specified by the Dissemination level: consortium (RE)

Confidential, only for members of the  consortium (CO)

DANUBIUS-PP Deliverable 5.10

This report is on the role and operation of Supersites, and the rules for selection and development of their Hosting Institutions and associated facilities.

1. General description of Supersites 1.1. Introduction to river-sea systems and the concept of Supersites Freshwater and marine systems are central to societal wellbeing, yet they face multiple and confounding pressures from climate change, eutrophication and other natural and anthropogenic perturbations of varying intensities at local and global scales (MEA, 2005; IPCC, 2007). The International Centre for Advanced Studies on River-Sea Systems (DANUBIUS-RI) will be a distributed research infrastructure (RI) that brings together world leading expertise and provide access to a range of river-sea (RS) systems, facilities and expertise, to provide a ‘one-stop shop’ for knowledge exchange, access to harmonised data, a platform for interdisciplinary research, education and training and hence provide answers to questions regarding sustainable management and environmental protection of the RS continuum. There is a widely recognised need to consider the RS system as a single continuum, spanning traditional disciplinary silos (including JPI Water and JPI Oceans) and overcoming the gaps between the existing European environmental policies (e.g. Water Framework Directive 2000; Floods Directive 2007; Marine Strategy Framework Directive 2008; Natura 2000). DANUBIUS-RI will have the capability of providing the evidence base required for a more comprehensive framework for future European environmental policy making.

1.1.1. What are the Supersites? As presented in the ESFRI application and the DANUBIUS-PP Ontology Reference Document, Supersites are the components of the DANUBIUS-RI distributed Research Infrastructure which will be the test beds of the DANUBIUS-RI scientifically excellent ideas, areas where the developed concepts will be refined and verified.

A Supersite:

 Is a defined area of water/land and a site for research and observation activities. However, it is not a local network of institutions nor a research site only for DANUBIUS-RI components  Is a site for access by researchers, students and professionals across Europe and elsewhere.  May be the national focus for DANUBIUS research community in the host country Supersites will provide natural laboratories for observation, research, modelling and innovation at locations of high scientific importance and opportunity, covering RS systems from river source to transitional waters and coastal seas. Ranging from the near pristine to the heavily impacted, the Supersites will be selected to provide contrasting systems across environmental,

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social and economic gradients that have been impacted, to varying degrees either directly or indirectly, by industrialisation, urbanisation, population expansion, land use change and farming. They will provide interdisciplinary research platforms and identify, model and define system states and conditions for naturally and anthropogenically triggered transitions in the physical, biogeochemical and biological states. They will provide excellent opportunities to undertake social and economic investigations in contrasting settings.

Furthermore, Supersites:

 Provide access to a unique RS system – or part of a RS system - where unique scientific interesting/relevant aspects can be studied  Do not duplicate existing monitoring/analysis efforts, but where offered, DANUBIUS- RI will make use of already generated data (e.g. from routine monitoring) that are/or can be made available to the DANUBIUS-RI community  Build on / make use of existing infrastructure (incl. governance) and willingness to operate according the DANUBIUS Commons and to do extra analyses (i.e. additional sensors, measurements etc.)  Will involve many field sites/observatories/spots where the actual data gathering takes place  Cover a geographical determined area, but not with pre-defined size (i.e. minimum or maximum defined m2): scientific arguments define the actual size of the area. This area can cover an entire (small) RS system (like Nestos) or in a large RS system there maybe more than one Supersite (like the Danube river basin, where we have selected three)  Are open for all researchers and students, both from research institutions in DANUBIUS-RI member countries and from research institutions in other European countries and globally.  Are/provide ‘gateways’ i.e. facilitate access for research in specific parts of RS system: ‘from the mountains to the sea’. This includes helping to acquire any necessary permits/authorization for visiting the sampling sites, taking samples and doing experiments.  There is willingness to store physical samples and/or to prepare such samples and then either store them locally or send them to a central storage facility at the Hub.

Supersites list

DANUBE DELTA (Romania), MIDDLE DANUBE - SZIGETKÖZ (Hungary), UPPER DANUBE (Austria), ELBE-NORTH SEA (Germany), EBRO-LLOBREGAT DELTAIC SYSTEM (Spain), NESTOS (Greece), PO DELTA AND NORTH ADRIATIC LAGOONS (Italy), THAMES ESTUARY (United Kingdom). Another four proposals for Supersites were made and recently accepted by electronic voting of the General Assembly partners: TAY CATCHMENT (United Kingdom), MIDDLE RHINE (Germany), RHINE-MEUSE DELTA (the Netherlands) and GUADALQUIVIR ESTUARY (Spain). Descriptions of the twelve are included in the Annex.

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1.1.2. Connectivity with the other components of the RI  Hub The Hub, besides its role as Headquarters (management and coordination of the RI), will also be:

‐ Accredited Service Provider for the Observation, Analysis and Impact Nodes, covering tthe major gap existing in advanced research capabilities in SE Europe in general, and in the Lower Danube – Danube Delta – Black Sea area in particular. ‐ Hosting Institution for the Danube Delta Supersite ‐ Repository of digital and non-digital data (of use to Danube Delta Supersite, but also for other areas of interest, including other Supersites, by request). Information communication between Hub (in particular the DANUBIUS-RI Headquarters and the Executive Team) and Supersites:

a. Scientific data: i. Data collected at the Supersites are made available to the Hub via the Data Centre. The Hub will provide storage for non-digital data, to be developed with the support of the Analysis and Observation Nodes (by default for the Danube Delta Supersite, by request for others). ii. A special case is the Danube Delta Supersite, for which the Hub is the Hosting Institution – providing storage for both digital and non-digital data b. Flux of information for the DANUBIUS-RI Executive Team i. Supersite management teams are to provide the Headquarters with periodical management reports, containing information on the technical state of the Supersite facilities, level of access provided to users, DANUBIUS-RI users, education and communication exercises, potential cooperation offers from territory, dynamics of the relations with the local stakeholders. ii. These reports will be grouped into periodic Supersites management reports, to be made available in throughout the entire RI in a transparent way. iii. The Executive Team and / or Supersites management teams bidirectionally communicate in an effective manner for any urgent matter arising (unexpected technical difficulty, urgent requirements from specific stakeholders etc).

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iv. Common Supersite issues are circulated either by the Executive Team or each specific Supersite between the management structures for each Supersite (in case of specific requests, common technical, scientific, financial etc issues). Records of these internal communications are to be held at the Headquarters, as coordination unit for the entire RI, for reporting purposes.  Nodes The capability and functioning of the Node may be dependent on replication of facilities and methodologies within Supersites, where conditions permit and where measurements or observations are required. Node-related activities that are common to all Supersites will require standardisation within DANUBIUS-RI and shall be governed by the DANUBIUS Commons.

(i) The Observation Node will exploit satellite, airborne, drone and in-situ sensing capabilities. Routine data acquisition from satellite platforms will necessitate the deployment of standardised sensors from fixed, buoy and occasionally drone platforms for calibration and validation (cal/val) activities. The Supersites will be responsible for in-the-field maintenance for the equipment and adherence to the DANUBIUS Commons. Where sensors are required to provide traceable and quantifiable measurements, training and annual servicing and calibration will be required at the Node to ensure comparable system performance and deployment within and between Supersites. Airborne, drone and in-situ sensors may also be deployed to fill the gaps in Earth observation capability, as a result of limitations in spatial, temporal and radiometric resolution and overall sensing capability.

(ii) The Analysis Node will be responsible for the implementation of the Commons associated with samples collected and analysed within DANUBIUS-RI. For variables that are common to all Supersites, which may include perishable and non-perishable samples, the Analysis Node will ensure that samples are collected, stored and processed and analysed according to the DANUBIUS Commons. The Analysis Node will also be responsible for implementing procedures for sample collection, preservation and transportation of Supersite samples requiring specialist analysis at the Node. (Leading Institution or ASPs).

(iii) The Modelling Node will take advantage of the data availability provided within the Supersites, for cal/val activities to feed into the model development and refinement. The Modelling Node will provide interchangeable re-usable tools for each Supersite, integrating the fundamental processes characterising each RS system, on different spatial and temporal scales and providing services built around the specific requirements and conditions of each Supersite.

(iv) The Impact Node will work closely with each Supersite and its Stakeholders to implement procedures that identify the key communities that would benefit from data, information and knowledge being generated at each Supersite to promote sustainable management options that will contribute to societal wellbeing and economic development. Supersites will be responsible for providing the social, economic and business partner data and

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stakeholder requirement, which will provide the framework for developing stakeholder engagement and the development of tools to maximise communication, understanding and impact.

 Data Centre The Supersites are major data generators, and a strict connection must be continuously maintained with the Data Centre.

Supersites need local storage capabilities for digital and non-digital (where appropriate) data. The Data Centre may provide back-up storage capabilities for all Supersites` digital data. Supersite teams periodically update the metadata lists and provide the updated versions to the Data Centre.

In case of metadata structure / data format (decisions are to be taken by the General Assembly of DANUBIUS-RI, based on recommendations from the Data Centre team, developed in cooperation with the Nodes and Supersites experts), Supersite teams must implement these changes in their existing facilities / equipment.

 Technology Transfer Office The overall purpose of the Technical Transfer Office is to commercialise the research results and the research and innovation opportunities. Supersites represent the “strongholds” of DANUBIUS-RI in the territory, permanently interacting with the local stakeholders.

Hence, there needs to be a permanent, tight and bidirectional communication between the TTO and the Supersites. Information of the requests of the stakeholders, desires and observations from the various categories of users, other business opportunities existing or appearing in the Supersites are to be signalled to the TTO, as well as to the Headquarters. The TTO must then, with the support of the DANUBIUS-RI Executive Team, give the requested advice, but also define specific strategies and their implementation in the territory.

1.1.3. Connectivity with the other Supersites Each Supersite is on equal terms, rights and responsibilities with the other Supersites, communication being bidirectional. The principles of solidarity and mutual cooperation must exist between Supersites. In case of any specific issue / discovery of malfunctioning / unexpected results / behaviours of equipment etc – Supersite Managers should inform also the other teams from other Supersites and Nodes), so that a common wisdom on Supersite management is gained.

In case of creation of a new Supersite, other Supersite teams will help by sharing their experience, best practice, advise on how to overcome practical and technical problems. Other Supersites will also assist the connection of a new Supersite to the other Supersites and the other components of the RI.

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1.1.4. Timeline for Supersites to become operational Since initial plans to develop the DANUBIUS-RI Supersites go back only 4 years (the concept dates back to 2014), different Supersites are at different levels of maturity. Some can be made easily operational (probably in less than 2 years); some are still to be adapted to the specificities and rules of DANUBIUS-RI; and some are still to be developed from the very beginning.

Activities developed by the DANUBIUS-PP consortium towards the transformation of the Supersites into operational data generators, parts of the single pan-European entity, comprise the following categories:

‐ Technical: o Implementation of DANUBIUS Commons for a clear compatibility of data collected in all the Supersites (the Commons are still being developed) o Creation of “shopping list” (for both new and, where needed, replacement equipment o Establishment of best locations in the field for equipment positioning o Construction and connection to the rest of the RI ‐ Governance o Establishment of the local consortium o Training of the staff to understand the principles of DANUBIUS-RI and DANUBIUS Commons o Connections with the local community of users to enhance cooperation o Connections with the rest of the RI o Connections in the field with other RIs ‐ Financial o Applications for construction costs o Determination of operational costs. When all these actions are successfully fulfilled and the data flux starts flowing to the RI, then the Supersite can be considered as operational. Time spans vary between the end of the PP, the scheduled period when DANUBIUS-ERIC should become active (2023) and 2026. Individual timelines are presented in the Annex for each Supersite.

Nevertheless, the door is open towards the development of new Supersites, if these bring added value to the RI. Works to develop these new Supersites should have the three action categories in mind.

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1.2. DANUBIUS Commons and working Standards in Supersites Before integrating Supersites in the RI, all measured / analysed parameters must be checked to see whether they comply with the DANUBIUS Commons. Areas where compliance is not existing must be pointed out and special plans for integration with the rest of the RI must be drawn.

Formats used to record the data collected from the Supersite must use the DANUBIUS Commons standards for data collection, storage and use. A clear role falls on the Modelling Node, which must present its specific requests for data files to be easily integrated in the numerical models.

Common formats for Supersites digital data will be thus designed for:

‐ digital data storage (long term storage of physical samples / specimen bank) ‐ digital data needs for the modelling Node ‐ metadata on non-digital samples Non- digital data storage facilities needed for each Supersite should also be taken into account, based on specific requests from each specific case.

‐ biota samples / genetic diversity data base ‐ sediment samples / cores ‐ water samples ‐ other (specific needs for sample pre-treatment to be included here, for example, slicing of cores under N2 atmosphere) A list of the proposed common parameters to be measured in all Supersites is presented in Table 1. This table of parameters aims to list the main categories of parameters to be measured or analysed, types of collected data, proposed methodologies and analysis, proposed mesocosms and frequency of measurements. This is a guiding document for the team developing the DANUBIUS-RI Supersites and is a “living document”. The core parameters were chosen to be easily measurable in all Supersites. As the Supersites develop, new parameters will be added to this category. The list of secondary parameters comprises measurements and analysis that will be done in the Supersites to fulfil the scientific goals os DANUBIUS-RI. Some of these will became core parameters as the Supersites develop. There are also site specific parameters, for example, “shoreline position” in Supersites located in the coastal zone. All parameters have to be compatible between Supersites.

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Table. 1. Table of parameters and categories of parameters measured and / or analysed in Supersites, as well as types of measurements and analysis

Measured core parameters  Water discharge  Water level (including Tidal range in coastal - marine)  Wave parameters (height, length, direction of wave front)  Chlorophyll a  Turbidity  Temperature  Conductivity/Salinity  pH  NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP  Carbon (TOC, DOC)  Dissolved oxygen  Water current (flow) characterisation  Bathymetry  Total suspended matter  Total suspended sediments  Bed load  Grain size distribution of suspended sediments  Grain size distribution of bed load sediments  Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita Measured secondary  Subsidence parameters  Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr,  Pollutants (organic)  Pollutants (emerging pollutants)  oxygen fluxes  CO2 system characterisation  stable isotopes as source-sink tracer  radiogenic isotopes for sediment dating  Mineralogy  Ecotoxicology

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 Benthic chambers for fluxes  Macro characterization of ecosystems  Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub-soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) - Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial- wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos)  Microbiology  Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy)) Specific parameters for  e.g. shoreline position, beach transverse profiles, etc each Supersite

Methods and procedures for data collection

Type of collected data Regarding the position of the sensors / data collectors  remote (e.g. satellite based, drones, ROVs, acoustic)  in situ

Regarding the availability of real-time information  online – real time  offline

Regarding sampling tools and methodology  in situ sampling: water, sediments, biota, ecological.

Regarding sampling tools:  Niskin bottles, grabs, corers (sediments, benthos), nets (nekton, plankton, benthos), traps (sedimtns, biota)

Not directly collected data:  indirect  lab analysis

Ecosystem investigation  visual census (for ecosystem investigation), Photointerpretation  regular, random, stratified observations (for community investigation)

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Proposed mesocosms type  lentic, lotic, transportable etc. Mesocosms equipped for e.g. eDNA sampler, Data logger, Vertical &Horizontal the measurement of Radar, field calibration by scope, binoculars, fotocamera, different parameters fototrap camera, drones, fishing gears, plankton net Periodicity of  continuous measurements /  periodic (daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal, over observations years)  dedicated surveys  event driven Mesocosm Matrices:  water  air  sediments  total suspended solids  biota (epiphytic, soil, sub-soil)  gasses

1.3. Supersite Governance The Supersite functioning is to be managed by a Hosting Institution, which is part of the DANUBIUS-RI consortium.

Due to the complex situation in each Supersite (which is, in the end, an open natural environment and not a closed laboratory), in most of the cases the Host Institution is not the only one operating in the same environment. Due to the potential presence of scientific excellence in various institutions covering different scientific fields from the same Supersites, wherever appropriate the governance of the Supersite will be composed of a Hosting Institution, which coordinates a Local Consortium.

The specific rules on site accessibility, local coordination, hierarchy, interactions, funding availability and funding sustainability, plans for procurement etc are to be taken at the level of each Supersite, following the DANUBIUS Common set of rules and standards derived from DANUBIUS-PP and/or at a later stage from the ERIC statutes or other dedicated documents.

General description of the proposed internal governance for each Supersite:

• Supersite Manager: representative for the Supersite, interface with the DANUBIUS-RI Operations Director, works closely with the Executive Team and the local governance structure at the local level.

The Local Consortium, led by the Supersite Manager and Hosting Institution, will organize, according to national rules and law, in order to support the correct and sustained implementation of the DANUBIUS-RI principles in the field, representing the “ambassadors” of the infrastructure in the field. The local governance bodies must comprisegroups and

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committees dealing with the Technical aspects, the Scientific part, under the umbrella of a coordination group, which is responsible for the local governance.

1.4. Procurement, Staffing and Training Policy The development of a distributed RI at European level, which also aims to set standards of excellence in RS research, offers a significant opportunity for joint procurement. This may result in better deals than those made at single institution level. This issue must be held in mind during the Construction Phase, when the ERIC is in place, and must respect all rules at local, regional and national level.

Development of the DANUBIUS Commons requires specific training of the dedicated staff – which is why a common staffing and training policy must be implemented. In the meanwhile, plans for secondment throughout the various DANUBIUS-RI Supersites are to be drawn up and implemented. The possibility offered by DANUBIUS-RI to a professional / academic / technician to go on secondments / stages / training courses throughout the twelve (or more in the future) DANUBIUS-RI Supersites is to open unique possibilities for those aiming to start a career in related fields.

The staffing policy should aim at the best of the best. To avoid duplication, plans for a minimum number of excellent trained permanent staff and their position – within or outside the ERIC – must consider any existing availability for support in the Hosting Institutions. Nevertheless, the detailed plans are still to be developed at a later stage, with time and detailed negotiation within the consortium and with the Host Institution administrations.

A series of concepts are proposed for discussion in the following months of the Preparatory Phase project:

1. Supersite Staff may be seconded by the members to the ERIC for a limited period of time, or for a specific purpose (for example, members of the Supersite Scientific Committee). This could be an in-kind contribution to the ERIC.

2. The ERIC will recruit its own staff (base funding). The employment contracts will generally be governed by the law of the country in which staff are undertaking its activities. They could be permanent dedicated personnel: administrative and technical staff to run the RI (Supersite CG, Technical Team, Supersite Manager), "working group leaders" (e.g. leader on sedimentology measurements, chief of chemical laboratory, etc).

3. Staff employed by the partners of the Supersite may be involved in the ERIC activities, to be dedicated to specific and limited activities, without any change in their employment status; they could be researchers, administrative staff, technicians, etc. Part of their salary might be covered by ERIC through the specific partner.

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4. The training policy could comprise the publication of call for researchers, the realization of internships (through conventions with local Universities), the publication of scholarships and/or prizes for students/graduates/PhDs. ERIC contributes to the mobility of knowledge and/or researchers.

With regards to the procurement policies:

On long-term support for facilities, it’s important to underline that ERICs may set their own procurement rules based on transparency, non-discrimination and competition. This is possible because ERICs are considered as international bodies/ organisations for the purposes of the EU Directives on public procurement, VAT and excise duties. This type of contracts may be needed in case of involvement of consulting companies for the execution of specific field activities for which members are not already equipped.

A re-financing programme for the various equipments are to be made for each Supersite. In the case of the Upper Danube Supersite (Austria), a general RI is partly in place (for next 5 years).

1.5. Function and services The Supersite establishment covers specific needs of the local community, with the following main functions:  to create and provide scientific knowledge for the whole area and new methodologies and tools for governance and management, in synergy with existing initiatives and the local community of stakeholders.

 to provide complex scientific data from designated areas in RS systems, where all concepts of DANUBIUS-RI will be tested and put into practice. Supersites are the gateways to the natural laboratories, open to all categories of users. Functions and services of the Supersites will focus on:

1) training of students,

2) facilitating data provision for the wider academic community, including validated satellite data

3) sample sharing,

4) facilitating access to the Supersites (equipment provision for field work, both for monitoring and for tool testing)

5) enabling scientists access to site-specific analytical facilities or automatic instrumentation,

6) a team of scientists from different countries that will work on field with common procedure and methodologies

6) provide scientific knowledge

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7) provide new tools and models for management and policies

The major role in education is focussed not only on academic training, but also on training the local communities, life-long education for various categories of professionals, as well as in raising public awareness. Hosting Institutions of Supersites and local consortia may also organize scientific events and other dedicated workshops.

Several Supersites are already envisaged as common field points with other major research infrastructures (ESFRI projects and Landmarks).

1.6. Users and Stakeholders – general and local Each Supersite must have a strong and clearly defined community of users and local / regional stakeholders. These are not only potential strategic customers but also key partners, who will support the sustainability (both scientific and financial) of DANUBIUS-RI. Permanent dialogue and involvement of users and stakeholders ensure the chance to permanently remain on top of the scientific market for a long period of time. Besides the Scientific Community and Academia, DANUBIUS-RI needs other categories of users and stakeholders, which prove the high societal potential of our research infrastructure. A brief description of existing stakeholders and users is included in each Supersite presentation / Annex.

Supersites serving the local community:

 Supersites will provide specific services (collaboration with local authorities, agencies, NGOs etc) and access two different programs  Supersites, with local communities and other partners may identify diverse environmental and societal problems, they can communicate to the consortium and find solutions for specific cases.

1.7. Potential for Co-operation with other ESFRI Landmarks or active RI Projects The DANUBIUS-RI Supersites offer a significant opportunity for a fruitful collaboration with other ESFRI Landmarks and Projects, as well as with other significant RI initiatives or projects:  LifeWatch ERIC -The protection of biological diversity is not only a goal of nature conservation but also is a basis of the life supporting ecosystem services. Data from the DANUBIUS-RI Supersites, competence and training should be made available to the LifeWatch ERIC virtual laboratories. On the other side, LifeWatch ERIC can provide knowledge on how to empower the range of e-services to be provided within DANUBIUS-RI. The Guadalquivir Estuary Supersite is a common area for both DANUBIUS-RI and LifeWatch.

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 PRACE - collaboration in concerning modelling activities, provision of computing time, construction of computing infrastructures particularly for the increase of the connectivity net (fibre) within the Supersite area.  EMSO ERIC – has been the first ESFRI Landmark to provide support to DANUBIUS- RI, due to its very specific objectives. Thus, DANUBIUS-RI is seen as a connection between EMSO (marine observatories) and the upstream part of the water continuum, up towards the freshwater basins. This is one of the reasons why EMSO ERIC, with its experience and expertise, has been included as a partner in the DANUBIUS PP project.  ICOS ERIC has also given support to DANUBIUS-RI. Two Supersites either already have (Nestos) or plan to install (Danube Delta) atmospheric research towers, to have the connectivity with ICOS ERIC in areas where no information is now provided (coastal wetlands).  EPOS – which has given support to DANUBIUS-RI is a significant ESFRI distributed RI throughout Europe, providing extremely valuable information on the geodynamics, geology and geological structure and processes of the European territory. Under its umbrella, supplementary information on geodynamic processes in coastal wetlands, sediment sampling, etc will be provided via DANUBIUS-RI.  EMBRC ERIC is a RI project of major importance to DANUBIUS-RI in the understanding of genetic biodiversity of freshwater, transitional, but mainly coastal and marine organisms.  Tests with EUROARGO ERIC floats could be made on the marine part of RS continua – to understand the water flow characteristics and contents at the deeper limit of RS interactions.

Even though not on the ESFRI Roadmap, there are possible connections between DANUBIUS- RI Supersites and other networks:  eLTER – regarding the watershed and transitional water environments. Both the Po Delta – Northern Adriatic Lagoons and Upper Danube Supersites cover existing eLTER sites.  GEANT - in Supersites with Modelling Node activities.  AquaCosm – the network of mesocosm facilities – could provide best practice and standards for the development of Supersite mesocosms.  EUROFLEETS network is also of potential support, as services/ maintenance works / etc to the marine part of the Supersites could be performed with ships from this alliance.  HYDRALAB network of hydraulic modelling facilities, with its focus on ecohydraulics and studies on climate change impacts on water (including ice), vegetation and sediment flows could become a key partner for DANUBIUS-RI in providing specific expertise and facilities.  DREAM – as Flagship Project of the EU Strategy for the Danube Region dealing with hydraulic engineering for the Danube River plans to have a large scale and “natural laboratory” as part of the Danube Delta Supersite. Draft ideas of cooperation already

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exist, as they have been developed during the FP7 DANCERS project and are presented in a dedicated book (Stanica et al., 2015).

1.8. Scientific specialization for each Supersite Table 2.

SUPERSITE SCIENTIFIC SPECIALIZATION

DANUBE DELTA  Genesis and evolution of the Danube Delta, under the influence of humans and in a changing climate  Define the limits of transitional waters at the Danube – Black Sea interface and understand biogeochemical processes from these environments  Water and Sediment dynamics in the Danube River- Delta – Black Sea continuum  Eutrophication/Hypoxia in the Danube Delta & western Black Sea (Danube Delta Supersite)  Plans for a sustainable use of of biological resources (prevent depletion of stocks of marine, freshwater and migratory organisms)  Solutions to deal with external environmental pressures (either from upstream or from updrift).  Eco-engineering (“green”) solutions for the sustainable management of the Danube Delta – Biosphere Reserve  Obtain an equilibrium between biodiversity of the Danube Delta and sustainable development of local communities

MIDDLE DANUBE  Assessing the surface–subsurface water interactions  Analyzing the changes induced by anthropogenic effects  Establishing hydrological models for the anticipated drought effects caused by climate change  The area serving as a learning ground, how to prepare strategies to dampen the negative effects of climate change,  Assessing the changes in ecosystem services due to drought effect caused by anthropogenic alteration of riverine systems  Implementation into the social and ecological setting of the Danube River-Delta-Sea system (from spring to sea) a. social changes and models b. climate change c. policy making.

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UPPER DANUBE  Focus on alpine, pre-alpine systems and headwaters and upstream regions in the DRB  Research on climate change effects and multiple pressures on aquatic ecosystems  Aquatic Ecosystem research  Role of aquatic ecosystems in global matter cycles  Aquatic biodiversity

EBRO LLOBREGAT  Making weather/climate dynamics compatible with DELYAIC SYSTEM socio-economic uses.  Advance in the sustainable engineering for deltaic coastal systems.  Contribute to develop a more sustainable culture of land/water uses.

ELBE-NORTH SEA  Understand human and socio-economic drivers for ecosystem state changes in the Elbe-North Sea system, and what are the consequences of their impact on ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services  Understand tipping points for the functioning of the socio-ecologic system of the Elbe-North Sea continuum (reduction of system resilience)  Impact of extreme events on river-sea continuum and how to measure and understand them  Coupling of terrestrial, estuarine and marine models (including data assimilation, suspended matter, biogeochemistry and higher trophic levels GUADALQUIVIR  Benefits of a high turbidity environment as refuge area ESTUARY for the breeding of fish, molluscs or crustaceans species during its larval and juvenile phases.  Relationship beetwen the amount of benthic and suprabenthic communities and hydrodynamism of the main channel, the high turbidity and the irregular flow of freshwater due to the regulation of the channel, among other aspects  Study of the presence and introduction of invasive species and the associated early warning protocols in an scenario of low concetration of autochthonous species.  Providing climate change studies through sentinel stations

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 Study of the incidence of regulation of the water regime in the main physicochemical and bioecological variables of the estuary  To set guidelines for the sustainability of an environment with high sensitivity and multiple overlapped usages  Study about the hydrodynamic regime, including the propagation of the tide along 100 km of estuary  Turbidity studies in one of the most turbid estuaries in the world (provenance, behaviour, etc.)  Identification of the main ecological relationships, in general, and trophic, in particular, of the estuary and its relation with the bioecology of fisheries NESTOS  Study impacts of water abstraction and river damming; sediment starvation and coastal erosion  Eco-engineering solutions to mitigate the river damming impacts (with mesocosm-mesohabitat fascilities); develop and test ecohydrological solutions (habitat stress from Τ, nutrient, oxygen, water flow fluctuations).  Implementation of existing environmental flow methods and development of novel methodologies on ecosystem assessment and ecological flow determination  “Turning European dams into Green dams” optimizing the water resources for reservoir and hydro-energy production managers.  Study hydrological-biological interactions in a small river; the role of rivers-deltas-lagoons as nesting and spawning grounds for salt and fresh water fish.  Biogeochemical and material flux changes (past, present and future) along river-delta-sea continuum in a small river system impacted by dams.  Geomicrobiology (Water/sediment/microbial interactions) in river-delta-sea systems.  Green House Gas Emissions from a river, delta sea system with in-situ continuous measurements (in collaboration with ICOS)

PO DELTA AND  Studies on the role of transitional environment in the NORTH ADRIATIC interface between the river and the sea and LAGOONS quantification of the interaction (physical and ecological) between the different components of the system.

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 The role of Lagoons in trapping and releasing sediment and pollutants.  Studying the deltaic lagoon ecosystems and associated fisheries processes (nursery etc) in terms of resilience and capability to cope with RS system changes (present state and in a climate change perspective).  Studying land use as a major driver pollution, water quality and water exploitation.

MIDDLE RHINE  Inland navigation and waterways  Sediment balance and river morphology  Climate change and flood risk as well as flood protection  Water and sediment quality issues  River restoration, preservation and increase of biological diversity  Competing demands in large river systems RHINE-MEUSE-  Hydrology: low en high flow of water, associated water DELTA quality issues (chemistry and ecology), response to climate change etc.  Sediment quantity: sediment distribution/balance and its evolution and associated issues such as bed- and coastal erosion, hydromorphology, navigation related issues, response to climate change etc.  Salt intrusion TAY CATCHMENT  Evolution of a boreal catchment in relation to land use and anthropogenic changes  Sedimentation dynamics from the substantial drainage in the catchment and impacts within the transitional and coastal environments  Availability of carbon for global biogeochemical cycling. Phytoplankton phenology and eutrophication dynamics  Managing extreme events (flood and drought). Implications for land management and mitigation measures  Assessing impact of industrial development in the Tay Estuary and developing appropriate mitigation strategies to support economic and social development THAMES ESTUARY  Understanding algal dynamics in order to predict the timing, magnitude and duration of chlorophyll blooms.  Understanding dynamics for individual plankton groups (i.e. cyanobacteria).  Nutrient Dynamics and eutrophication processes  Generalize knowledge to other river catchments

DANUBIUS-PP Deliverable 5.10

1.9. Rules for incorporating new Supersites into the DANUBIUS-RI distributed Research Infrastructure Supersites are the natural laboratories which will be the test beds of the DANUBIUS-RI scientifically excellent ideas, areas where the developed concepts will be refined and verified. Given the overwhelming number of environmental challenges and scientific questions DANUBIUS-RI needs to deal with, new Supersites should provide the added value they bring in to the infrastructure and its community of users.

It must be clearly stated that Supersites do not intend to duplicate existing environmental monitoring stations / networks of stations within river catchments and / or coastal monitoring stations. DANUBIUS-RI intends to be a major scientific support to these stations / monitoring networks, with whom it intends to have a tight cooperation. This is why Supersites focus on areas of critical scientific importance within RS continua. For example, the one existing Supersite covering an entire river-delta-coast (Nestos) takes into account the limited dimensions of the river catchment, as it looks almost like a scale model.

So – which are the conditions to qualify a DANUBIUS-RI Supersite?

For a Supersite to be selected three conditions must be simultaneously fulfilled:

a) scientific importance and relevance to the DANUBIUS-RI project

b) proven and/or potential scientific & technological capabilities (both in Host Institutions and an eventual local consortium as well as in staff - willing to become involved in DANUBIUS- RI)

c) long term financial sustainability for the Supersite to maintain itself as part of the DANUBIUS-RI distributed infrastructure. This is demonstrated by a proven political support / financial commitment from the government, which will ensure the running costs of the facilities over the years.

When developing a new Supersite, the rule of implementing the DANUBIUS Commons must be permanently kept in mind and applied from the very beginning. The following steps should be taken:

‐ Selection of parameters to be measured / analysed in the new Supersite; comparison with the common measurements in other Supersites to understand whether they fulfil the same goal (local specificities must be clearly presented). ‐ Selection of standards for these measurements / analysis / sample conservation etc – from the DANUBIUS Commons. ‐ Designation of the shopping list for new equipment / acceptance of existing equipment based on compliance with the DANUBIUS Commons. ‐ Definition and implementation of the DANUBIUS Commons rules in regards with the Data (collection, storage, transfer, back-up, open access, means of accessibility).

DANUBIUS-PP Deliverable 5.10

‐ Installation and testing of new / existing equipment respecting the DANUBIUS Commons to be done with participation of other parts of DANUBIUS-RI (Observation and Analysis Nodes, other Supersites), to ensure proper implementation of the project vision. ‐ Connection with other elements of the DANUBIUS-RI architecture in a proper and sustained way, joint work with the rest of the team towards full integration with the RI. ‐ (in the same time) specific training towards DANUBIUS Commons of the staff to be involved in Supersite works. Involvement of the new Supersites staff in secondment / training programmes within the DANUBIUS-RI sites. When selecting a new Supersite, an important point is the possibility to interconnect / cooperate with other ESFRI RIs or other major environmental research infrastructures or networks. This will improve and strengthen the landscape of European RIs in the field of the Environment.

Exercises regarding the methodology on how to include these into DANUBIUS-RI will be performed in the following months and are to become best practice for future Supersites.

These principles for accepting new Supersites will be used to develop guidelines and a checklist for assessing new proposals.

Systematic checking on how Supersites implement and respect the DANUBIUS Commons and the principles of the RI are to be made periodically (proposed – once every two years as routine checks and whenever necessary). These checks will be managed by the DANUBIUS-ERIC and will check how internal norms and rules are implemented and respected.

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Vincze, M., Borcia, I.D. and Harlander, U. (2017) Temperature fluctuations in a changing climate: an ensemble-based experimental approach. Scientific reports 7(1), 254. Vituki (2004) Annual Report, Environmental Protection and Water Management Research Institute Non-Profit Company, Budapest. Von Storch, H., Meinke, I. & Claußen, M. 2017. Hamburger Klimabericht: Wissen über Klima, Klimawandel und Auswirkungen in Hamburg und Norddeutschland, Springer-Verlag. Voynova, Y. G., Brix, H., Petersen, W., Weigelt-Krenz, S. & Scharfe, M. 2017. Extreme flood impact on estuarine and coastal biogeochemistry: the 2013 Elbe flood. Biogeosciences, 14, 541 Bárdossy, A. and Molnár, Z. (2004) Statistical and geostatistical investigations into the effects of the Gabcikovo hydropower plant on the groundwater resources of northwest Hungary/Analyses statistiques et géostatistiques des effets de la centrale hydroélectrique de Gabcikovo sur les ressources en eaux souterraines du Nord-Ouest de la Hongrie. Hydrological Sciences Journal 49(4). Von Larcher, T., Viazzo, S., Harlander, U., Vincze, M. and Randriamampianina, A. (2018) Instabilities and small-scale waves within the Stewartson layers of a thermally driven rotating annulus. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 841, 380-407. Völgyesi, I. (1994) A Kisalföld talajvíz- és rétegvíz helyzete. Hidrológiai Közlöny 74(5), 260-268. Winter, T.C. (1999) Relation of streams, lakes, and wetlands to groundwater flow systems. Hydrogeology Journal 7(1), 28-45. Weigelhofer, G.; (2016): The potential of agricultural headwater streams to retain soluble reactive phosphorus. Hydrobiologia, DOI: 10.1007/s10750-016-2789-4 Weigelhofer, G.; Ramiao, J. P.; Pitzl, B.; Bondar-Kunze, E.; O'Keeffe, J. (2018): Decoupled water- sediment interactions restrict the phosphorus buffer mechanism in agricultural streams. STOTEN doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.030 Williams RJ, White C, Harrow ML, Neal C. Temporal and small-scale spatial variations of dissolved oxygen in the Rivers Thames, Pang and Kennet, UK. Science of the Total Environment 2000; 251: 497-510. Winterwerp, J. 2013. On the response of tidal rivers to deepening and narrowing. Risks for a Regime Shift Towards Hyper-turbid Conditions. Winterwerp, J. C. & Wang, Z. B. 2013. Man-induced regime shifts in small estuaries—I: theory. Ocean Dynamics, 63, 1279-1292. Winterwerp, J. C., Wang, Z. B., Van Braeckel, A., Van Holland, G. & KösterS, F. 2013. Man-induced regime shifts in small estuaries—II: a comparison of rivers. Ocean Dynamics, 63, 1293- 1306. Wolf, A., Natharius, J., Danielson, J., Ward, B., Pender, J. 1999. International river basins of the World. International Journal on Water Resources Development 15(4), 387–427. Zamagni V. 1993. The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press Factsheet Elbe River Estuary, TIDE (Tidal River Development) Project, 2010-2013 Factsheet Hamburg Metropolitan Area, Statistical Office for Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, 2015 www.hafen-hamburg.de/en/adjustment-navigation-channel

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2. Annexe – Descriptions of Supersites

2.1. Danube Delta (Romania)

2.1.1. Introduction to the Supersite The Danube Region exemplifies many of the most serious and pressing problems confronting large river-delta-sea systems globally. With a basin of >800,000 km2 and a catchment encompassing 19 countries, the Danube River is also the most international river in the world (Figure 2.1.1a). It connects people with differing economic, social, cultural, and environmental heritages, as well as different political backgrounds (Sommerwerk et al., 2010). Of the countries that share the Danube catchment, 11 are EU Member States (Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Romania), while 8 are currently non-Member States (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Switzerland, Moldova, Montenegro, Macedonia, Serbia, Ukraine). The 8 non- EU countries are members of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) and are committed to the EU Water Framework Directive through specifically and formally binding commitments. After flowing for over 2,800 km across Central and Eastern Europe, the Danube River forms a wide delta, the Danube Delta, at its confluence with the Black Sea (Sommerwerk et al., 2009). The Delta is shared by Romania and the Ukraine (about 80% and 20%, respectively) and is the largest remaining natural wetland in the EU (~5 800 km2), which is one of the most valuable habitats for wildlife and biodiversity in the continent (Figure 2.1.1b). The Danube Delta was declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1990 and is included in the World Natural Heritage List, the RAMSAR Convention List and the UNESCO Programme Man and Biosphere. The Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Administration manages >5,500 km2 of protected coastal wetlands and has been involved for the past 25 years in the environmental restoration of degraded areas and conservation and sustainable management of the entire Biosphere Reserve territory. The Black Sea (Figure 2.1.1c) has an area >430,000 km2 and is surrounded by 6 countries: Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russian Federation, Turkey and the Ukraine. The Black Sea represents the physical boundary between Europe and Asia and has unique environmental characteristics. This semi-enclosed sea has a clear vertical stratification of water masses and is the largest anoxic basin in the world (giving rise to the definition of euxinic environment). Its salinity is significantly lower than the average of the Planetary Ocean and its water balance is controlled by the freshwater inputs from major rivers among which the Danube is the largest. Thus, the western Black Sea is strongly influenced by the water and sediment fluxes from the Danube (Panin et Jipa, 2002). Both the Black Sea and the Danube River are known to have been a major navigation route since ancient times, linking Asia and Europe. Their geo-strategic importance is still acknowledged today (e.g. the 7th European Transport Corridor). The abundance of resources (drinking water, fisheries, game, timber, fuel, construction materials) has long attracted

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settlements to rivers and coastal areas, which have impacted natural ecosystems. Today, coastal wetland systems are considered to be amongst the most productive, yet highly threatened, wetlands globally because of consistent and increasing development pressure, which is leading to the loss of both habitats and ecosystem services. Environmental degradation is a severe problem on coastal zones generally, given that such zones are negatively impacted by upstream catchment land use (MEA, 2005). Along rivers, the situation is similar as we witness the disappearance or function loss of numerous wetlands and floodplains. Historically, these generated multiple ecosystem services to human society (e.g. food production, water supply, water purification, climate regulation, flood regulation,). In the Danube River Basin, it is estimated that >80% of the former floodplains have been degraded or lost (www.icpdr.org), but fortunately in the Lower Danube and the Danube Delta such areas have been partly preserved. The Danube Delta is characterized by high habitat heterogeneity and host a rich diversity of biological communities, which are protected by the Birds and Habitats Directives, the WFD, the Ramsar Convention, the Green Corridor Agreement, and are part of the Natura 2000 Network. The combination of active sediment deposition at the river mouth, the surface and underground network of channels that allow water circulation in the Delta and the continuous modification of the Delta geography are additional arguments that make this area an invaluable natural laboratory where such processes can be studied in situ. The hydrological regime of the river Danube is relatively uniform (FP7 ARCH, 2012); characterized by a ratio between the minimum and maximum flowrate of 1:10 and an inland water courses ratio varying from 1:200 to 1:2000 (FP7 ARCH, 2012). As a result of the presence of dams, dikes and other stream-regulating structures the natural regime of the river runoff changes constantly. Based on the availability of materials that constitute sediment sources, and the geomorphologic and hydrodinamic conditions, the grain size of sediments varies from one place to another. The climate of the Danube Delta is temperate continental with Pontic climate influences, characterized by hot dry summers and very cold winters (FP7 ARCH, 2012). Position within the river-sea continuum The Danube Delta is located in the North-Western part of the Black Sea. The coastline is about 240 kilometres, of which ca. 160 kilometres lie in Romania. Anthropogenic history Since the second half of the 19th Century, when the European Commission for the Danube developed plans for safe navigation between the Danube and the Black Sea by managing channels, the Danube Delta has suffered significant changes from human interventions. Aiming first to solve navigation problems at the river mouths and straightening the waterway, humans expanded and intensified their actions which altered the natural state of the Delta. Fish farming, extensive reed harvesting and the development of agricultural polders are other activities that have grown in intensity over the last 2 centuries. Most significant changes were made during the communist times (1949-1989), when the natural status of the Delta itself was threatened. The change in the political regime has fortunately reversed the type of human interventions.

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After establishing the Biosphere Reserve status for the Danube Delta, significant international projects have been run to restore the natural state and equilibrium of the Delta. The Delta coast also suffered from intensified erosion phenomena due to human interventions (Stanica et al., 2007, Stanica et al., 2013).

Figure 2.1.1 – The three components of the Danube River – Danube Delta – Black Sea system: (a) the Danube River drainage basin (area ~817.000 km2) photo source www.projects.inweh.unu.edu; (b) the Danube Delta (area ~5 800 km2 – satellite image); (c) the Black Sea (area ~420.000 km2 – satellite image) The Delta experiences effects of Danube river damming at Iron Gates I and II, of embankments along the river course restricting the flooding space, and of pollutants that are brought by the river in the delta buffer zone and in the coastal sea in front of the delta. Other human pressure is expressed by overuse of natural resources, overfishing, and use of unfriendly catching or exploitation methods. Ecological consequences of human interventions to the delta are not

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completely understood and to date largely unpredictable. Additionally, there are a number of natural factors that strongly influence the evolution and the environmental state of the Danube Delta Supersite. Among these are global changes with the entire suite of external forcing as sea level rise, climate change, especially mean temperature increase, higher frequency of extreme events (storms, heavy rains, floods, droughts), subsidence and sediment compaction, and increased emissions of greenhouse gases. Current local community economic activities The Danube Delta’s population is concentrated in rural areas (67%) and its characterized by a trend of ageing population. The isolation of villages, the small dry land area contributes to preserving a small number of inhabitants and a low density: 4 inhabitants /km2 (2012 data). Alongside the resident households, there are many holiday homes, temporarily used in summer-time. The total summer population, including visitors, is estimated at 400-600 persons. Like the larger Dobrogea region, the ethnic structure of the Danube Delta is very diverse: Romanians (77.4%), Russian-Lipovans (16.95%), Ukrainians (3.52%), Greeks (0.74%) and Roma people (0.81%). (FP7 ARCH, 2012) The main official as sources of employment are: fishing and aquaculture, agriculture, forestry, industry, construction and commerce, tourism, transport, comunications, health system, education, culture, public administration.

2.1.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses  Genesis and evolution of the Danube Delta, under the influence of humans and in a changing climate  Define the limits of transitional waters at the Danube – Black Sea interface and understand biogeochemical processes from these environments  Water and Sediment dynamics in the Danube River - Delta – Black Sea continuum  Eutrophication/Hypoxia in the Danube Delta/western Black Sea area  Plans for a sustainable use of of biological resources (prevent depletion of stocks of marine, freshwater and migratory organisms)  Solutions to deal with external environmental pressures (either from upstream or from updrift).  Eco-engineering (“green”) solutions for the sustainable management of the Danube Delta – Biosphere Reserve  Obtain an equilibrium between biodiversity of the Danube Delta and sustainable development of local communities

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2.1.3. Vision Danube Delta (Figure 2.1.2) Supersite will be structured in 13 observation points (Figure 2.1.3), placed in areas of scientific importance and 6 permanent stations placed in most relevand administrative areas. Location of the Danube Delta Supersite

Figure 2.1.2 - Map with existing / proposed stations in the field that are part of the Supersite

Figure 2.1.3 - Map of the Danube Delta Supersite

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List of detailed observation points 1. Murighiol – Dunavat set of junction points: among natural meander belts of the Sf. Gheorghe distributary and the cut-off canals rectifying meanders, impact of cut-off canals on environmental state of the distributary and of the interdistributary depressions 2. Ceatal – Izmail (apex of the Danube Delta) – covers the Lower Danube upstream bifurcation and the Tulcea and Chilia distributaries, aims to understand the dynamics of water and particles flow distribution along the 2 major distributaries. 3. Pardina – located along Chilia distributary, downstream the town of Izmail. Focussed at understanding the role of urban and local agricultural inputs on the Chilia distributary and particle and biota exchanges with the existing canals and natural secondary waterways. 4. Periprava – located along Chilia Distributary, at the apex of the Chilia Secondary Delta 5. Tulcea - Ceatal Sf. Gheorghe – located downstream Tulcea town (the biggest city along the Danube Delta) and comprises the bifurcation of the Tulcea arm into Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe distributaries 6. Crisan – middle of Sulina Canal, junction with the middle part of the Old Danube natural course (left bank) and the Caraorman canal (right bank) and access to interdistributary depressions 7. Caraorman canal – covers the set of canals and lakes that communicate in the interdistributary depression and the evolution of the Letea-Caraorman Danube Delta Initial Spit. 8. Sulina – covers the Sulina distributary mouth into the Black Sea, the Musura (northern) Bay, and South Sulina coastal section, communication between the Sulina distributary and the Musura Bay (North) and with the Busurca Channel towards Rosu – Rosulet system of lakes 9. Sf. Gheorghe – covers the Sf. Gheorghe distributary mouth, its secondary delta and Sahalin Spit (right bank) and connection with the Tataru canal (left bank) 10. Dunavat Canal – Razelm Lake – covers the mixing area between the Dunavat Canal and the Razelm-Sinoe Lagoon System 11. Portita – covers the area around the former Portita natural inlet, closed by hydrotechnic works in 1974. Natural trends of re-opening of the inlet, marine – brackish – freshwater interactions. 12. Periboina – Edighiol inlets – covers the communication between Sinoe Lagoon and the Black Sea (inside the Lagoon, inlets, along the barrier beach in natural evolution and at sea) 13. Coastal station (buoy) for the NW Black Sea – Danube interaction. Measures the mixing area between the Danube River and Black Sea waters in the coastal sea under the river influence.

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List of permanent stations – part of the Danube Delta Supersite (covering the role of Hub as Danube Delta Supersite Hosting Institution) 1. Murighiol Hub Headquarters and laboratories 2. Chilia Veche primary sample preparation 3. Tulcea primary sample preparation and laboratories 4. Sulina primary sample preparation and laboratories 5. Sf. Gheorghe primary sample preparation and laboratories 6. Jurilovca primary sample preparation

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2.1.3.1. Table of parameters Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Measured and analysed parameters

Water discharge X X X X X X X X X X X X 0

Water level (including tidal range) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Waves and currents (coastal stations) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X

Water flow characterisation X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Temperature X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Conductivity/

Salinity X X X X X X X X X X X X X

pH (can also be done continuously) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Chlorophyll a X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Turbidity X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, X X X X X X X X X X X X X TP, SRP Carbon (TOC, DOC) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Dissolved oxygen X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Bathymetry X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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Total suspended matter X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Grain size distribution of sedimnets: suspended and bedload X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemp loyment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita X X 0 X X 0 0 X 0 0 0 0 0

bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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Geodynamics (subsidence) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, X X X X X X X X X X X X X Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Emerging pollutants X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Oxygen fluxes X X X X X X X X X X X X X

CO2 system X X X X X X X X X X X X X characterisation Stable isotopes as X X X X X X X X X X X X X source‐sink tracer Radiogenic isotopes X X X X X X X X X X X X X for sediment dating Mineralogy X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecotoxicology X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Benthic chambers X X X X X X X X X X X X X for fluxes Macro X X X X X X X X X X X X X characterization of ecosystems Biota (epiphytic, soil, X X X X X X X X X X X X X sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping

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(taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos) Microbiology X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecosystem X X X X X X X X X X X X X Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy))

Dynamics of the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X 0 X X X beach area (shoreline position and transverse profiles)

Type of

measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) X X X X X X X X X X X X X

In situ X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Online X X 0 X 0 0 X X X 0 X X X

Offline X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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In situ sampling X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Indirect X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Lab analysis X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecosystem X X X X X X X X X X X X X investigations

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No Y N N N N N N Y Y N N Y N

Focussed on:

Type of mesocosm: lotic, lentic, lotic, lentic,mari transportable etc. lentic,mari ne, sand ne, sea banks, sea lentic,mari lotic and shore, shore, ne, sea banks island banks shore

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Equipped for the eDNA eDNA eDNA eDNA eDNA eDNA measurements of sampler, eDNA sampler, sampler, sampler, sampler, eDNA sampler, the following Data sampler,D Data Data Data Data sampler, Data parameter logger, ata logger, logger, logger, logger, logger, Data logger, Vertical Vertical Vertical Vertical Vertical Vertical logger, Vertical &Horizont &Horizont &Horizont &Horizont &Horizont &Horizont Vertical &Horizont al Radar, al Radar, al Radar, al Radar, al Radar, al Radar, Radar, al Radar, field field eDNA field field field field field field calibration calibration sampler, calibration calibration calibration calibration calibration calibration by scope, by scope, scope, by scope, by scope, by scope, by scope, by scope, by scope, binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars binoculars , , , , , , , , , fotocamer fotocamer fotocamer fotocamer eDNA eDNA fotocamer fotocamer fotocamer eDNA fotocamer fotocamer eDNA a, fototrap a, fototrap a, fototrap a, fototrap sampler, sampler, a, fototrap a, fototrap a, fototrap sampler, a, fototrap a, fototrap sampler, camera, camera,dr camera,dr camera,dr Data Data camera, camera, camera, Data camera, camera, Data drones, ones, ones, ones, logger, logger, drones, drones, drones, logger, drones, drones, logger, fishing fishing fishing fishing ishing fishing fishing fishing fishing fishing fishing fishing fishing gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, gears, plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton plankton net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net, net

Periodicity

Continuous CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION CONTION UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / UOUS / FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN FREQUEN CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD CY TBD

Dedicated surveys X X X X X X X X X X X X X

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Periodically (monthly/Seasonally ) MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY

Event driven X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Matrices

Water X X X X X X X X X X X X X

air meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo

Sediments X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Total suspended solids X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Biota (specify Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, organism type) Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt Zooplankt on, on, on, on, on, on, on, on, on, on, on, on, Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth Zoobenth os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, os, Insects, fish, aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic zooplankt plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, on, phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan phytoplan kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton kton

Gases X ‐ to X ‐ to connect connect with ICOS X X X X X X with ICOS X X X X X

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Parametres to be measured in the Danube Delta Supersite (not just in the 13 proposed Frequenc points) y

shoreline position seasonal

beach transverse profiles seasonal

bathymetry profiles in critical areas of high the Danube Delta waters branches, channels, and low canals and lakes waters

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2.1.4. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution INCD GeoEcoMar, Romania Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution National Institute for Research and Development in Biological Sciences (INCDSB) “Danube Delta” National Institute for Research and Development The Institute of Biology of the Romanian Academy.

2.1.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.1.5.1. Existing facilities The National Institute of Research and Development for Marine Geology and Geo- ecology (GeoEcoMar) is a national institute in the marine geosciences and environmental sciences. GeoEcoMar carries out complex comprehensive surveys on the Danube River – Danube Delta – Coastal Zone – Black Sea geo-system. GeoEcoMar has a modern research infrastructure, including the 3,000 t R/V “Mare Nigrum”, the R/V “Istros” for rivers and coastal seas, a laboratory-house boat “Halmyris”, and modern buildings and laboratories in Bucharest and Constanta. This enables it to undertake complex, multidisciplinary studies in the framework of national and international programs. The GeoEcoMar has participated in projects of the European Commission (continuously since FP4 to Horizon 2020, but also projects funded by DG ENV and DG MARE), UN programmes in the Danube – Black Sea region, regional and trans-border programmes, as well as in bilateral cooperative projects with France, Germany, Italy and Switzerland. The main research fields of the GeoEcoMar are: marine geology and geophysics, mineral and energy resources, and environmental protection, focusing on the marine, coastal, deltaic and fluvial environments. The main objectives of the GeoEcoMar are:  to study the surficial and deep geological structures of the Danube-Danube Delta- Black Sea geo-system, to model and forecast its evolution under the influence of global climate change and sea level change;  to outline new resources (mineral, conventional and unconventional energy, biological)  taking into account legislation on environment protection;  to provide to decision-makers relevant scientific information on adaptive, sustainable and integrative management of the marine and coastal environments, in particular with respect to structure, protection and functioning of the characteristic ecosystems;  to study natural hazards specific to the marine, fluvial and lacustrine environments (landslides, gas release, tsunamis, erosion, floods, extreme seasonality etc.), their

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monitoring, forecasting and mitigation;  to study sedimentary paleo-environments for a better understanding of the modern depositional environment;  to implement up-to-date techniques, technologies and biotechnologies, including long- term monitoring systems;  to participate in the construction of platforms and technologic parks in order to study the deep-sea environment, to capture the sea flow of energy (waves, tides, gas hydrates, wind) and to improve positioning of marine constructions;  to study carbon dioxide capture and storage in geological structures as possible methods of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases; and  to participate in environmental education, to involve the younger generation in natural sciences with emphasis on the marine, coastal, deltaic, lacustrine and fluvial environments.

The National Institute for Research and Development in Biological Sciences (INCDSB) was founded in 1996 by merging three research institutes and one regional research centre (in Bucharest, Cluj, Iasi and Piatra Neamt) with inter-connected and complementary activities in the life sciences. The institute is a Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences. Its mission is to promote multidisciplinary basic and applied research in life sciences (cellular and molecular biology, biotechnology and biodiversity), to undertake scientific and socio- economic consulting, as well as to promote national and international networking. In the last decades, new branch offices and field stations have been established, the most significant of which is the branch office with laboratories in Constanta and Murighiol. This is an active research unit which focuses on biodiversity, ecology, environmental studies, as well as monitoring and development of conservation/restoration strategies. It is an affiliated centre of the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. It undertakes fundamental and applied research on biology, biochemistry and ecology in a highly competitive, networked research environment, and has attained high national and international visibility. INCDSB carries o u t research in the following areas which are closely related to DANUBIUS-RI:  biodiversity and measures of biodiversity restoration: ecology, eco-toxicology, especially molecular taxonomy and syn-taxonomy of species in Romania; plant and animal taxonomy; autecology, assessment of ecological risk factors affecting habitats; paleo-limnology;  sustainable development and sustainable resource utilization; structure, functionality and productivity of ecosystems;  molecular and cellular biology, especially molecular dynamics;  bio-analysis; development of methods for ecosystems monitoring (sensors; biosensors); impact of pollutants on ecosystem safety; bioremediation strategies;

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 evaluation of ecosystem modification against human health status and  bioinformatics; modelling and simulation.  biodiversity monitoring and assessment using novel technologies (UAVs, LiDAR, etc.)  biometrics, biostatistics, remote sensing measurement and analysis  calibration models and evaluation of ecosystem status  environmental risk assessment and predictive modelling INCDSB is providing R&D and analysis services for a number of Romanian and international organizations and structure, such as Ministry of Environment (advising on data management and formulation of predictive scenarios for Romanian Regulation Body “Apele Romane”), Bagdasar Arseni Hospital, National Institute of R&D for Food Bioresources, DSM Nutritional Switzerland etc. The “Danube Delta” National Institute for Research and Development, located in Tulcea, focuses on basic and applied research in ecology and environmental protection. The research results are applied to management of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (DDBR) and of other national and international wetlands with the goals of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. Major current research areas of the institute are:  Biodiversity conservation and sustainable development  Sustainable use of natural resources  Rehabilitation of certain threatened species populations  Ecological restoration  GIS The Institute of Biology coordinated by the Romanian Academy of Sciences has within its current structure three research departments: 1.Ecology, Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, focused on biodiversity assessment in natural ecosystems, evolution of natural ecosystems under natural and anthropogenic influence, taxonomy and chorology of endemic, rare and endangered plant and macrofungi species from the Romanian flora, identification of endangered habitats and their importance in the Natura 2000 network of protected areas; 2. Microbiology, focused on identification of taxonomic, structural and physiological diversity of microorganisms from natural environments under normal and extreme conditions, adaptation mechanisms under extreme and hostile environmental conditions, identification and study at the cellular and molecular level of certain structures and metabolites with bio(nano)technological potential, studies on microorganisms from polluted environments and their use in bioremediation of contaminated ecosystems; 3. Plant and animal cytobiology, focused on: the cellular and biochemical characterization of developmental processes in in vitro systems, threatened plant species for ex situ conservation and biotechnological applications, organization of an active gene bank of plant tissue cultures, identification and characterization of secondary metabolites of

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biotechnological interest, cell and molecular interactions at the tumor- peritumoral stroma interface, the role of activated stroma during carcinogenesis and tumor angiogenesis, modulator effects of the peritumoral stroma during invasivity, and reversion of the malignant phenotype. The institute has several field stations for ecological research throughout the country, covering also parts of the Danube Delta. Facilities existing in Sulina will support the development and functioning of the Danube Delta Supersite.

2.1.5.2. Plans for further development The Danube Delta Supersite – vision presented above - is going to be integrally built during the construction phase, which is about to start as soon as Structural Funds are accessed. The modality in which all steps are taken should be seen as a testing exercise on how the plans developed in the Preparatory Phase are efficient. The current chapter comprises all the parameters we intend to measure/analyse/understand in the Delta in order to respond to the challenges / main scientific questions. As Supersite coordinators, we shall collaborate with WP6 leaders in order to define the DANUBIUS Commons for the parameters we are going to understand in the Danube Delta Supersite. These will represent the basis for the designation of the complete list of equipment to be bought and installed. Field stations from the Headquarters in Murighiol and other several points (Chilia Veche, Tulcea, Sulina, Sf, Gheorghe, Jurilovca) will be developed in collaboration with the local administrations and the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Administration, as well as with other research entities from Romania (University of Bucharest – the base for coastal research in Sf. Gheorghe – for instance). Based on the list of equipment for sample primary preparation / preservation / analysis, the required spaces will be further defined.

2.1.6. Users and Stakeholders Local community of users The Danube Delta Supersite will be open to the academic and research community from the entire Romania, as well as for the scientific community in the neighbouring Ukraine (which covers 1/3 of the Danube Delta) and Moldova. The educational role will be enhanced, as plans for under- and post-graduate programmes, summer schools, intensive courses for students from the Romanian universities, as well as to those from all DANUBIUS-RI countries will be developed. Other relevant users are the local communities, which will benefit from the development of such a scientific infrastructure that will transform the delta into a living laboratory, other professionals in the field of water and marine research. Life-long education programmes will be developed for these main users. Local authorities, environmental, port and navigation authorities and the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Administration are not just stakeholders, but also major users of the scientific results obtained from the Supersite. Environmental NGOs will also be among the beneficiaries of these scientific results.

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Specialised companies dealing with equipment manufacturing / maintenance are also to be significant beneficiaries of the Danube Delta Supersite.

Local / regional stakeholders (Institutes, authorities, commissions or other initiatives that are active in the region) Since Romania is leading the entire project, when planning and allocating for this role, the Romanian Ministry for Scientific Research and Innovation has envisaged opening the scientific results obtained from the Supersite to the entire national network of National Research and Development Institutes, universities, Institutes of the Romanian Academy, companies dealing with Research and Innovation, etc. The data provenient from the Danube Delta Supersite will be made available to the national community through the dedicated Research and Innovation Subprogramme (named DANUBIUS-RI) of the Third National Programme for Research and Innovation PN III (2015 – 2020) and following. Other major stakeholders are the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Administration, local authorities, navigation authorities and companies (Lower Danube River Administration, Administration of the Danube Harbours, Administration of the Maritime Harbours), Dobrogea – Littoral Water Basin Administration (managers of the entire coast of Romania and of the water surface in the Danube Delta), Tulcea and Constanta Environmental Protection agencies, Ministry for the Environment, etc. The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River and the Black Sea Commission for the Protection of the Environment are also major stakeholders. UNESCO – Regional Office for Science and Technology in Europe is also a stakeholder, since the Danube Delta has the MAB (Man and the Biosphere) status of Biosphere Reserve – and will now prove how a “living laboratory” could be developed.

2.1.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational 2017 – 2018 are the years when the detailed application for Structural Funds for DANUBIUS- RI is being developed – including the Hub, Data Centre and the Danube Delta Supersite. A positive response is expected in the year 2019, when construction should also start. Since the funding is expected to be phased in two budgetary periods (2014 – 2020 and 2021 – 2027), all acquisition, installation and building procedures are to take place until – most optimistic – 2023 (when the ERIC should be functional) or, with unexpected situations etc- by 2025, when the entire project should be fully operational.

2.1.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) The setting up of the Danube Delta Supersite is to be funded by the Romanian Government, as part of the financial commitment that had been submitted together with the DANUBIUS ESFRI Proposal. The Romanian financial commitment to ESFRI for the construction and operation of the Romanian components of DANUBIUS-RI has been of a minimum 150 Million Euros (both Structural Funds and National contribution).

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Construction of the Supersite has been part of the planned Major Research Infrastructure Project, to cover two European budget exercises (2014 – 2020 and 2021 – 2027). The Proposal for Major Infrastructure Project, to be submitted to DG Regio, is in preparation, and should be ready by Mid-2019. The construction and operation should be ready, as mentioned above, between 2023 and 2025 (worst case scenario). Operation and maintenance costs are to be estimated during the proposal in course. Funds will be provided either from ERDF and national resources (DANUBIUS-RI has been included as sub-programme in the current Romanian National Programme for Research and Innovation, and will continue in the following one, on the model of ELI-NP).

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2.2. Middle Danube – Szigetköz (Hungary)

2.2.1. Introduction to the Supersite The river as a part of the hydrosphere is in active relationship with the atmo- and pedospheres and as an environmental corridor is highly fragile to anthropogenic influences. Although in science it has been accepted for decades that the surface- and subsurface waters are in dynamic contact with each other (Winter 1999), recharging one-another depending on the current hydrological situation (controlled by precipitation, runoff, climate conditions (aridity/floods), general water quality), for most of the general public this is still a mystery.

In this sense, the quality and quantity of surface water is highly important when it is recharging the shallow groundwater. Obtaining up-to-date knowledge on the relationship of the two water bodies (i.e. surface and subsurface one) is of the essence, since only this knowledge is one able to prevent/minimize negative anthropogenic effects (e.g. pollution, damming etc.) and remediate after havaria (e.g. oil spills). In parallel with the increase of the world’s population the demand for good quality and sufficient quantity of water for drinking and agriculture is increasing. However, the aquifers and surface water are unable to keep up with this pace due to pollution and misuse, caused by population growth. It is the most characteristic in third world countries, but even in the Danube watershed regions exists, where potable good water is in short supply. According to the UN’s report due to population increase water quality of surface and subsurface water bodies will further deteriorate and this phenomenon will further be accelerated by the effects of climate change: uneven distribution of precipitation, increase in the number and volume of extreme weather events causing larger than ever flash floods and arid conditions.

Therefore, subsurface water as a source for ecology, agriculture, recreation, etc. as well as a source for drinking water has an increasing importance nowadays. Since riverbank filtration is a low-cost water treatment technology that is used in many countries around the world for water supply, it is in the focus of interest. A series of physical, chemical, and biological processes take place between the SW, GW and the substrate, which can be altered by the previously mentioned climatic effects. Although the practice of riverbank filtration has been used in Europe for more than a century, our current understanding of the processes and mechanisms behind this technique are still limited, and therefore should improve in order to ensure its future operation.

The Szigetköz SUPERSITE in the middle section of the Danube River forms an inner delta and is the subject of a wide variety of anthropogenic influences, starting from the diversion of the river in the early 1990’s to the recurring modification of its river bed; which were monitored continuously. This area can provide a good basis to assess the relationship of the surface- and subsurface water in close relation to river bed clogging, and induced biogeochemical changes, and can help to evaluate vulnerability of riverbank filtered water supply systems as well.

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Position in the river-sea continuum

The Szigetköz SUPERSITE is located in the middle section of the Danube after it leaves the high-slope Alpine region and arrives in the floodplains in Hungary bordering Slovakia and marginally Austria. The area covered, the inner delta of th river is ~50 river km long. The Szigetköz floodplain is part of the Kisalföld, it is on the right bank of the Danube, on the Hungarian side. It is a huge delta system intersected by numerous islands of various sizes; to the north the main branch of the Danube borders it for 57.6 km, while on the south the Mosoni branch (in Hungarian, Mosoni-Duna) is the border for 121.5 km. Its area is 375 km2, and its elevation is 115-125 m above sea level in the northwest and 110-115 m in the southeast. The sediment carried by the Danube continuously fills the sinking basin of the Kisalföld. The Pliocene (Pannonian) sandy-clayey sediment sequence is more than 2000 m thick, while the Quaternary sandy gravel deposit series is 100-250 m thick.

The geographic setting of the Supersite, being on the border of 2 countries (Fig. 2.2.1) and being the subject of disputed river regulations/diversion between Slovakia and Hungary is interesting to explore from multiple aspects discussed below.

Figure 2.2.1. Szigetköz SUPERSITE located in Hungary next to its border with Austria and Slovakia Anthropogenic history The Szigetköz SUPERSITE, displays the effects of numerous human-induced problems affecting the interaction between surface water (SW) and shallow groundwater (SGW) flow along with all of the related environmental aspects discussed above. In 1992 the main branch

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of the Danube was redirected to an insulated power plant canal that re-joins the original riverbed only 27 river kilometer (rkm) downstream (Fig.2.2.1), causing an approx. 80% decrease in runoff in the original channel of the Danube (Smith et al. 2000), radically changing the previously obtaining hydrological (Habersack et al. 2016) and hydromorphological (Farkas-Iványi and Guti 2014) conditions. Consequently, the water level in the riverbeds dropped several meters, and by 1993, some of the Danube’s branches in the Szigetköz inner- delta had dried up. In such low discharge periods, most of the river bed is clogged with sediment transported from upstream (Goda et al. 2007, VITUKI 2004), blocking the interaction between surface- and SGWs (Cunningham et al. 1987). This layer is only broken up and/or removed in the case of floods, which restore the once-normal conditions.

The project was closed in 1996 (Smith et al. 2000). Up until this point, the level of the SGW in the hydrogeologically quasi-homogeneous and isotropic aquifer of several hundred meters’ thickness had been uniform (Völgyesi 1994) and had been determined mainly by the natural water level fluctuation of the Danube (Kovács et al. 2015b). This is particularly alerting, since the subsurface waters are mostly of surface (Danube) origin with a flow velocity of 500-530m yr-1 in the 100–250 m thick Quaternary sandy gravel deposit series (Stute et al. 1997) and their recharge mainly depends on the water level of the River Danube (Pethő S. et al. 2004). According to the almost a decade long observation, around the upper section of the SUPERSITE (1850-1835 rkm; Fig. 2.2.1) active recharge can be observed prevailing until 100m below ground around rkm 1845 (Scharek et al. 2000). Therefore, as the subsurface aquifer of the area stands in close connection with the surface water network, the level of SGW dropped significantly as well (Bárdossy and Molnár 2004) and the main riverbed started to tap the SGW along the Hungarian river bank (Hankó et al. 1998). Over the past 25 years, since the diversion, the mean discharge of the river in the Szigetköz has been at the level of the discharge observed only in arid years prior to 1992 (Smith et al. 2000).

Recharge from floods is known to change the local groundwater flow conditions (infiltration, mixing, movement) in the aquifer (Koeninger and Leibundgut 2001, Simmers 2013). This becomes even more explicit in the case of rivers with a decreased average streamflow and clogged riverbed. The floods in this case not only increase the streamflow proportionately to a higher degree compared to the average, but by removing the clogged strata revitalize the connection of the surface- and SGW (Schälchli 1992, Vericat et al. 2006), changing the local spatiotemporal recharge characteristics of SGW (Koeninger and Leibundgut 2001). The SUPERSITE area in this sense is highly exposed, due to the artificially decreased runoff and its clogged riverbed. In addition, in the case of large floods, water is diverted from the cemented power canal back to the original river bed further increasing streamflow. It should be noted that the conditions prevailing in the study area mirror the ones in arid regions (Dahan et al. 2007, Lange 2005, Soarman and Abdulrazzak 1993). Moreover, with climate change, water resource practices will have to cope with increased climate variability (Green et al. 2011, Soarman and Abdulrazzak 1993) and as a result increased flood risk, especially in arid regions (Hirabayashi et al. 2013). Thus, obtaining a more in-depth picture of the behavior of SGW recharge and the changes in flow conditions during floods and arid conditions is becoming ever-more important to be able to meet the increasing demand for potable water (Barnett et al. 2008).

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Current local community economic activities The SZIGETKÖZ SUPERSITE’s population is concentrated in rural areas in the Győr-Moson- Sopron County, specifically the Mosonmagyaróvár and Győr districts (900 & 900 km2) and its characterized by a trend of ageing population. This highest density of population exits in the Győr district (210 inhabitants/km2), but this is due to the highly advanced vehicle industry in the city forming the backbone of employment in the region. The Mosonmagyaróvár district is less densely inhabited (81 inhabit. / km2; 2013 data). Besides the two cities (centers of the districts), there are numerous small villages with many holiday homes, temporarily used in summer-time. The main official as sources of employment after the vehicle industry located in Győr (the third largest tax payer in the country (data from 2006) are: agriculture, forestry, tourism, transport, education, culture, public administration.

Ongoing investigations at the Szigetköz Supersite Various monitoring systems and campaigns have been operating taking place at the Szigetköz SUPERSITE since the mid-20th century. In relation to the water barrage system, a shallow groundwater and river water level monitoring system was set up with high spatiotemporal density in the area. After the diversion in 1992, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences initiated a setting up of a complex water quality monitoring system of the Szigetköz, which is currently (2018) under reorganization/updating to fulfill the changed needs of state-of-the-art science. It is planned to be in close cooperation with the DANUBIUS-RI, this way making both projects as cost efficient as possible.

2.2.1. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses  Set up a multidisciplinary Supersite, where by exploring the physical-, chemical- and biological characteristics of the surface- and subsurface waters in an inner river delta in time and space  Assess the water flow in the region, infiltration of groundwater to the river and vice versa incl. riverbed clogging. The drop in water level significantly decreased the amount of water accessible by the plants effecting agriculture. In the meanwhile, the irrigational usage of groundwater causes further problems.

 Since, the Supersite mimics a river delta, specifically functions as an inner delta of the Danube; assess the changed water regime conditions (decreased runoff) mirror a scenario anticipated by climate change models. Thus, by studying the area, analogous information can be gained to river delta-sea systems

 Assessment of the effects of the drop-in river discharge due to the diversion of the Danube

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 Comparing the current situation (water level dynamics) to ones predicted by climate change models

 Assessment of the spatiotemporal dynamics of infiltration/tapping of the groundwater

 Place the results in a complex environmental evaluation model [CEKAM] (Bulla 2012, Bulla and Zseni 2011)  Genesis and evolution of the inner-Danube Delta, under the influence of humans and in a changing climate  Water and sediment dynamics in the Szigetköz, with a special focus on riverbed clogging  Provide a conceptual model/framework and exact knowledge on the processes obtaining in a surface/subsurface water system of an inner delta highly affected by anthropogenic activity. To meet these aims the Supersite is planned to incorporate -and provide research ground for a wide variety of disciplines, namely:

 Disciplines devoted to the study of inanimate components: material studies (geochemistry, mineralogy), environmental flow systems, inorganic chemistry;  organic components: e.g. biology, ecology;  and areas in need of specific results from the above, e.g. hydrogeology  disciplines of environmental analysis, evaluation

2.2.2. Vision The Supersite will provide ground for exemplary multidisciplinary research on surface- subsurface water interaction competing with the quality of other RIs worldwide. Moreover, it will increase the pace of development of methodologies dealing with the matter and the dissemination of related best practices to education (middle and higher education) and environmental policy making (governments and multinational enterprises, SMEs and NGOs), industry in harmony with the aims of WFD (EC 2000) and USA Clean Water Act1 to provide good quality and quantity for water bodies. The Supersite will provide ground for exemplary multidisciplinary research on surface- subsurface water interaction competing with the quality of other RIs worldwide. Moreover, it will increase the pace of development of methodologies dealing with the matter and the dissemination of related best practices to education (middle and higher education) and environmental policy making (governments and multinational enterprises, SMEs and NGOs), industry in harmony with the aims of WFD (EC 2000) and USA Clean Water Act2 to provide good quality and quantity for water bodies.

1 https://www.epa.gov/laws‐regulations/summary‐clean‐water‐act 2 https://www.epa.gov/laws‐regulations/summary‐clean‐water‐act

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Our goals are to (i) bring ready to use best practices and up-to-date knowledge on surface- subsurface water interaction (e.g. RBF) to the research and development industry, education, and the levels of governance; (ii) foster bond between disciplines (natural and social sciences) dealing with river-sea ecosystems in the shadow of climate change and to (iii) improve the environment and quality of life in the regions where environmental problems similar to the ones at the Supersite occur.

Sampling sites of the Szigetköz Supersite For the location of the Supersite see Fig. 2.2.1. in section 2.2.1 List of detailed observation points Sampling point are presented below. More points are under discussion with stakeholders and partners.

Szivárgó-csatorna, II. zsilip, RajkaSzivárgó-csatorna, I. zsilip, Rajka .!.! Duna, Rajka .!

Rét-árok, Bezenye Duna, Szigeti ág, Doborgaz (H2) Lajta, Hegyeshalom .! .! Zátonyi-Duna,.! Tejfalusziget .! Mosoni-Duna, Feketeerdő.! .! Duna, Cikolaszigeti-ág, Dunasziget B4 (H5) Hegyeshalmi bányató .! Duna, Dunaremete

Nováki-csatorna, ArakLipóti-tó, Lipót.! Lipóti morotva .! .!.! Duna, Ásványi-ág, Z12 felvíz Lébény-Hanyi-főcsatorna, Mosonmagyaróvár .!Duna, Ásványi-ág, Hajózási üzem (H13) .! Nováki-csatorna, Novákpuszta.! .!

Mosoni-Duna, Mecsér Duna, Medve .! .! Dunaszegi-bányató, Dunaszeg .!

Szavai-csatorna, KisbajcsMosoni-Duna, Vének Mosonszentjánosi-övcsatorna, Hanságliget, torkolat (Jánossomorja) .! .! Kismetszés-csatorna, Bősárkány.! Szegedi-csatorna, Bősárkány Rábca, Lébény .!.! .! Bősárkány-Réti-csatorna, Rábcakapi.! Keszeg-ér,. !Markotabödöge .! Rába, Győr ! Figure 2.2.2. Surface water sampling locations of the Szigetköz Supersite

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Figure 2.2.3. Groundwater sampling locations of the Szigetköz Supersite

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2.2.2.1. Table of parameters

Station SURFACE WATERS SUBSURFACE WATER Measured and analysed parameters Chlorphenvinphos Chlorphenvinphos Chlorpyriphos Chlorpyriphos Malathion Malathion Hexachlorobutadiene Hexachlorobutadiene Chromium (Cr) ‐ total Phenol index Nickel (Ni) Anthracene Copper (Cu) Fluoranthene Zinc (Zn) Benzo(b)fluoranthene Arsenic (As) Benzo(a)pyrene Cadmium (Cd) Indeno((1,2,3)‐c,d)pyrene Mercury (Hg) Benzo(g,h,i)perylene Lead (Pb) Pentachlorobenzene Cyanides (CN‐) Pentachlorobenzene Sulphate (SO4‐‐) Hexachlorobenzene Benzene Hexachlorobenzene Atrazine Dichloromethane Phenol index 1,2‐dichloroethane Anthracene Chloroform Fluoranthene Carbon tetrachloride Benzo(b)fluoranthene Trichloroethylene Benzo(a)pyrene Tetrachloroethylene Indeno((1,2,3)‐c,d)pyrene Cyanides (CN‐) Benzo(g,h,i)perylene Sulphate (SO4‐‐) Pentachlorobenzene Benzene Hexachlorobenzene Atrazine Dichloromethane Pentachlorphenol 1,2‐dichloroethane o,p'‐DDD Chloroform DDD Carbon tetrachloride Aldrin Trichloroethylene Dieldrin

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Tetrachloroethylene alpha‐HCH Pentachlorphenol beta‐HCH o,p'‐DDD delta‐HCH DDD Lindane (gamma‐HCH) Aldrin alpha,beta‐Endosulfan Dieldrin Simazine alpha‐HCH Sodium (Na+) beta‐HCH Potassium (K+) delta‐HCH Magnesium (Mg++) Lindane (gamma‐HCH) Calcium (Ca++) alpha,beta‐Endosulfan Chloride (Cl‐) Aluminium (Al) Alachlor Simazine AOX Silicates (SiO2) Octylphenol Sodium (Na+) Trifluralin Iron (Fe) Total beta Manganese (Mn) Oxygen saturation Potassium (K+) Oxygen saturation Magnesium (Mg++) Total hardness Calcium (Ca++) Carbonate hardness Chloride (Cl‐) pH Alachlor Copper (Cu), dissolved AOX TOC Octylphenol Aluminium (Al), dissolved Trifluralin Anionic active surfactants (PAL‐A) Transparency Arsenic (As), dissolved Conductivity Zinc (Zn), dissolved Total beta Total coliforms (37 C) Oxygen saturation Faecal coliforms (44 C) Free dissolved CO2 Salmonella Total hardness Dissolved oxygen Carbonate hardness Carbonates pH Organic nitrogen Copper (Cu), dissolved Naphtalene

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TOC DDE Aluminium (Al), dissolved o,p‐DDT Ammonium (NH4‐N) pp‐DDT Anionic active surfactants (PAL‐A) Mercury (Hg), dissolved Arsenic (As), dissolved Isodrin Zinc (Zn), dissolved Cadmium (Cd), dissolved Total coliforms (37 C) Chromium (Cr), total dissolved Faecal coliforms (44 C) Nickel (Ni), dissolved Faecal streptococci Iron (Fe), dissolved Salmonella Lead (Pb), dissolved Petroleum hydrocarbons BOD (5) Dissolved oxygen Suspended solids Carbonates Alkalinity ‐ total Organic nitrogen Alkalinity ‐ total Naphtalene Temperature DDE Total nitrogen o,p‐DDT Total phosphorus pp‐DDT Nonylphenol Mercury (Hg), dissolved Manganese (Mn), dissolved Isodrin Manganese (Mn), dissolved Cadmium (Cd), dissolved Benzo(k)fluoranthene Phytoplankton (biomass ‐ chlorophyll‐a) Endrin Chromium (Cr), total dissolved Orthophosphate (PO4‐P) Nickel (Ni), dissolved DOC Iron (Fe), dissolved Lead (Pb), dissolved BOD (5) COD (Cr) COD (Mn) Suspended solids Alkalinity ‐ total Alkalinity ‐ total Level

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Flow Temperature Total nitrogen Transparency Total phosphorus Nitrite (NO2‐N) Nitrate (NO3‐N) Inorganic nitrogen Nonylphenol Manganese (Mn), dissolved Benzo(k)fluoranthene Endrin Orthophosphate (PO4‐P) Water discharge X Water level (including tidal range) X Waves and currents (coastal stations) 0 Water flow characterisation X Temperature X x Conductivity/ x Salinity X pH (can also be done continuously) X x Chlorophyll a X 0 Turbidity X 0 Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP X x Carbon (TOC, DOC) X x HCO3‐ 0 0 CO3‐‐ 0 0 H2CO3 0 0 CO2(aq) 0 0 DIC 0 0 Dissolved oxygen X x

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Bathymetry X 0 Total suspended matter X 0 Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load 0

Partly Grain size distribution of sediments: suspended and bedload 0

0 Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, 0 nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita X bottom shear stress etc. to characterize hydromorphologic regime of 0 river/sea

X Geodynamics (subsidence) 0 0 Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, x Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr X Organic pollutants X x Emerging pollutants 0 x Oxygen fluxes X x CO2 system characterization X x Stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer X x Radiogenic isotopes for sediment and groundwater dating X Mineralogy X x Ecotoxicology 0 0 Benthic chambers for fluxes 0 0 Macro characterization of ecosystems X 0 Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ X0 Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos) Microbiology X 0

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Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, X0 structure (diversity redundancy)) Dynamics of the beach area (shoreline position and transverse profiles) 0 0

Type of measurements: Remote (e.g., satellite based) X 0 In situ X x Online 0 0 Offline X x In situ sampling X x Indirect X x

Lab analysis X x Ecosystem investigations X 0

Proposed mesocosms Yes/No Y Focussed on: river Type of mesocosm: lentic, lotic, transportable etc. lotic Equipped for the measurements of the following parameter eDNA sampler, binoculars, fotocamera, fototrap camera, drones, fishing gears, plankton net, crab traps, zooplakton nets/ hand nets, Grabbers, Periodicity 4‐ 12 /per year Continuous 0 Dedicated surveys X Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) MONTHLY Event driven X

Matrices Water X air meteo Sediments X Total suspended solids X

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Biota (specify organism type)

Birds, Mammals, Fish, Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, Insects, aquatic plants, phytoplankton Gases meteo

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2.2.3. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution

Széchenyi István University (SZE), Hungary Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution

 Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE)  Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA CSFK)  Centre for Ecological Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA ÖK)

2.2.4. Existing and potential Facilities The DANUBIUS-PP legal partner is the Széchenyi István University (SZE), who is in close cooperation with the Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE), Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA CSFK FGI) and the Centre for Ecological Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA ÖK) in the planning, structuring, preparation of the functioning of the SUPERSITE and it becoming an ERIC. This collaboration promotes the widest range of professional expertise and best practices on the SUPERSITE thanks to the various profiles of the involved institutes.

Széchenyi István University (SZE) The institute is located in the city of Győr (Hungary). It is the center not only for the „Szigetköz small region” the main area of the Middle Danube SUPERSITE of the DANUBIUS-RI project, but also the most developed NW Region of Hungary. Széchenyi István University's quality is reflected not only in the national marketplace but also at the international level, as many multinational companies hire the graduates and work with the university, such as Audi, and Philips etc. The University has nine Faculties. Four Faculties are related to engineering sciences: Faculty of Vehicle Engineering, Faculty of Architecture and Civil- and Transportation Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Informatics and Electrical Engineering and Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences. Beside these faculties there is a Faculty of Law, a Faculty of Economics and Regional Sciences, a Faculty of VET, Andragogia and Tourism, a Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences as well a Faculty of Arts. The University has also four Doctoral Schools and almost hundred connections with other European Universities. The SZE has approx. 16.000 students and a university staff of more than 800 people. The Department of Environmental Engineering, which will be the center for directing the Hungarian SUPERSITE and the related tasks of the DANUBIUS-RI project has been established 25 years ago by M. Bulla, who was after his retirement asked by the President for being the Coordinator of the Hungarian Danubius Team. Eight (8) full time people work at the Department dealing with tasks/projects in engineering, - management, - social- and natural sciences. 7 of them have a PhD degree. PhD students are also supporting the work of the Department. The main – research – profile of the Department is to understand, analyze, simulate and model the environmental effects of different operations (such as: manufacturing processes, environmental policies, service, etc.) to support decision-making. State of the art modelling technics (e.g. Life Cycle Assessment, Fuzzy approach and modelling, etc.) are

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applied for the research work. Understanding the environmental effects along the whole life cycle is a center part of the activities. One crucial research field of our above-mentioned activity is to improve a Complex Environmental Management and Assessment – so called CEKAM – Model what is aiming to assess the mutual effects of the different sectoral and/or regional development policies on the state of environment broader on the stock of natural sources.

The Department has also a wide and living contact with other research institutions in this field and maintain common joint research projects with other partners. A new laboratory for water quality measurements will be built up in 2018 to serve new research in the field of surface and technological water quality.

Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE) The idea behind the activities related to research-development-innovation at Eötvös Loránd University can be best expressed with the words of Loránd Eötvös, eponym of the university who said, “Scholarly is the school, scholarly is the education there and only there, where scholars are teaching.” (Academic Inaugural, 1883). Thus, Eötvös Loránd University has always considered high-quality research the guarantee of quality in general.

Research activities at the eight faculties of Eötvös Loránd University are exceptionally diverse, covering nearly all scientific fields. With regard to the main branches of science, its research and unique products make Eötvös Loránd University present in the spheres of physical and life sciences, informatics, humanities, educational sciences and jurisprudence, as well as the social sciences.

In the past years it has been a central purpose of the university to maintain and promote the diversity of the research portfolio, while it has become increasingly common that our scholars focus their work on specific subjects relating to international trends and current social challenges. The quality and quantity of research is well reflected in the programs of the doctoral schools of Eötvös Loránd University, covering a broad, nearly full spectrum of the sciences. The number of highly qualified supervisors in the doctoral schools is also extraordinarily high.

Faculty of Science

The Faculty of Science has nearly 40 departments grouped into five Institutes and one Centre. These cover disciplines in biology, chemistry, earth sciences, environmental sciences, mathematics and physics. There are about 4000 full-time graduates and 400 PhD students, including nearly 100 international students. Number of teachers and researchers more than 460, of which 80 university teachers, 17 of them are academic. Doctoral training program began in 1993, currently duration are 2 + 2 years. Besides a comprehensive educational curriculum, there is a vigorous program of research in all departments. The Faculty itself is thus a major national scientific resource.

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Department of Physical and Applied Geology A scientific group of hydrogeologists (researchers, PhD and MSc students) at the Department dealing with theoretical questions such as numerical simulation of processes in basin scale, hypogenic karstification and related microbiological processes, exploration of groundwater resources, protection of groundwater during ecological, agricultural, forestry and landscaping related issues. The applied concept of “modern hydrogeology” which integrates the Tóthian basin hydraulics provides a new approach in geotechnical, geothermal, mineral and hydrocarbon resources exploration research as well.

Geomathematical & Environmental Research Group

The research group working at the Department of Physical and Applied Geology mostly deals with surface water quality modeling and surface water-groundwater interaction modeling. With the pioneer studies published, we aim to become a significant research team in the field of geomathematical analyses and water quality modeling. Our projects, on one hand deal with local (Hungarian) phenomena, and on the other hand with cross border problems, as it happened in the case of the analyses conducted on the (i) effect of the diversion of the Danube near the Austrian-Hungarian-Slovakian border in the late 20th century, (ii) the karst water levels of Gömör-Torna Karst on the Hungarian-Slovakian border, and (iii) the water quality data of Lake Fertő/Neusiedler See on the border of Austria and Hungary, etc. We have many years of experience in designing new, and recalibrating existing surface and subsurface monitoring systems; furthermore, in the past years we have been operating subsurface monitoring system on the Danube to study the surface-subsurface water interactions. The laboratory work in almost all the cases was done by contractors. The methods used concern mostly stochastic uni-, and multivariate data analysis methods. Namely: • Periodicity analysis (wavelet spectrum analysis), • Spatiotemporal sampling frequency analysis (using semivariograms), • Newly developed classification method, used to find homogeneous groups of samples (CCDA), • Factor analysis on time series (using dynamic factor analysis), • Time series modeling (using autoregressive fractionally integrated moving average for forecasting)

One of our team members is currently working on an area, which may be of particular interest regarding the scope of the future collaboration. Balázs Trásy is dealing with the effects of the diversion of the Danube with a special focus on riverbed clogging (Trásy 2012, Trásy et al. 2018b). Dr. Kovács, the head of the research team worked on the same are using dynamic factor analysis (Kovács et al. 2015b) in his Ph.D thesis as well.

Lithosphere Fluid Research Group The lab has been established in 1998 at the Department of Petrology and Geochemistry, Eötvös University, Budapest (Hungary). The lab is maintained and supported by grants of the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), National Office for Research and Technology,

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Hungarian Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Education to Csaba Szabó, Kálmán Török, Zsuzsanna Nédli, Tibor Guzmics és Márta Berkesi.

Researchers and students use the lab to study different fluid systems in the lithosphere and understand interaction between fluid and silicate and/or sulfide and/or carbonatite melts, and solid phases under lower crustal and upper mantle conditions. We are also interested in environmental geochemical studies and environment-human interaction particularly in natural radioactivity, urban environment and CO2 capture and storage.

Department of Mineralogy The clay laboratory at the Department of Mineralogy (managed by Tibor Németh) is a well- equipped and experienced workshop dedicated to clay mineralogical study of soils, sediments and rocks. The whole procedure of the clay mineralogical study (sample preparation, pre- treatments, diagnostic treatments, measurements etc.) can be carried out in the laboratory. The main analytical method is X-ray powder diffraction, but thermal analysis (DTA-TG), spectroscopic (Raman, FTIR) and electron microscopic (SEM, TEM) techniques are also available. The research interest of the laboratory is broad within the field of clay mineralogy, however the majority of the studies focuses on the mineral processes of the vadose zone. They have significant results about the pedogenic alteration of clay minerals and the change of their physico-chemical properties such as adsorption and swelling capacity during these alteration, transformation processes. They accomplished recently a four-years research project about the clay and iron mineralogy of hydromorphic soils, where the mineral formation and heavy metal geochemistry were studied in relation to water and soil solution chemistry. Previously they also studied the role of mineralogy, clay mineralogy in the formation of Mg-rich bitter ground waters. The research group published their results in top ranked journals in soil and environmental science (Geoderma, Catena, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Chemosphere etc.). In the current research proposal the role of clay mineralogy in riverbed clogging and in the evolution of water and sediment chemistry is planned to be studied.

Department of Microbiology The main research topics of the Department of Microbiology (ELTE) is connected to microbial ecology: to answer the classical questions of ecology we use cultivation as well as cultivation independent techniques while analyzing the diversity of different habitats (aquatic habitats - including extreme environments, soils, etc.). In case of aquatic habitats our department has experiences connected to different lakes (Borsodi et al. 2016, Krett et al. 2016, Máthé et al. 2014, Szuróczki et al. 2017), rivers, e.g. Danube (Kirschner et al. 2017, Makk et al. 2003, Szabó et al. 2007), thermal springs (Enyedi et al. 2015) or even pure waters (Bohus et al. 2010, Homonnay et al. 2014). At the same time, often our work is focused on applied studies (eg. degradation of xenobiotics in nature with the help of microbes, wastewater treatment, composting, etc.). Microbial

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taxonomy (polyphasic approach) is also a part of our research fields, description of many novel taxa is connected to the Department of Microbiology. We are proud of the wide range of applied methods: cultivation (classical and special techniques), molecular based techniques (DGGE, T-RFLP, NGS) and chemotaxonomy.

Kármán Laboratory for Environmental Flows The von Kármán Laboratory for Environmental Flows has been established for twenty years in order to widen the research and teaching scope of the Institute of Physics at the Faculty of Science. Recently, two active professors (Dr. Tamás Tél, Department of Theoretical Physics and Dr. Imre M. Jánosi, Department of Physics of Complex Systems) and one postdoc researcher (Dr. Miklós Vincze) constitute the core staff. The central activity of the Laboratory is small scale modeling of extended flow phenomena occurring in the atmosphere, oceans, lakes etc., (geophysical hydrodynamics). The basic infrastructure is constructed around a couple of wave-tanks, and two (small) rotating platforms permit experiments in accelerating frames of reference. Equipment such as a 2D Particle Image Velocimeter (PIV), high resolution infrared and fast cameras, thermometer set with radio communication, cold temperature thermostat and others provide the basic tools for performing experimental research. Besides regular demonstrations (also publicly open), the Laboratory participates at the education on MSc and PhD levels. The following key publications representing our previous successful projects both in international collaborations and in connection with finished MSc or PhD theses (Boschan et al. 2012, Vanyó et al. 2014, Vincze et al. 2016, Vincze et al. 2017, Von Larcher et al. 2018)

Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research, Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA CSFK) The main duty of the institute is to carry out fundamental research for better understanding the formation of materials of and processes in the lithosphere through the study of mineral and rock formation, isotope geochemistry, environmental geochemistry, hydrogeochemistry and organic geochemistry. The institutes’ major activity focuses on environmental research with increasing importance, due to recent developments in geochemistry, and the claim to recognize and restore natural environmental conditions, and to improve the quality of life. Within this research field, activities related to the processes in the geospheres and their boundaries are dominant. Primarily, the conditions and changes of the past and recent environment in the Carpathian Basin and its wider environment are studied. Beside the above mentioned topics, the study of cultural heritage (archaeometry) is one of the major research activities of the institute.

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Centre for Ecological Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA ÖK) The Centre is to carry out high quality research on the biological diversity of forest, grassland, lake and river ecosystems, to learn about these systems, and to provide evidence of the importance of their conservation. The Centre is the home of researchers from various disciplines, including ecology, botany, hydrobiology, meteorology, agronomy, forestry, as well as interdisciplinary sciences. New research projects and our involvement in both global and EU level policies on ecosystem services shows our commitment to putting biodiversity into a wider context. The Centre is the largest ecology institute in Hungary, and therefore it is dedicated to being an advisor to the nation on issues related to biodiversity and ecosystems, and also responsible for supporting the development of ecology in Hungary. We established and maintain the Hungarian ecologists’ blog, organize and host meetings, and take part in education and outreach of research.

The research network of the Hungarian Academy of Science (MTA) contributes to the national and international success in science and to the Hungarian and the universal knowledge by the unity of research excellence, reliable science and commitment to the society. As the institution of the sole professional Hungarian research network, our main goal is to take an active part in the service of commonweal and to build a better future with important and promising researches and valuable scientific results based on national research traditions that are significant in the international scientific field as well.

Duties of the Institute

The main task is the ecological and hydrological research of the River Danube and its tributaries (especially the River Tisza), as well as, the system of the main stem-tributaries- floodplain- and outfalls.

Priority areas:

Water and sediment chemistry, nutrient cycle, biodiversity of the stream, adaptation, processes of invasion, hydrobiological monitoring, ecological evaluation, structure and function of aquatic ecosystems, effects of natural and anthropogenic perturbations, climate change.

Mission of the Institute

The aim is to study current and practically significant topics of lotic aquatic systems ecology with targeted and world-class researches, and to reveal new scientific findings to benefit the society.

Integrated research and improvement of methodology at the Szigetköz Supersite Prospective SUPERSITE partners and institutes (as detailed in Chapter 3) will contribute to achieving the goals outlined in Section 2. Each scientific team, research groups, labs and

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institutes intend to develop SUPESRITE as an international research center with the following contribution to bring well-meaning results and best practices to stakeholders at different levels.

Renewal of the Szigetköz monitoring system is in progress to facilitate the achievement of the goals and objectives of DANUBIUS-RI. In recent state the main contents, professional and financial issues are under development, therefore the Coordinator of the Danubius HDT has the possibility to give recommendations regarding the frequency of measurements of the different parameters and indicators.

 Complex Environmental Knowledge-based Assessment (System) Model

 Ecological monitoring and modelling (Centre for Ecological Research)

 Investigation on biofilm and biological filtration (Department of Microbiology, ELTE)

 Local scale hydraulic study (Department of Physical and Applied Geology, ELTE)

 Investigation on solid phase (Department of Mineralogy, ELTE)

 Investigation on sediment transport and on river bed erosion (Kármán Laboratory for Environmental Flows, ELTE)

 Dynamics of ripple formation at the bottom of river beds

 Permeability and clogging measurements of Danube sediment layers

 Isotope geochemical studies (MTA CSFK)

 Geochemical Modelling (Litosphere Research Group, ELTE)

 Numerical simulation of groundwater flow (Department of Physical and Applied Geology, ELTE)

 Data analysis and stochastic modelling - Implications for the Modelling & Analysis NODEs

2.2.5. Users and Stakeholders The SZIGETKÖZ Supersite will be open to the academic and research community from the entire Hungary, as well as for the scientific community in the neighboring countries, with a special focus on Slovakia which borders the Supersite and has a “twin” inner delta (the Csallóköz (In Hungarian); Žitný Ostrov (in Slovakian), Große Schüttinsel (in German)) on the other side of the border. The educational role of the SUPERSITE will be enhanced, as plans for under- and post-graduate programs, summer schools, intensive courses for students from the Hungarian universities (with a special focus on the Széchenyi István University (SZE),

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which is the host institute of the SUPERSITE, as well as to those from all DANUBIUS-RI countries will be developed. Other relevant users are the local communities, which will benefit from the development of such a scientific infrastructure that will transform the inner delta into a living laboratory from a socio-economic and environmental aspect, other professionals in the field of water research. Life-long education programmes will be developed for these main users. Local authorities, environmental-, port- and navigation authorities are not just invited to be stakeholders, but also major users of the scientific results obtained from the Supersite. Environmental NGOs will also be among the beneficiaries of these scientific results. Specialized companies dealing with equipment manufacturing / maintenance are also to be significant beneficiaries of the SZIGETKÖZ Supersite. Local / regional stakeholders (Institutes, authorities, commissions or other initiatives that are active in the region) Scientific institutes, universities ● Eötvös Loránd University ● Hungarian Academy of Sciences - Research Center for Astronomy and Earth Sciences - Institute for Geological and Geochemical Research ● Hungarian Academy of Sciences - Centre for Ecology - Danube Research Institute ● Hungarian Academy of Sciences - Water Research Presidential Committee ● Hungarian Academy of Sciences - Sub-Committee on Preparing for Climate Change ● National University of Public Service - Faculty of Water Sciences ● University of Pannonia - Faculty of Engineering

Professional organizations, societies, associations ● Hungarian Water Cluster ● Hungarian Water Association ● Hungarian Hydrological Society ● Global Water Partnership ● Hungarian Chamber of Engineers

Governmental and administrative organizations ● The National Research, Development and Innovation Office ● Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade - Danube Region Strategy Ministerial Commissioner

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● Ministry for Inner Affairs - Deputy Secretariat of Public Employment and Water management ● Prime Minister’s Office ● Ministry of Agriculture - State Secretariat for Environment, Agricultural Development and Hungaricums ● Ministry of Agriculture - Agricultural Development and Hungaricums ● Ministry of Agriculture - Deputy State Secretariat for Green Industry Support Management Affairs ● Office of the President of the Republic - Directorate of Environmental Sustainability ● General Directorate of Water Management

2.2.6. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational Depending on governmental support from the National Research, Development and Innovation Office (NKFIH), the following milestones are aimed to be reached:

 2017-late 2018

o development of the action plan and the SUPERSITE structure (v1) o approaching the stakeholders o mapping the research infrastructure to be included in the SUPERSITE o development of the collaboration with the NODES (with a special focus on the Observation & Analysis NODEs)

o planning of the SUPERSITE related water monitoring system of the Danube Section . finalization of the set of parameters to be assessed incl. the definition of the methodology (v1) . finalization of the sampling network

o capacity building of the SUPERSITE related research infrastructures  mid-2018-late 2019

o integration of stakeholders in to the SUPERSITE and the collaboration with the NODES

o finalization of the capacities of the SUPERSITE related research infrastructures (labs, arch database, datasets etc.) 79

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o test operation of the monitoring system o test operation of the related analytics within the consortium responsible for the operation of the SUPERSITE

o test operation of the integrated data forwarding system towards the NODES  2020 – 2023

o Necessary recalibration o Final harmonization with the other entities of the RI o Finalization of the Szigetköz Environmental & Ecological Centre o open on-site research station: researcher can do in situ experiments related to the Supersite’s scientific topics: riverbed filtration (RBF), riverbed clogging, recharge test (in close cooperation with Sampling and Analysis NODE)  2023 – onwards -> operation

2.2.7. Funding (construction and maintenance) Hungary has a good practice of sustaining ERICs, e.g. the Lifewatch. The all-time governments have had a commitment to both continuous assessment of the Szigetköz area and sustaining ERICs in the country.

The already ongoing discussion regarding the financial support on behalf of the government were paused due to the elections of spring 2018 and the still ongoing reorganization of the government in Hungary. These will be finalized as soon as the structure of representatives (at the Ministry for Innovation and/or the National Research and Development Office responsible for the ERIC participations in Hungary) dealing with this question is finalized on the governmental side. Only after the responsible office and representative is designated by the government can the commitments be made.

Parallel, the Host institute (Széchenyi University) and the cooperating institutes forming the backbone of the Szigetköz SUPERSITE, have facilitated continuous access for the DANUBIUS-RI to the following services, related to the project (GINOP 2.3.4 -15-2016-40003 managed by the host institute). This ensures the continuous support and access from the side of DANUBIUS-RI, because as a prerequisite of the mentioned GINOP project was to ensure continuous operation of the facilities implanted into the SUPERSITE. The hosting institute (SZE) submit laboratory infrastructure and equipment to the Supersite as well office area for the researchers. SZE also ensures human capacity for managements issues regarding the operation of the Szigetköz Supersite. Cooperating Hungarian institutes (legally regulated under

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a cooperation agreement between the partners) will also provide accessibility to laboratory infrastructure and equipment.

A guarantee for the sustainability of the Supersite is the continuous interest of the stakeholders in maintaining their support and active involvement due to their clear interest gained from it.

Concerned with river-groundwater systems, or parts thereof, need a thorough understanding of these systems: fundamentally new approach to research is needed to advance the goal of better-informed and holistically engaged environmental management of river-GW systems. This requires world-leading science, comprising research that has immediate societal relevance and impact in facilitating interdisciplinary research in the SW-GW sciences. The aim is to provide professional, high quality knowledge and information to the academic, industrial sector, as well as to the decision-makers, and to help in preparation of any SW-GW related projects.

Scientists’ benefit from Szigetköz Supersite

 Get trained as a multi-disciplinary, multi-skilled next generation scientist or practitioner qualified to address the complexities of river-GW systems;  Gain the scientific knowledge, technical excellence and transferable skills necessary to pursue a successful career in academia, industry, or the policy sector (e.g. High level education (theoretical, practical) and Knowledge dissemination)

Entrepreneurs benefit from Szigetköz Supersite

 Can use the state-of-the-art scientific outcome of DANUBIUS-RI to transfer that in to commercial applicable technology and products and/or for ‘start-ups’;  Can use the top facilities of DANUBIUS-RI to test, improve and/or demonstrate their river-sea system related commercial technology and products (e.g. sensors, models, decision support systems);  Gain the scientific knowledge, technical excellence and transferable skills necessary to pursue a successful career at any company or organization dealing with water management, environmental protection or damage control.

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2.3. Upper Danube (Austria)

2.3.1. Introduction to the Supersite Geographic and climatic characterization: Austria has a share in three international river basins (Danube, Elbe, Rhine), but by far the most of its territory (> 96%) drains into the Danube (Fig. 2.3.1a). This Austrian territory accounts for 10% of the total area of the Danube River Basin and belongs entirely to the Upper Danube Basins, which extends from the source of the Danube in Germany to Bratislava at Austrian`s eastern border to Slovakia (Fig. 2.3.1b). Out of the total Danube river length of 2870 km, 357 km flow through Austrian territory.

Figure 2.3.1: a) River basins in Austria, ©BMLFUW; b)The Danube River Basin and its four main river sections (Base map: Overview map of the Danube River Basin District, ICPDR 2009) The Supersite “Upper Danube”, under the lead of the hosting institutions WasserCluster Lunz and the Institute for Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management (IHG) at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) mainly conducts research in following geographic areas (see Fig. 2.3.2):  Upper Danube in Austria The upper part of the Danube has been ideal for building hydropower plants due to the river's considerable natural gradient. A total of 59 dams have been built along the river's first 1,000 kilometres, thereof 41 for the purpose of large hydropower plants (> 10 MW). This means that the Upper Danube is interrupted every 16 km on average and only very few stretches can still be characterised as free-flowing. Ten large hydropower plants are situated 82

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within Austria, and only two free-flowing sections are remaining (Wachau, Nationalpark Donau-Auen). WCL and BOKU IHG conduct research on the resulting environmental impacts, e.g. interruption of migration routes, habitat fragmentation and degradation, disturbed sediment balance, changes in hydrogeomorphology and hydrodynamics, discharge fluctuations and hydropeaking, changes in ecosystem structure and function, alteration of ecosystem service provision (biodiversity loss, floodplain degradation).  Pre - alpine Danube tributaries of the province Lower Austria Many Lower Austrian pre-alpine Danube tributaries are protected by the Birds and Habitat Directive and are part of the Natura2000 network: The Natura 2000 protected area “Niederösterreichische Alpenvorlandflüsse und Pielachtal (Lower Austrian pre-alpine rivers and the valley of the Pielach river)” covers several dynamic pre-alpine Danube tributaries (Pielach, Melk, Mank, Erlauf, Ybbs, Zauchbach and Url), a part of the Danube itself (the so-called Nibelungengau), and the valley of the Pielach.

The Natura 2000 area “Tullnerfelder Donau-Auen (Tullnerfelder wetlands)” protects further pre-alpine tributaries and remaining floodplains. There the Life+ project “Traisen” , Austria`s biggest river renaturation project, re-structured nearly 10 km of the river Traisen before the confluence with the Danube, re-connecting it with adjacent wetlands and re- establishing river continuity and habitats. The Natura 2000 area “Wachau” covers the Danube river valley between Melk and Krems and its adjacent tributary valleys and mountains. It protects one of the two last remaining free-flowing sections of the river Danube in Austria (the other one being the Danube east of Vienna). During the last ten years several Life projects have been implemented in this area (Life project “Wachau”, 2003-2008; Life+ “Mostviertel-Wachau”, 2009-2014; LIFE+ „Auenwildnis Wachau", 2015-2020) WCL and BOKU IHG focus on research about nutrient and carbon cycling (including greenhouse gases), habitat diversity, biodiversity, eco-hydrology, restoration and conservation, hydromorphology, fish, benthic communities (long-term data sets available)  Danube east of Vienna (Natura 2000 protected area, National Park Donau-Auen) Situated between Vienna and Bratislava, the Donau-Auen National Park preserves the last remaining major wetlands environment in Central Europe and one of the last free-flowing sections of the Danube River. The National Park covers an area of 9716 ha and represents a complex ecosystem with an enormous diversity of habitats, plants and animals. Numerous past and ongoing floodplain research and restoration projects in this Danube section aim at mitigating anthropogenic pressures (navigation requirements, tourism) and at improving floodplain conditions (stopping riverbed incision and re-connecting floodplains), trying to align contracting interests of multiple stakeholders. Leading role of WCL and BOKU IHG for scientific concepts for restoration, conservation, and monitoring; long-term datasets available (monitoring data on water quality, macrophytes, sediment composition, benthic communities, fish and other organisms)  Headwater/small streams (mainly in Lower Austria, also in Upper Austria)

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The anthropogenic impact on rivers and streams differs greatly within Lower Austria (ca. 19 000 km2, > 1.65 million inhabitants), ranging from heavily impacted eutrophic streams in agriculturally used regions along the Danube and the flatter northeast (ca. 300 m a.sl) to pristine oligotrophic streams in (pre-) alpine catchments in the south (ca. 1800 m a.sl). The Supersite “Upper Danube” covers this full range of a possible land use gradient by conducting research both in intensely used regions (e.g. agricultural streams in the region Weinviertel) as well as in (nearly) pristine pre-alpine and alpine catchments (e.g. around Lunz in the Natura 2000 protected area “Ötscher – Dürrenstein” and Ois/Erlauf/Ybbs catchment). WCL and BOKU IHG focus on research about nutrient and carbon cycling (including greenhouse gases), self-purification capacity, habitat diversity, biodiversity, eco-hydrology, restoration and conservation, hydromorphology, fish, benthic communities

Figure 2.3.2: The Upper Danube in Austria and its main tributaries, location of hosting institutes WasserCluster Lunz and BOKU IHG, and main geographic areas of research (Base map: Austrian National River Management Plan NGP, BMLFUW 2016)

Summarizing, the Supersite “Upper Danube” covers an important part of the Upper Danube catchment by comprising pre-alpine systems - i.e. running water systems, wetlands and lake ecosystems - along a gradient of altitude, land use intensity and a varying extent of hydromorphological alterations. The river network ranges from first order streams to large Danube tributaries and the Upper Danube itself. A sound database on conditions of water bodies, pressures and land use provides an excellent information base. Long-term time series data are available for various parameters and organisms.

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Position within the river-sea continuum: The Supersite “Upper Danube” covers the freshwater spectrum within the river-sea continuum, ranging from alpine and pre-alpine headwater streams along major Danube tributaries (a few showing lowland river characteristics) to the Danube River, including adjacent floodplains in the Upper Danube catchment.

Anthropogenic history: The Danube is a major economic, geographical and cultural force in Austria. Approximately 7.7 million inhabitants live within the Austrian part of the Danube Basin (i.e. 9.5% of the population of the Danube Basin). In a country dominated by the Alps, the flat lands provided by the rivers are of huge significance for agriculture, human settlements and infrastructure and are thus heavily utilised.

The Upper Danube in Austria, as well as most of its tributaries (mainly in lower reaches and confluences), have suffered significant changes in the hydromorphology and hydrology due to river regulations for flood protection and navigation in the Danube River (embankments, flood walls, levees, dams), the construction of (chains of) hydropower plants and land use change (settlements, agriculture, sealing of surfaces, urbanization). According to the National Water Management Plan (based on the assessment for the Water Framework Directive), Austria`s main water management issues are: hydromorphological alterations (various effects of hydropower production, river regulation, drainage), diffusive nutrient pollution, and emerging toxic substances (National Water Management Plan 2015, BMLFUW 2017; Joint Danube Survey 3, ICPDR 2015). In the mountainous regions and its headwater sections, however, human interventions are generally les significant (mainly forestry, extensive pastures and small settlements) and restricted to local measures, mainly hydromorphological alterations.

Current local community / economics General information is available in national and EU reports on economic development. Multiple stressors are located in the catchment (see Danube River Basin Management Plan DRBMP 2015 and Austrian National Water Management Plan 2015).

2.3.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses

Environmental challenges resulting from geographic setting and anthropogenic activities

 Climate change: increased water temperatures, changes in terrestrial inputs, higher winter discharges due to more rain fall and decreased discharge during summer; increase in frequency and magnitude of extreme events such as catastrophic floods and prolonged drought phases during summer causing ecological and economic alterations; (e.g. Mauser et al. 2012, ICPDR 2013)

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 Agricultural land use: Intensification during 19/20th century; diffuse nutrient and organic matter inputs, harmful substances (e.g. pesticides, pharmaceutics, etc.); siltation effects due to intensified erosion (e.g. Weigelhofer 2016; Weigelhofer et al. 2018)  River regulation at different scales: river fragmentation and floodplain degradation (>50 dams in Upper Danube, about 90% of floodplain area lost), habitat degradation (e.g. Hein et al. 2016, Habersack et al. 2016, Graf et al. 2016)  Invasive species: Danube as migration corridor (e.g. Borza et al. 2015)  Hydropower: hydropeaking (e.g. Hauer et al. 2017, Leitner et al. 2017, Schülting et al. 2016)  Multiple (human) pressures/stressors interactions (e.g. Bondar-Kunze et al. 2016, Hein et al. 2017, Dossi et al. 2018)

What are the scientific questions to tackle these environmental and related socio- economic challenges?  How do different aspects of climate change (precipitation, discharge patterns, temperature changes, increased catchment inputs and extreme events) influence aquatic ecosystems, their role in the catchment, ecological functions and ecosystem service provision?  How do different aspects of connectivity within riverine landscapes control ecological processes (nutrient and carbon cycling) and biodiversity patterns at different scales (longitudinal and lateral aspects)?  How do climate change and land use change affect stream ecosystem functioning (e.g. nutrient and carbon cycling, hydrological dynamics) and biodiversity (periphyton, stream communities)?  How do multiple stressor interactions affect aquatic ecosystems and their communities?  What determines the resilience and resistance of benthic communities to single and multiple stressors, to a change in stressor dominance, as well as to restoration efforts? What is the importance of key habitats (e.g. large woody debris)? Objectives:  Management of Upper Danube/floodplain systems: Restoration of floodplain systems and the effect of hydromorphological measures on ecological processes  Biogeochemistry and eco-hydrology of running water systems  Analysing the socio-ecological dimension of aquatic ecosystems, especially urban and highly modified systems  Analysing the consequences of water - sediment interactions for the management of agricultural streams

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 Determine factors for the resistance and resilience of benthic communities in order to integrate them into management concepts  Restoration and conservation of fluvial landscapes

Research fields currently covered by WCL, BOKU IHG and in the Supersite or in parts of it; parameters monitored, technologies applied Biogeochemistry, water and sediment chemistry, enzyme analysis, ecosystem metabolism, multiple stressors including effects of toxic substances, stable isotopes, biodiversity, biological assessment, ecosystem modelling, etc.

In-field surveys and experimental facilities (indoor and outdoor flumes of different spatial scales);

For major pre-alpine Danube tributaries and stretches of the Danube main stem long term data based on water body scale (e.g. WFD assessment data) and sequences of data (pre- and post- studies on river restoration projects) are available. Several data bases are in use integrating long term and large scale data collection for specific areas and specific organism groups.

For the river-floodplain systems of the Danube east of Vienna, long term data/ sequences of data are available on limnochemistry, macrophytes and biodiversity including the following taxonomic groups: amphibian, fish and benthic invertebrates with specific focus on trichoptera, ephemeroptera, mollusca and odonata. Most of the data were collected during pre- and post- monitoring studies of restoration projects including various Life projects.

For the lowland river systems Lafnitz/Raab and Pinka detailed temperature data along the river course and the corresponding fish and benthic communities are available.

2.3.3. Vision The scientific vision of the Supersite “Upper Danube” is to provide innovative, internationally relevant knowledge on aquatic ecosystems relevant for the future sustainable use of water resources. Elucidating the structure, functions and provision of services of aquatic ecosystems and examining the multiple interactions between current and emerging pressures on aquatic ecosystems are the major scientific objectives of “Upper Danube” Supersite. International cooperation, development and application of innovative approaches (e.g. integrating the social and socio-economical aspects) as well as a combination of different methods (in-situ observations, indoor and outdoor experiments, modelling and conceptual approaches) are seen as the major pillars to achieve these goals.

“Upper Danube” Supersite performs basic science by focusing on research in the following fields:  Climate change effects on aquatic ecosystems

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 Role of aquatic ecosystems in global matter cycles (carbon/nitrogen/phosphorus)  Effects of multiple (human) pressures on aquatic ecosystems  Aquatic biodiversity and its drivers at different scales  Ecological effects of river renaturation and restoration measures including the development and application of different indicator systems  Nature protection and conservation  Analysis of ecosystem functions and the link to ecosystem services To meet the research objectives data collection takes place in different sites and facilities:  Regular monitoring stations in several rivers and monitoring of protected areas  Aquatic ecosystem observatories (in-situ observation devices, river observatories planned)  Outdoor experimental facilities: large-scale mesocosm infrastructure (in-lake mesocosms and flume systems of different scale)  Indoor experimental facilities (climate chamber, flumes, high-tech laboratories) Within the Danubius RI framework, the “Upper Danube” Supersite offers a unique geographical setting combining and linking pre-alpine headwaters and tributaries and the Upper Danube River.

Map with existing stations/measurements/datasets that are part of the Supersite:

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2.3.3.1. Table of parameters Measured parameters Danube tributaries Upper Danube and Danube floodplains and headwater streams x Water discharge, x (gauges in most tributaries and headwater water level (gauges in Danube main stem and floodplain area) streams) Water temperature x x

pH, alkalinity, hardness x x

Elect. conductivity x x

Dissolved oxygen x x

Chlorophyll a x x

Carbon (TOC, DOC) x x

Total suspended matter x x Nutrients (dissolved organic & inorganic, particulate nutrients) in water and x x sediment (NO3, NO2, NH4, TN, TP, SRP) Sediment discharge: Individual surveys only, all in cooperation with Individual surveys only, all in cooperation with other suspended and bed load other institutions institutions Grain size distribution of x x sediments Social and economic publicly available or available from other Austrian publicly available or available from other Austrian parameters institutions institutions Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, partly available from monitoring schemes (from partly available from monitoring schemes (from F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, other Austrian institutions) other Austrian institutions) Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants x x Emerging pollutants partly available from monitoring schemes (from partly available from monitoring schemes (from other Austrian institutions) other Austrian institutions) Oxygen fluxes x x nutrient fluxes and turnover x x processes Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, x x fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy)) Ecotoxicology partly available partly available

Microbiology partly available partly available Biota: Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial x x coverage); terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) and aquatic (Plankton, Benthos) GHG (carbon dioxide, x x methane) Type of measurements:

Remote no 89

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In situ: yes, monitoring + surveys:

Online x x

Offline x x

In situ sampling x x

Lab analysis x x

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/no Yes Lunz Mesocosm Infrastructure – see details for flume setups: Focussed on (incl. https://www.aquacosm.eu/mesocosm/lunz‐mesocosm‐infrastructure‐lmi/ parameters:) http://hydropeaking.boku.ac.at/hytec.htm Type of mesocosm Flumes

Periodicity

Continuously x x

Dedicated surveys x x

Periodically x x

Event driven x x

Matrices

Water x x

Air x (meteo stations) x (meteo stations)

Sediments x x

Suspended solids x x plankton, algae, fish, macrophytes, mollusca, Biota (specify organism type) benthic communities, fish, macrophytes odonata, amphibians benthic communities, riparian species Gases carbon dioxide, methane and oxygen carbon dioxide, methane and oxygen

2.3.4. Supersite Organization Hosting institutions:

WasserCluster Lunz – Biological Station GmbH, Austria (WCL) and Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria (BOKU IHG)

WasserCluster Lunz (WCL) is a non-profit research centre shared to equal amounts by the University of Vienna, the Danube University Krems, and the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU Vienna). The research centre is financially supported by the Provincial Government of Lower Austria and the Municipality of Vienna.

History of host institution WCL: Lunz has a long tradition in limnological research as the „Biological Station Lunz“ has been founded already in 1905. The „Biological Station Lunz“ (owned by the Austrian Academy of Science) and its scientists (e.g. Franz Ruttner, August Thienemann or Carl Wesenberg-Lund) 90

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was well known for its outstanding research in limnology throughout the 20th century. The „Biological Station Lunz“ was closed in 2003, but thanks to a collaboration of the Provincial Government of Lower Austria, the Federal Government of Austria and tree partner universities the scientific legacy of the „Biological Station Lunz“ continued: “WasserCluster Lunz - Biologische Station GmbH” was founded in 2005 and opened in 2007 to pursue basic and applied research on aquatic ecosystems, not only around Lake Lunz but also at various other sites.

The Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU IHG) is an interdisciplinary group of aquatic ecologists, landscape ecologists, river engineers and historians. The staff includes seven permanent scientists, 30 PhD candidates and post-docs, and three technical and administrative staff members. Research focusses on biogeochemistry, river restoration, fish and benthic invertebrates, aquaculture, riverine habitat and landscape management. IHG is organizing an international master program in Applied Limnology and a joint degree program in Limnology and Wetland Management and is also member of several Erasmus programs in Asia. IHG has played a key role in the Europe-wide development of WFD compliant assessment systems for rivers, particularly in the EU projects AQEM, EFI+, WISER dealing with the WFD implementation and currently the FP7 EU project MARS and the H2020 EU project AquaCross. IHG has experience in assessing effects of river degradation, landscape changes, river restoration and global/climate change on freshwater ecosystems (Reform, Euro-limpacs, REFRESH). IHG has developed competence in river management and restoration within eight EU LIFE-Nature projects. Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution WasserCluster Lunz (WCL) and the Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem management (IHG) at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna are cooperating in the frame of the “Upper Danube” Supersite.

Next to the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, the two other partner universities of WCL are generally involved in research at WCL: University of Vienna and Danube University Krems. Function and Services:  Important site for university teaching programs (700 students each year)  University courses from University of Vienna and University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, at WCL with the contribution of WCL staff  Site for scientific workshops and mid-sized conferences (for up to 100 participants)  Supervision of Master and PhD students  Undergraduate training via internships

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2.3.5. Facilities

2.3.5.1. Existing facilities and expertise WasserCluster Lunz (WCL) and the Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem management (IHG) at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna are cooperating in the frame of the “Upper Danube” Supersite.

The IHG has a clear focus on running water ecology and ecosystem management and operates the HyTec facility in Lunz. At WCL the working group BIGER (Biogeochemistry and Ecohydrology of Riverine Landscapes) has a clear focus on the biogeochemistry and ecohydrology of running waters. As riverine landscapes are exposed to multiple natural and anthropogenic stressors (e.g. changes in the hydrological regime, river regulations, nutrients and organic matter inputs from the catchment, and climate change), BIGER focusses on the interactive effects of these stressors on the biogeochemical processes at the water-sediment-interface of streams, rivers, and floodplains as well as on their biodiversity. The research focus lies on the resilience and resistance of these aquatic ecosystems to both, human impacts and restoration measures, and on the development of perspectives for a sustainable use and, thus, an improved ecological state of these systems.

WCL has participated/is participating in various EU funded projects (FP7, H2020, Life, Interreg) as well as nationally funded projects and is also partner in the H2020 project Danubius-PP.

Besides conducting field research, WCL focusses on developing innovative experimental laboratory research and specific outdoor constructions. WCL combines scientific expertise with modern technology to facilitate innovative research for the conservation and sustainable use of aquatic resources. For this WCL offers 515 m2 laboratory space, 125 m2 laboratory space in subsidiary buildings, 282 m2 seminar rooms, and office workplace for 70 students/employees or visiting researchers. The total number of 13 labs includes a general analytical laboratory, a radionuclide lab, laboratories for ecotoxicology, molecular biology, microbial ecology and limnology, a climate chamber, a wet lab, a course lab, and a lake lab. All are equipped with state-of-the-art instruments. Technical instruments: confocal laser scanning microscope (Zeiss LSM710), LEICA DMI 3000B microscope, cryogenic freezer (-80°C) and freeze-drier, walk-in climate room (2-30°C), GC-MS, GC-FID, HPLC, continuous flow nutrient analyser (alliance Instr.), total organic carbon (TOC) analysis (Sievers 900), flow cytometer (Beckman-Coulter), spectrophotometer, spectrofluorometer, boats and limnological gear (including several YSI 6920-O multi-probe data logger), multi-plate Reader, EA – GC – IRMS Outdoor facilities:

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- 6 experimental flumes and new set of hyporheic flumes (Lunz flumes), - HyTec facility: Hydromorphological and Temperature Experimental Channels (HyTEC) in cooperation with the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna: The "Hydromorphological and Temperature Experimental Channels" (HyTEC) at Lunz are used for testing single and combined effects of river flow, riverbed morphology and temperature on aquatic fauna and fauna. HyTEC consists of two large channels (40 m length, 6 m width) fed with nutrient-poor lake water taken at different depths to vary water temperature. Peak flows of up to 600 l/s are produced to mimic hydropeaking and extreme floods. Experiments usually run for several hours or days in paired treatment and control channels. Replication is achieved by repeating experiments, with treatment and control channels randomly selected each time. Immediate responses to hydraulic stressors can be recorded and analysed, e.g. the habitat and behavioural shifts of larval and juvenile fish as well as the downstream displacement of fish (see: http://hydropeaking.boku.ac.at/hytec_en.htm).

Map of stations/experimental facilities of hosting institution WasserCluster Lunz in Lunz:

HyTec Flumes

2.3.5.2. Plans for further development (new equipment & facilities)  Construction of outdoor hyporheic flumes at WCL in Lunz  Update of instrumentation in the Lake Lunz catchment  River observatories (small automated observation platforms) allowing to measure at high frequency at the strategic sections in different sub-catchments of Danube tributaries (Ybbs, Erlauf, Traisen)

2.3.6. Users and Stakeholders Regular cooperation with the following sectors exists: River authorities at national and provincial level, water management units, environmental agencies, river commission (ICPDR), nature conservation agencies, NGOs, navigation

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authorities, hydropower companies, the aquaculture sector, private companies working in the water/environment sector, national and foreign universities and research institutes. Cooperation within the following active RI projects: LTER / European network for Long Term Ecological Research EU H2020 project AquaCosm.

2.3.7. Timeline for Supersite to become operational WCL is operating since 2007; an additional building was opened in 2011. Most of the facilities are already operating; mesocosm facilities are in place and already used; high-tech laboratories are already in place; The “Hydromorphological and Temperature Experimental Channels" (HyTEC) in Lunz are operating since September 2011. River observatories are currently planned but not yet implemented as long-term funding for observation units is not secured yet. The BOKU IHG is operative since more than 30 years. Specific Supersite dedicated programs could get operative in the next 5 years.

2.3.8. Finances, Funding, Procurement: Base funding for administrative and technical staff, third party funding for scientific staff; working group leaders are base funded at WCL and BOKU IHG. A re-financing program for general research infrastructure is partly in place (for next 5 years). Procurement processes follow national regulations for public institutes. Funds for training programs are partly available. WCL is partner in several international networks (LTER, GLEON, CEEPUS, IAD, SIL). BOKU IHG is partner in several international networks (e.g. IAD, FIP, GBIF, CEEPUS, ERASMUS).

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2.4. Ebro-Llobregat Deltaic System (Spain)

2.4.1. Introduction to the Supersite The Ebro-Llobregat Supersite is located in the north-western Spanish Mediterranean Sea at the latitude 40° 45′ N to 42° 25′ N and long 0° 45′E to 3° 15′ E (Figure 2.4.1). The main morphological features of this coastal stretch are the existence of mountain chains parallel and close to the coast (Llobregat sub-unit) at the North and the Ebre river valley and delta at the South. The environmental properties of the area are highly conditioned by the fact that it is a semi-enclosed sea. It features local high and low pressure weather systems controlled by orographic barriers that determine the spatial distribution of winds and land–sea temperature differences.

Figure 2.4.1- The Supersite Ebro-Llobregat The predominant winds come from the North-west and from the North during December and January. Southerly and easterly winds are also important during February, March, April and November. The mean significant wave-height (Hs) is about 0.75 with peak periods (Tp) of 4-5 s, the maximum recorded Hs is about 6 m (with Hmax up to 10 m) and Tp of about 14 s. The astronomical tidal range in the area is less than 0.4 m although during storms the associated surge can reach values up to 1 m. The bathymetry varies from a very narrow shelf at the North to a wide shelf at the South. In this low-tide region, circulation is characterized by a quasi-permanent slope current that can be modified by meso-scale events. These events consist of current meandering or eddies and constitute the main dynamic agent of the coastal ecosystems. The coastline includes a wide variety of coastal ecosystems. Marine ecological communities correspond to those of the Atlantic–Mediterranean Province. a. The Ebro unit The Ebro basin (Figure 2.4.2) is about 20% of the Spanish territory and thus the impact of hydro-meteo risks may affect a significant percentage of the Spanish GDP. The Ebro Basin is heavily conditioned by intensive water management practices. The delta is a heavily anthropized environment whose evolution is conditioned by the construction in the lower river

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course of the Riba-Roja and Mequinenza dams plus a large number of weirs (Gracia et al. 2013). At present, it exhibits a sedimentary imbalance due to the near total reduction of solid discharges. Local erosion rates have exceeded 15 m/year resulting in loss of territory and support for socio-economic activities (agriculture for instance).

Figure 2.4.2 - Extension of the Ebro river-delta DCC at different scales: (left-up): Iberian Peninsula main basins, in yellow the Ebro River; (right): Ebro river basin scale that covers several Regional and National Government; (left down); Ebro delta unit.

A summary of the main characteristics and aspects of interest for the DANUBIUS-RI is presented in Table 2.4.1 and Table 2.4.2. The Natural Park of the Ebro delta was established in 1983. In 1993 the region was included on the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance, especially as a habitat for water birds (Official Spanish Gazette 73, 26-03-93). The park has a terrestrial extension of about 8500 ha. Its natural richness has no parallel elsewhere in Catalonia with about the 60% of the bird species of Europe (between 50,000 and 100,000 specimens) and over 700 of catalogued vegetation species. The Ebro river has the highest water discharge rates and the biggest basin of the Iberian Peninsula, with monthly mean water discharges between 140 to almost 700 m3/s, however its influence on the deltaic evolution has been reduced due to the construction of several dams along its course. It is estimated that at present about the 97% of the basin is regulated and that the river discharge represents less than the 1% if it is compared with the usual discharges of the beginnings of the 20th century.

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River basin EB Scale of river basin (km2) 86.070 Number of countries in river basin 1 Population in river basin 3,5 million

Number of administrative units in river basin 1860 municipalities Governance 0= heavily regulated ‐ 10=unregulated ‐ need to set scale 3 / 0

Rainfall (mm y‐1) 622 mm Frequency of storms ?? 5.19% of the time precipitation above 10 mm*d; average number of wave storm per year = 5

Biogeographic region of whole river basin Mediterranean

CORINE Land Cover: Artificial surfaces (km2) 1013 Agricultural areas (km2) 37499 Forest & semi‐ntural areas (km2) 47046 Wetlands (km2) 52,6 Water bodies (km2) 512

Study area Scale of study area (km2) 5.277 Number of countries in study area 1 Part of river basin where study area located Lower basin (Downstream of the Mequinenza reservoir ‐ Delta) Population in study area 282,700 habitants Number of administrative units in study area 135 municipalities Governance 0= heavily regulated ‐ 10=unregulated ‐ need to set scale 2 / 0 Rainfall (mm y‐1) 500 mm Frequency of storms ?? 4.2% of the time precipitation above 10 mm*d; average number of wave storm per year = 5

Biogeographic region of study region

CORINE Land Cover: Artificial surfaces 39,31 Agricultural areas 2317 Forest & semi‐ntural areas 2960 Wetlands 24,26 Water bodies 78,19

Main hydro‐meterological risks in 1st‐stage proposal: d= drought; f=flooding; l=landslide; s=storm surge d, f, s Other hydrometerological risks mentioned in background description document N/A

Stage of project cycle 0=idea ‐ 10=implimented more than 5‐10 years 4

Land ownership 0=all private 10 = all government owned 5/6

Primary economic source of study area = categories like agricultural livestock, cereals, tourism etc 1) Agriculture / 2) Hydropower / 3) Tourism

TRL stage (present range: 1‐9 scale) 1‐5 TRL stage (final range: 1‐9 scale) 3‐8 (3‐9 in 1st stage proposal) Table 2.4.1 - Main characteristics of Ebro delta unit Supersite.

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Table 2.4.2 - Keywords for science-technology and application interfaces for the Ebro delta. The deltaic coastal fringe is constituted by 50 km of sandy beaches. The mean grain size in the area is about 0,2 mm. The delta has two main spits at the North and South representing the limits of the littoral cell. A barrier beach at the south, of about 5 km, is another distinct feature which is over flooded several times per year. The apex of the delta is the area that has experienced the highest shoreline retreating rates due to its exposure to wave attack. Dune fields are still present at the northern spit. The submerged morphology is characterized by the presence of two bar systems typical of dissipative environments. The agriculture developed in the deltaic plain, especially the rice and vegetables (celery, cabbage, salad) occupies almost the 70% of the deltaic plain having one of the highest production rates per ha in the world. Sea fishing is primarily concentrated at the port of Sant Carles de la Ràpita- A refined salt industry installed at the southern spit is the only real coastal use.

b. The Llobregat unit The Llobregat littoral (Figure 2.4.3), with a high level of pressures and conflicts, features relatively coarse sediments (500 μm) except in deltaic areas, such as the Llobregat Delta where Barcelona Airport is located, where the sediment size is about 250 μm. The yearly average significant wave height is about 0.8 m, with peak periods around 6 s. During storm events values six times higher than mean conditions can be easily reached, corresponding to eastern wind events (Sánchez-Arcilla et al.; 2015). At the South of the Llobregat river, the coast is represented by a typical urban coastal stretch backed by a seafront promenade and buildings. Due to its orientation, the area is sheltered from eastern waves but exposed to southern waves. The sediment size ranges from 200 to 350 μm, the beach width from 34 to 100 m (60 m average), and the average berm height is 0.8 m, within a gentle and dissipative profile.

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Figure 2.4.3 - Llobregat unit The northern beaches (Figure 2.4.4), exposed to eastern and southern waves, are representative of conditions downstream of small harbours that act as barriers for sediment transport and generate an erosive gradient. Storms are able to reach the existing alongshore revetment by overtopping, producing a modification of the upper part of the beach. This coastal stretch is representative of low-lying squeezed urban beaches in highly touristic areas like the Mediterranean. They suffer from chronic sand scarcity and their present dysfunctional behaviour may get aggravated under future (higher) mean sea levels, where the frequency and intensity of erosion and flooding episodes is expected to increase. This may lead to resistant and functional failures of present coastal structures/interventions which, combined with the projected increases in coastal population will result in higher social and economic vulnerability.

Figure 2.4.4 - Northern beaches of Llobregat unit. Left: urbanized coastal landscape (Badalona). Right: instrumented pier (Badalona) A summary of the main characteristics and aspects of interest at the Llobregat unit for the DANUBIUS-RI is presented in Table 2.4.3.

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Table 2.4.3 - Keywords for science-technology and application interfaces for the Llobregat unit.

2.4.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses The main challenges of the Llobregat-Ebro coastal system can be summarized by the following points:  Making weather/climate dynamics compatible with socio-economic uses.  Advance in the sustainable engineering for deltaic coastal systems.  Contribute to develop a more sustainable culture of land/water uses. The main gaps in knowledge are summarized by the following points:  How to combine the short to long term scales in predictions impact mitigation etc.  How to extend the use of high resolution suites of coupled models, (hydrodynamics – morphodynamics – water quality, etc).  How to incorporate the new generated knowledge (from observations and modelling) on short and long term decisions  How to incorporate the new generated knowledge (modelling and observations) into novel and more sustainable engineering interventions  How to incorporate the new generated knowledge (modelling and observations) to overcome social and economic barriers to more sustainable decisions. Preserving coastal (in general) and deltaic (in particular) ecosystems which are able to support a high density of anthropogenic activities is the main challenge of the Spanish Ebro Supersite. It comprises the coastal system between the Llobregat and Ebro Delta so that it refers to a 200Km littoral stretch that includes the following coastal archetypes:  Mediterranean deltas suffering from enhanced erosion and subsidence due to reduced water and solid river discharges (99% reduction for the Ebro river) and coastal barriers (including Barcelona harbour for the LLobregat river).  Low line coastal wetlands (bear both river mouths).  Sedimentary beaches with high pressure of co-existing uses.

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 Rigid sectors, both natural as cliffs and manmade as harbours and promenades. The resulting challenge, already under present climate and even more acute under future climates, is how to make compatible a healthy coastal ecosystem there is sustainable for its own sake and also for the many socio-economic activities it supports (tourism, transport, aquaculture, fisheries…). The scientific questions to tackle the environmental and related socio-economic challenges are related to a continuous quantification of drivers, pressures, responses and impacts, contributing to a) an advance of the present knowledge for this coastal systems (research applications) and b) a support to coastal decisions (practical applications). In summary these points can be presented as:  Pressures or driving terms (river discharges, wave and current conditions, mean sea level variations…).  Coastal river responses (erosion rates, sediment transport rates, suspended sediment concentration, nutrient concentrations…).  Impacts (from local to regional).  Risk assessment (from short to long term). An illustration of the more specific questions related to these points is given by the following ones:  How to quantify coastal erosion/subsidence at different scales?  How to operationally predict flooding and water quality?  How to introduce novel types of engineering interventions within models and decision making? Tables 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 shows a set of keywords that summarizes relevant issues for science and interface applicartions.

2.4.3. Vision The Ebro Llobregat Supersite has three building blocks:  A well monitored coastal/deltaic evolution.  An objective assessment of impacts which allow defining sustainability.  The corresponding analysis to calculate hazards and risks. The proposed combination would result in an integrated heading for the Spanish Supersite that could be summarized by “Auditing coastal and Deltaic sustainability”. Figure 2.4.5 showws a map with a proposed additional measuring parameters to accurate describe the above mentioned building blocks. Dots in figure 2.4.5 indicate the set of variables to be included at each unit and described in table 2.4.4. The specific location of the different stations included in each cathegory is under discussion.

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As an example, for the Ebro unit, a permanent monitoring of the marine parameters at the northern and southern lagoon including the variables described in table 2.4.4 and table 2.4.6 is proposed. These environments are representative of the complex relationships between the physical, natural and economic environments and offers the possibility to be studied globally or independently. The existing barrier beach also provides an excellent example of such morphological feature.

Figure 2.4.5 – Additional proposed measuring variables for the Ebro-Llobregat Super site (left: Ebro unit; right: Llobregat unit). Dots with numbers correspond to the different variable cathegories of table 2.4.4.

Cathegory Processing / Tools Equipment

(1) Marine factors: • Quasi on-line point wise • Meteo-stations checking • Wave gages • Mean water level • Quasi on-line comparison • HF Radar • Wind with operational • Tidal gauges • Waves (numerical) forecast • ADCPs • Currents • Error assessment and • OBSs • Conductivity /Temperature propagation • CTD stations • Turbidity • Error covariance matrices • Salt wedge package • pH • Kriging and other • Irrigation channel • Dissolved oxygen interpolation techniques discharge packages • Redox potential • Average long-term • Samplers for distributed • Earth-Sea exchanges probability distributions run-off • Sea water acidification • Extreme probability • Bed load markers distributions • Sediment-erosion tables • Derived variables (times • Intensive campaigns for: (2) Coastal fringe factors: of residence integrated a) Solid discharge • Shoreline position and fluxes) b) Nutrient discharge • Sediment characteristics • Interpolation for GIS c) Water quality • Bathymetry representation • Fill team for socio- • Vegetation • Packages for calculating economic surveying indicators • Fill team for intensive campaigns

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(3) River factors: • Establishment of • Video monitoring acceptable intervals and • Echosounder • Liquid discharge their mapping • Heat flux sensor • Solid discharge • Differential • • Nutrient discharge Interferometric SAR • Bed and suspended loads (DinSAR) • pH • Dissolved oxygen • Redox potential

(4) Planning constraints

• Existing coastal – river infrastructures • Plan new infrastructure • River regulation • Land uses • Subsidence

(5) Socio economic activities

• Population density per capita income • Local economic productivity • Natural functions • Inventory of natural systems • Main functions • Valuation

Table 2.4.4. List of proposed parameters to be measured The Llobregat unit has two main regions in which different types of variables can be characterized. Southern beaches represent urbanized areas where natural environments coexist with human activities whereas northern beaches are representative of a squezeed coast. In that area we also take advantage of an existing pier which offers a unique possibility of monitoring marine and coastal fringe parameters.

2.4.3.1. Table of parameters The existing measurement networks at the Ebro-Llobregat Supersite cover a wide range of variables and are under the responsibility of several institutions, from national to autonomous administrations. Table 2.4.5 shows a summary of the main involved parameters available at different networks online. Table 2.4.6 presents a list of physyical parameters that are propoesed to be measured in the Ebro-llobregat Supersite.

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Measured parameters Location 1 Location2 Location3 Location3 Location4 Water reservoir at dams E03 Mequinenza(*) E04 Ribarroja(*) River gauges A027 Ebro‐Tortosa(*) C128 C. M. I. C125 trasvase Irrigation canal gauges C126 C. M. D. Ebro C318 C301 Ebro E.‐T. Warter quality stations 970 ‐ ES5 ‐ Ebro en Tortosa (*) Water temperature Conductivity Turbidity Water discharge RIADE(**) Water level network pH dissolved Oxigen REDOX potential Absorvance

Coastal Station Waves Wind REDCOS REDCOS REDCOS Pont del REDEXT Tarragona Water temperature Tarragona Barcelona I Barcelona II Petroli Current Salinity Tidal gauge REDMAR Tarragona

Puertos del Meteocat Pont del Meteo‐stations EM23 EMA Caspe (CHE) Estado Network Petroli Network Table 2.4.5. Table of parameters measured at the Ebro-llobregat Supersite available at different networks online. (*) stations located at the Supersite border; (**) RIADE: Red de indicadores ambientales del Delta del Ebro

Measured core parameters  Water discharge  Water level (including Tidal range in coastal ‐ marine)  Wave parameters (Wave height, period and direction)  Chlorophyll  Turbidity  Temperature  Conductivity/Salinity  pH  NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP  Carbon (TOC, DOC)  Dissolved oxygen  Water current (flow) characterisation  Bathymetry  Total suspended matter  Total suspended sediments  Bed load  Grain size distribution of suspended sediments  Grain size distribution of bed load sediments

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 Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, etc. Measured secondary parameters  Subsidence  Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr,  Pollutants (organic)  Pollutants (emerging pollutants)  oxygen fluxes  CO2 system characterisation  stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer  radiogenic isotopes for sediment dating  Mineralogy  Ecotoxicology  Benthic chambers for fluxes  Macro characterization of ecosystems  Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos)  Microbiology  Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy)) Table 2.4.6. Table of parameters proposed to be measured at the Ebro-llobregat Supersite

Type of collected data Regarding the position of the sensors / data collectors  remote (e.g. satellite based, drones, ROVs, acoustic)  in situ

Regarding the availability of real‐time information  online – real time  offline

Regarding sampling tools and methodology  in situ sampling: water, sediments, biota, ecological.

Regarding sampling tools:  Niskin bottles, grabs, corers (sediments, benthos), nets (nekton, plankton, benthos), traps (sedimtns, biota)

Not directly collected data:  indirect  lab analysis

Ecosystem investigation  visual census (for ecosystem investigation), Photointerpretation  regular, random, stratified observations (for community investigation) Proposed mesocosms type  lentic, lotic, transportable etc. Mesocosms equipped for the e.g. eDNA sampler, Data logger, Vertical &Horizontal Radar, field calibration by scope, measurement of different parameters binoculars, fotocamera, fototrap camera, drones, fishing gears, plankton net Periodicity of measurements /  continuous observations  periodic (daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal, over years)  dedicated surveys  event driven Mesocosm Matrices:  water 105

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 air  sediments  total suspended solids  biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil)  gasses Table 2.4.7. Methods and procedures for the proposed parameters of table 2.4.6

2.4.4. Supersite Organization The host institution is the Maritime Engineering Laboratory of the Catalonia University of Technology (LIM/UPC) which works together with the general agreement with CIIRC (International Centre for Coastal Resources Research), and institution of the Regional Government (Generalitat de Catalunya) with land planning responsibilities. The proposed research infrastructure will be based on a consortium composed of a) research institution, b) administration with relevant responsibilities and c) end users and stakeholders. The research institutions comprise:  University research centres from UPC but also from University of Barcelona and University of Gerona.  Public research centres such as CEAB (Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes), CID (*****) and ICM (Institut de Ciències del Mar) or IRTA (Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentaries).  Computing centres such as BSC (Barcelona Supercomputing Centre) linked to UPC. The administrations and end users are described in point 1.9.

2.4.5. Facilities

2.4.5.1. Existing facilities The existing facilities at the Ebro-Llobregat Supersite are under the responsibility of governmental institutions at the National (Spanish) and Regional (Generlaitat de Catalunya) level and cover the following items:  River observation stations  Hydrodynamic marine observation stations  Morphology  Meteorology Figures 2.4.6 to 2.4.10 show the existing observation stations.

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Figure 2.4.6 - Ebro River monitoring stations (Confederación Hidrográfica del Ebro, CHEBRO).

Figure 2.4.7 - Llobregat river available topics information (Agencia Catalana de l’Aigua, ACA)

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Figure 2.4.8 - Hydrodynamic marine observation stations (Puertos del Estado)

Figure 2.4.9 - Automatic meteorological stations at the Ebro-Llobregat Supersite (Servei Meteorològic de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya)

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Figure 2.4.10 - Regular aerial coverage for providing topographic information at the Ebro-Llobregat Supersite (Institut Cartografic I Geològic de Catalunya, Generalitat de Catalunya) The Maritime Engineering Laboratory (LIM/UPC) of the Technical University of Catalonia has long-standing experience in the field of maritime engineering. It is a unit of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering of the School of Civil Engineering of Barcelona. The LIM/UPC is made up of a team of highly qualified professionals who have solid experience and come from different technical and scientific disciplines (mathematics, physics, geology, civil engineering, oceanography, etc.), who are organized into specialized workgroups that are well-coordinated among themselves. This enables a naturally multidisciplinary approach to the services offered. The basic aims are to undertake basic and applied research, to develop oceanographic and maritime technology, to draw up training programs for different levels and to organize dissemination activities in the maritime and coastal engineering fields. The main research lines are coastal and estuarine hydrodynamics, maritime environment climate. The high interdisciplinarity of the CIIRC-LIM/UPC group is manifested in the academic and professional background of the about 40 researchers and research-support technicians that make up the group: Civil engineers, Marine Sciences graduates / Oceanographers, Physicists, Geologists, Telecommunications engineers, IT engineers and Workshop technicians. This interdisciplinarity procures an added value that is fundamental for the development of the different research projects, since it provides the capacity to address maritime issues from a multidisciplinary approach, as demanded by the marine environment. The main research and work lines at CIIRC-LIM/UPC are, and have been for the last decade:  Coastal and estuarine hydrodynamics  Climate and quality of the marine environment  Coastal morphology  Management of the coastal zone and coastal resources 109

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 Oceanographic physics and engineering  Renewable energies  Port, coastal and offshore engineering In complementarity with the work and research lines developed in the group, the CIIRC- LIM/UPC hosts and manages the iCIEM structure, which is the core of the Strategic Plan presented herein. The iCIEM structure concentrates on five main research axes which combine scale models and instruments, field measuring stations and networks, and advanced state-of- the-art numerical modelling tools to provide a Fully Integrated Laboratory Development. The physical labs are remotely available through rWLaB, the Remote Wave Laboratory, and aimed at both research and teaching purposes. The first vertex of the iCIEM pentagon is defined by a Large Scale Physical Lab, which includes the CIEM wave and currents flume, the first of its kind in Europe and only comparable to another one in Japan. This 100 meter-long, 3 meters wide and up to 7 meter-deep flume has been recognized since 1996 as a “Large Scale Facility” by the DG Research of the European Commission (EU). The infrastructure is particularly relevant for controlled hydraulic experiments in coastal, harbour and oceanographic engineering, as well as in other fields such as aquaculture and wave-energy installations. The second vertex of the pentagon is defined by a Small Scale Physical Lab which includes the CIEMITO wave-and-current flume and the LaBassA basin. The former is a18x0.38x0.56 (in m) 2DV flume structure that complements the CIEM flume. The LaBassA, on the other hand, is a 12x4.6 basin with a maximum depth of 2.5 m , whose main purpose is the testing of reduced scale models of offshore structures such as marine wind turbines, anchoring structures, at-sea berthing structures, underwater robots, etc. On the third vertex of the pentagon can be found the network for shelf observations, including the XIOM network, which consists of a set of buoys, tide gauges and meteorological stations deployed along the Catalan coast to monitor the most significative shelf and coastal variables. The fourth vertex is defined by two permanently instrumented coastal observation stations, the Pont del Petroli pier and the projected Port Fòrum vertical low-crested breakwater. The former is an out-of-use pier, built in an open beach, which extends about 250 m into the sea, reaching a water depth of about 12 m, and is used socially as a promenade. One of the offshoremost pier pillars has been instrumented in order to acquire environmental and biological measurements that permit taking advantage of the uniqueness of this structure. Similarly, the other pillars of the pier can be fitted with measuring sensors to increase the scientific utility of the structure, which can also be accessible to external researchers. This infrastructure is the first of its kind in the European Union, comparable worldwide to only a few other similar structures (e.g., HORS in Japan, and Duck in the USA), although these are used exclusively for scientific purposes. Finally, the last vertex of the iCIEM pentagon consists of a numerical lab furnished with an array of advanced state-of-the-art computational models (both original and adapted codes) with

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the capacity to provide services ranging from the replication of the large and small scale hydraulic models to the pre-operational prediction systems of meteo-oceanographic features at coastal and shelf scale. Within this range, the numerical lab is adequate to simulate, for instance, the wave and wave-current flume in 2DVand 3D, the interaction of waves and currents with structures in 2D and 3D or the interaction of waves and currents with sediments in 2DV and 3D, as well as having hydrodynamic toolboxes for the simulation of open sea/shelf/nearshore works, morphodynamic toolboxes to model seabed and beach evolution (profiles and plan), and water quality toolboxes to simulate dispersion and water quality in local (near field) and regional (far field) analyses. Furthermore, all these models and toolboxes can be suitably combined to provide a risk analysis framework for individual assessment of particular situations.

2.4.5.2. Plans for new equipment & facilities The plans for new equipment comprise: (i) a new set of observational gear; (ii) a new set of coupled operational models; (iii) a new operational post processing software and (iv) a new alarm system based on risks. The observational gear will include updated versions of the hydrodynamic equipment (waves, currents and mean sea and river levels) featuring higher spatial coverage and linkage to the new Sentinel images; new 3D acoustic sensors for circulation fields in the Llobregat and Ebro; new inverse radars for mean sea level and local waves; new OBS and bed sensors for morphodynamic recordings; new turbidity and suspended particulate matter sensors; additional HF radars; new fixed salt wedge recorders; new sensors for deltaic irrigation channels liquid and solid discharges; new stations along the lower river course recording liquid, suspended and bed transports (sediments and other diluted and particulate matter) In addition, we shall establish together with the Cartographic and Geologic Institute of Catalonia higher frequency emerged and submerged LIDAR flights to recover land elevations for the full active profile and the relative land-sea levels in the deltaic plain. Measurements of high topographic resolution using coherence-based differential interferometric SAR techniques (DInSAR). Finally, we shall adjust our sequence of numerical hydro-morpho-ecologic models to provide operational predictions linked to the new routine observations. These models will include wave and 3D current fields; sediment transport (bed and suspended) fields and nutrient and pollutant fields. These data sets will be prepared for advanced post-processing facilitating further use and re use for research and application purposes. This will cover: routine inter-comparisons; covariance matrices and anisotropic error fields; hazard and risk maps and alarm levels for selected hydro-morpho-ecological variables at a fixed number of hotspots.

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2.4.6. Users and Stakeholders The local and regional/national community of users will be structured into two groups: a. Administration with responsibilities for land planning, implementation of coastal works or monitoring of environmental parameters. Here we also include the Spanish Ministry with responsibility for the establishment of research infrastructure in our country. The main identified partners are:  Puertos del Estado (central governemnt)  Departament de Territori i Sostenibilitat (regional government)  Dirección General de Costas (central government)  MINECO (central government)  Municipalities involved (Barcelona, Deltebre and others). b. End users related to the multiple and conflicting activities supported by the proposed coastal system. They include:  Water authorities (Agencia Catalana del Agua, Ebro authority)  Tourist operators (local but also national and internationals)  Fishing and aquaculture organizations

2.4.7. Timeline for Supersite to become operational The new observation gear will be acquired within the budget for the new DANUBIUS RI deployment. It will become operational 6 months after the initiation. The new set of models are being tested and developed now so that they will become operational for targeted periods 3 months after the initiation. They will be fully operational two years afterwards, once all predictions have been suitably checked and quality controlled for two complete meteorological cycles. The alarm system will become operational also two years after initiation, for the same reasons explicated above The risk mapping will begin right after initiation but the first routine maps will be offered 1.5 years after initiation

2.4.8. Funding The setting up of the Spanish IDE (Iberian Deltaic and Estuary two Supersites in symbiosis) will be confounded by the Central Government, the two involved autonomous Governments (Catalonia and Andalusia) and by matching EU funds as part of the financial commitment within the DANUBIUS ESFRI Proposal. The funds, not yet determined, will be dedicated to the updating, enhancement and maintenance of the observational and modelling components of the two Spanish Supersites (both Structural Funds and National contribution). 112

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The Spanish IDE (Llobregat – Ebro deltas and Guadalquivir estuary) is planned to be a Major Research Infrastructure, intending to become a ICTS (Instalación Científico Técnica Singular or ICTS according to Spanish regulations). This will imply covering the next two EU budgeting periods and the corresponding periods for the budgets of Spanish (National) and Local (Catalonia and Andalusia) Governments The detailed cost structure for updating, operation and maintenance will be determined during the DANUBIUS-PP proposal in course. Funds will be provided from National and EU resources, according to the development of the project.

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2.5. Elbe – North Sea (Germany)

2.5.1. Introduction The Elbe has its source in the Krkonose Mountains in the Czech Republic and is about 1100 km long. About two thirds of its total length flows through Germany, where it discharges into the North Sea (Figure 2.5.1). The catchment comprises about 150 000 km² and harbours about 25 million people, making it the 12th largest river basin in Europe (Hofmann et al., 2005). About 61 % of the catchment serves as agricultural area, 29 % is covered by forests, and 6 % is urban area (Hofmann et al., 2005). The Elbe's major tributaries include the Vltava, Ohře, Schwarze Elster, Mulde, Saale and Havel rivers. The average annual river discharge of the Elbe is 712 m³/s (period 1926-2014), with minimum values of 173 m³/s on August 18 in 2003 and maximum values of 4080 m³/s on June 11 in 2013 (Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg & Hamburg Port Authority, 2014). The Elbe-North Sea System can be divided into the upper, middle and lower Elbe, as well as the adjacent German Bight, including parts of the Wadden Sea. The upper Elbe encompasses about 370 km from the spring to the Czech/German border plus additional 96 km in Germany. In the Czech Republic, the Elbe is impounded by six navigation dams (Quiel et al., 2011). To distinguish the further sections on the German territory, we use the German Elbe km starting with Elbe km 0 at the border between the Czech Republic and Germany. The middle Elbe continuous from Elbe km 96 to Elbe km 586 at the weir in Geesthacht. This stretch of more than 600 km is free-flowing until the weir Geesthacht (Quiel et al., 2011). The lower Elbe or the Elbe Estuary starts at the weir in Geesthacht (Elbe km 586) and continuous to Cuxhaven at the North Sea (Elbe km 728). At Bunthaus (Elbe km 609), the river branches out into the Northern and Southern Elbe. The two branches merge again at Elbe km 626, so that the Elbe continues with a width around 500 m (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). Seven kilometers further downstream, the river abruptly widens to 2.5 km. From here, the navigation channel of the Elbe runs in a river bed that continuously alters its form and width with several islands forming numerous side channels (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). Also some sand bars appear at low tide. Downstream of Brunsbüttel (Elbe km 695), the Elbe widens to become a funnel-shaped estuary mouth, with a maximum width of 17.5 km at Cuxhaven. However, only 1.5 km remain water-bearing at low tide (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). The outer estuary stretches about 30 - 40 km into the German Bight, without a clearly defined seaward limit (Hofmann et al., 2005).

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Figure 2.5.2 (A) The Elbe river catchment and the Elbe river consisting of the Upper Elbe, Middle Elbe and Lower/Tidal Elbe. (B) The Elbe Estuary with adjacent North Sea. (The Elbe River Estuary Factsheet, TIDE Project, 2010-2013)

The tidal influence reaches up to the weir in Geesthacht. The mixing zone of freshwater and saltwater is located between Glückstadt and Cuxhaven, depending on the freshwater discharge and the tidal cycle. The Elbe estuary is characterized by a diurnal tidal cycle with about 5 h flood period and almost 7.5 h ebb period; the tidal range is 2.3 m at Geesthacht, 3.6 m in Hamburg and 2.9 m at Cuxhaven. The Elbe estuary provides unique habitats for highly specialized flora and fauna with some endemic species. For example, the aquatic plant “Elbe Water Dropwort” (Oenanthe conioides) and the “Elbe Hair Grass” (Deschampsia wibeliana) can only be found here. The shallow water zones of the Elbe estuary are important spawning and hatching areas for diverse fish populations. The Tidal Elbe has the highest fish diversity of all European rivers with about 80 species (The Elbe River Estuary Factsheet, TIDE Project, 2010-2013). Seals, which follow the fish into the estuary, live on the sandbanks near Brunsbüttel, and porpoises (Phocoenaphocoena) can also be found occasionally. The adjacent wetlands, mudflats and foreshore areas are very important for migratory birds. In the Elbe estuary, 12 Special Protected Areas contribute to the NATURA 2000 network, covering about 90% of the estuary’s water and foreshore surface areas. Also around 30 nature protection areas (under national law) can be found along the Tidal Elbe (The Elbe River Estuary Factsheet, TIDE Project, 2010-2013). The Wadden Sea extends about 500 km along the southeastern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark. Since 2009, the Dutch and German parts have been designated a World Heritage Site. The area presents the world’s largest intertidal flats covering an area of 4700 km2, about 50% emerge during low tide (Kabat et al., 2012, Reise et al., 2010). The Wadden Sea ecosystem is characterized by a rich benthic fauna supporting millions of birds visiting in the course of a year (Reise et al., 2010). A large part of the intertidal area is sheltered by barrier islands and sand bars against the surf of the North Sea.

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The German Bight is part of the southeastern North Sea and relatively shallow with a maximum depth of around 55 m (Figure 2.5.2). The coastal waters can be divided into three different water types: the marine waters of the German Bight (salinity up to 34), the northern German Wadden Sea with salinities around 30, and coastal waters directly influenced by the river plume of the river Elbe and other estuaries like Ems and Weser (Hofmann et al., 2005).

Figure 2.5.2 Bathymetry in the German Bight/southern Position of Supersite within the Elbe North Sea (Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency River The Elbe-North Sea Supersite currently encompasses the Elbe estuary (starting at the weir in Geesthacht, Elbe km 586) and reaches into the German Bight of the North Sea, including parts of the Wadden Sea, as far as the influence of the Elbe goes (Figure 2.5.3). The Supersite ranges from freshwater over transitional waters to coastal waters (Figure 1). In the future, we intend to work together also with partners further upstream in the Elbe.

Figure 2.5.3 Extension of the Elbe-North Sea Supersite starting at the weir in Geesthacht (at the right) and reaching into the German Bight of the North Sea, as far as the influence of the river (ARGE Elbe).

Summary of Supersite Characteristics  from freshwater over transitional waters to coastal waters  diurnal tidal cycle, shorter flood period than ebb period, tidal range about 2 to 3.5 m  tidal influence reaches about 140 km upstream into the river, where it is blocked by a weir  Elbe estuary is the lifeline of the Metropolitan region of Hamburg  Hamburg port is third largest in Europe and about 130 km inland  long anthropogenic history e.g. intense waterway management  harbours highest fish diversity of all European rivers

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 national nature protection as well as NATURA 2000 special protected areas  adjacent Wadden Sea is a globally unique coastal ecosystem, largely a nature reserve and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Anthropogenic History Human interventions in the Elbe-North Sea System started thousand(s) of years ago with diking and associated loss of wetlands, expanding in the industrial revolution of the mid-19th century with river management and waste disposal in rivers, and greatly accelerated in the mid-1950s with eutrophication, pollution and overfishing (Emeis et al., 2015). In the Wadden Sea ecosystem, a large number of species extinctions and declines have been caused mainly by habitat transformations and exploitations (Lotze et al., 2005). The Elbe river has been straightened for flood protection and navigation, which resulted in a decreased river length with an increase of the slope and thus an increase in flow velocities (Simon et al., 2005). Furthermore, continuous dike lines along the lower Elbe exist since the 13th century on both banks, which lead to a loss of associated wetlands. For example, the foreshore areas of the adjacent federal states Schleswig-Holstein and Lower Saxony have decreased by 50 % and 74 % respectively between 1900 and 2008 (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). Nowadays, nearly 60 % of the river banks are artificially reinforced (Fuchs et al., 2013) and large-scale areas of the hinterland are below mean sea level due to drainage and soil subsidence (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). Besides straightening and diking, the Elbe estuary has been deepened and widened several times, ranging from a 10.0 m depth upgrade between 1936 and 1956 to a 14.5 m depth upgrade between 1999 and 2000, so that tidal dynamics have been substantially altered (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). Since the early 1980s, the Elbe is known as one of the most contaminated rivers in Europe. The combined effects of the construction of the weir at Geesthacht in the 1960s and pollution by surplus nutrients and contaminants from industry in the 1970s and 1980s resulted in a collapse of the river ecosystem and extinction of many fish species. In the 1990s, due to the changing political and economic conditions after Germany’s reunification, the emission of contaminants significantly decreased (due to the closure of industries). Implementation of water treatment plants and better agricultural practices led to continuous decrease in nutrient loads since the mid 1980s. From 1985 until 2014, the annual nutrient load constantly decreased at a rate of about 2-3 % per year (van Beusekom J.E.E., 2017). The improvement of water quality along with the construction of a fish pass at the weir have led to a recovery in fish abundance and now more than 100 species are found again in the estuary. The fish pass ensures connectivity and ensures migrating fish species the passage to the upstream reaches of the river. The improvement of the water quality due to industrial improvements in the catchment improved the growth conditions of phytoplankton in the riverine part of the Elbe and nowadays large amounts of riverine phytoplankton biomass enter the tidal part of the Elbe. About 50% of the organic carbon that enter the estuary are remineralized leading in some years to oxygen deficiency near the harbour of Hamburg (Amann et al., 2012, Schöl et al., 2014). 117

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2.5.2. Challenges and Research Questions The Tidal Elbe River encompasses 8.8% of the total river catchment, 14.6% of the total population, and 11% of the total runoff. 16.8% is urban area, 6.1% is covered by forest, 6.1% is covered by water, 9.4% is used for agriculture, 6.3% is arable land and 33.5% is covered by grassland (Hofmann et al., 2005). In the following, the main drivers and pressures, as well as their resulting socio-economic and environmental challenges are described.

Waterborne Transport: The Elbe is an important federal waterway serving the Port of Hamburg, which lies about 130 km inland, as well as a few smaller ports in Cuxhaven, Brunsbüttel, Glückstadt and Stade/Bützfleth. The Port of Hamburg is the largest port in Germany and the third largest one in Europe. Around nine million containers are handled annually in the Port of Hamburg3. About one third of these remain in the Metropolitan Region of Hamburg, whereas the remaining two thirds are transported throughout Germany and the European hinterland1. Currently, vessels with a draught of 12.8 m are able to arrive and depart to/from the Port of Hamburg, irrespective of the tide. Further deepening of the navigation channel to/from the Port of Hamburg is intended to allow vessels with a draught of 13.5 m to arrive and depart to/from the Port of Hamburg, irrespective of the tide. Therefore, the Elbe navigation channel in the German Bight has to be deepened from 16.98 to 19 m, and from the junction of the Northern and Southern Elbe (Elbe km 626) to Container Terminal Altenwerder (Elbe km 619.5) from 16.7 to 17.4 m (Figure 2.5.4)1. Besides deepening, the navigation channel is also intended to be widened because vessels with a combined breadth of more than 90 m cannot meet in the navigation channel with its width of around 300 m in the section before Hamburg1.

Figure 2.5.4 Enlargement measures intended for the lower and outer Elbe to allow passage of vessels with 13.8 m draught to and from Hamburg Port, irrespective of the tide1

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As described above, the Elbe Estuary is characterised by an asymmetrical tide with a shorter flood than ebb current period, and a higher flood current velocity than ebb current velocity. This leads to a residual upstream transport of sediments - called tidal pumping. In several sections of the Elbe Estuary, the weaker ebb current is not strong enough to transport the sediments, which were transported upstream by the flood current, back downstream, leading to sediment accumulation in certain parts of the estuary. This process is enhanced in summer months during low discharge periods. Tidal pumping may further be enhanced through some human activities, e.g. further deepening of the navigation channel. To maintain the current depth, the navigation channel and the Port of Hamburg is continuously dredged in certain sections of the Elbe Estuary. The dredging and the relocation of dredged material within the Elbe Estuary or into the North Sea may lead for instance to increasing turbidity, increasing hydraulic smoothness, release of environmentally relevant substances, disturbance of the upper sediment layer, etc. Contaminated dredged material is removed from the system by deposition on land. The volume of material dredged in the Hamburg area has increased considerably within the last ten years (Winterwerp and Wang, 2013, Winterwerp et al., 2013, Winterwerp, 2013). Furthermore, climate change is expected to exacerbate these issues, through increased high water levels inducing a higher tidal range and thus strengthening the tidal pumping effect. In Germany, the Elbe river is a federal waterway owned by the Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV), who is responsible for its maintenance. In the state area of Hamburg, however, the management of the waterway is delegated to the City of Hamburg, represented by the Hamburg Port Authority. To assure a further distribution of goods on water, the Elbe is well connected to a network of mostly artificial waterways (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). The Kiel Canal connects the Elbe estuary between Brunsbüttel with the Baltic Sea near Kiel. This is the most navigated artificial maritime waterway of the world. Another link to the Baltic Sea is the Elbe-Trave-Canal between Lübeck and Lauenburg. The Elbe Side Canal connects the Elbe upstream from the Geesthacht weir between Artlenburg and Edesbüttel, near Wolfsburg to the Midland Canal, which is the East-West connection between the Ruhr and Berlin.

Industry: Various industrial facilities get their process water from the Elbe. Furthermore, seventeen industrial direct dischargers, ten of them in the Metropolitan Area of Hamburg, are situated along the Elbe Estuary (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008). For example, the Aurubis AG, located in Hamburg-Moorburg, is one of the world’s largest copper producers. Aurubis AG is known as the largest emitter of heavy metals in northern Germany4. The Airbus Operations GmbH is located adjacent to and downstram the Port of Hamburg. The refinery “Dow Chemie” is located in Stade, downstream of Hamburg on the southern bank of the river.

Energy Generation: Starting from Geesthacht downstream, the following power plants are located along the Elbe River (Figure 2.5.5): the nuclear power plant Krümmel (1400 MW,

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closed down in 2011), the pumped-storage power plant Geesthacht (120 MW), the gas power plant Tiefstack (125 MW), the coal-fired power plants Moorburg (1600 MW) and Wedel (250 MW), the nuclear power plants Brokdorf (1410 MW) and Brunsbüttel (806 MW, closed down in 2011). The power plants get their cooling water from the Elbe river and discharge it the warmed up water back into the river. A currently booming industry is the construction and operation of offshore wind parks in the German Bight, influencing the pelagic and benthic ecosystem.

Figure 2.5.5 Locations of power plants and industrial sites in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (ARGE Elbe, modified).

Agriculture: The land adjacent to the Elbe Estuary is largely used for agriculture; vegetable and livestock farming upstream of Hamburg, while orchards dominate downstream of Hamburg. The Elbe river receives a high input of nutrients originating from the whole catchment area. This nutrient load leads to algae blooms. When the algae die in the deeper parts of the estuary due to light limitation, their degradation by microbes consumes oxygen and causes oxygen depletion. The low water oxygen levels can, in turn, affect fish and other aquatic species. Occasionally, oxygen levels in the water become a problem during summer months, particularly downstream of Hamburg.

Fisheries: Due to the improved water quality since the German reunification, commercial and recreational fishing are practised again. In the Elbe Estuary, the majority of the fish volume is smelt (Osmerus eperlanus), eel (Anguilla anguilla) is economically the most important fish

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and prawn fishing is typical in the mouth of the estuary (The Elbe River Estuary Factsheet, TIDE Project, 2010-2013). In the German Bight, bottom trawling is quite common.

Urbanisation: The Metropolitan Area of Hamburg consists of two independent cities and 17 districts in addition to the city of Hamburg. The Metropolitan Area covers a total area of 26,103,5 km2 and has a population of 5.1 million (Factsheet Hamburg Metropolitan Area, Statistical Office for Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, 2015). There are a total of seven sewage treatment plants, which discharge into the Elbe estuary (Boehlich and Strotmann, 2008), e.g. Hetlingen and Köhlbrandhöft Increasing urbanisation, industrialisation and transport leads to an increasing soil sealing. Thus, the ground water generation is limited. Due to a higher direct surface water runoff and the discharge through the canalisation, flood waves are increased (Simon et al., 2005) and the risk of sewage treatment overflows are increased.

Climate Change & Climate Variability: The temperatures in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region have risen by about 1.4°C since 1881, out of these 1.2°C is accounted to the period after 1951 (von Storch et al., 2017). The temperature in Hamburg and Northern Germany may rise by another one to five degrees Celsius by the end of the century compared to the past (2071-2100 vs. 1961-1990). Besides an increase in temperature, also an increase in precipitation is expected in the future, mainly during the winter months. The number of days with heavy precipitation could also increase. Along the German coasts, the water surface temperature has increased in the last few decades and the sea level has risen by about 15-20 cm in the last century. In the future, the water will continue to warm along the German coasts, and the sea level could increase another 20-80 cm by the year 2100 (von Storch et al., 2017). Warming, sea level rise, changes in precipitation and discharge may change hydro- and morphodynamics, biogeochemical cycling and habitats in the Elbe-North Sea System. These changes may lead e.g. to oxygen deficiency, invasive species, salinization of groundwater and loss of habitats, such as subtidal habitats and salt marshes. Diking and dredging activities may be enhanced.

Extreme Events: Effects from extreme events, like high discharge events and storm surges, impact river and coastal processes, as well as semiaquatic (e.g. mudflats) and semiterrestric ecosystems (e.g. marshes). For example, the Elbe River flood in June 2013 generated large- scale biogeochemical changes in the Elbe estuary and the adjacent German Bight resulting from a large influx of nutrients, dissolved and particulate organic carbon (Voynova et al., 2017). This led to the onset of a phytoplankton bloom, observed by dissolved oxygen supersaturation and higher than usual pH in surface coastal waters. The prolonged stratification also led to widespread bottom water dissolved oxygen depletion, unusual for the southeastern German Bight in the summer.

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 changes in hydro- and morphodynamics due to engineering measures (diking, straightening, deepening, widening, construction of port areas and a weir upstream etc.)  tidal pumping of sediments from downstream to upstream  dredging and relocation of dredged material  nutrient loading, algae blooms, eutrophication, oxygen minimum zone  pollution from organic and inorganic contaminants, particularly in sediments  loss of wetlands and floodplains  invasive species  sea level rise and storm surges  land subsidence and groundwater salinisation  extreme high discharge and low discharge events/periods  changes in temperature and precipitation patterns due to climate change

Research Needs & Questions Research needs and questions in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite derived from several drivers, pressures and respective state changes and impacts have been compiled by the Hosting Institution and Supersite Partners, as well as potential, regional users and partners, e.g. at a Elbe-North Sea Supersite Workshop in March 2018 in Hamburg. On this basis, we will decide in the next step what the Elbe-North Sea Supersite will focus on in the future.

2.5.3. Vision We envision an integrated observation, experimentation and modelling system for the Elbe- North Sea Supersite to enhance process and system understanding ranging from hydro- and morphodynamics over biogeochemistry to the ecosystem level. We will foster knowledge exchange and discussions among the administrative and scientific community in the Elbe- North Sea Supersite overcoming disciplinary and regional boundaries. Interdisciplinary knowledge shall become the basis for upcoming discussions about options for a sustainable use of the Elbe estuary and adjacent North Sea. The following overarching questions and research areas are guiding our planned research and the implementation of research infrastructure:

 How are natural and anthropogenic drivers affecting ecosystem state changes in the Elbe- North Sea System? What are the consequences on ecosystem functioning and services? How can we distinguish between natural variability and anthropogenic changes?  How can the Elbe-North Sea System be managed sustainably? Which guidelines can be derived from that? How can the efficiency of measures be assessed? How can the knowledge be used to discuss conflicting points of interest?  How can we observe process and system dynamics on a higher spatial and temporal scale? How can we predict short and long term changes in the Elbe-North Sea System?

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To answer the questions above a combination of research infrastructure components is needed: in-situ observations, remote sensing, automated observation stations, like ferry boxes on shore and on ships, a river- and coastal sea-going research vessel for field campaigns, lab-based analytics, modelling tools and computer facilities. The hosting institution Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht will join forces with existing infrastructures at the institute, e.g. COSYNA (Coastal Observation System for Northern and Arctic Seas, (Baschek et al., 2017)), CoastMap (marine geoportal for campaign and modelling data), and MOSES (Modular Observation Solutions for Earth Systems). Furthermore, we aim to bring together the major stakeholders in the region (see 7. Users and Stakeholders), their ongoing research and monitoring programs and databases of existing long-term data (dating back to early 20th century). Figure 2.5.6 shows points of particular interest in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite to answer the questions mentioned above. At these locations, stations are already existing or are currently planned.

5 3 6 4 2 1

Figure 2.5.6 Points of particular interest in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (1) Import of Matter over Weir Geesthacht, (2) Turnover of Matter in Hamburg Port Area, (3) Turnover of Matter in Freshwater-Seawater Mixing Zone, (4) Export/Import of Matter to/from North Sea, (5) Turnover of Matter in Wadden Sea, (6) Turnover of Matter in North Sea (ARGE Elbe, modified).

Existing Facilities in Elbe-North Sea Supersite from Hosting Institution The Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht is already maintaining several research infrastructure components in Geesthacht and further along the River-Sea Continuum, such as Ferryboxes and underwater nodes (Figure 2.5.7 and following Table).

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Figure 2.5.7 Different research infrastructure from Helmholtz- Zentrum Geesthacht is already existing at the locations indicated here (Google Earth, April 23, 2018).

Location Research Infrastructure Geesthacht (HZG) Analytical Labs, High-Performance Computing, Databases Cuxhaven Ferrybox (COSYNA) Ferry Cuxhaven-Immingham Ferrybox (COSYNA) Helgoland Underwater Node (AWI - COSYNA) Ferry Helgoland-Büsum Ferrybox (COSYNA) Elbe-North Sea (coastal sea) RV “Ludwig Prandtl” (relatively old ship)

Existing Facilities in Elbe-North Sea Supersite from Regional Stakeholders Many stakeholders are active in the area of the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (see 7. Users and Stakeholders). Thus, we aim to bring together the stakeholders, their infrastructures and activities related to the Elbe-North Sea Supersite. The German Elbe River Basin Community is coordinating an Elbe measuring programme, which consists of selected measuring stations and activities with a harmonized set of parameters in the different federal states connected to the Elbe river and its tributaries. Data is made available through a data portal. Additionally, water quality reports are published for certain periods. Figure 2.5.8 indicates existing stations from regional stakeholders within the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (not exhaustive). The Hamburg Port Authority and the Hamburg Ministry for Environment and Energy are maintaining several stations in the city of Hamburg including the Hamburg port. The two adjacent federal states Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein and their respective environmental ministries and agencies have some stations along the Elbe Estuary and at the mouth of the Elbe. The Federal Waterway and Shipping Administration, who is largely responsible for the maintenance of the waterway Elbe, operates some stations for the Federal Institute of Hydrology. The Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency is operating

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a monitoring network called MARNET in the German Bight of the North Sea. Besides the stations mentioned above, a network of gauges exist, which is maintained by the Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration (Figure 2.5.9).

Figure 2.5.8 (left) Existing stations from regional stakeholders within the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (Google Earth, April 23, 2018). Figure 2.5.9 (right) Existing gauges by the Federal Waterways and Shipping

Administration5

Planned Facilities in Elbe-North Sea Supersite

In addition to the existing facilities from Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht and from other regional stakeholders in the Elbe- North Sea Supersite (see 5. Existing Facilities and Expertise), we are currently planning to implement or upgrade research infrastructure at five locations (Figure 2.5.10) in order to complete the picture envisioned above (Figure 2.5.6) Figure 2.5.10 Different research infrastructure is planned and enable process oriented observations, to be implemented at the five locations indicated here depending on available funding. In the following table, a short rationale for (Google Earth, April 23, 2018). each planned location is given as well as the type of research infrastructure, which is currently envisioned for each location. In addition to fixed stations, we are also planning a mobile station, as well as installing further Ferryboxes, automated observation systems (Petersen et al., 2011), on two ferries for regular transects.

Location Rationale Research Infrastructure

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Autonomous Station and Artlenburg* Import of Matter from Catchment Underwater Node Mobile Station for Hot Hamburg Port** Turnover of Matter Spots and Underwater Node Ferry Glückstadt- Turnover of Matter in Freshwater- Ferrybox Wischhafen Seawater Mixing Zone Catamaran Hamburg- Transect along River-Sea Ferrybox Helgoland Continuum on a daily basis Selected Campaigns along River- Elbe-North Sea Research Vessel Sea Continuum Sylt Turnover of Matter in Wadden Sea Underwater Node German Bight (e.g. Turnover of Matter in North Sea Underwater Node Helgoland)

* This station will be jointly developed with the Federal Institute of Hydrology, the Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration, and the project MOSES. ** Some stations are jointly planned with partners.

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2.5.3.1. Table of Parameters The following table shows the parameters, which are currently envisioned for the planned facilities (indicated by X), as well as the type of measurement, the periodicity and the corresponding matrices. The table does not include parameters which are already measured at existing stations by the Hosting Institution, Supersite partners or by other regional stakeholders (see 4. Existing Expertise and Facilities). We aim to cooperate with these stakeholders in order to not duplicate existing facilities and measurements.

Glückstadt‐ Hamburg‐ Elbe‐North Sea Measured and analysed Parameters Artlenburg Hamburg Port Helgoland Sylt Wischhafen Helgoland Campaigns Water discharge X 0 0 0 0 0 0 Temperature X X X X X X X Conductivity/Salinity X X X X X X X pH (can also be done continuously) X X X X X X X Chlorophyll a X X X X X X X Turbidity X X X X X X X Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP X X X X X X X Carbon (TOC, DOC) 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Dissolved oxygen X X X X X X X Total suspended matter 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, data is available for the regions belonging to and adjacent to the Supersite employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita

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bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea 0 0 0 0 0 0 X

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Emerging pollutants 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Oxygen fluxes during campaigns and at selected stations CO2 system characterisation during campaigns and at selected stations Stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer during campaigns and at selected stations Radiogenic isotopes for sediment dating during campaigns and at selected stations Mineralogy during campaigns and at selected stations Ecotoxicology during campaigns and at selected stations Benthic chambers for fluxes during campaigns and at selected stations Biota phytoplankton and macrobenthos during campaigns and at selected stations Microbiology 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, production and respiration during campaigns and at selected stations fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy))

Type of measurements: Remote (e.g., satellite based) In situ X X X X X X X Online X X X X X X X Offline 0 0 0 0 0 0 X In situ sampling X X 0 0 X X X 128

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Lab analysis X X X X X X X Ecosystem investigations 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Periodicity Continuous X X X X X X X Dedicated surveys X X X X X X X Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) X X X X X X X Event driven X X X X X X X

Matrices Water X X X X X X X Air 0 X 0 0 0 0 X Sediments X X 0 0 X X X Total suspended solids X X X X X X X Biota (specify organism type) 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Gases 0 0 0 0 0 0 X

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Services The Elbe-North Sea Supersite intends to offer the following services to researchers, small and medium enterprises, decision-makers and the public:  bringing together regional Elbe-North Sea Supersite community in order to enhance process and system understanding of the Elbe-North Sea System, e.g. through regular workshops  integrating existing knowledge and providing new interdisciplinary knowledge  providing access to research infrastructure enabling research along River-Sea Continuum  using standardised methods and providing access to comparable data  strengthening regional, national and international collaborations  combining research with technology development in cooperation with regional small and medium enterprises

2.5.4. Supersite Organization  Hosting Institution: Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), Institute of Coastal Research  Supersite Manager: Jana Friedrich (HZG)  Supersite Partners under coordination of Hosting Institution: Federal Institute for Hydrology (BfG), Federal Waterways Engineering and Research Institute (BAW), other Supersite partners to be discussed

2.5.5. Existing Facilities and Expertise

Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht (HZG), Institute of Coastal Research

Current Research Fields:  Biogeochemistry in Coastal Seas: marine bioanalytical chemistry, environmental chemistry, chemistry transport modelling, aquatic nutrient cycles, modelling for the assessment of coastal systems  Operational Systems: radar hydrography, remote sensing, submesoscale dynamics, in-situ measuring systems, small-scale physics and turbulence  System Analysis and Modelling: coastal impacts and paleoclimate, ecosystem modelling, ocean wave modelling themes, wave modelling themes, human dimensions of coastal areas, coastal climate, hydrodynamics and data assimilation, regional atmospheric modelling

Field Observations:  remote sensing: e.g. colored dissolved organic matter, chlorophyll, suspended matter

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 COSYNA (Coastal Observing System for Northern and Arctic Seas): piles, ferrybox, radar, gliders, small research vessel, scanfish, underwater node, hyperspectral optics, buoys, video plankton recorder  benthic observations: landers and mooring arrays (benthic-pelagic fluxes of nutrients and oxygen)  sediment sampling: multicorer and small box corers  hydrographic measurements: Conductivity, Temperature, Density Profiler and Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler

Analytical Facilities:  trace detection of inorganic pollutants in seawater, non-traditional isotope systems with multi-collector and Malditoff mass spectrometers etc. including clean lab facilities  organic pollutants (including emerging contaminants and persistent organic pollutants) with mass spectrometers coupled to gas or liquid chromatography  stable isotopes of nitrogen and oxygen in liquids, application of nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in nitrogen turnover studies with membrane inlet mass spectrometers  accredited laboratory for monitoring of environmental radioactivity (including 210Pb dating)  nutrients analysis (dissolved/particulate/organic/inorganic) with ion chromatography, autoanalyzer, spectrophotometer, elemental analyzers  new laboratory building (as of 2018)

Modelling:  circulation model, wave model, suspended particulate matter model, biogeochemical modelling (MAECS coupled to GETM)  chemistry transport modelling  modelling for the assessment of the coastal systems  hydrodynamics and data assimilation  ecosystem modelling  mainframe computers  HZG is one shareholder of the German Climate Computing Centre  human dimensions of coastal areas

Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) All contributions show the particular focus on the tidal Elbe river, there might exist additional facilities and expertise for other rivers.

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Current Research Fields:  Particle bound contaminant transport in North Sea estuaries  Effects of dredging on contaminant transport  Emerging pollutants  Effects of slag bricks on water and sediment quality  Development of macrophytes and marsh alteration due to river training  Regulating services of marsh plants measuring plant traits, waves, and flow velocities across the seasons  Bank resistance to hydraulic stress and soil development  Ecosystem services of marshes (esp. regulating and cultural services)  Oxygen and nutrients budget including biogeochemical processes  Phyto- and Zooplankton  Water quality modelling  Impact assessment (mainly concerning morphological changes)  Management of water quality in estuaries (effect of measures)  Description and measurement of the morphological characteristics (e.g. river bed sediments and structures like subaquatic dunes) and dynamics (e.g. sedimentation rates, migration rates); here the current status and changes over time  Sediment transport measurements and development of a sediment budget  Morphological effects due to dredging and depositing of dredged material  Interaction of channel morphology and dynamics with water quality / abiotic factors regarding ecology (habitat)

Observations:  Sediment and suspended particulate matter sampling (settling tanks, van Veen grab or vibrocorer – operated by the Federal Waterway and Shipping Administration) for sediment contaminations (long-term)  Long-term marsh vegetation maps  Aerial photographs (airborne data by plane and UAV)  Digital elevation models intertidal and supratidal zones along the estuary  Soil data at local scale  Vegetation and trait data at local scale  Water quality, phyto-zooplankton data of longitudinal surveys along the estuary (2-4 times per year, 2009-2018)  Continuous data of oxygen, chl a, salinity, temperature, turbidity at fixed stations (Hahnöfer NE, Geesthacht)

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 Long-term zooplankton data at Seemannshöft (cooperation Hygiene Institute, Hamburg) and in the region of the Hahnöfer NE (Monitoring of Twaite shad, cooperation with WSA Hamburg)  Hydrodynamic data of tidal flats at local scale  Large scale observation of morphological structures and dynamics of the river bed (sediment properties, geometry and migration of dunes, sedimentation rates)  Long term records and spatial patterns for turbidity and concentrations of suspended particulate matters  Impact of human activities vs. natural factors on sediment budget and distribution of sediments / concentrations of suspended particulate matters  several sensors for marsh observations (e.g. wave, flow velocity, pressure, conductivity, temperature, oxygen, turbidity, pH, Chl a, organic content and grain size)  fluorometer with determination of algal classes by fluorescence  processors ready for generating turbidity maps from remote sensing data

Analytical Facilities:  BfG has a large varity of analytical facilities that are applied depending on the respective research questions

Modelling:  species distribution modelling  process-based vegetation models (processed by TU Braunschweig)  modelling littoral zoning on the base of bathymetric and elevation data for estuaries  bank stability for vegetated river banks (processed by CAU Kiel)  denitrification modelling for marsh and floodplain soils  water quality modelling with QSim (model domain is river and estuary)  for the simulation of hydrodynamic and dynamics of suspended particulate, we use the SCHISM model (Semi-implicit Cross-scale Hydroscience Integrated System Model)

Federal Waterways Engineering and Research Institute (BAW) BAW is the technical and scientific federal institution for consultancy on waterway engineering, belonging to the Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. The scientific focus of BAW’s coastal department is the understanding and quantification of human impact on physical processes in estuaries and coasts. Therefore, BAW develops and operates:

 Numerical models for the simulation of on hydrodynamics and morphodynamics, waves, substance and tracer transport, ship dynamics and ship-waterway interaction, fluid mud,

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biogeochemistry and surface water – groundwater interaction. High performance computers and multicore workstations as computing facilities are available in-house.  Field measurement equipment to capture hydrodynamic and sediment transport processes (e.g. ADCPs, ADVs, MBES) and basic laboratory facilities in order to carry out specialised measurement campaigns in estuarine and shelf sea.  Shallow water basin (100 m x 35 m x 0.7 m) as a physical model infrastructure to, e.g., study the interaction of seagoing ships and tidal fairways.  A ship handling simulator for navigability analysis in the design of waterways  Horizontal, two-directional flume (1.5 m x 1.3 m x 80 m) for fundamental hydraulic investigations.

Existing Expertise in Elbe-North Sea Supersite It follows a selected list of past and current research projects, which deal with or are dealing with different aspects of the Elbe-North Sea System. The research activities in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite will be based on the outcomes of these projects and will further complement these to enhance process and system understanding of the Elbe-North Sea System.

• ELSA: restoration of polluted Elbe sediments; Coordination: Hamburg Ministry for Environment and Energy, Duration: 2010 - 2021 • KLIMZUG-NORD: strategic adaptation approaches to climate change in the metropolitan region of Hamburg, 6 universities, 6 research institutions, 11 public authorities and 10 enterprises, as well as several associated partners, Duration: 2009 - 2014 • TIDE (Tidal River Development): an initiative from Hamburg Port Authority and nine other international partners, who are responsible for management and research in the estuaries Elbe, Weser, Scheldt and Humber, Duration: 2009 - 2013 • KLIWAS: effects of climate change on waterways and shipping in Germany, Coordination: Federal Institute of Hydrology, Duration: 2009 - 2013 • LABEL: ELBE-LABE – adaptation to flood risks in Elbe catchment, Coordination: Saxonian State Ministry for Internal Affairs, Duration: 2008 - 2012 • GLOWA-Elbe: effects of global change on water cycle in Elbe area, Coordination: Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Duration: 2000 - 2011 • RIMAX: risk Management of extreme flooding events, Coordination: German Research Centre for Geosciences Potsdam, Duration: 2005 - 2010 • Projects for national flood protection – region Elbe, Coordination: Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety • “Master plan” Elbe, Coordination: Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety • EUROCAT: European catchments, catchments changes and their impact on the coast, Duration: 2001 – 2004

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Plans for Further Development In order to enhance process and system understanding in the Elbe-North Sea System, we are planning to supplement the existing facilities accordingly (Figure 2.5.6). This means to add new facilities in certain locations, such as in (1) Artlenburg (import of matter) and (3) Glückstadt-Wischhafen (turnover of matter in freshwater-seawater mixing zone). Besides adding new facilities, we also plan to upgrade or supplement already existing facilities in the (2) Hamburg port area (turnover of matter), as well as in the (5) Wadden Sea and (4) North Sea (turnover of matter). Figure 2.5.11 shows existing stations from Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht as well as from regional stakeholders, and planned stations in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite. For further information regarding the planned research infrastructure at these locations, see 3. Vision - Planned Facilities in Elbe-North Sea Supersite.

Figure 2.5.11 Existing (red) and planned (yellow) stations in the Elbe-North Sea Supersite (Google Earth, April 23, 2018).

2.5.6. Users and Stakeholders It follows a list of regional stakeholders in the current Elbe-North Sea Supersite, comprising river basin communities, research centers, universities, environmental ministries and agencies of the federal states Hamburg, Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein, as well as federal institutions. The Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht is the Hosting Institution of the Elbe-North Sea Supersite. The Federal Institute of Hydrology and the Federal Waterways and Engineering Research Institute are Supersite Partners and therefore not listed below. An extension of the Supersite upstream would also imply an extension of partners, users and stakeholders.

Overarching Communities, Commissions and Secretaries • German River Basin Community Elbe • International Commission for the Protection of the Elbe River • Common Wadden Sea Secretariat

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Research Institutes • Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research

Universities • University Hamburg • Technical University Hamburg Harburg • Hamburg University of Applied Sciences • Leuphana University Lüneburg • University Kiel • University of Applied Sciences Lübeck • University Oldenburg

Federal Institutions • Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency • Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration • Federal Agency for Nature Conservation • Federal Research Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries • German Environmental Protection Agency

Hamburg • Hamburg Port Authority • Ministry for Environment and Energy • Institute for Hygiene and Environment, Ministry for Health and Consumer Protection • Waterway and Shipping Office • State Office for Roads, Bridges and Waters

Schleswig-Holstein • Ministry for Energy, Agriculture, Environment and Rural Areas • State Office for Coastal and Sea Protection, National Parks • State Office for Agriculture, Environment and Rural Areas • Waterway and Shipping Office Brunsbüttel and Lauenburg

Lower Saxony • Ministry for Environment, Energy and Climate Protection • State Office for Water Management, Coast and Nature Protection • Waterway and Shipping Office Cuxhaven

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2.5.7. Timeline & Funding In order to become operational by 2022, we plan the preparation and implementation as followed. The timeline depends heavily on the availability of funding and negotiations with stakeholders.

 December 2016: Start of the H2020 project DANUBIUS-PP  April 2017: Project and Communications Officer for Elbe-North Sea Supersite has been employed for the following three years  2017-2019: Stakeholder engagement in several bilateral meetings  March 2018: Elbe-North Sea Supersite Workshop with over 60 regional stakeholders (presentation of DANUBIUS-PP and the preliminary plans for Elbe-North Sea Supersite, identification and discussion of research needs in several working groups)  yearly: Symposium with and for Elbe-North Sea Community (presentation and discussion of results, identification of research needs)  until end of 2018: Application for European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) in Schleswig-Holstein to implement research infrastructure in Elbe-North Sea Supersite  2018/2019: Installation of station in Artlenburg along with research infrastructure initiative MOSES (Modular Observation Solutions for Earth Systems) of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres  2018-2020: HZG and Supersite partners continue to do research in Elbe-North Sea Supersite with existing infrastructure and data  2020-2021: Implementation of research infrastructure in Elbe-North Sea Supersite  2022: Start of operation of Elbe-North Sea Supersite

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2.6. Guadalquivir Estuary (Spain)

2.6.1. Introduction to the Supersite The Guadalquivir river is the fifth longest one in the Iberian Peninsula and the second longest river with its entire length in Spain. The Guadalquivir river is the only great navigable river in Spain. Currently it is navigable from the Gulf of Cádiz to Seville, but in Roman times it was navigable to Córdoba.

The Spanish river is 657 km (408 mi) long and drains an area of about 58,000 km2. It begins at Cañada de las Fuentes (village of Quesada) in the Cazorla mountain range (Jaén), passes through Córdoba and Seville and ends at the fishing village of Bonanza, in Sanlúcar de Barrameda, flowing into the Gulf of Cádiz, in the Atlantic Ocean. Although its hydrographic basin covers all the provinces of Andalucía (Almería, Jaén, Córdoba, Seville, Huelva, Cádiz, Málaga and Granada) and other closer territories in the south of Spain (Murcia, Albacete, Ciudad Real and Badajoz).

Figure 2.6.3: Guadalquivir river, Hydrographic basin The marshy lowlands at the river's end are known as "Las Marismas". The river borders Doñana National Park reserve.

Specifically, the Guadalquivir estuary extends for more than 110 km, from its mouth, at Chipiona and Sanlúcar de Barrameda, to the dam of Alcalá del Río at the head, beyond Seville. Its mouth has a typical morphology of an estuary dominated by tides, showing a funnel shaped geometry. It is about 500 m wide at the point where it begins to open and more than 4 km in the sector that connects with the open sea. As for its immediate surroundings, its north end borders the Doñana National Park, one of the most important natural áreas in Europe, and its southern end with Sanlúcar de Barrameda, belonging to the province of Cádiz. 138

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Finally, highlight a particularity that makes the Guadalquivir estuary an enclave of great interest for study and knowledge. This particularity is based on the multitude of uses and activities that overlap in the area. Some have been advanced previously, such as the presence of natural spaces of undoubted environmental value or fishing activity

However, the enormous surface of marinas, sometimes converted into salt mines or aquaculture areas, the navigation of boats heading to the Port of Seville, the only inland maritime port in Spain, the presence of large areas dedicated to agricultural crops, such as rice or horticultural products, or tourism, which takes advantage of the presence of coastal sandy cords and the high number of hours of sun in its large beaches to be used as spas, make the study and monitoring of the Guadalquivir estuary be considered priority at socio-political, economic or environmental level.

Position within the river-sea continuum The current depositional environment that dominates the environment is one of the responsible for the geomorphology of the place, is controlled, both by the fluvial action and by marine action, dominated mainly by the tides and the waves, controlling the coastal currents and the transport of sand along the coast.

It is in this place, in the lower section of the Guadalquivir, and in its immediate surroundings, where the most significant geomorphological formations are located, highlighting, therefore, the marshes, the dunes, the littoral sand belts (beaches and spits) and the zones of reefs and fishing corrals:

 Marshes: The marshes can be considered as the largest and main ecosystem present in the vicinity of the estuary. It is a humid area that, in the case of those located within the Doñana National Park, are isolated from the Guadalquivir estuary.

 Dunes: The dune system, located on the right bank of the mouth of the Guadalquivir and extending to the town of Matalascañas, to the west of this site, is configured as the most extreme ecosystem of the place, given its mobile and inconsistent soil.

 Shores of coastal sands. Beaches and spits: The main features of the beaches present in the mouth of the Guadalquivir river are, mainly, the presence of sand of fine-medium granulometry (D50 about 0.5mm), dissipative profiles characterized by gentle slopes (1/80) and breaking zones of great width.

 Reefs and fishing corrals: Areas of rocks and rocky lowlands can be found on the left bank of the Guadalquivir estuary, in front of the municipalities of Sanlúcar de Barrameda and Chipiona Anthropogenic history

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The special situation of the Guadalquivir River in relation to the sea routes that circumnavigate Andalusia, place Seville at the forefront of the transit of Spanish fluvial traffic throughout its history.

It was from 1503, with the concession of the trade monopoly with the Indies, when the first projects of conditioning of the channel directed to the navigability of the river began since these were forced to overcome an estuary of almost 130 km with very little draft. All this will cause many ships to lighten their cargo (the famous caches of documents) to go back to Seville which will cause numerous shipwrecks and strandings. Among the most famous we can mention the one suffered by the flagship of the Fleet of New Spain in 1622, 1624 and 1641.

These difficulties and the progressive clogging of the river will take to transfer the House of Contracting to Cádiz in 1717. From this date, the marine traffic with the Indies will decay although the mouth of the river will continue maintaining a continuous transfer of ships due to its special geostrategic situation. This event will entail a coastal defence project for the Sanlucar de Barrameda bar that will connect a network of forts and military constructions from Chipiona to Sanlúcar, among which the Espíritu Santo will stand out in the XVIII

Current local community economic activities The estuary of the Guadalquivir runs through the provinces of Seville, Huelva and Cádiz. Although there are many municipalities that have, within their limits, a section of the main river bank, only some include their urban front facing the estuary:

 Agriculture

Since the 70s of the twentieth century, the marshes around the estuary of the Guadalquivir have been subject to desiccation and desalination in order to recover land for agricultural purposes. In this way, the marsh of the Guadalquivir has an area of about 100,000 hectares, with some 40,000 hectares having been recovered for agriculture.

 Fishing and Aquaculture Activity The mouth of the Guadalquivir River, and in particular its estuary, is of great importance for the marine ecology of the Gulf of Cádiz, its environmental conditions favour the breeding and fattening of numerous marine species of fish, molluscs and crustaceans, many of them of great commercial and commercial interest, which means that the area contributes significantly to the economic and social development of the region.

In this way, the relevant role played by the estuary in the global nature of its environment is mainly focused on the function of nursery area and breeding for most of the species that make up the aquatic community of the Gulf of Cádiz, becoming a reservoir of broodstock

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that contribute a large proportion of fish, molluscs and crustaceans to adult populations that are subsequently captured in the rest of the Cadiz coast.

Given this importance, in 2004, the Autonomous Community of Andalusia declares the Mouth of the Guadalquivir River as a Fishing Reserve, establishing its geographical limits, its zoning, permitted fishing activities, authorized fishing and species, etc. Subsequently, this order was modified, extending the limits of the reserve are from the initial 202 Km2 to the current 402.06 Km2.

 Navigation and Tourism Historically, the Guadalquivir has carried out cargo transport functions by sea across the Estuary. At present, this function is duly maintained, adapting its configuration and exploitation to the demands of current maritime navigation. The channel is named under the denomination Eurovía Guadalquivir. It is part of the TENT transport network of European importance, sponsored by the EU.

The region has a strong growth potential in terms of tourism, especially linked to coastal towns and sun and beach tourism.

Figure 2.6.4: Vessels in the Guadalquivir River  Natural Protected Areas The channel of the Guadalquivir estuary, from its mouth to the city of Seville, is considered a Special Conservation Zone under the name "Bajo Guadalquivir" (Code: ES6150019), also classified as a Biosphere Reserve. Among the characteristics for which it was catalogued with these protection figures, it is worth noting that this space has habitats of interest (habitat 1130 Estuaries) for fish species of high interest such as sturgeon (Accipenser sturio), currently practically extinct in the zone. The most important natural areas in the environment are the National Park of "Doñana" (Code: ES0000024) and the Natural Park "Doñana North and West" (Code: ES6150009), both being catalogued as Special Conservation Zone, Special 141

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Protection for the wildlife, Biosphere Reserve and as Wetlands of International Importance especially as Aquatic Bird Habitats (Ramsar Convention).

Doñana integrates most of the fluvial, forestry, coastal and marsh ecosystems typical of the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, being a unique space in the European and international context. Doñana is also home to a high biodiversity of species that use these areas for breeding, wintering and is a bird crossing area throughout Europe. Emblematic is the presence of the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) and the Imperial Eagle (Aquila adalberti), both in serious danger of extinction and the object of recovery and reintroduction programs.

2.6.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses  Benefits of a high turbidity environment as refuge area for the breeding of fish, molluscs or crustaceans species during its larval and juvenile phases.  Relationship beetwen the amount of benthic and suprabenthic communities and hydrodynamism of the main channel, the high turbidity and the irregular flow of freshwater due to the regulation of the channel, among other aspects  Study of the presence and introduction of invasive species and the associated early warning protocols in an scenario of low concetration of autochthonous species.  Providing climate change studies through sentinel stations  Study of the incidence of regulation of the water regime in the main physicochemical and bioecological variables of the estuary  To set guidelines for the sustainability of an environment with high sensitivity and multiple overlapped usages  Study about the hydrodynamic regime, including the propagation of the tide along 100 km of estuary  Turbidity studies in one of the most turbid estuaries in the world (provenance, behaviour, etc.)  Identification of the main ecological relationships, in general, and trophic, in particular, of the estuary and its relation with the bioecology of fisheries

2.6.3. Vision Sampling Stations Guadalquivir estuary monitoring processes are based on a network of sampling stations located along the estuary and designed taking ito account salinity gradients in the estuary.

The distribution of the sampling stations is show in the following pictures:

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Sampling areas in the lower Guadalquivir

Yeso 1 : 120.000

2 Esparraguera Kilometers

Puntalete

Salinas

Bonanza‐Broa

Bora exterior University of Seville Maritime Biology Laboratory

Figure 2.6.5: Sampling areas in Guadalquivir Estuary The sampling areas have been divided in 6 main sections according to the level of salinity, so as showed in the previous picture:

Section name Salinity in psu

Yeso 5

Esparraguera 10

Puntalete 15

Salinas 20

Bonanza‐Broa 25

Bora exterior 30

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In every section samples are taken in a water and sediment matrix to monitor the following paremeters: Sediment matrix:  Biological parameters: Benthic and supra-benthic macrofauna  Physico-chemical parameters: Granulometry, Organic material, TOC, Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and Heavy Metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, Vn y Zn) Water matrix:  Biological parameters: Phytoplankton and zooplankton  Physico-chemical parameters: Turbidity, Salinity, Conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen, Temperature and pH, heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb), PCB's, PAH's, suspended solids and microbiological (fecal and total coliforms and streptococci)

Experimental investigations of monitoring in controlled environments The monitoring investigations in controlled environments of the experimental facilities, located in the Seville Aquarium, are mainly oriented in the field of the influence of turbidity and the presence of suspended solids in the water on the most abundant fish communities in the Guadalquivir river, with special attention to commercial species. Through prototype installations it is possible to recreate conditions of high turbidity with absolute stability and control over this and the rest of the main parameters to be monitored. Additionally, there is also a system that allows the study and monitoring of sessile intertidal species, by experimentally recreating the living conditions associated with them. The most outstanding is the ability to simulate the regular periods of immersion and emersion caused by the tides.

2.6.3.1. Table of parameters Station 2 (Esparraguera 5 (Bonanza‐ 6 (Bora 1 (Yeso) ) 3 (Puntalete) 4 (Salinas) Broa) exterior)

Measured and analysed parameters

Water discharge X X X X X X

Water level (including tidal range) X X X X X X

Waves and currents (coastal stations) 0 0 0 0 X X

Water flow characterisation X X X X X X

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Temperature X X X X X X

Conductivity/

Salinity X X X X X X

pH (can also be done continuously) X X X X X X

Chlorophyll a X X X X X X

Turbidity X X X X X X

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, X X X X X X TDN, TN, TP, SRP Carbon (TOC, DOC) X X X X X X

Dissolved oxygen X X X X X X

Bathymetry X X X X X X

Total suspended matter X X X X X X

Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load X X X X X X

Grain size distribution of sedimnets: suspended and bedload X X X X X X

Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployme nt, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita 0 0 0 0 0 0

bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea 0 0 0 0 0 0

Geodynamics (subsidence) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, X X X X X X Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants X X X X X X

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Emerging pollutants X X X X X X

Oxygen fluxes X X X X X X

CO2 system X X X X X X characterisation Stable isotopes as source‐ X X X X X X sink tracer Radiogenic isotopes for X X X X X X sediment dating Mineralogy X X X X X X

Ecotoxicology X X X X X X

Benthic chambers for fluxes X X X X X X

Macro characterization of X X X X X X ecosystems Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐ X X X X X X soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos) Microbiology X X X X X X

Ecosystem Functioning X X X X X X (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy))

Dynamics of the beach area 0 0 0 0 0 0 (shoreline position and transverse profiles)

Net radiation X X X X X X

Evapotranspiration X X X X X X

Soil moisture, properties, X X X X X X and particle size distribution

Bed load fractions, particle X X X X X X size distribution, porosity, Erosion stability, bulk density

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Type of measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) X X X X X X

In situ X X X X X X

Online 0 0 0 0 0 0

Offline X X X X X X

In situ sampling X X X X X X

Indirect X X X X X X

Lab analysis X X X X X X

Ecosystem investigations X X X X X X

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No N N N N N N

Focussed on:

Type of mesocosm: lentic, lotic, transportable etc.

Equipped for the Different Different Different Different Different Different measurements of the sensors sensors sensors sensors sensors sensors following parameter according to according to according to according to according to according to specific specific specific specific specific specific parameters to parameters to parameters to parameters to parameters to parameters to be measured: be measured: be measured: be measured: be measured: be measured: gauges, gauges, gauges, gauges, gauges, gauges, sensors, sensors, sensors, sensors, sensors, sensors, probes, … probes, … probes, … probes, … probes, … probes, …

Bottles, grabs, Bottles, grabs, Bottles, grabs, Bottles, grabs, Bottles, grabs, Bottles, grabs, corers corers corers corers corers corers (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, benthos), nets benthos), nets benthos), nets benthos), nets benthos), nets benthos), nets (nekton, (nekton, (nekton, (nekton, (nekton, (nekton, plankton, plankton, plankton, plankton, plankton, plankton, benthos), benthos), benthos), benthos), benthos), benthos), traps traps traps traps traps traps (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, (sediments, biota) biota) biota) biota) biota) biota)

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Periodicity

Continuous CONTIONUO CONTIONUO CONTIONUO CONTIONUO CONTIONUO CONTIONUO US / US / US / US / US / US / FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY FREQUENCY TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD TBD

Dedicated surveys X X X X X X

Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY

Event driven X X X X X X

Matrices

Water X X X X X X

air meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo

Sediments X X X X X X

Total suspended solids X X X X X X

Biota (specify organism Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, type) Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Benthic and Benthic and Benthic and Benthic and Benthic and Benthic and supra‐benthic supra‐benthic supra‐benthic supra‐benthic supra‐benthic supra‐benthic macrofauna, macrofauna, macrofauna, macrofauna, macrofauna, macrofauna, aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, phytoplankto phytoplankto phytoplankto phytoplankto phytoplankto phytoplankto n n n n n n

Gases

0 0 0 0 0 0

2.6.4. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution Port Authority of Seville, Seville, Spain Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution  University of Seville: o Marine Biology Laboratory, o Department of Zoology,

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o Laboratories and equipment of the central services of the University of Seville (CITIUS)  University of Huelva: o Applied Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Department of Geology of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences  University of Cadiz: o Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Andalusian Centre for Marine Sciences and Technologies (CACYTMAR)  University of Malaga: o Physical Oceanography GOFIMA o ETSI Telecommunication  Higher Council of Scientific Investigations (CSIC).  Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Seville-CSIC (IRNAS)  Aquarium of Seville

2.6.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.6.5.1. Network of measuring stations (currents, tides, physicochemical parameters, biological sampling, sentinel stations...) For the control of physical-chemical and biological parameters a series of fixed points is established, especially concentrated in the last 50 km of the estuary. In the case of physical- chemical parameters, the target is to install probes for continuous measurement, although with the possibility of taking instantaneous measurements using multiparameter probes and current meters. The biological samples along the estuary channel, as well as in the mouth area, are established at fixed points delimited by GPS.

At the mouth, because there are areas with rock and invertebrates (corals, gorgonians, sponges and others) that can be used as indicators sensitive to possible anthropogenic conditions of a local or global nature (climate change), submarine sentinel stations will be installed to monitor periodically this biodiversity and its behaviour to potential affections or impacts that may occur. Sediment traps will be placed in these stations to control sediments and permanent sensors for temperature, light penetration and conductivity The laboratories of the Department of Zoology of the University of Seville and its equipment are used for the monitoring and analysis of physical-chemical parameters, as well as the laboratories and equipment of the central services of the University of Seville (CITIUS). Part of the analytical work is carried out at IRNAS (Institute of Natural Resources and Agrobiology of Seville-CSIC). Experimental facilities are available in controlled environments within the building of the Aquarium of Seville. These facilities are designed for the study of both vertebrates and 150

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aquatic invertebrates and can subject them to different environmental conditions of temperature, salinity, light or turbidity. At the same time, there is an aquarium system with water level control to simulate intertidal zones. All aquarium systems and installations are controlled in situ and remotely by software The possession of two boats, a pneumatic and another one of fiber of 6 m of length DIPOL brand conditioned for scientific activities, have allowed until the moment to confront different types of sampling, although in difficult conditions given the long duration and recurrence of the same. One of the boat has a berth in the marina of Chipiona from which the whole study area can be easylly accessed. The infrastructure of measurement and / or sampling equipment consists of cranes, dredges, plankton nets, suprabenthic skate, 2 multiparameter probes (EUREKA MANTA2 and Eureka Manta + 30) and various units of measurement of water and sediment parameters, Niskin bottles, etc. For the promotion of the scientific relationship between the estuary, the port authority and the scientific community, a collaboration agreement was established between the Port Authority of Seville and the different universities involved (US-UHU-UMA-UCA). The multidisciplinary team consist of researchers from the University of Seville (Marine Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biology), and the universities of Huelva (UHU; Applied Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Department of Geology of the Faculty of Experimental Sciences), Cadiz (UCA, Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Andalusian Centre for Marine Sciences and Technologies CACYTMAR), Malaga (UMA, Physical Oceanography GOFIMA, ETSI Telecommunication) and the Higher Council of Scientific Investigations (CSIC).

2.6.5.2. Plans for further development The Guadalquivir Estuary Supersite has all its facilities fully operational, a part of its agreements and projects with Universities and Reseach institutions. Thanks to the Structural Funds (when accessible), the Guadalquivir Estuary could include new parameters or measurements to the list of current measured parameters (see Error! Reference source not found. Error! Reference source not found.) and new process or mechanisms to support to the research community in the study, analysis or comparison with the Guadalquivir especial environmental conditions. The University of Seville (US), through the Laboratory of Marine Biology of the Faculty of Biology, coordinates a long-term research project, which has completed its second phase, centered on the Guadalquivir estuary and funded by the Port Authority of Seville, which could provide information to the Danubius project and commit to implement the descriptors listed in the tables in chapter Error! Reference source not found. in their specific forms and in the periodicity expressed. 151

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In addition, the US coordinates a multidisciplinary team that includes researchers from the Universities of Málaga, Huelva and Cádiz, and the Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), so that, given the economic financing conditions, the potential of collaboration with the Danubius project even increasing the given lists of paremeters (especially physical parameters),since there are experts in oceanographic physics (hydrodynamic modeling) and in marine geology (physico-chemical, geodynamic and sediment dating), among other scientific fields. Additionally, the US could assume the ecotoxicology line if the aforementioned economic conditions were met, since it has researchers specialized in the subject.

2.6.6. Users and Stakeholders Local and regional community of users and stakeholders (Institutes, authorities, commissions or other initiatives that are active in the region) From Seville to its mouth, the Guadalquivir River flows through 3 different provinces: Seville, Huelva and Cádiz, although its river basin does cover all the territories of Andalusia, which reveals the strong relationship of the estuary with the Andalusian ecosystem and therefore, with all the scientific communities in the area. For the promotion of the scientific relationship between the estuary, the port authority and the scientific community, a collaboration agreement was established between the Port Authority of Seville and the different universities involved (US-UHU-UMA-UCA). The project "Collaboration and cooperation agreement between the University of Seville, the Port Authority of Seville and Aquagestión Sur S.L. for the development of scientific and teaching activities linked to the Aquarium of the Port of Seville and the Guadalquivir River Estuary and surrounding marine areas in order to generate and develop knowledge and innovative solutions that boost the management impulse related to new projects in a framework of environmental sustainability "began its activities in June 2013 with the aim of developing research aimed at better integrated management of the Guadalquivir estuary. The project, as a whole, includes a strictly aquatic biological phase, with special emphasis on the compartments of the plankton (US-UCA) and the benthos (US) -including laboratory experiences in the R + D + i Biological Research Area. Aquarium of Seville (US) - supported by analytical coverage of physical-chemical parameters (US), another biological terrestrial (focused on both migratory and resident birds that lived on the banks of the river) (CSIC) and another physical, sedimentology (UHU) and hydrodynamic modelling of the estuary (UMA). The scientific facilities necessary to develop experimental research in the laboratory have been complex and designed ad hoc, and released as prototypes, which required numerous tests to improve them and evaluate resistances of constituent elements, as well as to correct performance deficiencies.

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2.6.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational Although most of the labs and intallations ara currently fully operational, all the equipment needed to support the integration into the new e-infrastructure and to develop the needed e- services will be adcquire – most optimistic – 2023 (when the ERIC should be functional) or, with unexpected situations etc- by 2025, when the entire project should be fully operational.

2.6.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) AS said before, the project "Collaboration and cooperation agreement between the University of Seville, the Port Authority of Seville and Aquagestión Sur S.L. for the development of scientific and teaching activities linked to the Aquarium of the Port of Seville and the Guadalquivir River Estuary and surrounding marine areas in order to generate and develop knowledge and innovative solutions that boost the management impulse related to new projects in a framework of environmental sustainability "began its activities in June 2013 with the aim of developing research aimed at better integrated management of the Guadalquivir estuary.

The Port Authority of Sevilla has recently got an international impact in R&D projects, due to its participation in EC-funded programs through different initiatives, especially in the CEF Program. It is a public administration in charge of the Port of Sevilla and the Guadalquivir Euroway, according to Spanish National Regulations (Texto Refundido de la Ley de Puertos del Estado y de la Marina Mercante). Of especial importance, the so-called Tecnoport2025 project (http://www.tecnoport2025.es), which was one of the most important R&D efforts carried out in Europe using a Public Private Procurement.

The Port Authority maintains an active collaboration with different research institutions (especially with the University of Seville), funding a research program for biodiversity preservation.

2.6.9. Relation with other ESFRI/ERIC initiatives In regards to the cooperation with other ESFRI/ERIC initiatives, several stakeholders related to the Guadalquivir river area are already collaborating with LifeWatchERIC (European Research Infrastructure Consortium) (https://www.lifewatch.eu) through its National Node (particularly, its JRU LW.ES Technical Office). In addition, LifeWatch ERIC Statutory Seat premises are located in one of them, the Confederación Hidrográfica del Guadalquivir (Guadalquivir River Basin Authority), a National Agency in charge of the administration of the Hydraulic Public Domain in the Guadalquivir river.

The Port Authority of Seville has also expressed its interest in participating in some project proposals to be developed in the framework of the Lifewatch ERIC (particularly promoted by

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LifeWatch Spain), due to the key importance of the Guadalquivir estuary in the preservation of the biodiversity and ecosystem research & management in Europe.

Therefore, there exist clear synergies between DANUBIUS-RI and LifeWatch ERIC. Indeed, it is planned to establish a MoU between both ERICs in order to combine the efforts of the future DANUBIUS ERIC and already established LifeWatch ERIC, including the two participating Universities (UPC and University of Seville), the Sevilla harbour and the Spanish Ministry (MINECO). The perspective in the coming years is to establish a long lasting cooperation with LifeWatch ERIC and with other components of DANUBIUS-RI, via the corresponding MoU’s or SLA’s. It is worth to remark collaborations in the development of common-shared elements such as: (a) Observational plan; (b) Data Processing and Management Plan (DPMP); (c) Modelling plan including operational forecasting; (d) Cooperation roadmap with the LifeWatch ERIC initiative (enhancing common integration in EOSC) including Remote Sensing techniques.

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2.7. Nestos (Greece)

2.7.1. Introduction to the Supersite Geomorphology The Nestos/Mesta is a Southern Balkan highland river which springs in the eastern slope of Rila Mt (Bulgaria), flows through Bulgaria (60% of the basin area) and Greece into the North Aegean Sea, forming an extensive arcuate, Rhone-Type delta (434 km2). The delta consists of a mosaic of sand dunes, freshwater lakes and ponds, coastal lagoons and saltmarshes. The Nestos/Mesta river forms a narrow mountainous basin, confined by the Strymon catchment to the west, the Rhodope Mts to the east and the Gulf of Kavala to the south. After the confluence of Bijala Mesta and Cherna Mesta, the river flows through a rift plain between Mts Pirin and Rhodope. Acid silicate rocks cover 68% of the basin. Metamorphic formations (gneisses, amphibolites, mica schists and marbles), Quaternary volcanics, with a variety of base and precious metals mineralization and geothermal fields, and granite plutons shape the upper and middle parts. Just before its delta, between Stavroupolis and Toxotes, the river cuts through the extensive karstic marble formation of Lekani Mt. Downstream of this impressive gorge, the river spreads over a large flat deltaic area covered by lacustrine and terrestrial Neogene-Quaternary deposits (18% of the basin area), carbonate formations (13%), together with limited Eocene–Oligocene molassic sediments. a) b)

Figure 2.7.1. a) Map of main rivers in Southern Balkan Peninsula. Arrow points to Nestos/Mesta outflow. Satelite picture of the Nestos delta and adjecent North Aegean Sea b) Picture of main Outflow of Nestos/Mesta river to North Aegean Sea.

Hydrology The Nestos/Mesta is snow fed in the mountains and rain fed in the lower reaches. Maximum flow occurs in spring (in May in the upper part and in April in the lower part of the basin), and minimum in August–September. In Bulgaria, six reservoirs are on tributaries, the largest is on the Dospatis. In Greece, three large hydropower reservoirs, Thisavros, Platanovrisi and

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Temenos and a small irrigation dam (Toxotes), occur along the main stem. The average annual Nestos/Mesta river discharge is ~ 53 m3 sec -1 (Thisavros gauging station). According to the Public Power Corporation (DEH) the mean monthly flow for the period 1965-1990 was rarely above 150 m³/s while the minimum flow was often lower than 10 m³/s. For environmental conservation reasons it was decided that the Delta should receive at least 6 m³/s. The aquifers formed in the delta region (sand, sandstone) are fed laterally by the ground flow of the river and from the marbles that are formed on the north, resulting in the formulation of a rich aquifer catchment. At the eastern part of the delta the rocks of gneiss form an impermeable barrier and, as a result, groundwaters move towards north-west enriching the western part and forming in this area rich aquifers. The area "Ori Lekanis" is between the three cities of Kavala-Drama-Xanthi and covers an area of 1,300 km². The altitude ranges from 1 to 1,400 m and is crossed by the Nestos/Mesta River. This area contains the most important karstic aquifer of the region. This aquifer could meet the needs of the region for water supply and industrial use. Two main hydrogeological catchments are defined with annual potentials of 80x106 m² and a third one with 25x106 m³. In the area "Ori Lekanis" there are 25 cold springs, 1 thermometallic and 57 boreholes. The karstic aquifer system of the area in combination with the river has a complicated geological and tectonic structure. Sediment Load Discharge –Anthropogenic impacts Nestos/Mesta river transports ~2*106 tons y-1 in its upper reaches. About 84% of the annual sediment flux is trapped behind reservoirs. Consequently, the deltaic areas is not expanding or have even started to decrease in size. As a result seashore sediment balance is severely affected resulting in an obvious erosion of Nestos/Mesta River mouth and the adjacent coastline. Erosion impact on lagoon barrier spits has occasionally led to seaside over-wash and breaching, especially due to southern storm waves, increasing the salinity of the system and disrupting its natural ecological functioning. Αfter the dam construction only 39% of the delta and the adjacent coastline have been accreting while the remaining 61% have been eroding. The main anthropogenic impacts can be grouped as follows: • Reservoir filling (inundation of mountainous forested land, alterations in the hydrologic, biogeochemical and ecological conditions) • Flow Blockage (entrapment of bedload and suspended sediment in reservoirs leading to coastal erosion, accumulation of dissolved and suspended pollutants (organic matter, nutrients, heavy metals and toxic substances) into the upstream part of the reservoir, changes of water physico-chemical characteristics downstream, • Flow Storage (changes into lacustrine environment, water column thermal stratification/destratification cycles, hypolimnetic releases under anoxic conditions, stoichiometric changes)

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• Flow Regulation (hydropeaking, river banks erosion, changes in freshwater fish abundance and diversity, changes in morphological characteristics of freshwater fish, loss of feeding and reproduction habitats, changes in river plume dynamics, changes in coastal water quality) • Intense Agriculture at the delta (water abstraction for cultivations, eutrophication in coastal lagoons leading to massive fish deaths in fish productive lagoons, regular toxic blooms affecting coastal mussel cultures, raised levels in pesticides) Water, Land Use Patterns and Human Pressures Due to its rough relief, the Nestos/Mesta basin has a low population density and contains relatively natural upland areas. In Bulgaria, industrial point pollution is limited to timber industries and uranium mining at Eleshnitza. Conditions may improve because industries at Razlog have been shut down and mining activities are scheduled to cease. Intensive deforestation, especially in the NW basin, has led to excessive erosion and sedimentation. In Greece, only few agro-industrial units are potential pollution sources. Municipal WWTPs are restricted to Razlog and Chrisoupolis. Extensive agriculture is practiced mostly along the stream valley, especially in the irrigated southern Bulgarian stretch and in the delta. Land reclamation has transformed 80% of the virgin deltaic Kotza Orman forest (140 km2 before World War II) to farmland, creating an extensive irrigation and drainage network. Reservoirs, flood protection schemes, canalization and embankments initiated the erosion of the delta and caused a reduction of coastal marshlands. Groundwater exploitation from >2000 shallow wells occurs in the delta, resulting in increased salinization of the coastal aquifers. River Mouth-Coastal Sea The Nestos mouth and coastline belong to the East Macedonia – Thrace coastline, being part of the Thracian Sea continental shelf. The area represents the eastern outmost of Kavala Gulf, the second in size semi-enclosed water body of the Thracian Sea and the North Aegean continental shelf. Nestos/Mesta River mouth is in a East-to-West oriented coastline in the western part of the Thracian Sea continental shelf, between Kavala and Vistonikos Gulfs. The coastline shows a series of coastal lagoons and the sandy headland of Keramoti. Bathymetry in the coastal area changes gradually, reaching 50 m depth approximately 20 km southwards of Nestos/Mesta River mouth. Nestos/Mesta River supplies the coastal zone with freshwater, having a total annual runoff fluctuating between 600 and 800 × 10 6 m3, with limited seasonal variability throughout the whole year. Thassos Passage, a channel 13.6 km long, 7.3 km wide and 25 m deep, narrows the alongshore flow to the southwest of the river mouth, accelerating ambient circulation before its entry into Kavala Gulf. The location along the northern coastline of the Aegean Sea, with a long fetch of the order of hundreds of kilometres, favours the development and progress of southern swells, contributing to the cross-shore sediment transport. The presence of Keramoti – Thassos

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Passage, enhances coastal velocities, producing current speeds up to 1.2 m s-1, resulting in further erosion through alongshore sediment transport. On the other hand, the presence of Thassos Island causes alongshore variation in the erosion intensity rates, due to alterations from the exposed, long-fetch, highly energetic coastline parts to low-fetch and ‘sheltered’ parts.

2.7.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses Challenges • Changes in Water, nutrients and other substances (e.g., trace metals) fluxes in RS system, due to dams blockage • Interruption and changes in the sediment cycle (source– transfer–sink) • Bio– & geo-chemistry of water & sediment. • Biogeochemical and elemental ratio (N:P:Si) changes along the river, the reservoirs and the river-sea continuum. • Hydrodynamic processes at the RS interfaces and in coastal wetlands and combined anthropogenic effects due to damming and agriculture pressures. • Identification of new feedback processes that link biology and geochemistry, biology and hydrology, sediment and hydrology-Ecological flows Scientific Questions • Continuous water, nutrient, other substances and sediment flux measurements upstream/downstream from dams • Assessment of bed load and suspended sediment entrapment at reservoirs • Assessment of coastal erosion (annual/aggregate rates) • River plume dynamics (remote sensing /ground observations and modelling) • Coastal lagoons functioning, inlet modification to improve water residence time and scenarios under variable water uses in agriculture • Changes in biogeochemistry of coastal zone due to water storage at reservoirs • Re-assessment of impact of dams; determine ecological flow through mesocosm- mesohabitat studies • Measurements in compliance with WFD and MSFD requirements and beyond • River-River plume-open sea nested hydrologic/hydrodynamic and biogeochemical modeling forced by regional/local meteorology

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2.7.3. Vision The vison for the Nestos Supersite is to become a Danubius-RI site for excellent science in the following themes: • Study of the impacts of water abstraction and river damming in a small/medium -scale watershed along the river-sea continuum; sediment starvation and coastal erosion • Develop Eco-engineering solutions to mitigate the river damming impacts – Nestos Supersite (with mesocosm-mesohabitat fascilities) will be a ‘living’ experimental site to develop and test ecohydrological solutions (habitat stress from Τ, nutrient, oxygen, water flow fluctuations). • Implementation of existing environmental flow methods and development of novel methodologies on ecosystem assessment and ecological flow determination • “Turning European dams into Green dams” optimizing the water resources for reservoir and hydro-energy production managers • Study hydrological-biological interactions in a small river. The role of rivers-deltas- lagoons as nesting and spawning grounds for salt and fresh water fish. • Biogeochemical changes (past, present and future) along river-delta-sea continuum in a small river system impacted by dams. Anthropogenic impact studies supported from archived data and direct biogeochemical studies from sediment cores. • Geomicrobiology (Water/sediment/microbial interactions) in river-delta-sea systems.

• Green House Gas Emissions from a river, delta sea system (CO2, CH4, NxO) with in- situ continuous measurements (in coollaboration with ICOS) The vision of Nestos/Mesta Supersite is dictated by the following features: • Nestos/Mesta Supersite has the appropriate characteristics to develop process studies for small mountainous River-Sea Systems, • Nestos/Mesta Supersite is a relatively pristine, non-polluted river-delta-sea system of international importance with fast upstream to downstream response times to hydrological/biogeochemical changes occurring within the basin, • Nestos/Mesta Supersite offers easy and fast access to a variety of fresh-water, transitional, coastal and marine environments and habitats, • Nestos/Mesta Supersite is suitable for continuous hydrological/biogeochemical monitoring, data collection and varied sample archiving allowing the validation of process modeling studies (water and sediment management, anthropogenic impacts, climate change) in a small river basin and the study of impacts on the coastal zone and the marine environment, • Nestos/Mesta Supersite infrastructure capability covers both the upstream dam reservoir area and the delta-coastal-sea area for comprehensive oceanographic, coastal and freshwater-related projects,

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• In Nestos/Mesta Supersite there exists significant expertise on the Nestos river-delta- sea system (HCMR, DUTH, FRI).

List of detailed observation points The initial plan includes 12 locations (minimum) in the Greek part of the Nestos/Mesta river- sea-system where a number of parameters will be measured (sea attached list). It is anticipated that through a future collaboration with the Bulgarian partners the Bulgarian part of Nestos/Mesta will be also covered. In detail the following locations of the Nestos River–Sea system will be covered (Fig. 2.7.2): Seven locations along the main stem of Nestos river: (1) Near the Bulgarian border

(2) Upstream from the 1st Dam (Thisavros)

(3) Between the 1st and 2nd dam

(4) After the 2nd Dam (Platanovrisi) near Paranesti

(5) Before the Nestos Gorges

(6) After the Toxotes irrigation dam

(7) Near the outflow to the Thracian Sea

Two locations in the delta-transitional environments:

(8) In a coastal lagoon

(9) In a freshwater/brackish lake

Three locations in the Thracian sea:

(10) Near the outflow of the Nestos river

(11) At a location within the Nestos river plume

(12) A reference station in the Thracian sea not influenced by the Nestos plume east of the outflow of Nestos river.

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Figure 2.7.2 - Map with proposed permanent observation points in the greek part of Nestos /Mesta Supersite

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2.7.3.1. Table of parameters Table of parameters– adapted for each Supersite from the table agreed previously

Transitional Environment River Sites Sites Thracian Sea sites

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Measured and analysed parameters

Water discharge X X X X X X X 0 0 0 0 0

Water level (including tidal range) X X X X X X X X X X X X

Waves and currents (coastal stations) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X

Water flow characterisation X X X X X X X 0 0 X X X

Temperature X X X X X X X X X X X X

Conductivity/

Salinity X X X X X X X X X X X X

pH (can also be done continuously) X X X X X X X X X X X X

Chlorophyll a X X X X X X X X X X X X

Turbidity X X X X X X X X X X X X

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, X X X X X X X X X X X X NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP 162

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Carbon (TOC, DOC) X X X X X X X X X X X X

Dissolved oxygen X X X X X X X X X X X X

Bathymetry X X X X X X X X X X X X

Total suspended matter X X X X X X X X X X X X

Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load X X X X X X X X X X X X

Grain size distribution of sedimnets: suspended and bedload X X X X X X X X X X X X

Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemplo yment, list of employers (companies, etc), 0 0 0 0 X 0 X X 0 0 0 0

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schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita

bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea X X X X X X X 0 0 X X X

Geodynamics (subsidence) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, X X X X X X X X X X X X V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants X X X X X X X X X X X X

Emerging pollutants X X X X X X X X X X X X

Oxygen fluxes X X X X X X X X X X X X

CO2 system X X X X X X X X X X X X characterisation Stable isotopes as X X X X X X X X X X X X source‐sink tracer Radiogenic isotopes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X for sediment dating Mineralogy X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecotoxicology X X X X X X X X X X X X

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Benthic chambers for X X X X X X X X X X X X fluxes Macro X X X X X X X X X X X X characterization of ecosystems Biota (epiphytic, soil, X X X X X X X X X X X X sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos) Microbiology X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecosystem X X X X X X X X X X X X Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy))

Dynamics of the beach 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X X X 0 area (shoreline

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position and transverse profiles)

Type of

measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) X X X X X X X X X X X X

In situ X X X X X X X X X X X X

Online X X x X x x X X X x X X

Offline X X X X X X X X X X X X

In situ sampling X X X X X X X X X X X X

Indirect X X X X X X X X X X X X

Lab analysis X X X X X X X X X X X X

Ecosystem X X X X X X X X X X X X investigations

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N

Focussed on:

Type of mesocosm: lentic, lotic, transportable etc.

lotic and lotic and lotic and Lentic,ban banks, banks banks ks, shore

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Equipped for the eDNA eDNA eDNA eDNA measurements of the sampler, sampler, sampler, sampler, following parameter Data Data Data Data logger, logger, logger, logger, Vertical Vertical Vertical Vertical &Horizonta &Horizonta &Horizonta &Horizonta l Radar, l Radar, l Radar, l Radar, field field field field calibration calibration calibration calibration by scope, by scope, by scope, by scope, binoculars, binoculars, binoculars, binoculars, fotocamera fotocamera fotocamera fotocamera , fototrap , fototrap , fototrap , fototrap camera,dro camera,dro camera,dro camera,dro nes, fishing nes, fishing nes, fishing nes, fishing gears, gears, gears, gears, plankton plankton plankton plankton net,A net,A net,A net,A sampler, sampler, sampler, sampler, Data Data Data Data logger, logger, logger, logger, ishing ishing ishing ishing gears, gears, gears, gears, plankton plankton plankton plankton net, net, net, net,

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Periodicity

Continuous CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU CONTIONU OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / OUS / FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC FREQUENC Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD Y TBD

Dedicated surveys X X X X X X X X X X X X

Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) SEASONAL. MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY

Event driven X X X X X X X X X X X X

Matrices

Water X X X X X X X X X X X X

air meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo meteo

Sediments X X X X X X X X X X X X

Total suspended solids X X X X X X X X X X X X

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Biota (specify Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, Birds, organism type) Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Mammals, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto Zooplankto n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, n, Zoobentho Zoobentho Zoobentho Zoobentho Zoobenthos Zoobenthos Zoobenthos Zoobenthos Zoobentho Zoobentho Zoobentho Zoobentho s, Insects, s, Insects, s, Insects, s, Insects, , Insects, , Insects, , Insects, , Insects, s, Insects, s, Insects, s, Insects, s, Insects, aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic aquatic plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, plants, phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank phytoplank ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton ton

Gases X ‐ to connect X X X X X X with ICOS X X X X X

Parametres to be measured in the Nestos/Mesta Supersite (not just in the 12 proposed points) Frequency

shoreline position seasonal

beach transverse profiles seasonal

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2.7.4. Supersite Organization

Hosting Institution Hellenic Center for Marine Research, Greece Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece Fisheries Research Institute (FRI) , Greece The consortium will expand with other research centers and universities which will express interest in participating.

2.7.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.7.5.1. Existing facilities Hellenic Center for Marine Research (HCMR) The Hellenic Centre of Marine Researches (HCMR) is the main organization for oceanographic, inland waters, marine biology, genetics, fisheries and aquaculture research in Greece. Two of the Institutes of HCMR (Institute of Oceanography and Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters) have been designated as the national coordinating institutes for MFD and WSFD activities and monitoring programs in Greece. HCMR has state of the art labs for hydrochemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry/geochemistry, sedimentation rate, biological, microbiological labs equipped with the following instruments: XRD, XRF, HPLC, ICP-MS, GC-FID, GC-MS, LC-MS, elemental analyser, TOC/DOC analyzer, nutrient autoanalyzers, γ spectrometers for sed. rate determinations, SEM/EDS, clean room for trace element analysis. An integral part of the Nestos Supersite will be the access of users of the DANUBIUS RI to the oceanographic fleet and the full range of field equipment provided by HCMR. The 62m R/V AEGEON, the Submersible THETIS (610 m), 2 underwater remote operated vehicles (SUPER ACHILLE ROV (1000 m), MAX ROVER (2000m), 1 light weight shallow water ROV (Seabotix LBV200L2, 200m) and a range of oceanographic equipment including water and sediment sampling devices will be available to DANUBIUS-RI users.

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Figure 2.7.3. Oceanografic infrastructure/instrumentation available to Danubius RI users by the Hellenic Center for Marine research

Democritus University of Thrace The Democritus University of Thrace participates with the Laboratory of Ecological Engineering & Technology. The Laboratory of Ecological Engineering & Technology serves the educational research and development needs of the Department of Environmental Engineering on the fields of: : Α. Management and restoration of rivers, lakes, coastal and aquifer systems, Β. Environmental hydraulics, technical hydrology, hydrodynamics and management of water resources. . C. Integrated water management and wastewater treatment through natural treatment systems. The Laboratory occupies an area of 90 m2 at the buildings of the Department of Environmental Engineering, Kimmeria Xanthis. This closed lab is fully-equipped with computers, servers and instrumentation for chemical analyses of water quality parameters. It may support physical models and experimental devices for flow simulation in fractures and porous media. Several numerical models (meteorological, hydrodynamic, wave, morphodynamic and crop growth) are run in parallel at the servers of the Lab. Other infrastructure consists of a 4X4 vehicle for field studies, a research boat “Eco-Research” (5 m long Zodiac), and an open-air space for experiments on physical models and natural treatment systems.

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Figure 2.7.4. Infrastructure/Instrumentation which will be available to Danubius RI users at the Democritus University of Thrace.

Instrumentation consists of:  On-line meteorological and hydrological stations  Current meters  On-line meteorological and hydrological stations  Samplers for water, sediments and sediment transport  Winches for instruments uplifting and submergence  Portable instruments for in-situ measurements of river discharge, currents, waves, water level and water quality  Instruments for the determination of chemical-biological parameters of natural water and wastewater as ionic chromatography, BOD, COD, Kjeldahl devices, etc.

Laboratory’s contribution on the Science of Environmental Engineering Inland Surface Aquatic Systems The Laboratory monitors in an integrated manner the river basins, following the WFD principles; implements management and restoration studies in lakes, rivers and wetland ecosystems; contributes to the promotion of Eco-hydrology. 172

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Coastal Environment The Lab measures and simulates the hydrodynamic circulation, implements restoration studies in eroded coasts, determines the environmental impacts of technical works, designs and sites wastewater outflows, flood prevention and water supply works. Hydrogeology – Groundwater Hydraulics The Lab records the quantitative and qualitative state of aquifers, implements restoration and enrichment studies, simulates groundwater flows, monitors the characteristics of karsts and springs. Integrated Water Resources Management and Wastewater Treatment The Lab develops and promotes the technology of Natural Treatment Systems and Constructed Wetlands, applies the wastewater re-use, designs rainwater harvesting systems, applies modern innovative numerical techniques (fuzzy models, neural networks). Fisheries Research Institute The Nestos River-Delta-Sea system has been the focus of research of Fisheries Research Institute (F.R.I.) scientists for decades. Currently F.R.I. in collaboration with HCMR is involved in the national activities related to WSFD. F.R.I. is located a few km’s from the field site and affords easy access to a variety of river, transitional and coastal habitats from land and sea.

Figure 2.7.5. Headquarters of Fisheries Research Institute in Nea Peramos near the lower part of the Nestos/Mesta Supersite.

F.R.I.’s Laboratory facilities in Nea Peramos include: VIS spectral photometer, HPLC with UV-fluorescence-Diode Away-Detection, GC with FID and ECD Detectors. Atomic absorption spectrometer with GF, FIAS, flame. Ad. Calorimeter, Soxlett, Kihldahe- Automatic apparatus, TOC-meter, Liquid scintillation counter, Lyophilisator, pH meter, O2 meter, conductivity meter, salinometer. A variety of field sampling equipment and the 8.5 m small boat “Alkyoni" equipped for continuous monitoring, campaigns of chemical- physical parameters of surface waters will be available to Danubius RI users.

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Figure 2.7.6. Map of existing Monitoring stations for water quantity and quality along Nestos River.

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Figure 2.7.7. Map of existing monitoring stations at the Nestos coastal zone.

2.7.5.2. Plans for further development The Nestos Supersite will comprise two research facilities:

(a) The Paranesti Facility for Upstream Nestos River Research. Will be responsible the operations in observation stations 1 to 6.

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(b) The Nestos Delta Facility for Downstream Research (Nestos Delta- Coast- Thracian Sea and transitional environment). Will be responsible the operations in observation stations 7 to 12.

 Each new research Facility (Paranesti, Delta) will comprise a dedicated building housing all the laboratories, IT infrastructure, workshops for the maintenance of field equipment and offices for permanent and visiting researchers and other technical staff. These buildings will be either existing buildings which will be extensively renovated to meet current specifications or new buildings.

 The Supersite will contain biogeochemical/hydrological observatories in all the proposed sites.

 Each facility will have biogeochemical labs (nutrient, hydrochemistry measurements), microbiological labs, stable isotope labs and will be responsible for the operation and maintenance of specific field observatories/monitoring stations. The facilities will share instrumentation related to metal and organic substances and/or pollutants.

 One facility will house the physical sample archives (water, suspended matter, sediment cores)

 A small research vessel will be procured for the use of the visiting scientist and the maintenance of the sea observatories.

 Two to three small boats capable of cruising in very shallow waters will be available for the visiting scientists and the maintenance of the river/ transitional water observatories.

 The two research facilities will offer accommodation to a number of visiting scientists in nearby existing hotels after an agreement between the Nestos Supersite legal entity and local touristic accomodation businesses.

2.7.6. Users and Stakeholders Local community of users  Water Management Department, Regional East Macedonia – Thrace Authority  Hydropower Division, Public Electricity Cooperation  Farmers Associations and Cooperatives  Ecotourism Enterprises active in Nestos River  Municipal Authorities along Nestos River  Management Body of the Natura 2000 Nestos Delta – Vistonis Lagoon area. Local / regional stakeholders (Institutes, authorities, commissions or other initiatives that are active in the region)

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 Ministry of Environment  Ministry of Energy  Ministry of Education including Universities and Technological Educational Istitutions with relevant Departments.  Ministry of Agriculture  Regional Authority of East Macedonia - Thrace

2.7.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational 2018 – 2020: Period for initiatives for the inclusion of the Nestos Supersite, part of Danubius- RI to the RIS3 of the Region of Eastern Macedonian and Thrace (REMT) and to the National Roadmap of research Infrstructures. Several of the activities envisioned in the Nestos/Mesta Supersite are already aligned with the existing national and regional RIS3. Thus, emphasis will be placed in influencing the national and regional authorities of the opportunities Danubius RI offers in strengthening and expanding the existing RIS3 agenda. 2020-2021: Applications to National Sectoral Operational Programmes (e.g. OP Transport Infrastructure, Environment and Sustainable Development) and Regional Operational Programmes (ROP) (e.g. ROP Eastern Macedonia and Thrace) for funding the construction and instrument procurement for the Nestos/Mesta Supersite. 2021-2013: Upon succesful applications for funding, the first construction phase will start with renovation of existing structures for housing the two Research Fascilities (Paranesti, Delta) and the procurement of laboratory and filed instrumentation. The Nestos/Supersite is expected to become operational by the end of 2023.

2.7.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) Currently, as with other components of the Danubius RI, there is no commitment for funding for the Nestos/Mesta Supersite, other than the funding offered by the Greek State annualy to the three participating institutes (HCMR, DUTH, FIRI). However, the activities the Nestos Supersite will be involved, are included in the existing priorities of the National Sectoral Operational Programmes (e.g. OP Transport Infrastructure, Environment and Sustainable Development) and Regional Operational Programmes (ROP) (ROP Eastern Macedonia and Thrace) for the current funding periode (2014-2020) allowing the application for funds which can be used until 2023. Hence it is anticipated that by 2020, Nestos Supercite/Danubius RI will be explicitly mentioned in the national and regional RIS3 and thus eligible to apply for structural funds allocated to both Sectoral and Regional operational programs. Operation and maintenance costs are to be estimated during the proposal in course. It is anticipated that funds will be provided from both European Regional Development Fundand national sources.

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2.8. Po Delta and North Adriatic Lagoons (Italy)

2.8.1. Introduction to the Supersite The total extension of the whole Po River and North Adriatic RSS, in the northern part of Italy, is about 80.000 km2 (Fig. 2.8.1, red line) and Po Delta and North Adriatic Lagoons Supersite in embedded in this wide environment. The Supersite will include the Po River delta and two lagoons, the lagoons of Venice and Marano-Grado, considering about 300 km of coasts as connection between these environments (Fig. 2.8.1, yellow area). This geographical area was chosen as hotspot to apply the DANUBIUS research, investigating the processes taking place through the transitional areas, in order to study the actions and feedback mechanisms between the fresh, brackish and marine water environments in the RSS continuum.

Figure 2.8.1 - Geographical extension of Po River-North Adriatic Lagoons RSS and Supersite. The Supersite will be mainly focused on the transitional environments within the river sea continuum (Po Delta and Venice and Marano-Grado Lagoons) with 3 main study cores. A summary of the specificities and level of anthropic impact is given below: Po Delta:

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 Archetypical Delta between big river and open sea  Complex interaction between freshwater and salt water  More than 500 years of anthropic induced changes, engineered to suit the human needs  High subsidence rates make the delta more vulnerable to sea level rise  Importance of the Po river for the whole Adriatic basin  500 years of anthropic induced changes, engineered to suit the human need  Population lives on farming and fishing and therefore depends strongly on the environmental health of the river  Strong interaction between human use and environmental conditions. Venice Lagoon:  Largest wetland of the Mediterranean and one of the most important sites for the Mediterranean bird population, both in the wintering and nesting  Probably the most well-known lagoon of the world  Almost the entire lagoon is classified as SPA (Directive 79/409/EEC) and some Sites of Community Importance (Directive 92/43/EEC) are adjacent to the inlets.  UNESCO heritage site of inestimable value  Deeply entrenched cultural history lasting for more than 1000 years  Heavily engineered lagoon with strong anthropogenic influence  Transitional area that moderates influences between the main land (rivers) and the sea. Marano-Grado Lagoon:  Big open lagoon in the very North of the Adriatic Sea  Important sediment transport and erosion/deposition processes  Important settlement inside the lagoon  Important touristic activities/sea resort  Presence of industries into the lagoon system as sources of pollutant  Mercury mining in the past has left over highly polluted areas inside the lagoon. Position within the river-sea continuum The Po plain was almost completely submerged by the sea in the Pliocene, while in the glacial period of Pleistocene (Würm) it was extended over whole upper Adriatic basin due to the considerably lower sea-level. The lagoons of the northern Adriatic coast have similar origins although formed in different times, starting from 6000 yrs bp to the Roman period, as a consequence of the marine transgression over the continental deposits of the Pleistocenic and Holcenic lower Po plain. The Po River Basin watershed extends from the Alps in the West, to the Adriatic Sea in the East, covering an area of 74.700 km2 with its largest part located in Northern Italy (71.000 km2), while the 5% lies in Switzerland and in France. The Po River flows from its spring, under the North-West face of Monviso (in the Cottian Alps), for 652 km ending in a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea. The Po Delta is composed by five main branches and hundreds of small 179

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channels. A secondary net of natural and artificial water bodies, irrigation and reclamation channels (~50,000 km) is added to the 141 major water Po tributaries (6.750 km). The basin is structured in 28 principal sub-basins with high variable discharge. The Po River basin has a mild continental climate and a humid subtropical climate with annual precipitation, of about 1.200 mm. The average total discharge of the Po River before its delta (Pontelagoscuro) is about 1.540 m3/s (PRBA, 2007; Manieri, 2016; Ravazzani, 2015). Peak floods are usually expected in spring and autumns, respectively due to snow melt and precipitations. The lagoons of Venice and Marano-Grado are the result of the interaction between the Adriatic Sea and the major Alpine rivers (Isonzo, Tagliamento, Piave, Brenta, Livenza Adige and Po). The Venice Lagoon is the largest Mediterranean lagoon, with a surface area of around 550 km2, stretching from the river Sile in the North to the Brenta in the South. It is separated from the sea by long shore bars and 3 inlets. The land coverage is about 8%, including Venice itself and many smaller islands, while about 11% is permanently covered by canals (network of both natural and dredged channels, with a width range of 100 to 1000 m and depth of 5 to 15 m), while around 80% consists of mud flats, tidal shallows and salt marshes. Sited at the end of a largely enclosed sea, the lagoon is subject to high variations in water level due to astronomic tides (±0,40 cm) and to the meteorological effects (winds, atmospheric pressure, etc.) which causes the extreme high water level events (“acqua alta”), which can flood the most of the Venice city area. After the diversion (XVI century) of the major rivers coming from the Alps (Piave, Brenta, etc.) outside the lagoon, presently the main freshwater source is the Dese River. Presently 12 freshwater sources can be identified within the lagoon (total volume 1 milion m3/year, Regione Veneto, 2000). The trends of the ones flowing in the northern part of the lagoon follow mainly the natural input coming from precipitation; the ones flowing in the southern part of the lagoon, due to the human action in regulating the water sources there, affect less the system and are not able to counteract the intrusion of salty water from the sea. This lead to salt intrusion issues in the area. The nearby Marano-Grado Lagoon (160 km2) is the northernmost lagoon in the Adriatic Sea, with a length of nearly 32 km and an average width of 5 km. At present, 6 inlets connect the lagoon to the Adriatic Sea. As the the Venice Lagoon, most of the lagoon is covered by tidal flats and salt marshes and some areas are constantly submerged (tidal channels and subtidal zones) due to the tidal action. The average tidal range is around 65 cm while the maximum is about 105 cm. The estimated overall amount of average freshwater input, coming from small rivers is about 70-80 m3s-1. The lagoons of Venice and Marano-Grado represent full RSS developing in few kilometers, going from limited freshwater water sources within transitional areas to the open sea through inlets.

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Anthropogenic history The Po Delta and North Adriatic Lagoons Supersite is one of the most overexploited area in terms of urbanization (17 milion of inhabitants in the Po Basin, 1019 milion in the drainage basin and logoon od Venice, 349517 in Marano Grado Area6), water use for irrigation and tourism (mostly on Venice Lagoon). The severe anthropic impact on these territories began with the foundation of new cities by the Romans; their colonization led in the course of the centuries to almost total deforestation which characterizes the present-day landscape (Scullard, 1980; Eristavi, 2010; Caravello and Michieletto, 1999; Romano and Zullo, 2016). It can be summarized by the following:  Intensive farming (effects on the quality of the area landscape, exclusion of the majority of the Po Valley from the Protected Area (PA) and Natura2000 sites  the general industrialization trend and consequent conversion of land use and progressive increase in the population concentrated along the Po river course  infrastructures development (network of roads, motorways and railways developing along the Supersite, Romano and Zullo, 2016). Starting from the beginning of the first millennium, the Venice Lagoon experienced some of the major human actions among the lagoons in the whole Mediterranean, with deep modification of the environment:  diversion of rivers discharging in the the lagoon  dredging of the inlets and construction of jetties to allow shipping  reclaiming of salmarshes areas for the construction of the industrial zone and the airport  construction of artificial channels for navigation. In recent years, the construction of mobile barriers (MOSE), to defend the city of Venice from flooding events due to storm surges, is in progress. The barriers can separate the lagoon from the sea, maintaining the water level of the lagoon lower than in the sea. Differently from the Venice Lagoon, the Marano-Grado Lagoon experienced the major anthropic influence in recent times. A recognizable change in the natural evolution of the lagoon can be seen only in the last decades. Themajor anthropogenic actions were:  reclamation of areas around the lagoon  creation of concrete embankments around reclamation areas  building of an internal waterway, crossing the lagoon on the direction East-West, for navigation purposes  regulation of lagoon’s inlets. Current local community economic activities

6 Sources:http://www.alpiorientali.it/dati/direttive/acque/Volume01.pdf, https://www.regione.veneto.it/web/ambiente-e-territorio/bacino-scolante

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The Po Valley is one of the most important economic zone, with 50% of total Italian gross domestic product, with a pro-capitae income higher than national average capita income (Zamagni, 1993; ISTAT, 2009). Its economy develops around diverse activities, from intensive agriculture and zootechnics (35% of total agricultural production), to industrial poles along the river (40% of Italian industrial activities, providing the 46% of total employment), to energy production (almost half of the national energy consumption take place within this geographic area (Montanari, 2012); e.g. 272 hydroelectric power plants), trade and tourism. Some of the activities are directly connected with the water resources: irrigation (about 7,700 km of artificial channels over the basin - Ravazzani, 2015), fishery, aquaculture and the maritime shipping (Federico and Malanima, 2004; Gismondi and Russo, 2008; Doxa, 2008; Fabbris and Michielin, 2010; Alivernini et al., 2013). The main economic activities in the Venice Lagoon are:  tourism: 10 million tourist every year  industrial activities, expecially chemicals, in the industrial pole of Porto Marghera (since the 1920), one of the largest coastal industrial areas in Europe (2000 ha with about 10500 direct employees divided into 841 companies in 20167)  fishing and aquaculture  agricultural activities are present in the drainage basin but also within the lagoon in Sant’Erasmo Island. In what concerns Marano-Grado Lagoon, the economic framework is similar to the Venetian one:  two industrial sites in the mainland  a commercial harbour  fishing, fish and clam farming  tourism, expecially at the beaches along the coasts (Lignano, Grado)  agricultural activities, mainly in the drainage basin (Ramieri et al., 2011).

2.8.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses  Identifying the role of transitional environment in the interface between the river and the sea, quantifying feedbacks between the different components of the system. Lagoons, in particular, play a role for sediment and pollutant trapping and release. The connectivity between the different coastal systems present in the Supersite helps in understanding the interaction processes (physical and ecological).  Studying the deltaic lagoon ecosystems and fishery (nursery function, sustainable management of fishing activities, etc) to state resilience and capability to cope with RSS

7 Source https://www.comune.venezia.it/it/content/larea-di-porto-marghera

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changes, in the present state and in a climate change perspective.  Studying the complex system of land use to identify major drivers for pollution (from water and sediments), water quality (waste waters, microplastics and emerging pollutants, nutrients loads) and water and groundwater exploitation and their effects on biota, in a climate change perspective.  Studying for the preservation of natural habitats in transitional environments and the maintenance of their diversity (seagrass meadows, salt marshes, inter-tidal flats habitats, freshwater habitats). Studying the presence of Invasive Alien Species and their influence on the autochthones ones, expecially in depending on climate change.  Studying the anthropic adaptation in such an impacted and changing environment, evaluation of new concepts, in a climate change perspective.

2.8.3. Vision The Po Delta and North Adriatic Lagoons Supersite is mainly focused on the role of transitional environments within the RSS and three “study cores”, corresponding to the Po Delta, Venice Lagoon and Marano-Grado Lagoon, are the focus. The Vision for this Supersite is to provide an integrated observation system, toolboxes, living labs and services for investigating issues mainly connected to the interaction processes between freshwater and marine systems, feedbacks on ecosystems and the role of transitional environments within a highly humanized context. One of the main focus of this Supersite will be the application of the “DANUBIUS Commons” in such environments with co-existence of natural and highly humanized areas over the centuries, for a step change in the adaptation concept. In order to achieve these goals, under DANUBIUS-RI, we envisage to cover the interfaces, within the transitional areas, with new monitoring stations, aiming to characterize the land-sea interactions within the complex system of uses and feedbacks. With this in mind, the draft plan for observative areas is schematized in Figure 2.8.2.

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Figure 2.8.2 - Proposed areas for integrated observations within the Supersite, divided in riverine, transitional, inlets and coastal area.

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2.8.3.1. Table of parameters Table of measured parameters, in each of the three “study cores”, in which the Supersite is divided.

Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Measured and analysed parameters

X (both by drainage X (both by drainage Water discharge X basin and through the basin and through the inlets) inlets)

Water level (including Tidal range in coastal ‐ marine) X X X

Wave parameters (height, length, direction of wave front) X X X

Chlorophyll a X X X

Turbidity X X X

Temperature X X X Measured core parameters

Conductivity/Salinity X X X

pH X X X

NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP X X X

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Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Carbon (TOC, DOC) X X X

Dissolved oxygen X X X

Water current (flow) characterisation X X X

Bathymetry X X X

Total suspended matter X X X

Total suspended sediments X X X

Bed load X X X

Grain size distribution of suspended sediments X X X

Grain size distribution of bed load sediments X X X

Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, list of employers X X X (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita

Subsidence X X X sec ary Me red asu ond

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Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, X X X F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr,

Pollutants (organic) X X X

Pollutants (emerging pollutants) X X X

Oxygen fluxes X X X

CO2 system characterisation X X X

Stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer X X X

Radiogenic isotopes for sediment dating X X X

Mineralogy X X X

Ecotoxicology X X X

Benthic chambers for fluxes X X X

Macro characterization of ecosystems X X X

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Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Biota and microbiota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata): characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ X X X biomass, community structure, diversity, temporal and spatial coverage)

Community functioning (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata): X X X production, respiration, enzymatic activities and functional traits

Shoreline position X X X

Beach transverse profiles X X X Specific Salt marshes characterization X X X each Supersite parameters for

Type of measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) XXX

In situ X X X

Online X X X

Offline X X X

In situ sampling X X X

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Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Indirect X X X

Lab analysis X X X

Visual/photographic census (for ecosystem investigation) XXX

Regular, random, stratified (for community investigation) XXX

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No YYY

Focussed on:

Lentic, lotic, Lentic, lotic, Lentic, lotic, Type of mesocosm transportable transportable transportable

Equipped for the measurements of the following parameter (e.g. eDNA sampler, Data logger, Vertical&Horizontal Radar, field calibration by scope, binoculars, fotocamera, X X X fototrap camera, drones, fishing gears, plankton net, Niskin)

Periodicity

Contionuous / Contionuous / Contionuous / Continuous Frequency TBD Frequency TBD Frequency TBD

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Marano‐Grado Areas Po Delta Venice Lagoon Lagoon

Dedicated surveys XXX

Periodically (daily, weekly, monthly, seasonal, over years) XXX

Event driven XXX

Matrices

Water XXX

Air Meteo Meteo Meteo

Sediments XXX

Total suspended solids XXX

Biota (phytoplankton, phytobenthos, acquatic and terrestrial vegetation, zooplankton, zoobenthos,

microorganisms, insects, fish, birds, mammals) X X X

epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil

Gases X X X

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2.8.4. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution CORILA as no-profit association between Italy’s National Research Council (CNR), National Institute of Oceanography and Experimental Geophysic (OGS) and local Universities, overseen by the Ministry of Education, University and Research. It is an independent institution, overseen by the Ministry of Education, University and Research. The Minister of Education, University and Research is part of the Committee for the Safeguarding of Venice, lead by the Prime Minister and composed by Ministers and local Authorities. CORILA promotes and coordinates research on the Venice lagoon, also internationally. Accordingly, it facilitates interaction with the international scientific community; collects information on the physical system, territorial, environmental, economic and social aspects of the lagoon and lagoon settlements; processes and manages this information in an integrated framework; carries out interdisciplinary scientific research projects pertinent to the problems of the Venice Lagoon and organises widespread dissemination of the research. The operational structure is composed of qualified researchers who carry out scientific coordination, interdisciplinary integration activities, and management functions. CORILA supports PA in relevant projects: monitoring plan of the effects of the working sites of the MOSE system, Morphological Plan for the Venice Lagoon, management plan of the Venice’s UNESCO WHS. It realized CIGNO system, (software catalogue of metadata and data) and the web Atlas of the Venice Lagoon. Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution National Research Council – Institute od Marine Sciences (CNR-ISMAR). National Institute of Oceanography and Applied Geophysics (OGS) CNR-ISMAR is a multidisciplinary institute of the National Research Council, dealing with marine science and focusing its activities on the marine, coastal and transitional environments, from geological, biological, physical perspectives. CNR-ISMAR involves 170 people in 7 geographic sections located in 6 regions (Veneto, Friuli, Emilia, Liguria, Marche, Puglia). Three of these regions lay within the Po River North Adriatic Lagoon Supersite. The research on coastal and transitional environments, as River-Delta-Sea (RS) systems and lagoons, is one of the major themes developed by the institute that provides multidisciplinary tools and skills for scientific investigation. In the last decade CNR-ISMAR has developed great experience on the use of modern measurement and sampling techniques dedicated to work in transitional environments and shallow waters. The integrated point of view, based on geophysical, sedimentological, hydrodynamical and geo-morphological observations, and remote sensing, is the strength of CNR-ISMAR in research on transitional areas. The institute focuses particularly on eco-hydrology, as the study of the biota in relation to the effects of the hydro-geological driving forces. CNR-ISMAR has developed remarkable skills in the field of numerical modelling both in coastal and transitional environments and at the basin scale. 191

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As a national research centre CNR-ISMAR has also skills in training and teaching through collaboration with national and international universities, Environmental Protection Agencies, and other research institutions. OGS, the National Institute of Oceanography and Experimental Geophysic, is an internationally oriented public research institution, operating under the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research. This institution operates and develops its own mission in the European Research Area (ERA) and internationally, prioritizing the basic and applied research fields of: Oceanography (under the Physical, Chemical and Biological aspects); Geophysics and Marine Geology; Experimental and Explorative Geophysics. OGS works for the safeguarding and enhancement of the environmental and natural resources in order to evaluate and prevent geological, environmental and climatic risks, with the aim of spreading scientific culture and knowledge. All these efforts are also made in collaboration with analogous European and international institutions, with private high-tech industries and qualified enterprises. The aim of the Institute is to play a leading role, in the Italian and international research fields, by favoring the synergies with the other institutions of research operating in accordance with the international dynamics, and assuring the acquisition and exchange of knowledge and the most advanced technologies, on a global level, and at the same time having a positive impact on the local territories.

2.8.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.8.5.1. Existing facilities The pool of Italian institutes that are involved in the RI can already provide facilities, equipments and expertise in the Supersite area. These institutes are responsible for a part of the observational system located in the coastal environments of the Northern Adriatic Sea. This includes oceanographic buoys and long-term stations for the continuous monitoring of meteorological and physical chemical parameters in the water column, at the air-water and bottom interface, for environmental processes, quality and climate change studies. Several fixed platforms are currently operating in the Northern Adriatic Sea built and managed by the National Research Council: the oceanographic platform “Acqua Alta” in front of Venice Lagoon, the coastal buoy S1 in front of the Po River Delta, the Paloma buoy (Gulf of Trieste). Additional buoys cover the Northern Adriatic Sea and the Gulf of Trieste (Figure 2.8.3).

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Figure 2.8.4 - Location of existing monitoring stations on the Supersite area. Other monitoring systems include the groundwater, the ground dynamics monitoring networks and the coastal water, whose aims are i) the study of the continental - marine superficial water and groundwater exchanges, i.e. saltwater intrusion, low salinity submarine groundwater discharges, groundwater resources, and ii) the Relative Sea Level Rise, i.e. land subsidence and eustacy; iii) the quality of water (pollutants and biological status).

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Figure 2.8.3 - Example of location of existing monitoring stations on the RSS: Regional Authorities water stations (both river and sea). Data are at disposal free and on-line.

2.8.5.2. Plans for further development A preliminary list of new equipments planned for the Supersite activities is proposed, in order to improve and better integrate the existing research. The Supersite coordinators will closely work within WP6 to shape the Supersite Vision accordingly to the DANUBIUS Commons, defining a primary list of measured parameters that will represent the basis for the designation of the complete list of equipment to be bought and installed. The plans will be updated and shaped around the specific needs that the local administration, research entities and stakeholder community will express. The basic facilities and equipments proposed are:  Ground movement calibration sites for SAR interferometry  Tidal flat/salt marsh vertical movement (lagoons, wetlands, deltas) monitoring sites; Interferometric Point Target monitoring network  Confined Groundwater calibration sites  Automatic systems to collect water samples, filter, sort and analyze particle and microrganism images also for genetic characterization  Monitoring system for marine acoustic disturbances, waters acidity, atmospheric 194

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deposition and aerosol quality experimental system  Mesocosms  Sediment, biology, ecology, chemistry, ecotoxicology laboratory facilities  Moving vessel profiler, parametric multi-transducer sub-bottom profiler for shallow water  Coastal Monitoring mobil Radars  In situ hydrodynamic sensors  Storage system for digital (particularly modeling) data  Storage system for non-digital data  Support facilities to host researchers, students in the Supersite.

2.8.6. Users and Stakeholders International  Unesco BRESCE  Council of Europe National  Ministry of Infrastructure and Transports  Ministry of Environment and protection of Land and Sea  ISPRA Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research  MIBACT  ANMS Associazione Nazionale Musei Scientifici  MPAs Interregional (expecially linked to river basins)  AIPO - Interregional Agency for Po River  Hydrographic District Authority for the Oriental Alps  Hydrographic District Authority for Po river  The Interregional Board on Public Works for the Veneto, Trentino Alto Adige and Friuli Venezia Giulia regions  Reclamation Consortia Regional  Ente Parco Delta Po Emilia Romagna Region  Ente Parco Delta Po Veneto Region  Veneto Region Authority  Emilia Romagna Region Authority  Friuli Venezia Giulia Region Authority  Lombardia Region Authority  Piemonte Region Authority 195

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 Liguria Region Authority  ARPA (Veneto, Emilia Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia Regions) Regional Environmental Agency  Regional Secretariat of the Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Tourism of Veneto (MiBACT)  Superintendence for the Architectural and Landscape Heritage of Venice and the Lagoon.  Reclamation Consortia  CONFAGRICOLTURA Local community  Universities (Padova, Venezia, Bologna, Ferrara, Trieste, Parma, Udine, etc)  Port Authorities (Venice, Trieste, etc)  Padua-Treviso-Venice metropolitan area  Municipality of Venice, etc  Private SMEs  Natural History Museums  NGOs The list of users and stakeholders will be updated after the first meeting of the working table among the above listed community and the Researchers community.

2.8.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational 2018-2019 Involvement of the scientific community and organization of the first research community workshops and assessment on running initiatives for observations, toolbox, services in the Supersite. Stakeholder engagement: mapping and identification of the relevant Stakeholder for the Supersite and organization of the thematic working tables for the first version of Supersite structure, governance and approval of strategic vision document. Action plan development and funding opportunities description. 2019 Approval of the provision of the final action plan for Supersite. Web atlas of the catalogue of the initiatives for observations, toolbox, services in the Supersite. From 2018 Dissemination to citizens. 2019-2020 Establishment of Supersite structure and governance. 2019-2021 Application for funding and activities following the action plan. 2023 Operative phase of Supersite reached

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2.8.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) The setting up of the Po Delta and North Adriatic Lagoons Supersite will be partially funded by the Italian Government, as part of the financial commitment that had been submitted together with the DANUBIUS ESFRI Proposal. Applications to structural funds calls for construction will be done, accordingly to the action plan. Actions are taken in order to include DANUBIUS-RI in the National Plan of Research Infrastructures (PNIR), through which there will be the possibility to apply for national research fundings. Operation and maintenance costs are to be estimated during the proposal in course.

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2.9. Middle Rhine (Germany)

2.9.1. Introduction to the Supersite The Supersite Rhine embedded in a potential chain of Supersites The Rhine rises from two source rivers in the Gotthard massif at 2,344 m above sea level. The catchment area of around 185,000 km² comprises nine states and with a total length of about 1,233 km and a mean runoff of 2,300 m³/s at the German-Dutch border, the Rhine is one of the largest rivers in Europe. From Basel to Rotterdam, over a distance of about 800 km, the Rhine is navigable. The Supersite Rhine as proposed and described in the following will cover a considerable stretch of the navigable Rhine in Germany (and potentially beyond). It is aimed at including large parts of the hydrologically, economically and socio-culturally important middle reach of the Rhine. This Supersite Rhine is self-contained. Beyond that and by acknowledging the range of orographic, hydrologic and environmental conditions together with the associated multitude of challenges in the whole basin of the Rhine, introducing more Rhine reaches into a Supersite context could be valuable for DANUBIUS-RI. But due to its sheer size and heterogeneity the Rhine river basin cannot realistically be represented by a single, but only by a chain of Supersites. Such a chain of Supersites can have a minimum extent with Germany and the Netherlands and can reach a maximum level of integration by also involving Switzerland, France, Luxemburg and Belgium. Within such a setting, the proposed Supersite Rhine would take a vital and central part as an important link between other Rhine-oriented Supersites (e. g. a Rhine/Meuse Delta Supersite, a Moselle/Saar/Sauer Supersite or Supersites which are located in the upper reaches - in or at the foot of the Alps - or around Lake Constance as one of the largest lakes in Central Europe). Characteristics of the River and Supersite Rhine With a mean precipitation height of 900 mm, the Rhine area is one of the wettest river basins in Europe. The water supply is relatively balanced during the season, compared to other rivers. In the summertime, the Rhine benefits from the melting snow of the Alps, although in autumn there are often low water periods. Main tributaries are Aare, Neckar, Main and Mosel. Characteristic discharges (at the mouth) are: mean flow (MQ) of 2,500 m³/s, a historical maximum flow (HHQ) of 12,000 m³/s and a historical minimum flow (NNQ) of 600 m³/s (Belz, et al., 2007). The Rhine can be morphologically described by six distinct sections (see Figure 2.9.1, left). The two headwater streams unite near Chur in Switzerland to the so-called Alpine Rhine (Alpenrhein), which flows into Lake Constance near Bregenz. The section from the outflow from Lake Constance (defined as Rhine-km 0) to Basel forms the High Rhine (Hochrhein) and unites with the Aare, an important tributary with respect to discharge. Between Basel and Mainz, the Upper Rhine (Oberrhein) flows through the Upper Rhine Plain. From Basel 198

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(km 170) to Neuburgweier / Lauterburg (km 352) the Rhine forms the border between Germany and France. At Mainz, the Rhine exits the Upper Rhine Plain. From Mainz to Bingen, the Rhine flows through the Rheingau, a river section with a low gradient, large widths and numerous islands. From the entry of the Nahe at Bingen, the beginning of the Middle Rhine, the Rhine flows with a significantly higher gradient and predominantly rocky bed through the Rhenish Slate Mountains (Schiefergebirge).

Figure 2.9. – (left) Catchment area of the Rhine and approx. extent of the Supersite Rhine (black). Source: IKSR (www.iksr.org; modified) – (right) Rectification of the Upper Rhine at Breisach in the 19th century (J. G. Tulla) and Upper Rhine expansion in the 20th century. Source: Hydrologischer Atlas der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, 1978 (see also: BMVBS, 2007) From the river Sieg near Bonn to the German-Dutch border, the meandering Lower Rhine flows with an even lower gradient through the North German lowlands and enters the Netherlands as Boven-Rijn. Finally, the Delta Rhine divides into three major branches (Lek, Waal and Ijssel) and forms the estuary with the North Sea. More information on the Rhine’s physiographic, geomorphological and biogeochemical characteristics is provided by Uehlinger et al. (2009). The River Rhine is by far the most important waterway in Europe and is subject to a wide range of uses. About 60 million people live in its catchment area, which covers nine states.

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In addition to its role as a transport route, numerous sectors such as the water supply for households, industry and trade, irrigation for agricultural needs, wastewater disposal, energy generation, flood drainage and recreation each have their own specific demands on the Rhine. The Rhine is a heavily modified river and all major tributaries and larger streams in the entire Rhine catchment were modified more or less over centuries.

Figure 2.9.2 – Longitudinal profile of the Rhine (BMVBS, 2007)

Anthropogenic history Already at the beginning of the 19th century, the Upper Rhine and the Upper Rhine Valley were changed fundamentally by the so-called rectification based on the plans of J.G. Tulla (Figure 2.9.1, right). This project, which was continued by Honsell, aimed to transform the widely branched and dynamically changing river system (furcation zone in the upper part (Fig. 2.9.3), meandering zone in the middle part of the Upper Rhine) into a single and straightened river channel to increase cultivated land area, reduce the extension of inundated areas during floods and create a stable border with France. In the furcation zone, the braided river was trained with the help of longitudinal works, in the meandering zone numerous cutoffs were carried out, both resulting in a significant reduction of flow length and an increase of flow velocity. These measures caused significant incision of the riverbed (4.40 m from 1840 to 1920 at Neuenburg (km 200)), which resulted in severe problems for navigation and the ecology in the floodplains dependent on the Rhine water level. 200

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The depth erosion was further amplified by the fact that in the years 1890-1900 flood defence embankments were built on both sides of the Rhine from Basel to Karlsruhe. This reduced the flood discharge cross-section by 50% and increased the bottom shear stress accordingly (BMVBS, 2007). In the 20th century, between 1932 and 1977, the previously free-flowing Upper Rhine was regulated from Kembs (km 179.5) near Basel to Iffezheim (km 334) with a total of 10 barrages, primarily with the aim of hydropower generation. Downstream of the last barrage at Iffezheim the Rhine is regulated for navigability by the installation of groynes and longitudinal works. Today, numerous important industrial companies with headquarters in Basel, Strasbourg and Mannheim-Ludwigshafen are based on the Upper Rhine. As a result of the aforementioned river regulation and other anthropogenic measures in the past, river continuity was considerably reduced, impacting abundance and distribution of fish populations. Important species for the Rhine are for example salmon, eel and allis shad or, limited to the very upstream part of the Rhine, the Lake Constance trout. The 130-kilometer section of the Rhine between Bingen (mouth of the Nahe) and Bonn (mouth of the Sieg) is referred to as the Middle Rhine. Since 2002, the section called "Upper Middle Rhine Valley" between Bingen and Koblenz is part of the UNESCO World Heritage (http://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/925). The transition from the Upper to the Middle Rhine is characterized by a change from the flat and broad river section (Rheingau) to the steep and bedrock river section near the town of Bingen. At this place, shipping was massively obstructed by a rock barrier extending over the entire river width. In order to eliminate this bottleneck, the so-called Bingen Hole was substantially expanded in the period 1964-1976 for improved navigability. The human interventions since approximately 200 years had a significant impact on the transport of sediments. As a consequence, bed erosion accelerated by a factor of about ten (BMVBS, 2007). In the area of Duisburg on the Lower Rhine, coal mining has led to subsidence of the river bed. These areas act as bedload traps, causing a considerable bedload deficit and severe river bed erosion immediately downstream. Regarding bedload transport, the Rhine, as a whole, turns out to be a deficient system. Consequently, significant quantities of gravel are permanently artificially supplied to the Rhine to prevent or at least mitigate the corresponding negative outcomes: on the Upper Rhine downstream of the last barrage at Iffezheim on average about 185,000 m³ of sediment are added every year since 1977, on the Lower Rhine on average about 177,000 m³ since 2000. Massive pollution of the Rhine began with industrialization and population growth in the 19th century. Pollution and river engineering measures in the Rhine and in most of its major tributaries are considered the main reasons for a collapse of biodiversity, for the extinction of major long distance migrating fish and for constraints in all kinds of ecosystem services connected to water quality (e. g. drinking water use, commercial fisheries and recreational

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use). Major pollutants have been successfully reduced since the 1970s by construction and commissioning of waste water treatment plants and, for example, the oxygen budget of the Rhine has recovered. However, the load of various substances (e. g. emerging pollutants like pharmaceuticals) is still high and a subject of ongoing research. After peak pollution in the 1970s, biodiversity in the Rhine increased following the improvement of water quality and species numbers and diversity reached levels close to those in 1900. However, this new community differs greatly from the original historical fauna typical for the biogeographical setting of the Rhine. The biomass of the actual fauna is to a large extent composed of non-native species, most of them from the Ponto-Caspian region (Schöll et al. 2015). The connection of European river systems via channels promoted the dispersal of these, often invasive, species in the Rhine catchment, while the high degree of morphological change in extended river sections (e.g. bank protection by riprap) and the continuous pressure from navigation is considered to promote their success and their dominance over the native fauna. Position within the river-sea continuum The Supersite Rhine is intended to, at a first stage, focus on the free flowing Rhine from Iffezheim to the German-Dutch border (black area indicated in Figure 2.9.1). At a later state an extension of the Supersite Rhine upstream to include the dammed sections of the Upper Rhine may be appropriate if, for example, issues and processes that are either specific or also relevant to those dammed river sections (sedimentation, sediment pollution, water quality, etc.) come into a tighter focus. The downstream limit of the Supersite Rhine can be adjusted with some flexibility upon introduction of a connecting Supersite for the Rhine/Meuse Delta (both possible extensions are indicated as fading black areas in Figure 2.9.1).

2.9.2. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses The Internationally Coordinated Management Plan 2015 for the International River Basin District of the Rhine (ICPR, 2015a) already summarizes a set of different aspects which are relevant for the environment and sustainability in the following four core management tasks:  Restoration (as far as possible) of biological river continuity, increased habitat diversity  Reduction of diffuse inputs interfering with surface waters and groundwater (nutrients, pesticides, metals, dangerous substances from historical contamination and others)  Further reduction of classical pollution of industrial and municipal point sources  Harmonization of water uses (navigation, energy production, flood protection, regional land use and others) with environmental objectives More detailed challenges and scientific issues:

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 Inland navigation and waterways: How can inland waterways be adapted in a sustainable and eco-friendly way to ongoing changes in the navigation sector and to what extent can the inland shipping sector contribute to the necessary reduction of greenhouse gases and pollutants? – Keywords: Working with Nature (PIANC, 2011); Green Shipping; impacts from increasing transport on waterways; waterway maintenance, e. g. dredging and dumping strategies or bedload feeding; riverbed stabilization; ship-induced loads on banks and riverbed.  Sediment balance and river morphology: Which are the key causes of poor morphological conditions and by which means and efforts can this status be improved? – Keywords: river incision and countermeasures; impacts from extreme events on river morphology; river morphology and environmental flows (Dyson et al., 2003); river bed coarsening (Hillebrand & Frings, 2017); roles of fines and suspended loads and their entrainment; interaction of processes in river channel, floodplains and e. g. groyne fields; sedimentation and consolidation in reservoirs.  Climate change and flood risk as well as flood protection: How are Central European rivers affected by climate change, what are the impacts on the multitude of water-related sectors, including trans-national flood protection, and how far can the expected negative outcomes be limited by adaptation measures? – Keywords: harmonization of flood protection levels; consequence assessment for a multitude of sectors; adaptation measures in sectors; improvement of flood forecasting and warning systems (ICPR, 2015b).  Water and sediment quality issues: Which biological, chemical and physical processes are relevant for the long-term transport, storage, accumulation and degradation of contaminants in the water (dissolved and particulate) and sediment columns, which monitoring strategies deliver efficient and state of the art detection and tracking and how can the anthropogenic impact be reduced in order to reach todays and future environmental goals? – Keywords: Knowledge of pathways and release, transport, transformation and retention mechanisms; accumulation of contaminants in the hydrosphere and in sediments; identification and ranking of historical and recent sources.  River restoration, preservation and increase of biological diversity: What are the potentials for the restoration of large heavily modified rivers, how can biological diversity be effectively increased and which strategical approaches on which time scales are reasonable? – Keywords: novel approaches to improve ecological conditions; nature-based-solutions; restoration and preservation of wetlands in densely populated areas; preservation of cultural heritage; drafting of restoration measures, following “continuum projection”, “stepping stones” or other approaches

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(BMVI & BMU, 2017); river continuity; etho-hydraulics; novel taxonomical analysis tools for assessment of anthropogenic effects.  Competing demands in large river systems: How far can ecological objectives be realistically pursued in intensively regulated rivers without negatively affecting socio-economic activities and water resources management goals? – Keywords: portfolio of ecosystem services; assessment of multiple sectoral uses in an ecosystem service approach; Compatibility of ecological objectives, flood protection, transport and other uses; acceptable and robust compromises in terms of sustainability between the exploitation of water resources and environmental objectives.

2.9.3. Vision The vision for the Supersite Rhine consists of several key aspects: a) The overarching goal is a sustainable development of the river system aligned with the objectives of the Water Framework Directive while considering the different societal demands, involving all stakeholders and being robust in terms of delivering key ecosystem services. Priorital components of this vision are:  Re-established biological river continuity in all dimensions, improved habitat quality and quantity as well as higher habitat diversity  Shift towards a more natural connectivity between river channel, cut-offs, abandoned river courses, oxbow lakes and floodplains  Improved hydromorphologic conditions  Balance of ecological functionality and value, socio-economy, a balanced portfolio of ecosystem services and satisfaction of societal needs along large and extensively used rivers Developed strategies in order to meet these goals shall be largely transferable to other large rivers in Europe and even worldwide. Envisaged, partially well recognized but nevertheless innovative strategies are:  A modular, yet adaptable catalogue or so called “toolbox” of measures and management options for the development of large navigable rivers on the conceptual level. It aims at providing proven and robust combinations of human response to impacts on the rivers to adequately meet specific demands without negatively affecting other sectors.  Innovative hydraulic engineering and water resources management approaches must aim at benefits in both technical and ecological fields in the future. E. g. “Working with Nature” (PIANC, 2011) or “Engineering with Nature” (USACE: United States Army Corps of Engineers) already offer first approaches to further develop rivers in a more sustainable and societal acceptable way.

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 Heavily modified and intensively managed rivers usually have only limited capacity for a quick and comprehensive restoration due to the multitude of demands and, thus, of potential conflicts. The suitability of different approaches towards river restoration (e. g. “continuum projection” or “stepping stones”) have to be analyzed in terms of their potential contributions to reaching environmental goals.  Maintaining and further development of competitive, safe and environmentally friendly cargo shipping requires work on the dominant vessel-related factors affecting fuel consumption and emissions, on telematics and assistance systems, on reduction of hydraulic loads on river bed and banks as well as resistance of technical-biological bank protection measures and an investigation of the potential future role of e. g. “green ports”. b) In order to serve river system analysis, creating an integrated model system (hydrodynamics, morphodynamics, water quality, ecology, navigation) that encompasses the entire river system is of extraordinary value. For the Supersite Rhine the entire free-flowing Rhine including the mouths of relevant tributaries is intended to be modelled and made available for answering relevant questions in the Supersite. Indispensable prerequisites for a profitable use of these models are high-quality field data in adequate temporal and spatial resolution. In order to keep such a model system up-to-date and operational, ongoing validation and re-calibration is necessary. c) Observation and analysis of data in the supersite aims at understanding the functioning of large RSS which also play an important role as inland waterway. Data will be made available for use in the aforementioned scientific modelling framework for the purpose of calibration, validation and long-term model operation as well as scenario investigations when talking about options for human response to pressures and undesired state changes. Understanding processes and the river system is key to understanding cause and effect relationships, interpreting changes and planning measures. Routine measurements and monitoring activities are essential in providing a long-term data basis. Due to its strong anthropogenic character, many engineering issues are of relevance for investigation on the Rhine. In order to address those issues, parameters for example in the contexts of navigation, waterway maintenance, flood protection, hydropower generation and river restoration are collected. In order to address environmental topics and sustainability as well as the goals that are defined by national and international environment protection directives and laws, the collection of comprehensive data and parameters in the areas of water resources management, sediment management and natural riverine processes and habitats, together with their quantification, is envisaged, if not already performed. In addition, mapping socio-economic status and behavior helps to mirror the anthropogenic impact on the system. Another bottom line is to map and assess ecosystem services provided within the Supersite to support the generation of a bigger picture of the state of the Supersite Rhine and relevant processes.

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At the German part of the Rhine Supersite, several facilities exist for different research questions. In addition, some parameters are measured at varying locations. Samples are available at fixed or varying locations. Other parameters are measured along the river, not at specific discrete locations, e.g. bed levels. For turbidity stations and bed load measurements, Figure 2.9.3 gives an example of in situ measurement stations operated by different institutions or authorities. DANUBIUS-RI will build on these existing measuring stations and available monitoring data. Open access to the data is currently subject to approval of the respective operating authorities. Locations of measurements for different sets of parameters, e.g. hydraulics, sediment loads, nutrients, pollutants, are often not situated at the same location, but chosen based on specific requirements. For example, locations of bed load measurements are chosen based on morphologic conditions in the river, while water discharge gauges are placed in stretches preferably with uniform condition for the full range of discharges from low flow to high flow conditions.

Figure 2.9.3 - Map of the Rhine Supersite, location of turbidity stations (yellow markers, different symbols specify different operators) and bed load measurements (green markers) as an example of existing measuring locations.

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Water quality monitoring has already been a longterm subject at the river Rhine. Based on the trauma of the Sandoz chemical spill8 in 1986 the cooperation of CH, F, D and NL for the benefit of river Rhine was formed on international basis under the umbrella of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR)9. Hence, additional water monitoring stations exist upstream and downstream of the German Supersite Rhine and already make their results available online with support of the BfG10. The German part of the monitoring alliance, including the tributary rivers, is united under the umbrella of the river basin alliance Rhine (Flussgebietsgemeinschaft (FGG) Rhein, Figure 2.9.4). The stations are maintained by local authorities. Data are provided by the FGG Rhein, consolidated and made available online by BfG. The BfG additionally runs the stations Koblenz Rhein and Koblenz Mosel and run or coordinate biological monitoring programmes, namely for macrozoobenthos and phytoplankton. Information on more than 300 different chemical species including nutrients and physical parameters are already available online. Some of the longterm monitoring efforts reach back to the 70s and 80s. On the website of the ICPR additional information on target and non-target monitoring studies is already available. The Supersite initiative aims at closing spatial and temporal gaps to complement the infrastructure already existing outside Danubius- RI. A helpful tool in this sense will be a set of mobile stations/samplers to follow the research needs within the RIs lifetime, as the vision for the Supersite Rhine goes far beyond the existing monitoring efforts, as displayed previously. For example, providing large data sets will support the development of the envisaged integral modelling system for the Rhine wich will serve as an importat elemnt in extending knowledge of relevant processes in RSS. Overall, the Supersite follows the RIs research agenda and extends its activities accordingly for the parameters agreed on in the consortium. d) Finally, a core vision is to provide relevant stakeholders with innovative and highly profound knowledge and strategies for the sustainable development of an intensely regulated and, in many aspects, heavily modified river. Together with the already existing many years of experience of the stakeholders this will contribute to long-term oriented high quality education of specialists in the field of RSS. In addition to academic education and training dissemination will also focus on professionals from the Rhine and also other RSS.

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Figure 2.9.4 – Screen shot of the river basin alliance Rhine (Flussgebietsgemeinschaft (FGG) Rhein) website, with the Map of the Rhine and tributary rivers (right) and the location of water quality monitoring stations (black labels) as an example of existing measuring locations. On the left side, the names of the stations are given. Sorting categories on the left are: 1. Water or suspended solids. 2. Sampling stations, inorganic, physical and organic characteristics. Yearly mean, min and max values, as well as the detailed randomly sampled, bi-weekly values are available online.

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2.9.3.1. Table of parameters

Number of stations / measuring locations within Supersite Measured and analysed parameters Rhine Water discharge 15 Water level (including tidal range) > 20 Waves and currents (coastal stations) ‐ Water flow characterisation > 15 Temperature ‐ Conductivity/ Salinity >10 pH (can also be done continuously) >10 Chlorophyll a >10 Turbidity 10

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP >10 Carbon (TOC, DOC) >10 Dissolved oxygen >10 Bathymetry measured longitudinally Total suspended matter 8 > 35 bed load Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load ca. 50 susp. load, cross‐sectional measurements 8 susp. load, daily samples or calibrated turbidity probes Grain size distribution of sediments: suspended and bedload > 35 Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, From official statistics of the federal states or other employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita resources (e.g. Federal Statistical Office (Destatis) Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCN), Freight transport performance, freight rates, container transport, loading degrees, fleet composition, fleet capacity, emission rates Association for European Inland Navigation and Waterways (VBW), ssociation of German Inland Navigation (BDB) bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea ‐ 209

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(not measured, calculated from velocity measurements)

Geodynamics (subsidence) ‐ Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts of the analytes in suspended matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, >10 Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic species (cf. as an example, http://had.bafg.de/iksr‐zt/lj_auswahl.asp?S=3 or http://fgg‐rhein.bafg.de/dkrr/lj_auswahl.asp?S=0 ) >10 Oxygen fluxes With respect to respiration, yes. With respect to respiration, yes. CO2 system characterisation Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Made available depending on the scientific aim Benthos) Ecosystem Functioning (production, respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy)) Made available depending on the scientific aim Type of measurements: Remote (e.g., satellite based) X (depending on parameter) In situ X (depending on parameter) Online X (depending on parameter) Offline X (depending on parameter) In situ sampling X (depending on parameter) Indirect X (depending on parameter) Lab analysis X (depending on parameter) Ecosystem investigations X (depending on parameter) Proposed mesocosms Yes/No N depending on parameter, from continous measurements to Periodicity few discrete measurements per year Continuous X (depending on parameter) Dedicated surveys X (depending on parameter) Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) X (depending on parameter)

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Event driven X (depending on parameter)

Matrices Water X (depending on parameter)

Sediments X (depending on parameter)

Total suspended solids X (depending on parameter)

Biota Made available depending on the scientific aim

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2.9.4. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution BAW Federal Waterways Engineering and Research Institute (Germany) The BAW is a technical and scientific federal authority of the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI). BAW is the central providers of consultancy and expert opinion services to the BMVI and the German Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV) relating to their waterways engineering tasks and in particular concerning their construction supervision responsibility for ensuring that all federal waterway structures and facilities comply with safety and other regulations. BAW’s work is an important contribution to ensuring that waterways in Germany meet ever tougher technical, economic and ecological demands. BAW has extensive expertise and experience in the field of waterways engineering and, as key players in the ongoing development of this discipline, enjoys a formidable reputation in the national and international scientific community (see also www.baw.de). Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution BfG Federal Institute of Hydrology (Germany) Within the federal system in Germany, responsibilities for waters are divided between national authorities and those of the federal states. As a scientific institution ranking as a higher federal authority, the BfG is responsible for the German waterways in federal ownership. In this position it has a central mediating and integrating function. The Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) advises federal ministries (e. g. the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, BMVI) and the Waterways and Shipping Administration (WSV) in matters of utilisation and management of the German federal waterways. Being subordinate to the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI), it is the BfG's mission to contribute to the implementation and operation of an efficient and environment-friendly transport system. By improving the national infrastructure the BfG wants to boost Germany's economic power, strengthen Germany as an investment and industrial location and secure its position in a European context (see also www.bafg.de).

2.9.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.9.5.1. Existing facilities Laboratories:

 Technical equipment to operate large scale hydro-morphodynamic models; several versatile laboratory flumes to perform fundamental hydraulic-morphological research

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 Laboratory for quantitative and qualitative sediment analyses (grain size analysis, filtration, testing facility for in situ devices etc.)  State of the art chemical, ecotoxicological and biological laboratories Modelling:  High performance computing: excellent conditions (> 10,000 processor cores) to operate high-resolution multidimensional numerical models  Ship handling simulator ANS6000 (each for inland navigation and maritime shipping)  Support by contracted service providers in the field of the construction of comprehensive numerical models  Habitat modelling Field observation and long-term data bases:  Measuring devices for field data in the areas hydrology/hydraulics, morphology, sedimentology, bathymetry, floodplain topography and ecology as well as navigation (boat, UAV, various measuring equipment)  Routine measuring campaigns in the areas hydrology/hydraulics, morphology, sedimentology and bathymetry are complemented by continuous monitoring stations at various locations  Measuring campaigns for recording instream and floodplain fauna and flora characteristics  Publicly available longterm data  Support for various hydraulic measurements in the field by contracted service providers BAW Federal Waterways Engineering and Research Institute (Germany) and BfG Federal Institute of Hydrology (Germany) are as higher authorities subordinate to the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) in Germany and, thus, have a long record of experience and expertise in various fields:  Support for various hydraulic measurements in the field by contracted service providers  Operation of scaled and one- to multidimensional numerical models (water budget, rainfall runoff, hydraulic, morphodynamic and water quality), habitat models, nautical models and of the ship handling simulator  Development and application of multidimensional transport models within the framework of international scientific cooperations  Multiple measurement technologies in river-sea-systems, including remote sensing  Development and application of models simulating ecological processes (e.g. phytoplankton growth and nutrient turnover) and habitats (e.g. species distribution models, GLM, GAM, habitat suitability)

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 Comprehensive assessment of various hydraulic engineering measures concerning their effects on system behaviour and minimising the impact of anthropogenic interventions  Assessment of the interaction between biotic and abiotic processes  Assessment of the applicability of technical-biological bank protection measures along waterways  Mapping and assessment of specific Ecosystem Services

2.9.5.2. Plans for further development  Closing of remaining gaps between existing numerical models (1D and 2D, hydraulic and / or sediment transport) for the free-flowing Rhine in order to enable spatially continuous modelling from Iffezheim to the German-Dutch border  Replacement of high performance computers (HPC) within already established regular intervals (ongoing increase of computing power)  Analysis of existing technology and development of new measuring techniques for applicability in large, navigable waterways  Sensor-based measuring techniques for continuous measurements and online data access  Sensor-based measuring techniques for areas which are difficult to access  Development of measurement techniques useable in extreme weather and/or extreme flow conditions  Advancement of ongoing measurements to increase data quality and/or reduce personnel expenditure  Bio-hydrodynamic flume for performing sediment-soil-plant-water experiments  Fill spacial and temporal gaps in existing efforts, complete the existing data bases, e.g., with respect to high resolution time series on pesticides

2.9.6. Potential users and stakeholders Category Institutions International Rhine-related  CHR (The International Commission for the commissions Hydrology of the Rhine Basin)  ICPR (International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine)  ZKR (Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine) German federal and international  BMVI (German Federal Ministry of Transport and waterways, transport and shipping Digital Infrastructure)

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administration, agencies and higher  WSV (German Federal Waterways and Shipping authorities Administration)  VNF (Voies navigables de France)  RWS (Rijkswaterstaat, The Netherlands) National and international waterways,  PIANC (The World Association for Waterborne transport and shipping organizations Transport Infrastructure)  BDB: Bundesverband der Deutschen Binnenschifffahrt e.V.  EBU (European Barge Union) German federal environmental  BMUB (Federal Ministry for the Environment, administrations, agencies and higher Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety) authorities  BfN (German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation)  UBA (German Environment Agency) Water and environment  RBC (Rhine River Basin Community, FGG-Rhein, a administrations and agencies from the cooperation between German States in the Rhine German federal states catchment and the Federal Government)  MUKE (Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection and the Energy Sector, Baden- Wurttemberg)  LUBW (Landesanstalt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz, Baden-Württemberg)  MUEEF (Ministry for the Environment, Agriculture, Nutrition, Viticulture and Forestry, Rhineland- Palatinate)  LfU (Landesamt für Umwelt, Rhineland-Palatinate)  MUKLV (Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection, Agriculture and Consumer Protection, Hessia)  HLNUG (Hessisches Landesamt für Naturschutz, Umwelt und Geologie, Hessia)  MULNV (Ministry for Environment, Agriculture, Conservation and Consumer Protection, North-Rhine Westphalia)  LANUV (Landesamt für Natur, Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz, North-Rhine Westphalia) Other public bodies  Dike Associations  Municipalities Environmental and other Non-  BUND (Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Deutschland e.V.)  WWF Deutschland (World Wide Fund For Nature)

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 NABU (Nature And Biodiversity Conservation Union) Professional associations and  HKC (HochwasserKompetenzCentrum) competence centers  DWA (The German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste)  BWK (Bund der Ingenieure für Wasserwirtschaft, Abfallwirtschaft und Kulturbau e.V)  Fishing associations Research sector  National and international universities  Fraunhofer  Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres  Max Planck Society  Deltares (NL)

2.9.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational In terms of measuring stations and a baseline set of parameters, the Rhine Supersite will be able to make use of many existing facilities. Administrative and technical issues of data access and access to facilities are currently being dealt with and are going to be solved during the next years. Gradually, additional facilities may be established or implemented based on developments within the Nodes.

For the development of an integral modeling system, the corresponding concepts should be created by 2021. This includes a data collection concept as well as data flow and data management concepts. The necessity, availability, provision and distribution of computing capacities are also defined in this project phase. Special attention is given in the conceptual phase of the harmonization of the interfaces as one of the essential preconditions for a coupled model operation. Concepts are developed in accordance with activities of the Modelling Node. On the basis of these concepts, corresponding development contracts are to be awarded, whereby existing scientific development partnerships can be used or new cooperations should be concluded. By 2023, this integral model system is scheduled to go into operation in parts and be successively developed in subsequent years as well as extended to the entire Rhine.

2.9.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) The construction of the Supersite Rhine is to be funded by the German Government. The concrete funding of the development phase, also with regard to ESFRI-funds, is currently being negotiated with the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF).

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Operation and maintenance of the Supersite Rhine after the construction phase has to be financed by the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) and the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) if the pending political decisions confirm the role of Germany in Danubius.

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2.10. Rhine – Meuse Delta (The Netherlands)

2.10.1. Introduction to the Supersite Generic description The Rhine-Meuse Delta (RMD) in the Netherlands is one of the best studied deltaic areas in the world (Berendsen, 1998). The combination of the Netherlands high population density11, high level of industrialization, sea-level rise, subsiding subsoil and about 26% of the country lying below sea level and 29% susceptible to river flooding12, requires a thorough knowledge of natural processes to protect the country from the sea and flooding by the rivers and maintain a comfortable working and living environment. It is proposed to select this RMD as a Supersite in DANUBIUS-RI.

Figure 2.10.1 – Pannerdensche Kop bifurcation (picture: Beeldarchief Rijkswaterstaat, https://beeldbank.rws.nl/MediaObject/Details/313002) The Rhine and Meuse end in a wide delta with several bifurcations (or splitsingspunten in Dutch, see Fig. 2.10.1) and branches. In fact, the Netherlands is located in the delta of four major rivers, i.e. the Rhine the Meuse, the Scheldt and the Ems (see Table 2.10.1 for the characteristics). The Rhine (or Rijn in Dutch) rises from two source rivers in the Saint-Gotthard massif in Switzerland at 2344 m above sea level. The catchment area of around 185,000 km² comprises nine countries. With a total length of about 1233 km and a mean water runoff of 2300 m³/s at the German-Dutch border, the Rhine is one of the large rivers in Europe. With a mean

11 With 504 inhabitants per km2 land the Netherlands is, after Malta, the most densely populated country in Europe (source: http://www.clo.nl/indicatoren/nl2102-bevolkingsgroei-nederland- ) 12 Source: http://www.pbl.nl/dossiers/klimaatverandering/content/correctie-formulering-over-overstromomgsrisico 218

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precipitation of 900 mm, the Rhine area is one of the wettest river basins in Europe. The water supply is relatively balanced in the course of the season compared to other rivers. In the summertime, the Rhine benefits from the snow-melt of the Alps, although in autumn there are often low water periods13. The Meuse (or Maas in Dutch) rises in Pouilly-en-Bassingy in France at an altitude of 384 m above sea level and has a length of 905 km. With a river basin of nearly 36,000 km2, covering five countries (France, Belgium, Luxemburg, Germany and the Netherlands), the Meuse is one of Western Europe’s medium-sized rivers. The average discharge of the river Meuse is 250 m³/s14. Its discharge fluctuates considerably with seasons: it reached 3100 m3/s in winter 1993 at the Dutch/Walloon border and is only 10-40 m3/s in summers. Classed as a rain-fed river, it has no glacier and little groundwater storage capacity to buffer precipitations15.

Table 2.10.1 – Characteristics for the Dutch parts of the four main rivers (Min IenM, 2016).

Position within the river-sea continuum The location of the Rhine-Meuse-North Sea system and of the proposed location of the RMD Supersite is presented in Fig. 2.10.2. Anthropogenic history River deltas are often densely populated because of their favorable location along the water and the presence of fertile arable soil. This is also true for the Netherlands, which is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. The Netherlands’ low-lying position, the intensive land use and the transport over water have drastically changed the water system in many places. Particularly in the low-lying part of the Netherlands, most of the smaller surface waters were excavated by humans. The shape and natural dynamics of many rivers, streams and lakes have also substantially changed as a result of human intervention. Typical phenomena in the Netherlands are the polders and reclaimed lakes. Surplus water is collected via a system of

13 Info extracted from the Rhine Supersite description as drafted by BaW and BfG 14 Info extracted from Projectteam stroomgebiedbeheerplannen (2009) and SedNet (2009) 15 Info extracted from: http://www.amice-project.eu/en/context.php?page=meuse_basin 219

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small canals and discharged to the surrounding external water by means of pumping stations and discharge sluices. The hydrological regime in the Netherlands is highly artificial. In summer, water levels are relatively high to ensure sufficient water for the crops. In winter, water levels are kept relatively low to create sufficient storage capacity in the event of heavy rainfall16.

Figure 2.10.2 – Rhine-Meuse-North Sea system and proposed location of the Rhine-Meuse-Delta Supersite. The Rhine is a heavily modified river and all main tributaries and larger streams in the entire Rhine catchment were modified more or less. From Basel to Rotterdam, over a distance of about 800 km, the Rhine is navigable17. Where the Meuse enters the Netherlands, it is still a fast-flowing river and the stretch known as the Grensmaas (see Fig. 2.10.3) can meander freely. Ultimately, the Meuse flows into the Hollands Diep and the Haringvliet and via discharge sluices to the sea. A limited part of the water discharge is diverted to sea from the Hollands Diep via the Volkerak- Zoommeer and the sluiceway in the Western Scheldt. All these major water bodies are former tidal inlets that were

16 Info extracted from Projectteam stroomgebiedbeheerplannen (2009) 17 Info extracted from the Rhine Supersite description as drafted by BaW and BfG 220

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closed off from the North Sea by construction of the Delta Project after the storm surge of 1953. This transformed them into freshwater lakes with little or no tidal movement.

Figure 2.10.3 – The Grensmaas, looking from the Belgium to the Dutch river bank (Photo: J. Brils). The hydrology of the rivers Rhine and Meuse is well studied (De Wit & Buishand, 2007), as well as the possible future changes in river hydrology as a result of climate change. Climate- induced changes in the hydrology of the rivers Rhine and Meuse are of major importance for the riparian countries as the rivers are the most important European waterway, serve as a freshwater supply source, and are prone to floods and droughts. Regional climate models are used to drive hydrological models and to assess the impact of climate change on the hydrology in the river basins. A large number of hydrological models for the rivers Rhine and Meuse are available. After the floodings of the rivers Rhine and Meuse some 20 years ago, the ‘Room for River’ Action program has started as a strategy to minimise the flooding risks while creating opportunities for nature in the floodplains and lateral channels. This was the first large scale nature-based flood defence initiative worldwide. The Sandoz chemical spill in 1986 killed millions of fish and other aquatic fauna for hundreds of kilometers downstream. Since then, great efforts were made to improve the water quality of the Rhine river. This was made possible in particular by national and international regulations and by implementing advanced water treatment technologies. Indicator species for restoring the fish populations in the Rhine river was the returning of the Atlantic Salmon after a half- century when the river was simply too poisonous for them to survive. To make it possible for the Atlantic Salmon to reach to spawning sites upstream, large number of fish passages at the weirs in the river Rhine and its tributaries were constructed. The returning of the Salmon also initiated the ecological restoration of the river Rhine and Meuse. Nowadays, the European Water Framework Directive (EC, 2000) is defining the ecological status of the European rivers, including the Rhine and Meuse. Emerging pollutants reach the rivers Rhine and Meuse from various anthropogenic sources and causing risks to water quality, ecological status and human health. River training, which started approximately 200 years ago, had a significant impact on the transport of sediments. As a consequence, natural erosion rates in the Rhine river accelerated by approximately a factor ten (BMVBS, 2007). Worldwide, the Rhine is the first large river for 221

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which a detailed sediment balance is available from the origin of the river in the Alpine mountains all the way to the North Sea. A very detailed report on this topic is made available under the umbrella of the International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine River (CHR). In this report (Hillebrand & Frings, 2017) it is concluded that today’s sediment fluxes in the Rhine are strongly influenced by river training works from the past, as well as by dredging and nourishment18 operations. Sediment output to the North Sea is limited. More sediment is transported upstream from the North Sea into the lower Rhine delta than vice versa. The sediment balance is disturbed in all major Dutch river-sea-systems. The upstream hindrance of sediment transport has in general resulted in a downstream shortage of sediment which consequently at several sites in the Netherlands leads to riverbed incision and/or erosion pits (see Fig. 2.10.4). If not managed, this may indeed dramatically impact navigation (low water tables, hard obstacles) but also nature (drained floodplains) as well as shore and dike stability and thus flood safety. It was also confirmed that the establishment of a sediment balance for the Dutch part is extremely complicated, hugely due to a lack of (sharing of) data (Brils et al., 2017).

Figure 2.10.4 – Riverbed erosion resulting from a shortage of sediment (Sloff, 2011). Current local community economic activities The Rhine is by far the most important waterway in Europe and is subject to a wide range of uses. About 60 million people live in its catchment area. Around 30 million of them use water from the Rhine as drinking water. In addition, the Rhine supplies countless industrial plants with service water and power plants with cooling water and is used as an energy supplier in numerous places on the High Rhine and the Upper Rhine19. The Meuse is used as a water source for Brussels, Antwerp, Rotterdam and other towns. Other important functions are the use of water for shipping and agriculture, being dominant in the Dutch part of the Meuse river basin. The Meuse river basin as a whole has a population

18 Significant quantities of gravel are permanently added to the Rhine to prevent the associated negative developments: on the Upper Rhine downstream of the last barrage at Iffezheim on average about 185,000 m³ are added every year since 1977, on the Lower Rhine on average about 177,000 m³ since 2000 (info extracted from Rhine Supersite description as drafted by BaW and BfG). 19 Info extracted from the Rhine Supersite description as drafted by BaW and BfG 222

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of 8.8 million, of whom 3.5 million live in the Netherlands. A direct link exists between climate scenarios and changes in high & low-flows, putting at risk the assets of the basin, including major infrastructures, industries, priceless historical and ecological heritage20.

2.10.1. Challenges and Scientific questions the Supersite addresses Several of the Research and Innovation (R&I) topics proposed for the other DANUBIUS-RI Supersites can also be studied at the RMD Supersite. The selection of unique R&I topics to be studied at designated DANUBIUS-RI Supersites is not yet fixed, i.e. still has to be discussed and agreed upon among the DANUBIUS-PP consortium. However, for the RMD Supersite it is preliminary proposed to designate the following key R&I topics.  Hydrology: low en high flow of water, associated water quality issues (chemistry and ecology), response to climate change etc.  Sediment quantity: sediment distribution/balance and its evolution and associated issues such as bed- and coastal erosion, hydromorphology, navigation related issues, response to climate change etc.  Salt intrusion: PM It is proposed to further develop the more detailed R&I agenda for the RMD Supersite in close cooperation with: NKWK21; DANUBIUS-RI Rhine-Meuse Delta Supersite association; DANUBIUS-RI Middle Rhine Supersite association (BaW and BfG); DANUBIUS-RI Impact Node (developed under coordination of Deltares) for impact related R&I; International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine River (CHR); SedNet working group sediment quantity (SedNet, 2017). Furthermore, for the Netherlands ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (Min IenW) it is important that DANUBIUS-RI informs their policy priorities. This minsitry is committed to improve quality of life, access and mobility in a clean, safe and sustainable environment. The ministry strives to create an efficient network of roads, railways, waterways and airways, effective water management to protect against flooding, and improved air and water quality. It is anticipated that DANUBIUS-RI will gain knowledge that can inform several of the policy priorities as set by the ministry of IenW (see Table 2.10.2). Furthermore, in the first DANUBIUS-RI stakeholder event (31st of May 2017, Venice, Italy), the ministry of IenW expressed the desire that DANUBIUS-RI will also support the work of the International River Commissions. This is indeed the intention of DANUBIUS-RI as River Commissions are regarded as important DANUBIUS-RI users and stakeholders. For the Rhine this is the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) and the

20 Info extracted from: http://www.amice-project.eu/en/context.php?page=meuse_basin 21 National Water and Climate Knowledge and Innovation Programme. Several NKWK research tracks have possible links to DANUBIUS-RI, such as ‘Rivers’ (where DANUBIUS-RI is already mentioned)(Schielen et al., 2017) 223

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International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin (CHR). For the Meuse this is the International Meuse Commission (IMC).

Table 2.10.2 – Policy priorities that may be informed (= x) by knowledge gained by DANUBIUS-RI.

Proposed23 DANUBIUS-RI key R&I themes 22 Ministry of IenW policy priorities water sediment ecosystem securitya managementb structure & functioningc Water policy (waterbeleid) - Adequate protection against flooding x x x - Improving water quality x x x - Securing future fresh water availability x Climate policy (klimaatbeleid) - Climate change mitigation x - Climate change adaptation x x Accessibility (bereikbaarheid) - More clever and efficient use of existing navigation channels x x x From waste to resource (van afval naar grondstof) - Responsible care for nature, that yields us resources, water and energy x x x - Transition to a circular economy x Environmental and planning act (omgevingsrecht) - Cooperation among the (to be) engaged stakeholders x x x

a Water security: e.g. water quantity and quality, incl. groundwater and suspended matter, e.g. eutrophication, pollution, salinization, turbidity, hydrodynamics b Sediment management: e.g. sediment quantity and quality, e.g. erosion, pollution, connectivity issues c Ecosystem structure & functioning: e.g. biodiversity, habitat change/loss, invasive species, overfishing, impact of pollution, connectivity issues

The ICPR drafted a first concept for its ‘RHINE 2040’ program (ICPR, 2017). It is anticipated that DANUBIUS-RI will gain knowledge that can inform nearly each of the topics as indicated in this plan: biodiversity and ecology, water quality/contaminants, water security, sustainable use functions, climate change adaptation and cooperation among the (to be) engaged stakeholders.

2.10.2. Vision Location of the Rhine-Meuse-Delta Supersite The location of the Rhine-Meuse-Delta (RMD) Supersite is presented in Fig. 2.10.2 and Fig. 2.10.5.

22 Extracted from: https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/ministeries/ministerie-van-infrastructuur-en-waterstaat/wat-doet-ienw 23 Note: these are the proposed R&I main lines that have still to be approved by the full DANUBIUS-PP consortium 224

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Figure 2.10.5 – Location of the RMD Supersite and of its existing and of the proposed observation points, indicated with their DONAR codes (figure adapted from Van der Weijden & Roos, 2015) List of detailed observation points The observation points (DONAR24 codes in between brackets) in the RMD Supersite as proposed in Fig. 2.10.5 are25: 1. (LOBPTN) Rhine/Upper-Rhine, Bijlands Kanaal, Lobith pontoon: national observation point WFD status & trend, measuring station, generic reference location for drinking water 2. (HAGSN) Lek, Hagestein: national observation point WFD status & trend 3. (NIEUWGN) Lekkanaal, Nieuwegein: drinking water intake location, reference location for direct intake 4. (VURN) Waal, Vuren: national observation point WFD status & trend, reference location for indirect intake drinking water via bank filtration 5. (BRAKL) Afgedamde Maas, Brakel (Andelse Maas): drinking water intake location, reference location for direct intake 6. (KEIZVR) Bergsche Maas, Keizersveer: drinking water intake location, reference location for direct intake 7. (GOUDVHVN) Hollandsche IJssel, Gouda voorhaven: national observation point WFD status & trend

24 https://www.eea.europa.eu/data‐and‐maps/data/external/donar‐historical‐water‐measurement‐data 25 Information extracted from Van der Weijden & Roos (2015). 225

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8. (BRIENOD) Nieuwe Maas, Brienenoord (kilometer 996.5): national observation point WFD status & trend, reference location for indirect intake drinking water via bank filtration 9. (PUTTHK) Oude Maas, Puttershoek: national observation point WFD status & trend 10. (HOLLDMDSK) Hollandsch Diep (mond Dordtsche Kil west): national monitoring network 11. (BOVSS) Hollandsche Diep, Bovensluis: national observation point WFD status & trend 12. (MAASS) Nieuwe Waterweg, Maassluis: national observation point WFD status & trend 13. (BEERKNMDN) Calandkanaal, Beerkanaal midden: national observation point WFD status & trend 14. (HARVSS) Haringvliet, Haringvlietsluis: national observation point WFD status & trend 15. (SCHEELHK) Haringvliet, Scheelhoek: drinking water intake location, reference location for direct intake

2.10.2.1. Table of parameters The information for the table at the next pages for the parameter categories A – T is extracted from Van der Weijden & Roos (2015). In that document also further details are presented on the specific methods & procedures used to sample and analyse these parameters as well as further details on the specific individual paramaters in case in the table a group of parameters is aggregated.

Table legenda:

‐ x = monitored/analyzed at that observation point; ‐ if instead of ‘x’ a number is presented than this indicates the number of times this parameter is monitored annualy (situation 2016); ‐ underlined = matrix in which the parameter is monitored/analysed).

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Observation point # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 DONAR code LOBPTN HAGSN NIEUW‐ VURN BRAKL KEIZVR GOUD‐ BRIEN‐ PUTTHK HOLLD‐ BOVSS MAASS BEERKN HARVS SCHEEL‐ GN VHVN OD MDSK ‐MDN HK A. Monitoring of the Country’s Water Status26 / surface water MWTL_basis_ow x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Field measurments:

‐ Colour (KLEUR) 26 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Smell (GEUR) 26 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Oil (OLIE) 7 13

‐ Foam (SCHUIM) 13 13

‐ Dirt (VUIL) 13 13

‐ Visibility (ZICHT) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Extinction coefficient (E) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Type of deposition (NEERSVM) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Cloud coverage (BEWKGD) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Wind speed (WINDSHD) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Wind direction (WINDRGT) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Wave hight (GOLFHTE) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Temperature (T) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ pH (PH) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ O2 (O2) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

26 MWTL = Monitoring Waterstaatkundige Toestand des Lands 227

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‐ %O2 (%O2) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ Conductivity (GELDHD) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ Salinity (SALNTT) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 6 13 13

Nutrients generic:

‐ BOD5 (BZV5) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ COD (CZV) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ HCO3 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 6 13 13

‐ KjN 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13 13 13

‐ P 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ Suspended Solid (ZS) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13 13 13

‐ Loss upon ignition (GR) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ % Loss upon ignition (%GR) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13

‐ TOC 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ DOC 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 6 13 13

‐ F 13 13 13 13 13 7 7 6 13 13

‐ Br 13 13 13 13 13

‐ Cn 13 13 13 13 13 13

Nutrients NO2 group (NO2, NO3, NH4, Cl, SIO2, PO4, SO4) 23 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13 13 13

Metals hardness group (Na, K, Ca, Mg, CaCO3) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 27 6 13 13

Metals individual:

‐ Hg 26 13 13 13 13 13 7 27 13 13

‐ As 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 13 13

‐ Se 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 13 13

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Metals group (25 different, individual metals) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 27 6 13 13

Volatile Organic Carbons / VOC’s (56) 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 13 13

Diverse PCBs (7), PAHs (13), Organochloride pesticdes (20) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Phenyl Ureum Herbicdes (16) 26 0‐6‐13 0‐7‐13 13 13 7 27 13 13

Slightly polar compounds (P‐, N‐pesticides etc: (31)) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Polar pesticides (9) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 13 13

Chlorophenoxyalcane acids, Nitrophenols, Phenol herbicdes (15) 13 0‐6‐13 0‐7 7 13 7 13 13 7

Chlorophenols (17) 7 0‐6 0‐4 7 7 7 6 7 7

Phenols, anilines (3) 13 13 13 13 13 6 7 13 7 13 13 13

Organo Sn compounds (5) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Poly‐brominated flame retardants (PBDE’s: 10) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Complexing agents (3) 13

Gly‐phosphate & AMPA 13 13 13 13 13 13

Diverse organic compounds (6)

‐ Active C absorbed organo‐halogenes (AOX) 26 13 13 13 27 13

‐ Sum extractable organo‐halogenes (EOX) 13 13 13 13

‐ Sum extractable, volatile organo‐halogenes (VOX) 26 6 13 13 13 13 7 27 13

‐ Choline esterase inhibitor (CHOLREM) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 13 13 13

‐ Sum mehylene‐blue actice substances (s_MBAS) 13

Radio‐chemical parameters:

‐ Apha activity (ALFA) 13 13 13

‐ Beta activity (BETA) 13 13 13

‐ Rest Beta activity (RESTB) 13 13 13 229

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‐ Beta activity of Tritium (H3) 13 6 7

‐ Bata activity of Kalium 40, calculated (K40BRKD) 13 13 13

‐ Activity Strontium 90 (Sr90) 7 6

‐ Radium 226 (Ra226) 7 6

‐ Radium 228 (Ra228) 7 6

‐ Polonium 210 (Po210) 7 6

Biological parameters:

‐ Coli bacteries (COLIBACT) 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ Eschericia coli bacteries (ESCHCOLI) 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ Thermo tolerant coli bacteries (THTOCOLI) 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ Enterococcacea bacteries (ENCOCCAE) 13 13 13 13 13 13

‐ Chlorphyl‐a (CHLFa) 26 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 27 13 13

‐ Phyto‐plancton conservated in lugol 7 7 7 7 7

‐ Phyto‐plancton live (flow‐cytometer) 7 7 7 7 7

B. Monitoring of the Country’s Water Status / suspend solid MWTL_basis_zs x x x x x X x x

Field measurements:

‐ Duration sampling (DUURBMSRG) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

‐ Throughput during sampling (Ql) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

‐ Wet weight total (DG) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

Generic:

‐ % dry matter (%DS) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

‐ Wet weight (NG) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

‐ Dry weight (DG) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13 230

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Nutrients generic:

‐ %OC 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

‐ KjN 26 6 6 2 4 13

‐ P 26 6 2 4 13

Grain sizes (< 2 , 10, 16, 20, 50 & 63 µm & >63 µm) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

Metals:

‐ Individual Hg 26 4 4 4 13 13

‐ Group (34 different, individual metals) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

PAHs (16) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

PCBs (7) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

Organochloride pesticides (21) 26 6 6 4 4 4 13 13

Nitro‐chloro benzenes (15) 13 13

Organo Sn compounds (5) 13 6 6 13

Dioxines & Furanes (17) 2 2

Poly‐brominated flame retardants (PBDE’s: 15) 13 13

Mineral oil (MINROLE) 26 4 4 4 13 13

Radio‐chemical parameters:

‐ Apha activity (ALFA) 13 13 13

‐ Beta activity (BETA) 13 13 13

‐ Lead 210 (Pb210) 7 6

Radio‐chemical parameters, gamma‐nuclide group (18) 26 13 13

C. Monitoring of the Country’s Water Status / active biota clam MWTL_basis_abm x x

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Cummulation of chemical contaminants (metals, PAHs, PCBs, PBDE's, Organotin compounds) in field exposed (6 weeks) fresh water clams (Dreissena polymorpha) as well as on silicon sheets (Solid Phase Passive Sampling). x x

D. MWTL 24 hour mixed sample / surface water MWTL_24uurs_ow x

Suspended solid (ZS) 365

E. Trend & State monitoring WFD: proirity substances27 including bio‐availablity & physico‐chemical parameters / surface water TT_STOFPR_ow (incl. BA, FC) x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Alachloor, Anthraceen, Atrazine , Benzeen, Gebromeerde x x diphenylethers, Cadmium en cadmiumverbindingen, Tetrachloorkoolstof, C‐1013‐Chlooralkanen, Chlorfenvinfos , Chlooryrifos (Chloorpyrifos‐ethyl), Cyclodieen pesticiden (Aldrin, Dieldrin, Endrin, Isodrin), DDT totaal, para‐para‐DDT, 1,2‐dichloorethaan, Dichloormethaan, Di(2‐ethylhexyl)ftalaat (DEHP), Diuron, Endosulfan, Fluoranteen, Hexachloorbenzeen, Hexachloorbutadieen, Hexachloorcyclohexaan, Isoproturon, Lood en loodverbindingen, Kwik en kwikverbindingen, Naftaleen, Nikkel en nikkelverbindingen, Nonylfenolen, Octylfenolen (4‐ (1,1′,3,3′‐tetramethylbutyl)‐ fenol), Pentachloorbenzeen, Pentachloorfenol, Polycyclische aromatische koolwaterstoffen (PAK), Benzo(a)pyreen, Benzo(b) fluoranteen, Benzo(k) fluoranteen, Benzo(g,h,i)‐peryleen, Indeno(1,2,3‐ cd)pyreen, Simazine, Tetrachloorethyleen, Trichloorethyleen, Tributyltin verbindingen, Trichloorbenzenen, Trichloormethaan (chloroform), Trifluralin, Dicofol, Perfluoroctaan sulfonzuur en zijn derivaten (PFOS), Quinoxyfen, Dioxinen en dioxineachtige verbindingen, Aclonifen, Bifenox, Cybutryne, Cypermethrin, x x x x x x x x x x x x

27 List of parameters (names in Dutch) extracted from Annex I, Table 1 BKMW, see: http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0027061/2017‐01‐01 232

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Dichloorvos, Hexabroomcyclododecaan (HBCDD), Heptachloor en heptachloorepoxide, Terbutryn

F. Trend & State monitoring WFD: proirity substances including bio‐availablity & physico‐chemical parameters / suspended solid TT_STOFPR_zs (incl. BA, FC) x x

See list of parameters under E. x x

G. Trend & State monitoring WFD: other relevant substances28 / ground water TT_STOFOV_Alg_ow x x x x x x x x x

Nitrates, Active substances in pesticides, including their relevant transformation‐, degradation‐ and reactive products x x x x x x x x x

H. Trend & State monitoring WFD: other releant substances drinking water29 / surface water TT_STOFOV_DW_ow x x x x x x x

Zuurgraad, Kleurintensiteit , Gesuspendeerde stoffen, Temperatuur, Geleidingsvermogen voor elektriciteit, Chloride, Sulfaat, Fluoride, Ammonium, Nitraat, Fosfaat, Zuurstof opgelost, Natrium, IJzer opgelost, Mangaan, Koper, Zink, Boor, Arseen, Cadmium, Chroom (totaal), Lood, Seleen, Kwik, Barium, Cyanide, Polycyclische aromatische koolwaterstoffen, Gewasbeschermingsmiddelen, biociden en hun humaantoxicologisch relevante afbraakproducten per afzonderlijke stof, Bacteriën van de coligroep (totaal), Escherichia coli, Enterococcen x x x x x x x

I. Trend & State monitoring WFD: relevant substances Rhine / surface water TT_STOFOV_Rijn_ow x x x x x

28 List of parameters extracted from Annex II, Table 1 BKMW, see: http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0027061/2017‐01‐01 29 List of parameters (in Dutch) extracted from Annex III, Table 1 BKMW, see: http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0027061/2017‐01‐01 233

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See Rhine WFD RBMP 201530: x x x x x

J. Trend & State monitoring WFD: relevant substances Rhine / suspended solid TT_STOFOV_Rijn_zs x x

See under I. x x

K. Trend & State monitoring WFD: relevant substances Meuse / surface water TT_STOFOV_Maas_ow x x

See Meuse WFD RBMP 201531: x x

L. Trend & State monitoring WFD: relevant substances Meuse / suspended solid TT_STOFOV_Maas_zs x

PM x

M. Operational monitoring WFD / surface water OM_ow x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

See WFD CIS Guidance document No. 7, Monitoring under the WFD32 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

N. Operational monitoring WFD / suspended solid OM_zs x x

See under M. x x

O. International Commission for Protection of the Rhine River / surface water ICBR_ow x

30 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/participation/map_mc/map.htm 31 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/participation/map_mc/map.htm 32 See: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water‐framework/facts_figures/guidance_docs_en.htm 234

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See agreements ICBR at: https://www.iksr.org/en/ x x

P. International Commission for Protection of the Rhine River / suspended solid ICBR_zs x x

See under O. x x

Q. International Commission for Protection of the Rhine River, 4 weeks agregated sample / surface water ICBR_4weeks_ow x

See under O. x

R. International Meuse Commission / surface water IMC_ow x x

See agreements IMC at: http://www.meuse‐ maas.be/Accueil.aspx x x

S. International Meuse Commission / suspended solid IMC_zs x

See under R. x

T. Oslo Paris Convention33 / surface water OSPAR_ow x

Cadmium, lead and organic lead compounds, mercury and x organic mercury compounds, organic tin compounds, neodecanoic acid, ethenyl ester, perfluorooctanyl sulphonic acid and its salts (PFOS), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBP‐A), 1,2,3‐trichlorobenzene, 1,2,4‐trichlorobenzene, 1,3,5‐ trichlorobenzene, brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated

33 Parameters extracted from: https://www.ospar.org/work‐areas/hasec/chemicals/priority‐action 235

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dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), short chained chlorinated paraffins (SCCP), 4‐ (dimethylbutylamino)diphenylamin (6PPD), dicofol, endosulfan, hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCH), methoxychlor, pentachlorophenol (PCP), trifluralin, clotrimazole, 2,4,6‐tri‐tert‐butylpheno, nonylphenol/ethoxylates (NP/NPEs) and related substances, octylphenol, certain phthalates: dibutylphthalate (DBP), diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP),polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),musk xylene, 1,5,9 cyclododecatriene, cyclododecane, 2‐propenoic acid, (pentabromo)methyl ester, 2,4,6‐bromophenyl 1‐2(2,3‐dibromo‐2‐methylpropyl), pentabromoethylbenzene, heptachloronorbornene, pentachloroanisole, polychlorinated naphthalenes (Trichloronaphthalene, tetrachloronaphthalene, pentachloronaphthalene, hexachloronaphthalene, heptachloronaphthalene, octachloronaphthalene, naphthalene, chloro derivs.), 3,3'‐ (ureylenedimethylene)bis(3,5,5‐trimethylcyclohexyl) diisocyanate, ethyl O‐(p‐nitrophenyl) pheny,l phosphonothionate (EPN), flucythrinate, isodrin, tetrasul, diosgenin

U. Aqualarm: continuos water quality monitoring (fed by data measured by RWS and the German LANUV34)/ surface water x

Chemico‐physiscal parameters:

‐ Cl (Lobith/NL & Bimmen/DE) x

‐ Conductivity (Lobith & Bimmen)) x

‐ Temperature (Lobith & Bimmen) x

‐ pH (Lobith & Bimmen) x

‐ Suspended particulate matter (Lobith) x

34 See: https://www.aqualarm.nl/LOBITH.HTML 236

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‐ O2 (Lobith & Bimmen) x

Biological surveillance systems: x

‐ Algae (Lobith) x

‐ Daphnids (two cells: left & right)(Lobith) x

Organic substances: x

‐ Purge & Trap (Lobith & Bimmen) x

‐ SPE‐GC/MS (Lobith & Bimmen) x

‐ LC‐MS/MS (Lobith & Bimmen) x

Radioactive substances (Lobith) x

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2.10.3. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution The Supersite hosting institution is not yet decided upon as it still has to be discussed among the Supersite Association. However, as it is a critical service for the hosting institution is to provide (field) access to the RMD Supersite for visiting researchers, it needs to be an institution that can guarantee for, and in practice facilitate that access. Supersite Association under the coordination of the Hosting Institution The Supersite association already involves Rijkswaterstaat and Deltares. These parties would like to see also engagement of other Dutch users and stakeholders. Thus the association can grow into DANUBIUS-NL. DANUBIUS-NL also wants to connect to, and closely cooperate with the German Rhine Supersite Association (BaW, BfG and possibly also RWTH/University of Aachen?).

2.10.5. Existing and potential Facilities

2.10.5.1. Existing facilities Note: it still has to be discussed and agreed upon which of the hereafter indicated facilities make sense to be used and if they can actually be made accessible (and under what conditions) to the DANUBIUS-RI user community for facilitating their R&I at the RMD Supersite.

Rijkswaterstaat (RWS):

• Large facilities: o Research vessels (Rijksrederij, aprox. 100 vessels, different types, a.o. used to facilitate water and sediment research: https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water/waterbeheer/beheer-en-ontwikkeling- rijkswateren/rijksrederij/index.asp) o Aqualarm: continuous water quality monitoring fed by data measured by Rijkswaterstaat and the German LANUV (https://www.lanuv.nrw.de/ ). Rhine: Lobith-Bimmen (border Germany – The Netherlands) https://www.aqualarm.nl/LOBITH.HTML Meuse: Eijsden (border Belgium – The Netherlands) https://www.aqualarm.nl/eijsden.html o PM: what more? • Data: o Water quality data are publicly available via the ‘waterkwaliteitsportaal’ (water quality portal). This includes data for national as well as regional waters. Not all data are provided by RWS to this portal Biology: https://www.waterkwaliteitsportaal.nl/Beheer/Data/Limno

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Chemistry: https://www.waterkwaliteitsportaal.nl/Beheer/Data/Bulkdata o Other RWS data sources: http://waterinfo.rws.nl/#!/nav/expert/ https://waterberichtgeving.rws.nl/water-en-weer/actuele-overzichten-watersystemen https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water o Marine data: https://www.noordzeeloket.nl/beleid/europese/nationaal-niveau/monitoring-ihm/ https://www.informatiehuismarien.nl/ • Protocols/procedures for sampling and maintenance of sampling equipment: RWS developed several protocols/procedures which have to be followed by RWS employees as well as externals and cover three categories: biology, chemistry, hydrography, hydrology en meteorology. All protocols are publicly available (in Dutch) at: https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/water/waterdata-en-waterberichtgeving/metingen/meten-bij- rijkswaterstaat/rijkswaterstaat-standaard-voorschriften.aspx • Lab-facilities: RWS laboratory Lelystad https://www.facebook.com/Rijkswaterstaat/posts/1364128050280845 Deltares:

• Large facilities: o iD-Lab https://www.deltares.nl/en/facilities/idlab-integrated-service-facility/ o Other experimental facilities https://www.deltares.nl/en/facilities/ • NHI: The Netherlands Hydrological Instrument: An operational, multi-scale, multi-model system for consensus-based, integrated water management and policy analysis. NHI is based on the best available data and state-of-the-art technology and developed through collaboration between national research institutes. The NHI consists of various physical models at appropriate temporal and spatial scales for all parts of the water system. Intelligent connectors provide transfer between different scales and fast computation, by coupling model codes at a deep level in software. A workflow and version management system guarantees consistency in the data, software, computations and results. The NHI is freely available to hydrologists via an open web interface that enables exchange of all data and tools (De Lange et al., 2014). http://www.nhi.nu/nl/index.php/en/ • Data (including links to other data sources): http://dataportal.deltares.nl/geonetwork/srv/eng/catalog.search#/home Models: https://www.deltares.nl/en/software-solutions/

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• Lab-facilities: biogeochemical: https://www.deltares.nl/en/facilities/7333/ physical: https://www.deltares.nl/en/facilities/physical-laboratory/ Others:

Complementary facilities for the Netherlands at other Dutch (or European) institutions (to be completed):

• Large facilities: o Facilities that we can use from other RIs in which there is NL engagement: ICOS: Integrated Carbon Observation System (several NL partners, lead contacts VU and WUR): https://www.icos-ri.eu/ Euro-Argo: European contribution to the Argo (temperature/salinity profiling floats) programme (KNMI is partner): http://www.euro-argo.eu/ PM: other relevant RIs to be added o PM • Data: o DONAR (Historical water measurement data), now migrated to https://waterinfo.rws.nl/ . The monitoring programme (MWTL) collects physical, chemical, biological and morphological measurement data for water.: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and- maps/data/external/donar-historical-water-measurement-data o National geo-register: the site for geo-information for the wole of the Netherlands, contains 11322 datasets, services en maps: http://www.nationaalgeoregister.nl/geonetwork/srv/dut/catalog.search#/home o PM • Socio-economic models & data: o Statistics Netherlands (CBS): https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb o PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency: http://www.pbl.nl/en/topics/models- and-data/models o OECD: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=REGION_DEMOGR o Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (GEF TWAP): http://www.geftwap.org/ o EUROSTAT: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat o World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator o PM • Facilities and expertise of Dutch universities • Models: PM • Lab-facilities: PM

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2.10.5.2. Existing expertise The national expertise in the Netherlands regarding river-sea systems related R&I merges in several R&I alliances and R&I programs:

R&I alliances:

• NCR: Netherlands Centre for River Studies This is the leading cooperative alliance between all major Dutch institutes for river studies. We integrate knowledge, facilitate discussion and promote excellent science. By linking the strongest expertise of its partners, NCR forms a true centre of excellence in river studies. The disciplines within NCR are contributed by its partners and include not in particular order: Hydrodynamics and Morphodynamics; Geomorphology and sedimentology; River ecology and water quality; River governance, serious gaming and spatial planning. https://ncr-web.org/about-ncr/ • NCK: Netherlands Centre for Coastal Research This is a cooperative network of private, governmental and independent research institutes and universities, all working in the field of coastal research. The NCK links the strongest expertise of its partners, forming a true centre of excellence in coastal research in The Netherlands. The NCK covers the following research themes: Seabed and Shelf; Beach Barrier Coasts; Tidal Inlets and Estuaries; Sand and Mud; Hydrodynamics; Bio-geomorphology; Coastal Zone Management. http://www.nck-web.org/ • NWP: Netherlands Water Partnership This is the gateway to the Dutch Water Sector. Companies, NGOs, Knowledge Institutes and Government who have joined forces in this public-private partnership. From water purification to spatial planning, from governance to land reclamation, from small scale solutions to mega structures, the partnership has the expertise. The members of the partnership work together to offer sustainable, multifunctional water solutions for people, planet and profit worldwide http://www.watergovernancecentre.nl/over-ons/?lang=en • Delta Alliance: This is an international knowledge-driven network organisation with the mission of improving the resilience of the world’s deltas. With increasing pressure from population growth, industrialization and a changing climate, it is more important than ever that these valuable and vulnerable locations increase their resilience to changing conditions. The Delta Alliance, with 18 network wings from 15 countries brings people together who live and work in deltas. The Delta Alliance provides a platform where they can share their knowledge and benefit from each other’s experience and expertise and as such contribute to an increased resilience of their delta region. http://www.delta-alliance.org/ 241

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• SedNet: the European Sediment Network SedNet is a European network aimed at incorporating sediment issues and knowledge into European strategies to support the achievement of a good environmental status and to develop new tools for sediment management. Our focus is on all sediment quality and quantity issues on a river basin scale, ranging from freshwater to estuarine and marine sediments. SedNet brings together experts from science, administration and industry. It interacts with the various networks in Europe that operate at a national or international level or that focus on specific fields (such as science, policy making, sediment management, industry, education). http://sednet.org/ • UNEP Centre of excellence of adaptation This joint initiative of the Netherlands, Japan and UN Environment aims to help countries, institutions and businesses to adapt to a warming climate, which is increasing the frequency of natural disasters and causing economic disruptions. The Centre will bring together international partners, including leading knowledge institutes, businesses, NGOs, local and national governments, international organizations and financial institutions. http://web.unep.org/newscentre/netherlands-host-global-centre-excellence-climate-adaptation • PM: any missing, relevant R&I alliance? R&I programs: • NKWK: National Water and Climate Knowledge and Innovation Programme NKWK elaborates on the knowledge issues identified in the Delta Programme35. There are several NKWK research tracks with possible links to DANUBIUS-RI, such as ‘Rivers’ (where DANUBIUS-RI is already mentioned)36 and ‘Coastal Genesis 2.0’37. https://waterenklimaat.nl/about-nkwk/?lang=en • RiverCare: towards self-sustaining multifunctional rivers Rivercare is a research program in which the NCR (see above) partners with several other public and private parties collaborate to monitor the consequences of measures which are now constructed in the Room for the River38 and the Delta Program39.The monitoring data will be used to improve the fundamental understanding of the behavior of rivers, map the consequences of the measures for hydraulics, morphology and ecology and to improve the current models. The data, knowledge and models will be used to improve the design and maintenance of measures and cut costs of river management. http://www.stw.nl/nl/programmas/rivercare-towards-self-sustaining-multifunctional-rivers • PM: To be completed

35 See : https://www.government.nl/topics/delta‐programme/introduction‐to‐the‐delta‐programme 36 See: https://waterenklimaat.nl/research‐tracks/rivers/?lang=en 37 See: https://waterenklimaat.nl/research‐tracks/coastal‐genesis/?lang=en 38 See: https://www.ruimtevoorderivier.nl/english/ 39 See: https://www.deltacommissaris.nl/deltaprogramma 242

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2.10.5.3. Plans for further development DANUBIUS-RI is not included in the 2016 ‘National Roadmap Large-Scale Scientific Infrastructure’40. However, the Netherlands minister of Economic Affairs at 17 January 2017 send a letter41 to the House of Representatives recommending investments in large-scale research infrastructure at institutions for applied research (TO2 institutes).The letter contains an inventory and assessment of investment proposals by the TO2 institutes. The assessment criteria were: 1) importance for society and entrepreneurs, 2) relevance for the Netherlands, 3) investment needs and foreseen funders, and 4) relevance of the research and attractiveness for researchers. DANUBIUS-RI received the (highest) A-label. However, this A-label is not yet a guarantee that DANUBIUS-RI will receive funding. When funding will become available for the TO2-facilities, there will be a new call to further detail the proposal and include a clear business case. It is anticipated that the growing DANUBIUS-NL community will also engage Dutch universities. Once these universities are engaged in this community, it will be discussed if and how DANUBIUS- NL may apply for inclusion in a future update of the ‘National Roadmap Large-Scale Scientific Infrastructure’. PM: This section will have to be further developed in close cooperation with the other DANUBIUS- RI Supersite’s as it first needs to be agreed upon what the unique R&I topics for each single Supersite will be. The unique R&I topic will also guide the plans for new equipment & facilities. Furthermore, there will be parameters that we will monitor and analyze at each DANUBIUS-RI Supersite according to the (under development) DANUBIUS-RI commons. These parameters are not yet decided upon, so it is also not yet possible to decide if investment in new equipment and facilities are needed to fulfil this obligation at the RMD Supersite.

2.10.6. Users and Stakeholders Local community of users The anticipated local scientifc community of users of the RMD Supersite and other DANUBIUS-RI facilities are:

• Scientist from Dutch universities and knowledge institutes engaged in river-sea system related R&I. Most of them engage in NCR and/or NCK (see previous section)

40 See: https://www.dtls.nl/wp‐content/uploads/2016/12/Roadmap_UK_2016_2020_lowres.pdf 41 See: https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/kamerstukken/2017/01/17/strategische‐agenda‐onderzoeksfaciliteiten‐to2‐ instellingen 243

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Local / regional stakeholders (Institutes, authorities, commissions or other initiatives that are active in the region) The anticipated local/regional stakeholders community of users of the RMD Supersite and other DANUBIUS-RI facilities are (in random order):

• CHR: International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin. The CHR is an organization in which the scientific institutes of the Rhine riparian states develop joint hydrological measures for sustainable development of the Rhine basin. CHR's mission and tasks: I) Expansion of the knowledge of the hydrology in the Rhine basin through: joint research; exchange of data, methods and information; development of standardized procedures; publications in the CHR series. II) Making a contribution to the solution of cross-border problems through the formulation, management and provision of: information systems, e.g. GIS for hydrological practice; Models, e.g. models for water management and a Rhine Alarm model; Research for practice. http://www.chr-khr.org/ • ICPR: International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine https://www.iksr.org/en/rhine/ • IMC: International Meuse Commission http://www.meuse-maas.be/Accueil.aspx • Min IenW : Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management (see section 1.1.3). https://www.government.nl/ministries/ministry-of-infrastructure-and-water-management • RWS: Rijkswaterstaat, is the executive agency of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, responsible for the Dutch main road network, the main waterway network, the main water systems, and the environment in which they are embedded. Rijkswaterstaat facilitates smooth and safe flow of traffic, keeps the national water system safe, clean, user- friendly and protects the Netherlands against flooding.. https://www.government.nl/ministries/ministry-of-infrastructure-and-water- management/organisation https://www.rijkswaterstaat.nl/english/index.aspx • PIANC: The World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure PIANC is the forum where professionals around the world join forces to provide expert advice on cost-effective, reliable and sustainable infrastructures to facilitate the growth of waterborne transport. Established in 1885, PIANC continues to be the leading partner for government and private sector in the design, development and maintenance of ports, waterways and coastal areas. As a non-political and non-profit organisation, PIANC brings together the best international experts on technical, economic and environmental issues pertaining to waterborne transport infrastructures. Members include national governments and public authorities, corporations and interested individuals. http://www.pianc.org/

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• Schuttevaer: Dutch Organization for Inland Shipping https://www.schuttevaer.nl/ • Rotterdam Port Authority https://www.portofrotterdam.com/en • Inland port authorities https://havens.binnenvaart.nl/ • Dutch water boards https://www.uvw.nl/ • Gravel and Sand Mining companies http://www.cascade-zandgrind.nl/ • Environmental NGO’s, like World Wildlife Fund, Staatsbosbeheer, Nature conservation organizations • Dredging companies http://www.waterbouwers.nl/leden • High-end consultancy firms like RoyalHaskoning DHV, Arcadis, HKV http://www.nlingenieurs.nl/ • PM: to be completed

2.10.7. Timeline for each Supersite to become operational It is expected that the Supersite will become operational once the ERIC DANUBIUS-RI will become operational, so ca. 2022.

2.10.8. Funding (construction and maintenance) PM: to be further discussed and agreed upon by the Supersite Association.

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2.11. Tay Catchment (United Kingdom)

2.11.1. Introduction

Within the UK there is a widely recognised need for a better mechanistic understanding of the linkages between freshwater and marine systems and associated transitional environments. This view is driven by the socio-economic value of these environments and their vulnerability to environmental change including the impacts of drought and flooding: a view shared with scientists across Europe and internationally. The proposed Tay Catchment Supersite also provides the opportunity of examining the export and availability of carbon in the context of global biogeochemical cycling as it drains an internationally important upland peatland environment, includes two major Scottish Cities (Perth is impacted by extreme events such as flooding) and drains into the North Sea, complementing the Elbe and Rhine supersite. The Tay therefore provides an important Northern Temperate Catchment supersite with an Oceanic Climate within the array of DANIBIUS-RI Supersites.

In association with the Tay Catchment we also propose Loch Leven as a separate supersite (or lake observatory) . Loch Leven’s morphology and east coast location lend itself to the validation of satellite derived water quality products for a range of state-of-the-art satellites including ESA Sentinel-2 and -3 as well as NASA’s Landsat series, in addition to archived data from the Envisat MERIS platform. The wealth of archived and ongoing data acquisition, coupled with our bio-optical characterisation of Leven’s waters, has made a critical contribution to both algorithm development and validation work. For this reason, Loch Leven will provide a critical asset to the Observation node in addition to providing a relatively safe training environment for capacity building activities.

2.11.1.1. Introduction to the Tay Catchment

The River Tay catchment covers an area greater than 5000 km2 and is the largest UK river by water volume discharge. Its catchment in Scotland stretches 193 km from the northern slopes of Ben Lui to the Firth of Tay. It is drained by a total of 180 rivers and 27 lakes, among the largest of which are the Rivers Tay, Tummel, Garry and Isla, and lochs Ericht, Lyon, Rannoch, Tay, and Tummel (Figure 2.11.1). The Tay catchment delivers more freshwater to the sea than the River Thames and Severn combined (Ferrier, 2008). The majority of rivers rise in the north-western mountainous plateau of the Grampian Highlands, an important upland peatland landscape and an important carbon store at the national and European level. The uplands are also dominated by heather moorland and used predominately for sheep grazing, grouse and deer game estates. Woodland and plantation forestry extend over 15% of the middle reaches of the catchment. The most fertile land is centred in the broad flat plains of the south-east, where there are large areas of intensive arable farming and built development (Figure 2.11.2). The Tay flows south east across the Highland Boundary Fault to the East Central Lowlands. The geology of the catchment is generally split by the Highland boundary fault and dictates land use and capability for agriculture. The catchment population, although spread throughout the area, is concentrated in the south-east lowlands which is home to the cities of Perth and Dundee. In terms or water resources, the Tay’s lakes and rivers are used for a number of functions including drinking water, aquaculture, farming, recreation and fishing. Several of the lakes occur in series and

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are home to hydro-electric power generation schemes, the largest being Loch Dochart, Loch Lubhair and the 23km long Loch Tay. These hydro-electric schemes also play a major part in flow regulation, as the area around Perth is flood prone with over 1,300 residential and 270 non-residential properties vulnerable to flooding. A significant proportion of waterbodies (approximately 26%) in the Tay catchment are impacted by abstraction, diffuse source pollution, flow regulation, morphological alterations and point source pollutant pressures. Diffuse pollution is a particular issue in the southern populated reaches where river, lakes and groundwaters have recently been degraded by a range of diffuse pollutants (SEPA, 2012b).

Figure 2.11.1 Waterbodies contained within the River Tay catchment.

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Figure 2.11.2. Land use coverage of Tay River catchment.

In order to tackle specific pressures, the Tay catchment has been designated as a special “Operational Area” by the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) to focus resources and effectively manage diffuse pollution activities. The region is also heavily designated and comprises a number of protected areas, including Drinking Water Protection Areas, Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) covering mountainous vegetation, the Forest of Clunie in the east, and Rannoch Moor in the west, which contains the most extensive area of western blanket and valley mire in Britain. The south-eastern fertile region of the catchment is designated under the Nitrates Directive as a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone for surface and groundwater. Furthermore, the NERC LOCATE (Land Ocean Carbon Transfer) programme also focuses on the Tay catchment as a targeted study site (Figure 2.11.3). This is a 5- year research project in collaboration with the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH) that aims to quantify the fate of terrigeneous organic matter from land to the ocean, with particular focus on estuaries and coastal waters (www.locate.ac.uk).

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Figure 2.11.3. LOCATE sample locations in Scotland.

2.11.1.2. Introduction to the Loch Leven Observatory Supersite

Loch Leven is the largest, nutrient-rich, lowland lake in Scotland and is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), National Nature Reserve (NNR), Special Protected Area (SPA) and Ramsar site. The lake is situated approximately 25 km from the Tay and Forth estuaries and positioned centrally between 5 major cities. It has a surface area of 13.7 km2, a mean depth of 3.9m, a maximum depth of 25.5m, and is surrounded by a catchment area of about 145 km2. Catchment land use consists mainly of arable crops (38.6%) and improved pasture (31.5%), but also upland moor (11.6%), coniferous woodland (3.8%), heathland (3.5%), rough grazing (3.5%), suburban/rural development (2.2%) and the rest - deciduous woodland, bog, bare ground, inland water - (5.3%). The highest part of the catchment is at 497m. The lake is a world famous trout fishery and an internationally important nature reserve that attracts the largest concentration of breeding ducks in the UK and provides an autumn and winter refuge for thousands of migratory ducks, geese and swans. It is also a site of cultural significance that attracts more than 200,000 visitors each year for recreation and tourism.

Loch Leven holds significant scientific importance with over 50 years of consistent physical and biogeochemical monitoring (by the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) to support long-term environmental studies. It is also the location of a new Leven Remote Sensing Observatory designed specifically for the calibration and validation of satellite generated products and is currently supporting NERC GloboLakes, H2020 EOMORES and MONOCLE projects. Instrumentation planned through several academic research projects include the deployment of a Cimel (sun-sky-lunar

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spectral photometer) from NERC Field Spectroscopy Facility, and a static optical radiometer to support algorithm calibration and validation for atmospheric correction and model development.

Figure 2.11.4. River Leven catchment showing Loch Leven. Colours indicate water body overall status for 2016.

2.11.2. Challenges and scientific questions the Supersite will address

 Evolution of the Supersite in relation to land use and anthropogenic changes  Sedimentation dynamics from the substantial drainage in the Supersite catchment and impacts within the transitional and coastal environments  Availability of carbon for global biogeochemical cycling. Phytoplankton phenology and eutrophication dynamics  Managing extreme events (Flood and drought) Implications for land management and mitigation measures  Assessing impact of industrial development in the Tay Estuary and developing appropriate mitigation strategies to support economic and social development

2.11.3. Vision

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The vision for the proposed River Tay Supersite is to provide the scientific guidance and institutional collaboration that is required for world-class science and sustainable management of the land-sea transitional system. This will provide data at relevant and useful temporal and spatial resolutions for effective calibration and validation of satellite derived products and to understand the detail of the mechanistic interactions of the catchment with the marine environment and the resulting consequences of environmental change drivers. The Tay Supersite will cover a region of the UK relatively un-impacted by the population in the catchment, whilst experiencing intensive agriculture in parts of the catchment resulting in rivers (and Loch Leven) being characterized as moderate or poor ecological status. Of critical importance to the Tay supersite is the Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) rich waters and may represent trends experienced in Boreal waters. The Green House Gas fluxes from the Tay are likely to be important in addition to understanding how climate is impact DOC flux. This will provide an excellent contrast to the heavily industrialised UK Thames Supersite.

2.11.3.1. Table of parameters Station Forth Tay Estuary Tay River Loch Leven Loch Tay Estuary Measured and analysed parameters

Water discharge X X X X X

Water level (including tidal range) X X X X X

Waves and currents (coastal stations) O O O O O

Water flow characterisation O O O O O

Temperature X X X X X

Conductivity/

Salinity X X X X X

pH (can also be done continuously) X X X X X

Chlorophyll a X X X X X

Turbidity X X X X X

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, X X X X X TP, SRP Carbon (TOC, DOC) X X X X X

Dissolved oxygen X X X X X

Bathymetry X X X X X

Total suspended matter X X X X X

Sediment discharge: suspended and bed load O O O O O

Grain size distribution of sedimnets: suspended and bedload O O O O O

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Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita X X X X X

bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea O O O O O

Geodynamics (subsidence) O O O O O

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, X X X X X U, V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants X X X X X

Emerging pollutants X X X X X

Oxygen fluxes X X X X X

CO2 system characterisation X X X X X

Stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer X X X X X

Radiogenic isotopes for sediment X X X X X dating Mineralogy X X X X X

Ecotoxicology X X X X X

Benthic chambers for fluxes X X X X X

Macro characterization of X X X X X ecosystems Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, X X X X X sediment, water, hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic (Nekton, Plankton, Benthos) Microbiology X X X X X

Ecosystem Functioning (production, X X X X X respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity redundancy))

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Dynamics of the beach area 0 0 0 0 0 (shoreline position and transverse profiles)

Type of measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) X X X X X

In situ X X X X X

Online X X X X X

Offline X X X X X

In situ sampling X X X X X

Indirect X X X X X

Lab analysis X X X X X

Ecosystem investigations X X X X X

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No N N Y N N

Focussed on: Algae,

cyanobacteria

Type of mesocosm: lentic, lotic, transportable etc.

Lake

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Equipped for the measurements of Phytoplankton the following parameter pigments (Chla, phycocyanin (mg m‐3)),

Suspended matter (SPM (g m‐3), turbidity (TU)),

Dissolved matter (CDOM (m‐1)),

Primary productivity,

Fluorescence (FU),

Remote sensing reflectance parameters (R, Rrs (sr‐1), nLw (mW cm‐2 nm sr‐1)),

Diffuse attenuation (Kd

(m‐1)).

Periodicity

Continuous

Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous

Dedicated surveys X X X X X

Periodically (monthly/Seasonally) MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY MONTHLY

Event driven X X X X X

Matrices

Water X X X X X

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air X X X X X

Sediments O O O O O

Total suspended solids X X X X X

Biota (specify organism type)

Birds, Mammals, Birds, Mammals, Birds, Mammals, Birds, Mammals, Fish, Fish, Fish, Fish, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Birds, Mammals, Fish, Zooplankton, Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, Zoobenthos, Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, Zoobenthos, Insects, aquatic Insects, aquatic Zoobenthos, Insects, Insects, aquatic Insects, aquatic plants, plants, aquatic plants, plants, plants, phytoplankton phytoplankton phytoplankton phytoplankton phytoplankton

Gases

X X X X X

Environmental parameters of interest for WFD water body classification are currently routinely collected in the River Tay Supersite by SEPA (https://www.sepa.org.uk/environment/water/aquatic- classification). These data are supplemented by hydrology measurements such as river flow and water level collected by CEH. Furthermore, a host of biogeochemical parameters relevant for water quality assessment from space will be collected for the supersite by the host organisation University of Stirling. These include concentrations of chlorophyll-a and total suspended matter (mg/l), measurements of coloured dissolved organic matter (m-1) and apparent optical properties based on water-leaving reflectance (dl). A summary of proposed parameters are shown in Table 2.11.1.

Type of data Example parameters

In situ data: Phytoplankton pigments (Chla, phycocyanin (mg m-3)), Water sample analyses Suspended matter (SPM (g m-3), turbidity (TU)), Dissolved matter (CDOM (m-1)),

Primary productivity,

Fluorescence (FU)

In situ data: Remote sensing reflectance parameters (R, Rrs (sr-1), nLw (mW cm-2 nm sr- Radiometry 1)), (AOPs)

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Diffuse attenuation (Kd (m-1)).

In situ data: IOPs Absorption coefficient, a (m-1),

Attenuation coeffcieint, c (m-1),

Backscattering coefficient, bb (m-1),

Phytoplankton absorption, aph (m-1)

Satellite data Rrs,

Water quality parameters (Chla, CDOM, SPM, turbidity),

Optical water types based on R,

Validation parameters such as Aerosol Optical Thickness.

2.11.4. Supersite Organisation

The complexity of the supersite including the Tay Catchment and Loch Leven purposes necessitates the joint hosting of the Supersite between the University of Stirling and the Centre of Ecology and Hydrology.

The consortium will include:  University of Stirling (Tay Catchment Lead and EO sensor development and deployment on Loch Leven)  Centre of Ecology and Hydrology (Loch Leven lead and co-lead for the Tay Catchment)  Scottish Environment Protection Agency (Environment Regulator)  Scottish Natural Heritage  Scottish Water (Water Industry)  UK Government: Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy  Scottish Government  Local Authorities and Councils  Tay Estuary Forum

Additional contributions from the Universities of Dundee, St Andrews and Glasgow and the James Hutton Institute.

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2.11.5. Facilities

This supersite benefits from ongoing data collection by CEH, SEPA and University of Stirling. Defined as a priority catchment by SEPA, the site also benefits from targeted regulatory sampling for improved diffuse pollution management.

Plans for New Facilities

Its proximity to the Supersite and its size and spherical surface area make Loch Leven an excellent test-bed for satellite calibration and validation exercises. Consequently, it is the location of a new Leven Remote Sensing Observatory designed specifically for the calibration and validation of satellite generated products. Instrumentation planned through several academic research projects include;  Cimel automatic tracking sun photometer: Ship-based measurements using Microtops sunphotometer have been carried out during 2013-2017 but coverage of a wide range of atmospheric conditions is often limited (e.g. ship availability and weather conditions). Moreover, measurements from small boats can be subject to large uncertainties. Measurements from Cimel CE 318-2 automatic tracking sun photometer over Loch Leven will be used to build a match up database with current ESA and NASA EO missions. The database will be used for climate change and atmospheric radiation budget modeling, satellite validation studies, global and regional aerosol transport modeling, atmospheric correction and water color observations. This will form part of AERONET (Aerosol Robot network)  Freshwater monitoring stations will also be implemented to capture the water quality of the freshwater input into the transitional environment of the Tay and North Sea;  Fixed position radiometers: Static, standalone optical radiometer will be deployed on a lake buoy for acquisition of high frequency in-situ radiometric and water constituent data. Thsese data will be also used for algorithm calibration and validation.

2.11.6. Users and Stakeholders  See list in 2.11.4

2.11.7. Supersite operational timeline

2018

 UK and Scottish Government Support for Scottish Environment Centre (including link with the Tay Catchment)  Business Case Developed for the Scottish Environment Centre  2018-2019 UK NERC (JCAG priority funds) support for the development of template Observation Node Supersite (Tay along with Thames) and Observatories (e.g. Tamar and Western Observatory) requirements. Consortium development with the Centre of Ecology and Hydrology and other stakeholders. 257

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 USTIR investment in new bio-optical equipment for cal/val activities.

2019

 Business Case for Scottish Environment Centre and plans developed  2019-2020 Implementation of NERC JCAG instrumentation for the UK supersites and observatories  Dissemination of the Observatory Template

2020+

 Building of the Scottish Environment Centre  Development and implementation of the Observation Node Instrumentation Template within DANUBIUS-RI Supersites  Appointment of staff for management, coordination and technical support of the research, capacity building, operationalisation activity and data produced by the Tay Suprsite.

2.11.8. Financial Sustainability

The Centre of Ecology and Hydrology has funded the Loch Leven lake observatory, which include the continuation of the 50 year time series of fortnightly visits for water quality and plankton sampling.

The University of Stirling has been leading the following initiatives which support supersite development:

i. Discussions with the Natural Environment Research Council of the Joint Capital Advisory Group (JCAG) with the in the cost of instrumentation for the Supersites, estimate £2 million over three years. ii. The development of the Scottish Environment Centre. This is part of an ambitious City Deal Development that would fund state of the art energy plus buildings and infrastructure. Funding is between UK Treasury Westminster, Scottish Governments, the University of Stirling and Forth Valley College. This introduces the possibility of also including the Forth Catchment as a third Supersite (see Annex A). A decision on this development is estimated for Spring 2018.

More information can be provided in confidence.

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2.12. Thames Estuary (United Kingdom)

2.12.1. Introduction to the Supersite The Thames Estuary in southern England is a large inlet where the second longest river in Britain, the River Thames, discharges to the sea. In this macrotidal estuary (mean spring tidal range of 5.2- 6.6m) physical, biological and chemical processes are largely driven by the mixing of waters from the River Thames with the North Sea in addition to some local direct contributions. Thus, a robust understanding of this estuarine supersite is critically dependant on the integration of observations of the estuary and its major freshwater inputs. The River Thames, representing the largest contribution to the estuary, flows from the largely rural Cotswold Hills, passing major towns and cities (including Swindon, Oxford, Reading and Slough) along most of its length, before flowing through the centre of London, which has developed around the Thames estuary (Figure 2.12.1). Where the estuary discharges into the North Sea it potentially mixes with plumes from other DANUBIUS Supersites on the Elbe and Rhine-Meuse. The Thames basin is 13,000 km2, and the river is 345 km long (Marsh and Hannaford, 2008). The basin contains approximately 13 million people, which is approximately one fifth of the UK population, and population densities (and the environmental pressures they exert) are extremely high, particularly in the middle and lower reaches of the river and its estuary.

The underlying geology of the Thames basin is predominantly chalk, with Oolitic limestone in the upper reaches. Most of the rivers within the basin are therefore groundwater dominated, with many rivers having base flow index values of >0.7 (Marsh and Hannaford, 2008), with residence times in some aquifers of 60 years. The high porosity of the catchment has resulted in the groundwaters (and subsequently surface waters) being highly polluted by nitrate pollution from manure and fertiliser use over the 20th century.

The region has been a focus for rapid population growth and industrialisation for over 200 years, with London being one of the main centres of the industrial revolution through the late 18th and 19th centuries. The growth of London resulted in the estuarine section of the River Thames becoming effectively an open sewer in the early 19th century, which had major human health consequences, such as cholera outbreaks. The building of a comprehensive sewerage system in the 1850s intercepted London’s wastes and diverted them into eastern section of the estuary.

The River Thames is one of the UK’s most monitored and studied river catchments. Due to its importance as a source of drinking water for London, the lower River Thames has been continuously monitored for nitrate concentration stretching back to 1868; perhaps the longest continuous water quality record in the world (Howden et al., 2010). The corresponding phosphorus record for the River Thames goes back to 1936 (Haygarth et al., 2014; Powers et al., 2016). Environment Agency regulatory monitoring of phosphorus concentrations in the River Thames

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since the 1970s has been used to identify the major improvements in water quality due in part to the introduction of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (Kinniburgh et al., 1997).

Phosphorus and nitrogen sources and dynamics in the River Thames (Neal et al., 2000b; Neal et al., 2010) and its tributaries (Neal et al., 2000a; Jarvie et al., 2002b; Neal et al., 2004; Jarvie et al., 2006; Neal et al., 2006; Bowes et al., 2012b), and how nutrients interact with river ecology (Williams et al., 2000; House et al., 2001; Jarvie et al., 2002a) have been intensively studied in recent decades.

The water quality and ecology of the River Thames and its tributaries has greatly improved since the late 1990s (Bowes et al., 2014). However, further improvements are necessary to comply with the Water Framework Directive, and improvements to wastewater infrastructure and schemes to support low flows in the Thames are being planned.

Figure 2.12.1. Topographical map of the River Thames basin. Inset map: Position of basin within Britain.

Southern England has a typical maritime climate (Koppen classification), typified by cool summers and winters and precipitation dispersed throughout the year. The average annual river discharge at the tidal limit is 78m3/s, with a Q10 of 172 and Q95 of 16.7 m3/s. The middle and lower sections of the River Thames suffer from regular flooding in winter, but the Thames and its tributaries can also 260

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experience summer droughts, particularly in its ephemeral headwaters. The average annual rainfall across the catchment is 700 (in and around the lower Thames and estuary) to 900 mm/y in the Cotswold Hills in the west of the basin (Marsh and Hannaford, 2008), which is relatively low for the UK, and results in difficulties in supplying water to the high population in the basin. This situation is expected to worsen under future climate change scenarios, with more winter flooding and summer droughts being predicted (Johnson et al., 2009). The majority of the freshwater River Thames is navigable to small boat traffic through a series of locks and weirs, and there is also a network of canals link the lower Thames and its larger tributaries to other drainage basins in southern England. This causes problems associated with algal blooms and transfer of invasive species between catchments.

Despite the high population density of the lower Thames and estuary, the middle and upper basin is relatively rural by UK standards, with some tributaries catchments being relatively unimpacted by population pressures. Catchment land use (upstream of London) is 40 % arable (mainly wheat, barley, oilseed rape, and maize), 34% grassland (sheep, cows, pigs), 13% woodland and 10% urban / semi-urban (Fuller et al., 2002).

The river – sea system faces major anthropogenic impacts along the entire length of the river continuum. The headwaters face regular droughts and the impacts of intensive agriculture. Due to the high population density and aging wastewater infrastructure, there are over 350 sewage treatment works discharging into the drainage network at regular intervals, particularly in the middle and lower reaches of the Thames and within London. Therefore the river and estuary face major nutrient enrichment and problems associated with eutrophication. Most of the River Thames and its major tributaries have had their flows controlled by weirs and lock systems since the Industrial Revolution, and many are also interlinked by canals. This has resulted in reduced flow velocities and longer water residence times. This (alongside the phosphorus and nitrogen pollution from sewage and agricultural groundwater pollution) leads to problems with algal blooms (Bowes et al., 2012a; Bowes et al., 2016).

The Thames Estuary has been greatly affected by regular inputs of raw sewage from a wide range of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) within London during storm events. New infrastructure (the Thames Tideway Tunnel) is currently being built to intercept these CSOs and divert them to one of London’s major sewage works for treatment. This will have a great impact on the water quality and ecology of the Thames estuary on its completion in 2023. DANUBIUS offers us a great opportunity to investigate the Tideway Tunnel’s impact. Other planned infrastructure projects to secure drinking water supplies to London’s population include a desalination plant (which will change salinity, tidal patterns and ecology of the estuary), new reservoirs in the mid-catchment (which could impact on algal blooms) and an inter-basin water transfer scheme (which could cause algal blooms and spread of invasive species).

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details are given in Section 1.3. Observations have recently increased to include monthly estuary sampling (nutrients and carbon) and these will be extended further into the estuary and London-based rivers under the DANUBIUS project, to provide information on the estuary itself and on the major direct inputs.

2.12.2. Challenges and Scientific questions addressed by the Thames Estuary supersite Environmental challenges Nutrient pollution throughout most of the river network, due to groundwater nitrate pollution and the inputs of sewage effluent from hundreds of sewage treatment works across the basin is perhaps the greatest environmental problem. This results in major algal blooms in the lower Thames and its larger tributaries in many years (Bowes et al., 2012a), which has major implications for the local Water Companies and for drinking water supply for London. These eutrophication problems are likely to get worse in the coming decades, due to rapid population growth and increasing water usage resulting in increasing sewage loadings and reduced dilution capacity. Climate change will further exacerbate the problem with hotter, drier summers causing more primary production and increasing dominance of cyanobacterial blooms.

Proposed infrastructure projects to deal with the problem of drinking water supply to London, such as reservoir building, inter-basin water transfers, wastewater re-use and desalination will all have potential impacts on the biogeochemistry of the entire river – sea system. DANUBIUS offers to provide the research platform to adequately capture changes on a decadal timespan, and will provide the system understanding required to best manage the basin to maintain water quality and drinking water supplies, whilst safeguarding the aquatic ecology.

Non-native invasive species are already having major impacts on the estuary and river system affecting native species, habitats and ecological status (e.g. Chinese Mitten crab; Eriocheir sinensis). Many of these invasive species are being introduced from the Port of London, and gradually spreading up the river network. These problems could become worse if the planned inter-catchment water transfers to the Thames basin go ahead. Danubius offers the opportunity to use extensive knowledge, management practises and monitoring data from across Europe to mitigate these effects.

The Thames Estuary supersite will continue to research newly-emerging contaminants (organic chemicals, nanoparticles, microplastics) (Horton et al., 2017; Johnson et al., 2017; Nakada et al., 2017) and their effects (antimicrobial resistance) (Lehmann et al., 2016). The use of common DANUBIUS methodologies for monitoring these emerging contaminants across the European supersites will greatly increase our understanding of pollution sources, fates, behaviour and impacts on the European scale.

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Specific questions  What is the best, most cost-effective means of achieving WFD good ecological status in the Thames water bodies?

 How are algal blooms generated / transported along the river –sea system? Ultimately, we aim to develop a full understanding of the multiple-stressor controls of algal blooms in the Thames, through the river network, estuary and into the North Sea. This will be possible by using the latest high-frequency chemical and biological monitoring techniques. We hope to develop remote sensing techniques (groundtruthed by manual observations) to extend our knowledge of river blooms, and extend it into the marine environment, and ultimately apply these techniques across the European Supersites.

 What impact does management of the Thames freshwater system have on the estuary and coastal waters? How will the improved water quality of the estuary due to the Thames Tideway Tunnel scheme, and the proposed wastewater reuse, desalination schemes, directly impact on ecology, chemistry and hydrology of the estuary? What will be the impact of future growth of London?

 How effective are the UK’s efforts to supply drinking water to London, in the face of ever growing population and water usage, and reducing water supply due to climate change? How do schemes such as inter-basin transfers / reservoir construction etc. compare with similar projects across the other Supersites? Can we develop “best practise” management by taking a Europe-wide view?

 What is the impact of non-native invasive species and aquatic ecology? How will their spread be controlled? How will they be affected by climate and land-use change?

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2.12.3. Vision The Centre for Ecology & Hydrology currently provide a Research Platform across the freshwater length of the River Thames and all of its major tributaries. Central to this are weekly observations of water quality and characterisation of plankton communities at multiple sites along the River Thames itself, from headwaters to the tidal limit in western London. All major tributaries entering the river are also be studied at weekly intervals. In addition, portable automated monitoring stations (Figure 2.12.2) provide hourly biogeochemical data at sites on the lower River Thames.

Figure 2.12.2. High frequency automated monitoring station on the Lower Thames, measuring phosphorus, nitrate, ammonium, pH, temperature, DO, conductivity, turbidity and chlorophyll at

hourly intervals.

Under DANUBIUS-RI, we envisage making weekly observations of the Thames estuary and the entirely-urbanised rivers within London that discharge to it directly as well as maintaining key elements of the existing freshwater observation platform (shown in red in Figure 2.12.3). We also hope to have new automated biogeochemical monitoring stations on the middle and lower Thames (just above the tidal limit), the estuary (bank-side stations and a network of sensors deployed from buoys), and some of the urban tributaries discharging into the estuary within London. These will ideally include phosphorus auto-analysers, nitrate sondes and probes to measure pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll. Phytoplankton communities will be characterised by flow cytometry and fluorescence. Monitoring from ships may be another option, using ferry boxes successfully used by other supersites. This would provide better understanding of the urban-environmental interface, and bring together freshwater and marine sciences using common methodologies, which is vital to develop in-depth understanding of these dynamic transitional zones.

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Fig. 2.12.3 Map of Thames basin, showing study sites in operation since 2009 (grey circles) and proposed within DANUBIUS-RI (red circles) We also envisage using the latest in-situ radiometry (Optics cage) to characterise the bio-geo-optical properties of the River - Sea system, which will enable satellite calibration and validation.

Proposed estuarine observation points under DANUBIUS (including important direct discharges to the estuary)

1) River Colne at Staines. Outskirts of west London. River linked to London drinking water reservoirs and the Grand Union Canal which flows through western London. The Colne joins the Thames just upstream of the tidal limit. Issues with invasive species from canal and reservoirs. Highly urbanised. 2) Thames Estuary, Central London. We aim to provide one or two bank-side high-frequency monitoring stations (pH, turbidity, DO, chlorophyll, water temperature, nitrate, phosphorus) within central London. Potential partners have been identified who may be able to provide secure sites and maintenance / sampling support to these automated stations. 3) Thames estuary, east of London. The eastern estuary will need to be monitored using a series of instrumented buoys, or potentially using ferry box approaches. Sites located to detect impacts of Thames Tideway sewage interception scheme and potential desalination scheme.

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Data to link to remote sensing data. These sites will rely on help and expertise from Plymouth Marine Laboratories and London-based partners. 4) River Wandle. An entirely-urbanised river within south London, which enters the estuary in central London. Potential for high-frequency monitoring station. This site will need to be run in collaboration with London-based partners. 5) River Brent. This is another completely urbanised river draining northwest London, and discharging directly into the estuary. Site of many remediation projects. Potential for high- frequency monitoring station. This site will need to be run in collaboration with London-based partners. 6) River Lee in East London. Major tributary discharging into the estuary. Site of major river restoration and pollution mitigation due to 2012 Olympics. Source of water for major drinking water reservoirs in east London. Also receives effluent from London’s largest sewage treatment works. This site will need to be run in collaboration with London-based partners. List of existing priority observation points providing inputs to the estuarine supersite via the River Thames

1) River Thames at Taplow. A high-frequency automated monitoring site on the lower (freshwater) River Thames. Fully operational since the start of 2018, this site is producing hourly pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, chlorophyll, soluble reactive- and total phosphorus, nitrate and ammonium concentrations. This probe data is baked up / groundtruthed by weekly manual samples analysed in the laboratory. The sampling station is located on the main River Thames channel, just before the river splits along a flood relief channel; the Jubilee River. The Jubilee River has no tributaries and does not receive sewage treatment plant effluents, which makes it very well suited to within-river sediment and nutrient dynamics experiments and to determine algal / bacterial growth rates. 2) Jubilee River at Eton. This site is located just before the Jubilee River re-joins the Thames. Another high-frequency monitoring site (similar to the Thames at Taplow site above). Used in conjunction with Taplow to measure river nutrient and sediment dynamics at hourly intervals. 3) River Thames at Runnymede. Located approximately 10 km upstream of the tidal limit. 4) River Thames at Kingston. The freshwater limit of the River Thames, just before the river flows over the final weir into the tidal / estuarine section. Currently only monitored monthly. Potential site for high-frequency automated monitoring under DANUBIUS. 5) River Thames at Wallingford. Middle reach of the River Thames, downstream of the city of Oxford.

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6) Lower River Cherwell. Sampled just above confluence with the River Thames at Oxford. The river has many inter-connections with the Cherwell Canal system, which runs alongside the river and connects to river catchments to the north of the Thames Basin. 7) Lower River Ray. A nutrient-enriched tributary of the Cherwell, joining just north of Oxford. 8) River Thame. A tributary that enters the River Thames approx. 10 km downstream of Oxford. It is a highly nutrient-enriched river with the major town of Aylesbury in its upper reaches. A clay catchment, and so a major source of sediment. 9) River Pang. A small rural river that is characteristic of many small tributaries to the River Thames. 10) The Cut. A largely artificial drainage channel that receives large amounts of treated sewage effluent from the towns of Maidenhead, Bracknell and Ascott. Very heavily enriched with nutrients. 11) River Kennet. The largest tributary of the Thames. Has been the focus of pollution mitigation over the last 10 – 20 years. Water quality has greatly improved, but there is an ongoing problem with excessive benthic algal biomass, possibly due to abstraction.

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2.12.3.1. Table of parameters Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

Measured and analysed parameters

Water discharge Y (15 minute interval Y (15 minute interval Y (15 minute interval

Water level (including tidal range) Y Y Y

Waves and currents (coastal stations) N/A ? ?

Temperature Y Y Y continuously

Conductivity/

Salinity Y Y Y continuously

pH Y Y Y continuously

Chlorophyll a Y Y Y continuously

Turbidity Y Y Y continuously

Nutrients: NO3, NO2, NH4, TDN, TN, TP, SRP Y Y Y continuously

Carbon (DOC) Y Y Y

Major anions (F, Cl, Br, SO4, NO3, NO2) Y Y Y

Dissolved oxygen No No Y continuously

Bathymetry Y Y Y

Total suspended matter Y Y Y

Suspended sediment load Y Y Y

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

Grain size distribution of sediments: suspended CEH have the facilities to measure this if and bedload required for specific project, but will not be No No No done routinely

Social and economic parameters: population density, age, sex, religion, nationalities distribution, level of education, employment/unemployment, list of employers (companies, etc), schools, hospital beds, GDP PPP per capita Y Y Y Available from government statistics

bottom shear stress etc to characterise hydromorphologic regime of river/sea No No No

Geodynamics (subsidence) No No No

Total content “dissolved < 0.45 µm” (and parts suspend matter): As, Pb, Cd, Cl, Cr, Fe, F, Hg, K, Ca, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, S, Sb, Se, Sn, Y Y Y Tl, U, V, Zn, Si, Sr Organic pollutants CEH have the facilities to measure this if required for specific project. Large Environment Agency data sets of organic No No No pollutants exist that are free to access

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

Emerging pollutants CEH have the facilities to measure organics, nanoparticles and microplastics if Y Y Y required for specific project.

Oxygen fluxes No No No

CO2 system characterisation No No No

Stable isotopes as source‐sink tracer No No No

Radiogenic isotopes for sediment dating No No No

Mineralogy No No No

Ecotoxicology Y Y Y Not carried out routinely, but can be done in support of specific project.

Benthic chambers for fluxes Y Y Y

Macro characterization of ecosystems y Y Y Invertebrate / plant / microbial DNA sequencing and river habitat surveys will be done twice per year.

Biota (epiphytic, soil, sub‐soil, sediment, water, Y Y Y Characterisation of aquatic invertebrates hard substrata) ‐ Characterization of (3 times per year) and planktonic bacteria, communities and habitat mapping (taxonomy, algae, cyanobacteria (weekly) at all river abundance/ biomass, structure diversity, spatial coverage): terrestrial‐ wetlands sites. (vertebrates and invertebrates) aquatic

(Nekton, Plankton, Benthos)

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

Some terrestrial habitats (especially wetlands) are also characterised but will usually be in response to a specific project.

Microbiology Y Y Y Weekly flow cytometry characterisation. Algal and bacterial DNA archive kept at weekly interval for subsequent sequencing.

Ecosystem Functioning (production, Y Y Y Hourly DO and pH dynamics used to respiration, fragmentation, structure (diversity calculate river metabolism and redundancy) photosynthesis / respiration rates. Production determined by chlorophyll / high frequency flow cytometry.

Dynamics of the beach area (shoreline position N0 N0 N0 and transverse profiles)

Type of measurements:

Remote (e.g., satellite based) Satellite based RO only applicable to estuarine section, due to narrow width of Y Y Y River Thames.

In situ Temperature logger Temperature logger Y In situ probes and nutrient analysers

Online Y Most data telemetered

Offline Y Y Y

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

In situ sampling Y Y Y Most sites will be sampled weekly

Lab analysis Y Y Y

Ecosystem investigations Y Y Y In‐river mesocosm and microcosm experiments. Studies before and after remediation measures.

Citizen Science Y Y Y There is a 6‐monthly P and N survey of over 700 sites across the Thames, organised by Wild Oxfordshire and Earth Watch. Rivers Trusts carry out invertebrate and fish surveys.

Proposed mesocosms

Yes/No Nutrient manipulations and impact on algae, bacteria, cyanobacteria, antimicrobial resistance genes, Y Y Y biodiversity.

Type of mesocosm: lentic, lotic, transportable etc.

Large transportable within‐river flume Lotic, Lentic and Lotic, Lentic and Lotic, Lentic and mesocosms and algal microcosms transportable. transportable. transportable. routinely used.

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

Equipped for the measurements of the following parameter

Temperature data Temperature data logger, logger, field P and N Temperature data logger, field P and N analysis. analysis. Automatic field P and N analysis. Automatic water sampling. water sampling. Nutrient Automatic water sampling. Nutrient dosing pumps. dosing pumps. Nutrient dosing pumps.

Periodicity

Continuous

Weekly Weekly Hourly

Dedicated surveys Invertebrates (3 per y) , macrophytes (2 / y), river habitat surveys (1 per year), microbial biodiversity by 16‐s and 18‐s y y Y sequencing (quarterly)

Event driven y y Y

Matrices

Water Biogeochemical monitoring of river and Y Y Y estuary environments.

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Station Type Weekly monitoring sites Weekly monitoring sites High‐frequency automated (freshwater) (estuarine) study sites Comments

air CEH‐run meteorological stations across catchment. National network of met Y Y Y stations whose data can be accessed.

Sediments Y Y Y

Total suspended solids Y Y Y

Biota (specify organism type) Phytoplankton (algae, diatoms, cyanobacteria) and bacterioplankton at weekly intervals by flow cytometry and DNA archive. Potential for zooplankton characterisation at 2 week intervals through spring / summer, using flow‐cam.

Invertebrate and plant surveys 2‐3 times

Birds, Mammals, Fish, per year. E‐DNA approaches for higher Birds, Mammals, Fish, Zooplankton, Birds, Mammals, Fish, organisms? Fish‐tissue archive stored over Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, Zoobenthos, Insects, Zooplankton, Zoobenthos, last 10 years. Insects, aquatic plants, aquatic plants, Insects, aquatic plants, Environment Agency data available for fish phytoplankton phytoplankton phytoplankton and invertebrates.

Gases

No No No

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2.12.4. Supersite Organization Hosting Institution

The Thames Estuary Supersite host institution is the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, based on the banks of the River Thames at Wallingford, Oxfordshire.

Supersite Association

 The key collaborators for the Thames Estuary Supersite will be Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Universities of Stirling and Birmingham, who will be particularly involved in the estuary monitoring and remote sensing activities.

 Portsmouth, Lancaster, Reading, Warwick and Oxford Universities utilize the study sites, sampling platform and environmental data generated by the Thames Estuary Supersite. They are current data users (as a modeling resource), utilize the weekly sampling platform to develop new biosensors, and deploy specialist instruments and passive samplers at the Thames Estuary Supersite study sites.

 The Environment Agency will provide support to the high-frequency river monitoring stations, and our equipment and facilities will often be co-located.

 Local environmental groups, such as Action for the River Kennet, Rivers Trusts, Freshwater Habitats Trust, Wild Oxfordshire, Thames21 and a range of Catchment Partnerships.

2.12.5. Existing and potential facilities

2.12.5.1. Existing facilities The Centre for Ecology & Hydrology (CEH) is the UK centre of excellence for research in the land and freshwater environmental sciences. CEH research is aimed at quantifying and describing patterns of biological diversity in terrestrial and freshwater environments and establishing the impacts of human activity on ecosystem resilience. CEH integrates UK-wide observation systems and curiosity driven research, from the smallest scale of genetic diversity to large-scale, whole-Earth systems. They work across disciplines and facilitate academic, public, private and voluntary sector partnerships. CEH’s extensive, long-term monitoring, analysis and modelling deliver UK and global environmental data, providing early warnings of change and management solutions for our land and freshwaters. It is part of the Natural Environment Research Council.

The Institute focuses on six science themes:

 Atmospheric Chemistry,

 Biodiversity,

 Hydro-climate Risks.

 Pollution,

 Soils and Land Use,

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 Water Resources. CEH are based across four UK sites, in Scotland, Wales, northern and southern England. The host site for the Thames Estuary Supersite is at Wallingford in southern England. It is situated on the banks of the middle reach of the River Thames. The Wallingford CEH site hosts approximately 250 scientific staff, and specializes in the fields of river water quality and ecology, hydrological modelling, floods and droughts, molecular ecology, and sustainable agriculture.

Facilities available to DANUBIUS partners include:

 Data holdings from the existing freshwater observation programme (Figure 3) since 2009. Data from 1997 at some sites (Neal et al., 2012). Data are available through CEH data portal. These data give important insights into the spatial and temporal changes in the sources of inputs to the estuary.

 High frequency observations on the Lower Thames at Taplow provide key information on the integration of upstream contributions to the estuary. This is housed in a brick building with mains power, heating and telemetry. A pump system delivers river water from the River Thames into a holding tank within the building, once every hour. A range of sondes and autoanalysers can be placed into the holding tank to produce hourly automated data. There is capacity within the facility to deploy / evaluate other monitoring devices from external organisations. The building can also house a refrigerated water sampler, which can be utilized to take algae / bacterial / organic / metals samples when required. Under Danubius, we hope to have a number of similar sites covering the River – Sea system.

 CEH observatory on a relatively pristine chalk river (the River Lambourn Observatory). Groundwater fed river in the Thames basin contribute relatively constant and clean sources of water to the main River Thames and its estuary. The observatory is an 800 m stretch of river and adjacent wetlands, owned by CEH. It has a >10 year water quality record, and is available to external organizations to carry out in-situ monitoring and experimentation. Current facilities include groundwater boreholes, weather stations, solar power for running sondes and water samplers, and a camera with telemetry to capture changing extent of macrophytes cover and river height. There is scope at the site to carry out large scale experiments / manipulations.

 Portable flume facilities (within-river through-flow flumes) enable a better understanding of the controls on instream ecological processes that have major impacts on the quality of water being discharged to the estuary. These have been used to manipulate nutrient concentrations in the incoming river water and light levels, to observe the impact on biofilm growth rates and microbial community structure. They have also been used to investigate the impact of sewage and antibiotics on the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance genes in the biofilm. All other equipment, such as peristaltic dosing pumps, power supplies, flow and temperature meters etc. can be provided.

 Facilities at CEH Wallingford include  Controlled temperature rooms.

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 Growdome (temperature controlled greenhouse that can control oxygen and CO2 concentrations).  Well-equipped nutrient laboratory with highly trained staff.  Molecular ecology laboratories, with Mi-Seq sequencers, flow cytometers, PCR, Raman Spectroscopy etc., plus bioinformatics support / cluster computing.  Invertebrate identification laboratory with fully-trained staff.  Chemical, biological and hydrological modelling expertise, with many models already set up for the catchment.  State of the art Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers (ADCP) for measuring water depth and velocities as well as bathymetry.  Well-equiped sediment laboratory including instrumentation for the laboratory and field determination of suspended sediment particle size.  Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for remote sensed imagery.

2.12.5.2. Plans for new equipment & facilities  New high-frequency observing stations in the estuary and lower River Thames, plus urbanised tributary inputs to the estuary within London. Monitoring buoys in estuary. Including phosphorus autoanalysers, nitrate and EXO sondes etc.

 Remote sensing using in situ radiometry and drones. Estuarine remote sensing from bankside high buildings in London?

2.12.6. Users and Stakeholders  Academic beneficiaries include Universities within the catchment (Oxford, Reading, Brunel Universities), environmental modellers, remote sensing experts.

 Monitoring instrument developers can use the high-frequency monitoring stations as a test bed for prototype instruments.

 The Environment Agency, Government Environment Department and Water Companies will benefit from the data, system understanding and models generated within DANUBIUS. The EA will probably be directly involved in supporting the automated monitoring sites.

 Local Rivers Trusts (Action for the River Kennet, Freshwater Habitats Trust). Thames21, Wild Oxfordshire, local catchment management groups.

 International users will primarily include our DANUBIUS partners, who will have full access to Thames Estuary Supersite data and facilities. The Supersite will also continue to build links with existing and new international collaborators. In turn, the Thames Estuary

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Supersite will be looking to link with the other Supersites to carry out Pan-European research using common procedures and instrumentation.

2.12.7. Timeline for Thames Estuary supersite to become operational The freshwater component of the Thames Estuary Supersite is already operational (since 2009), funded internally by CEH / Natural Environment Research Council, UK. We would plan implement our future vision outlined within this document,to re-focus the programme to the lower Thames region to incorporate weekly sampling of the estuary environment and London tributaries in the 2019- 2023 period under DANUBIUS. The procurement and installation of the automated high-frequency monitoring stations, remote sensing equipment and specialist estuarine monitoring equipment will hopefully also begin within this timeframe, but will be dependent on DANUBIUS reaching an agreement on protocols, instrumentation, site agreements, bringing London-based project partners into the Supersite Association and agreeing details of funding sources.

2.12.8. Funding Funding of the Thames Estuary Supersite will principally come from the UK government Department of Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, via the Research Councils UK / Natural Environment Research Council. We are currently in regular negotiations with BEIS and UK Research Councils to discuss the funding required for building /setting up the automated monitoring platform in the lower Thames and estuary, and for the ongoing costs of running the full monitoring platform.

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